Nordic road nr 2 2006

NORDICROAD AND TRANSPORT RESEARCH | NO.2 | 2006

Road Design in theNordic CountriesP7

SUNflowerA Project to ImproveTraffic SafetyP24

Tunnels andPavementsInformation about Tunnels from Norway and NoiseReducing Pavements fromDenmark

2 | NORDIC NO. 2 2006 www.vti.se/nordic

News from

VTI, SwedenVTI is an independent, internationally

established research institute which is engaged in thetransport sector. Our work covers all modes, and ourcore competence is in the fields of safety, economy,environment, traffic and transport analysis, publictransport, behaviour and the man-vehicle-transportsystem interaction, and in road design, operation andmaintenance. VTI is a world leader in several areas, forinstance in simulator technology.

Danish Road Directorate (DRD)Danish Road Institute (DRI)

The Road Directorate, which is a part of TheMinistry of Transport & Energy, Denmark, isresponsible for development and management ofthe national highways and for servicing and facilita-ting traffic on the network. As part of this responsi-bility, the Directorate conducts R&D, the aim ofwhich is to contribute to efficient road manage-ment and to the safe use of the network. The mate-rials research component is carried out by theDanish Road Institute.

Technical Research Centreof Finland (VTT),

VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland is a con-tract research organisation with a staff of 2,800. Inthis joint publication, the VTT expertise areas coverresearch and development of transportation, logis-tics and road structures. The work is carried out infive research groups employing a staff of 60.

Icelandic RoadAdministration (ICERA)The ICERA's mission is to provide the

Icelandic society with a road system in accordancewith its needs and to provide a service with the aimof smooth and safe traffic. The number of employe-es is about 340. Applied research and developmentand to some extent also basic research concerningroad construction, maintenance, traffic and safety isperformed or directed by the ICERA. Developmentdivision is responsible for road research in Iceland.

Norwegian Public Roads Administration (NPRA)

The Norwegian Public Roads Administration is oneof the administrative agencies under the Ministry ofTransport and Communications in Norway. TheNPRA is responsible for the development and mana-gement of public roads and road traffic, as well as theVehicle Department. This responsibility includesresearch and development of all areas related to roadtransport and the implementation of R&D results.

Institute of TransportEconomics (TØI), Norway

The Institute of Transport Economics is the natio-nal institution for transport research and develop-ment in Norway. The main objectives of theInstitute are to carry out applied research and pro-mote the application and use of results throughconsultative assistance to public authorities, thetransport industry and others. The Institute is anindependent research foundation employing aboutone hundred persons.

Editorial notesNordic Road & Transport Research is a joint publi-cation of six public road and transport researchorganisations in the Nordic countries, Denmark,Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden. The mainobjective of the publication is to disseminate re-search results and news from the institutions, espe-cially to researchers and decision makers. Each insti-tution is responsible for the selection and presenta-tion of the material from its own scope of activities.

Nordic Road & Transport Research is publishedthree times a year. It is regularly sent out, free ofcharge, to recipients selected by the six jointpublishers. Free sample copies are also sent out onspecial request.

Reproduction and quotation of the texts are allow-ed if reference is made to the author and source.However, legislation regulates and restricts the rightto reproduce the illustrations. Please contact therespective publishing institution for information.

Advertising is not accepted.Correspondence about the contents of the publi-

cation:

Please write to the author or to the respectivepublishing organisation.

Requests for back issues, and notification of add-ress changes:

Readers outside the Nordic countries: please writeto the Editor-in-chief at the VTI in Sweden.

Readers in the Nordic countries: please contactthe publishing institution of your country.

Addresses: see back cover.

The Editorial Board consists of the following representatives of the publishing institutions

Editor-in-Chief, SwedenMagdalena Green, [email protected]

DenmarkHelen Hasz-Singh, [email protected]

FinlandKari Mäkelä, [email protected]

IcelandHreinn Haraldsson, [email protected]

NorwayNils Fearnley, TØI [email protected]ørn Chr. Risan, [email protected]

Graphic DesignJohnny Dahlgren Grafisk produktion AB,

Linköping, Sweden

Issue 3,500

ISSN 1101-5179

Cover Matton

NORDIC NO. 2 2006 | 3

Contents

In Brief | p4

Autumn Brings Darker Conditions | p7

New Manual for Road and Street Design | p8

Harmonisation of Road Signs and Markings | p10

Rumble Strips Make Rural Roads Safer | p12

Improved Road Safety in Kungsbacka Town Centre | p13

Traffic Safety on Wind-exposed Roads in Iceland | p14

Designing the Urban Motorring 3 | p16

Using Clean Clay as Cap Material: Environmental Aspects of the Bjoervika Project in Oslo | p18

2005 Norwegian Travel Survey | p20

Under-sea Tunnels: New World Record | p22

Fire in Tunnels: The Runehamar Test Tunnel | p23

SUNflower – Developments in Traffic Safety in Sweden, the UK and the Netherlands | p24

Vibrations on Trains Disturb Passenger Activities | p26

Motorring Road 10 and Noise Reducing Pavements | p27

Noise Reducing Pavements – Internationally! | p28

Recycling of Oil Installation | p30

Annotaded Reports | p31

and the way these are related to the trans-port sector. It is also the intention to esta-blish good cooperation between the sectorand the police, security firms and rescueservices. The project will act as a platformfor European expertise of researchers, con-sultants, operators and authorities.

The most recent terrorist attacks, 11September, the attacks against the Londonunderground and the regional trains inMadrid, show that security is of the greatestimportance for transport.

The project extends over three yearsand will deliver reports on the presentsituation with regard to risks, threats andterrorist acts, a review of the present posi-tion concerning the need of e.g. training,policy measures and further research. Anumber of targeted studies will also bemade, and several conferences and works-hops will be arranged.


IN BRIEF

A terrorist attack against vital infrastructu-res such as transport and energy may haveextensive regional, national and internatio-nal impacts on society and the economy.This problem has received a lot of atten-tion in the EU, and through the projectCOUNTERACT, Cluster of User Networksin Transport and Energy Relating to anti-terrorist ACTivities, security in the trans-port and energy sectors will be strengthe-ned. VTI is contributing rail and publictransport expertise to the project.

The transport sector is not immunefrom terrorism. EU is now taking measuresto evaluate and recommend solutions inorder to increase security in vital parts ofthe transport sector, infrastructure, publictransport, railways and freight transport.

COUNTERACT will make its contribu-tion by improving knowledge and under-standing of the terrorism threats that exist

The Transport Sector is Counteracting Terrorism

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Metro-like Bus ServiceAttracts Passengers in theHelsinki RegionHelsinki Metropolitan Area Council(YTV), the body responsible for publictransport planning and procurement inthe Helsinki Metropolitan Area, believesin the appeal of high-quality bus services.A new cross-town bus service known as theJokeri Line began operating betweenHelsinki and its neighbouring city Espooin August. The service links several districtcentres, employment clusters and residen-tial areas, covering a total of 27 km with 36stops. Transfer connections to other busand rail services are excellent, becauseJokeri stops are located close to railway sta-tions and other transport nodes. Specialattention has been paid to passengerinformation as well as comfortable andenvironmentally friendly buses.

This line, which follows a ring road, wasoriginally planned as a rail link but the busservice was chosen as a more economicalalternative to speed up the project's imple-mentation. Implementation of the bus ser-vice also required the construction of anumber of tunnels and bridges, as well asa public transport street for fluent pro-gress and to avoid traffic jams. The JokeriLine features metro-like service frequency.During weekday rush hours the buses runat 5-minute intervals. On Saturdays andSundays the service is less frequent but

TØI recently signed an agreement of co-operation with its Czech sister instituteCentrum Dopravního Vyzkumu (CDV).The ceremony took place at the CzechRepublic’s embassy in Oslo.

The good relationship between the twoinstitutes has developed over time throughcollaboration in research projects and ininternational research policy fora. With thenew strategic alliance the two institutes aimto develop this cooperation further.

and between the world of research, autho-rities and industry.

This introductory conference in Swedenattracted around one thousand visitors whocould hear presentations and exchangeexperiences concerning the latest researchfindings relating to road transport. Theidea is that the conference shall be repea-ted every second year in differentEuropean countries; the next one is plan-ned for Slovenia in 2008.

The programme included both jointplenary sessions and parallel thematic spe-

cial sessions. They covered most aspectsand issues concerning the road transportsector and the way it should be changed tomeet future challenges. Some of the sub-jects dealt with in the plenary sessions werethe Seventh EU Framework Programmefor R&D and the contribution of roadtransport to a sustainable society and glo-bal competitiveness. VTI contributed withten papers, concerning, inter alia, intelli-gent roads and VTI’s HVS, an equipmentfor the simulation of heavy traffic.

A commercial exhibition with aroundforty exhibitors was held in conjunctionwith the conference. Here, VTI had theopportunity to present its subject areas andto meet its customers and cooperationpartners.

The Swedish Road Administration andVINNOVA were the organisers of the con-ference on behalf of three principals,CEDR (Conference of European Directorsof Roads), ERTRAC (European ResearchAdvisory Council) and the EU Com-mission.

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“Greener, Safer and Smarter RoadTransport for Europe” was the heading forTRA 2006, a new European conference onresearch into road transport.

TRA 2006 (Transport Research Arena)was held during four days in the middle ofJune at the Swedish Fair in Göteborg. Thisconference is the first of its kind and size inEurope that has the aim of implementing acommon research area (EuropeanResearch Area – ERA) for road transport.This research area shall comprise compo-nents such as vehicles, roads and humans

seen from a system perspective. The confe-rence shall be a platform to support thecoordination of the needs for, the perfor-mance and implementation of researchand development in the field of road trans-port. It is expected to contribute to a sustai-nable, effective and safe road transport sys-tem by helping, in its turn, to stimulate andreinforce the European networks within

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TRA – New Arena for Transport Research

runs until late evening. The Jokeri Line hasa distinctive visual image using blue andgreen colour scheme for its vehicles, bothoutside and interiors, bus stops and all pas-senger information.

Public transport signal priorities helpbuses run on time. The driver’s ticket unitinforms drivers on how close they are totheir schedule. Key stops, 25 in all, havereal-time displays showing the arrival timeof the next bus. The system is based on theGPS satellite system in use on bus and tramlines operating in downtown Helsinki.

The Jokeri Line vehicles are brand-newcity buses. The high standard includes con-sideration of the environment; the buses’exhaust emissions conform to the Euro 5standard.

According to YTV’s estimates, passengernumbers on the Jokeri Line are expectedto reach 18,000 during the initial stage.Should the line turn out to be a success,YTV plans to increase the circular cross-town transport.

VTT’s role as a consultant in the deve-lopment of the Jokeri line touches on seve-ral areas, notably increasing punctualityand reducing fuel consumption.

Norwegian – Czech Cooperation

Director of CDV, Josef Mikulík and Managing Directorof TØI, Lasse Fridstrøm sign the agreement.

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From the discussions it was concludedthat technical terms should be translatedinto social financial costs. Focus should beon the process rather than the technicalissues and it should be considered to hitch-hike noise considerations into air pollutionconsiderations in the definition of environ-mental zones in larger cities. In Stockholm,environmentally friendly vehicles pay notax for entering the city zone and parkingis free. This has created a market for envi-ronmentally friendly cars (20 % of the totalmarket in the region). Environmentallabelling of tires and noise labelling inmotor vehicle registers connected to cartaxes could effectively promote low noisevehicles. It was noted that the responsibili-ty for noise abatement is shared betweenthree parties: Car manufactures, tire manu-factures and road authorities and thatnoise should be regarded as a global pro-blem and solved in EU rather than by localauthorities individually.


The European Transport Safety Council(ETSC), together with Toyota MotorEurope and the Swedish RoadAdministration, has launched a new pro-gramme for comparing traffic safety in theEU. VTI will be one of the Swedish repre-sentatives in this programme, and UrbanKarlström, the Director General of VTI, is amember of the steering group of the pro-gramme.

The new programme will produce aRoad Safety Performance Index, PIN,which will take account of the increasinggap between countries that are good at traf-fic safety and others that have not yet doneas well. The index will be based on ten keyareas associated with training, legislation,engineering and evaluation.

The overarching objective is to create astronger political leadership in the field oftraffic safety by noting how well the mem-ber countries of the EU are doing in theareas of the greatest importance for trafficsafety.

National research organisations, indust-ry and independent researchers from 25EU countries are taking part in the pro-gramme and will ensure that evaluation isperformed on scientific grounds. A stee-ring group will have an active role in desig-ning the evaluation and reporting process,one feature of which will be an annual pro-gramme evaluation. The panel will consistof traffic safety experts from all the EUmember countries.

A Dutch-Danish seminar for executives andsenior researchers was held in Copenhagenin June, 2006.

The purpose of the invited seminar wasto bring together senior researchers,executives and program managers fromthe national road and environmental admi-nistrations. The discussion topics were onthe level of combining the perception fromresearch with strategic items in relation tonational noise abatement objectives.Interesting subjects were:• Understanding of the “political playing

field” (national road and environmentalauthorities, industry, European andinternational regulations)

• Understanding of the “technical wor-king field” of the noise measures (roadsurfaces, tires, noise barriers)

• Differences in assessments of the measu-res (costs and benefits)

• Needs for future initiatives.

A break during the Decision Makers’ Seminar

EU Cooperation for anIndex of Road Safety

Joint Interest for Noise Abatement in the Road Sector

During a period of nearly twentyyears, starting in Göteborg,Sweden, in 1987, an internationalroad safety conference has beenorganised by the Swedish NationalRoad and Transport ResearchInstitute (VTI). In October 2005 this seriesof conferences were organised with the 13th

“Road Safety on Four Continents” inWarsaw, Poland. The Road SafetyConference 2005 was a great success andattracted the international research com-munity, national safety experts, decisionmakers, practitioners and other delegates

with an interest in road safetydevelopment. In total more than250 delegates from 55 countriesand 6 continents participated inthe three day event.

The next conference plannedfor late 2007, probably November, will be a20-year anniversary. The venue for the nextconference is proposed to be Bangkok,Thailand. A “Call for papers” and otherinformation about the next conferencewill be presented at the websitewww.vti.se/RS4C.

The Road Safety Conference 2005 was a Great Success

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The principal aim of road lighting is tocreate a safe journey for car drivers and

passengers, to help pedestrians detect haz-ards, identify local landmarks, make themfeel safer and promote the appearance ofthe surroundings in the dark. Several stu-dies that have been made all over the worldpoint out that many accidents involving cyc-lists and pedestrians occur at dusk, dawn ordarkness.

Good lighting is an artVisibility and thus the ability to detect anobject depends on several factors, such asthe contrast between the object and thebackground, the adaptation of the eye,glare and the visual acuity of the driver.Many factors must be taken into account inchoosing lighting fittings, such as shape,

Autumn Brings Darker ConditionsGood road lighting not only reduces fear of violence and criminali-ty but also cuts the number of accidents to pedestrians and cyc-lists. Road lighting helps pedestrians detect hazards, identifylocal landmarks and recognise other pedestrians, and makesthem feel safer.

distribution of luminous intensity in rela-tion to the surroundings, type of fittingand the height of the fitting.

For the illumination of footpaths andcycleways, fittings placed at a low level witha dim natural light that spreads light to thesides have many safety advantages, such asreduced shadow formation and enhancedidentification capacity. The drawbacks arethe risk of vandalism, the risk of glare andinferior lighting of the road layout.

Since dark areas discourage many peop-le from cycling or walking because they areafraid of being attacked, road lighting mustbe provided and it must be continuous.

Environmental problemsRoad lighting has not only positive effectsbut may also have a negative effect on the

environment and energy use. Light pollu-tion is artificial light that shines in an unde-sirable direction. One example is badlyshielded road lighting that lights up openlandscape or shines upwards. One way tosave energy and reduce light pollution is toreduce the level of illumination.

There are also other problems with roadlighting. One concerns lighting columnsthat are exposed to corrosion attacks bothabove and below ground.

Magdalena Green, VTI, Sweden

PHOTO: PHOTOS.COM

ROAD DESIGN

Title: Road Lighting – A literature review, R535Contact: Sara Nygårdhs, [email protected]


In the near future Norway will get a new manual for road andstreet design. The existing manual was published in 1993.

The reason for the revision of theexisting manual is, among other fac-

tors, Vision Zero – a vision of a future situa-tion where nobody is killed or seriouslyinjured in road accidents and the need formore self-explanatory and forgiving roads(i.e. if a traffic accident takes place, it shallnot result in death or serious injuries). InNorway approximately 300 persons are kil-led and 1,200 are seriously injured in roadaccidents per year.

The new manual distinguishes clearlybetween roads and streets. Streets arebeing formed by the town structure, avai-lable area and the wish for low speed.Consequently the streets will get complete-ly different shape and dimensions than theroads.

There are three main parts in the newguidelines: street design (new streets),road design (new roads) and improvementof existing roads. Input parameters forselecting different road or street types,which are the bases for the design require-ments, are the area connected to theroad/street, speed limit and average annu-al traffic. The design guidelines giveinstruction to providing solutions for seve-ral road user groups: Cars, heavy vehic-les/goods delivery, buses, pedestrians andcyclists.

What Is New?Some important changes in the new roadand street guidelines:

1. High-traffic roads will be provided with abetter standard due to the Vision Zero.

2. Low-traffic roads (i.e. AADT 0-4,000)will have a poorer standard becauseresources will be used to improve theexisting roads.

3. Roads with an AADT more than 4,000will be given the same standard are pri-maryroads or other main roads.

4. For AADT 4-8,000 and speed limit 80km/h a road width of 10 m with 1 m ofrumble strips in the middle is recom-mended.

5. More use of median barriers and four-lane roads are based on the gain in traf-fic safety. This however will increase themeasures dramatically in some projects.

6. The demands on horizontal and verti-

cal curvature will be adjusted to make iteasier to adapt the road to the landscape.

7. Open up for more use of roundaboutswhere traffic is moderate.

8. The principles in The NorwegianBicycle Guideline (published 2002) areintegrated in Hb 017. Among other fac-tors construction of cycle tracks has tur-ned out to be a good measure withregard to traffic safety.

9. The public transport topic is updatedon the bases of new knowledge frompublic projects. In the future there willbe more focus on public transport net-work, public transport priority and uni-versal design.

10. In the manual updated knowledge willbe given on water pollution, vegetation,

New Manual for Road and StreetDesign

ROAD DESIGN

Street design -street enhance-ment (Drøbak).

PHOTO: BÅRD ASLE NORDBØ.

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More information:http://vegvesen.no/horinger/hb_017/hb017_w.pdf(Temporarily only in Norwegian)Contact: Randi Eggen. E-mail: [email protected]

game protection fences and noise. Theenvironmental topics are relativelyshortly described, but there are refe-rences to guidelines.

11. The new 017 manual will result in redu-ced level of light on roads with motori-zed traffic only. On other roads thelevel of light will also be reduced, butthe light level will increase in areas ofconflict such as cross-over areas andcrossing points for cyclists and pedestri-ans.

Road Manuals in NorwayIn Norway The Road Directorate in ThePublic Roads Administration is responsiblefor issuing a series road manuals and gui-

delines to shape of and design the publicroads. Preparation of the road manualsrequires high professional skill, and thework is normally organized as a projectwith a steering committee and workgroups. New standards go through anextensive hearing by the road authorities,by various technical authorities and by anumber of interest groups.

Road manuals are used on all roadlevels. The choice of road standard is oftena political issue. Norway has good connec-tions with standardization agencies inother countries, in particular the otherNordic countries. The coordination of theefforts in the Nordic countries and the co-operation through CEN will be even more

important in the future based on the factthat the contractors are operating moreinternationally than before.

The topography, among other factors, makes it challenging to plan roads in Norway. PHOTO: BÅRD ASLE NORDBØ.


ROAD DESIGN

The continuing increase in vehiculartraffic in the EU, together with greater

movement of freight across Europe, hasresulted in the need to have dedicatedroad networks within the EU. The WhitePaper of 1993 identified serious imbalan-ces in Europe’s transport system. In orderto correct these imbalances the commontransport policy seeks, and needs, to pur-sue seven objectives among which theyrecommend the establishment of Trans-European Networks. This network willenable citizens to travel and businesses todeliver their goods without hindrance orrisk from one end of the Union to the other.

The increased importance of the TERNis one reason for the EC to demand bettersafety standards in road traffic. Fixed, verti-cal traffic signs and road markings make animportant contribution to traffic safety.Deployment of traffic signs is a nationalduty, but road signing systems onEuropean roads vary between countries.This variation may have a significantimpact on traffic safety.

Differences in road signing systems as astarting pointAn important milestone for traffic safety isthe year 2010, by which time the EU aimsto have halved the number of people killedin road traffic. This study aimed to showwhat role the harmonisation of fixed trafficsigns and road markings among EU coun-tries on the TERN could play in achieving

Harmonisation of Road Signs andMarkings

Part of the EU project IMPROVER studied the possibilities ofimproving traffic safety on the Trans-European Road Network(TERN) through harmonisation of fixed traffic signs and roadmarkings in EU countries. VTT coordinated this subproject withsix partners.

that target, and also looked beyond it.

Figure 1. Examples of different practices in the use ofroad numbers as destinations

The study first focused on differences inlegal and technical instructions for roadsigning systems between the Europeancountries, then assessed the effect of thesedifferences on traffic safety from the view-point of costs and benefits. Thereafter, thework developed four harmonisation scena-rios to eliminate significant differences inroad signing. Finally, institutional analysiswas undertaken to elucidate the implemen-tation steps and EU actions for harmonisa-tion.

The total number of fatal accidents onthe TERN was estimated to be almost 5,000per annum and the length of the TERNapproximately 70,000 km. The harmonisa-tion of road signs and markings among EUcountries could prevent many road deathson the TERN by means of the followingscenarios, actions and recommendations:

Scenario 1. Should be harmonised in theshort term The first scenario showed harmonisationof relatively low-cost measures that could

be realised in the short term. The first esti-mation of the measures showed that thesafety benefits should exceed the costs wit-hin one year. An efficient way to improvetraffic safety on the TERN involving roadsigning could be to harmonise the use of:i. Exit lane countdown marker signs to all

motorway exits and intersections,ii. Retro-reflective road markings on the

whole of the TERN, and to supply:iii. Better pre-trip information on the

World Wide Web about the existenceand meaning of various road signs androad markings for motorists in Europe.

The recommendation is that theEuropean Commission should start theimplementation of these measures as soonas possible, since the means to carry themout are fairly clear-cut. The necessary stepsin this scenario would be to draft a docu-ment resulting in a Decision that wouldallow implementation of the Scenario 1measures immediately, and completion ofa detailed list of roads (or road sections)belonging to the TERN in order to make itmore easily identified and better known inevery EU country.

Scenario 2. Should be harmonised in theshort term if the means are availableThe second scenario consisted of urgentharmonisation needs, but the exact meansfor harmonisation will not be known untilfurther work and research are undertaken.The task of driving safely on the TERN

NORDIC NO. 2 2006 | 11

would be supported by the harmonised useof:i. E-road numbers (only on E-roads

which cross at least one border andonly at their intersections)

ii. Exit numbers on motorways.Based on initial estimates, a quick way to

improve matters would be to modifyexisting signs by means of adding ‘patches’with E-road and exit numbers. However,national direction-signing systems are diffe-rent, therefore solutions on how and wherenumbers should be added may vary fromcountry to country. Before the value ofthese measures can be fully assessed, a con-cept for realisation must be developed.Costs then have to be derived reliably fromthe concept. Since a safety benefit is hardto quantify, the number of accidents thatthe measure could have an effect on mustbe determined, to gain an impression ofthe maximum number of accidents thatcould be prevented.

Further research to determine the bestpractice should be done in the followingareas:iii. Direction sign positions at intersec-

tions, iv. Maximum number of destinations and

letter size in direction signs,v. Road numbers as destinations.

Harmonisation of the above is expectedto produce considerable benefits in roadsafety. These harmonisation measures firstrequire further clarification of, and rese-arch on, drivers' information-processingcapabilities in relation to input from the

road. Nevertheless, the costs of these analy-ses are estimated to be minimal comparedto the potential safety benefits after imple-mentation. However, the costs of imple-mentation cannot yet be predicted as theneeded measures for harmonisationdepend on results from studies.

For a swift implementation of Scenario2, the EC should launch the following ini-tiatives: A joint committee with UNECEshould be set up to formulate Europeannorm plans for typical intersections.Similarly, a joint committee should be for-med to initiate dialogue on optimal defini-tions and background research; an agree-ment with the Vienna Convention wouldbe one way to produce new guidelines onroad signs. Finally, UNECE would have toproduce another agreement specifying theminimum parameters for road markingperformance over time, while (underCEN) the European Norm ENV 13459-3could be modified to assist in this process.Accordingly, the performance of fixed, ver-tical traffic signs (initial performance andperformance in use) should be definedand harmonised for sign types.

Scenario 3. Should be harmonised in thelong termThe third scenario involved long-termmeasures, as the costs of harmonisationexceed the estimated safety benefits likelyto be obtained in a single year. However,the harmonisation need is high-priorityand safety would improve through:

i. Extending the use of profiled road mar-kings

ii. Improving night-time visibility of roadmarkings.

Both should be applied on road sectionswith high accident rates (only accidenttypes on which road markings might havean effect need be considered) in the firstinstance.

Scenario 3 required the relevant natio-nal institutions in the field of road safety toidentify road sections with high accidentrates. The EC should then issue a Decisionstating where road markings should beimproved. This scenario could then beimplemented within the scheme of regularmaintenance.

Scenario 4. Could be harmonised in thelong termThe fourth scenario comprised a variety ofdetails (14 aspects in total) in road signingdifferences among EU countries. Theirsafety effects were not assessed to be highseparately, but together they demonstratedthe clutter and inconsistency that foreigndrivers have to face on the TERN. Thus,the combined effect of harmonisation maybe substantial as it meets the generaldemand for continuity and uniformity ofroad signing on the TERN in the longterm. After making an initial assessment,the Commission should further developparticular issues by launching additionalresearch into the measures suggested inthis scenario.

Contact: Mikko Räsänen, [email protected]

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Rumble Strips Make Rural Roads Safer

Astudy shows that one of the effects ofmilled rumble strips in the centre of

the road is to make car drivers lower theirspeed and keep at a larger distance fromthe centre of the road. Milled rumble stripshave been found to work well on Swedishrural roads that are not wide enough for acentre barrier such as a wire rope barrier.No effects can however be found as regardschanges in the behaviour of the drivers ofheavy vehicles.

– Milled strips help the driver boththrough the sound they create andthrough the vibrations they set up in thevehicle, in the seat and the wheel. These

signals can stop the driver from inadver-tently wandering over the centre linebecause he/she is tired or inattentive, saysAnna Anund, researcher at VTI.

Results from the study:• According to the drivers, the greatest

benefit of the strips is that they warn dri-vers that they are about to drive acrossthe centre line (94%)

• At all sites of measurement, car driverssignificantly, by an average 1.8 km/h,reduced their speed

• On average, car drivers drove about 5 cmnearer the edge of the road when the

A study from VTI shows that milled rumble strips in the centre ofa two-lane road are probably an excellent measure to reduce thenumber of head-on collisions that occur because tired and inat-tentive drivers inadvertently leave their own lanes. One alternati-ve to rumble strips in the carriageway is to simulate them in thecar, for instance through a vibrating driver’s seat.

Title: Milled rumble strips on the centre line on atwo-lane roadContact: Anna Annund, [email protected]

road had rumble strips than when it hadnone

• 76% of drivers answered that they wouldfeel safer if there were rumble strips inthe centre of the road

• 83% said they that would feel more cer-tain they would not inadvertently driveover into the wrong lane

• 88% thought that rumble strips at thecentre are a good way of improving traf-fic safety.The strips may also improve driver beha-

viour by making the driver consciouslyavoid crossing the centre line on sectionswhere this would be unsafe. This may, inturn, have the result that the number ofovertaking and curve cutting manoeuvresis reduced.

The rumble strips chosen for the studywere milled at 1.2 m centres. They are 35 cmwide, 15 cm long and about 1.0 cm deep.The experimental section is 14 km long.The strips were evaluated by means of traf-fic counts, roadside interviews and observa-tions.

One alternative to rumble strips is tosimulate these in the car through a vibra-ting driver’s seat. Citroen has such a veer-off alarm in models C4 and C5. The greatdifference between these support systemsand actual rumble strips is that these vibra-tions are of much lower intensity and thatfalse alarms often occur.

ROAD DESIGN

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VTI has studied the road safety situationin Kungsbacka town centre. The inve-

stigation has focused on the road safetysituation of vulnerable road users and anevaluation has been made of the safetyeffect of the physical measures that hadbeen taken.

– We are very pleased with the results wehave achieved, all the measures we havetaken have been found to improve the roadsafety situation in the town centre, says LarsBjörkman, traffic manager in Kungsbacka.Our cooperation with VTI has worked verywell, and we feel that we have had a verygood return for the money spent.

Physical measuresAs long ago as 1991, VTI made a situationassessment and analysis of the traffic andtrafic safety situation in the central areas ofKungsbacka. This investigation was arran-ged as a preliminary study that could beused as the basis for a future follow-up.After the investigation, extensive measureswere taken in the town centre to improveroad safety. One street was closed to reducethrough traffic in the town centre, a pede-strian and cycle tunnel was constructed,roundabouts were built, intersections andpedestrian and cycle crossings were raised,and the whole town centre was made a 30km/h area.

Improved Road Safety in KungsbackaTown Centre

Through knowledge and the correct measures, the traffic situa-tion for vulnerable road users can be markedly improved intowns. VTI has monitored the road safety situation inKungsbacka town centre in Sweden. It is found that, as theresult of the comprehensive measures, vehicular traffic in thetown centre has decreased, speeds have been reduced andthere has been a marked reduction in the risk run by vulnerableroad users of being injured or killed.

Good resultsVTI has now followed up the road safetysituation in Kungsbacka, with the focus onstudying the interaction between vulne-rable road users and motor vehicles.

– We have focused on vulnerable roadusers, which has irritated some drivers whothink that they now have to drive too slow-ly through the town centre, says LarsBjörkman. But it is good to be able to showhow the number of accidents has droppedin recent years when we get this type ofcomplaint.

Closing a junction from a street carryinga lot of traffic redistributed traffic and thusreduced traffic volume in the town centre.A large proportion of the reduction was

due to heavy traffic. Speeds also droppedowing to the physical measures. Meanspeed decreased from 34 km/h to 24km/h. Another important measure wasseparating vulnerable road users from vehi-cular traffic to the greatest possible extent.

To sum up, the measures taken may besaid to have reduced the risk of pedestriansand cyclists being hit by motor vehicles.The risk of being killed has decreased by75% and the risk of being injured by 44%.

Magdalena Green, VTI, Sweden

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Contact: Hans Thulin, [email protected] Obrenovic, [email protected]


ROAD DESIGN

Windy road environmentThe study was conducted by ORIONConsulting Engineers and the EngineeringResearch Institute, University of Iceland. Itfocuses on two exposed road sections, oneither side of the Hvalfjordur submarineroad tunnel near Reykjavik. The two roadsections (Kjalarnes, ADT 6400 andHafnarfjall, ADT 3400, year 2005 figures)play a significant role in the national trans-port system of goods and people. Both sitesare adjacent to mountains (approx. 800metres above sea level) that during specificweather conditions are prone to magnify-ing the wind effects, causing extremelyhazardous conditions on the road. AtKjalarnes the chances that the 10 minutemean wind speed exceeds 15 m/s in a sing-le day during the winter is 47%. The hig-hest wind gust can be as high as 2,5 timeshigher than the mean wind speed, fre-quently caching drivers off-guard. At leastone third of the road traffic accidents mayhave strong wind as a contributing factor.

The objective of the study is to enhancethe knowledge of the road users and theroad authorities on the different parame-ters influencing road traffic safety in windyenvironments. The main goal is to reducethe accident rate in windy road environ-ments.

MethodA variety of tools has been adopted by theresearchers and different data sources were

Iceland’s windy climate poses a notable threat to road users. Onthe most severely exposed road sections, as many as one third ofall road traffic accidents may have strong wind as a contributing,or as a primary factor. An ongoing study funded by the ICERAResearch Department reflects on influencing factors such as localtopography, road surface condition, vehicle characteristics, drivingspeed, road weather information and traffic control etc.

utilized. Thanks to the ICERA RoadService Department’s ambitious informa-tion policy, data from road weather stationsis available to supplement the road trafficaccident database, as well as data from sub-pavement sensors determining vehiclespeed and size.

In order to map the distribution ofstrong winds in the exposed areas, compu-terized wind simulations have been done aswell as wind measurements with a vehicle-mounted device. Also, the project fundshave in part supported the development ofa probabilistic model for the assessment ofroad vehicle safety in windy environment.

Key findingsExisting road weather stations enable real-time monitoring of wind conditions andearly warning possibilities. Besides that, his-torical time series from the stations areimportant for accident statistics. Comparisonof the road traffic accident database andmeasurements from the weather stationsindicate that strong winds and the combi-ned effects of the wind and road surfacecondition are in many cases not adequatelyreported. In other words, analysis omittingthe cross linking with weather measure-ments would underestimate the influenceof winds on traffic safety.

Accident categoryFrontal collisions of meeting vehicles andsingle vehicle driving off the road are the

accidents types most often resulting in per-sonal injury according to the database. Themean wind speed is higher than 10 m/s fortwo thirds of the frontal collisions, and onethird of the driving off the road incidents.The road condition related to these acci-dents is most often wet and not icy orsnowy. The only accident type solely happe-ning on a dry road surface is trailer roll-over on the road.

Road surface conditionIn theory, less tire friction means that lowerwind speed is needed to cause the vehicleto slip. The study confirms that duringwindy conditions, a higher number of acci-dents occur when the road friction is lowerthan usual, due to water or ice. A wet roadsurface seems to be equally hazardous asicy or snowy road surface. A possible expla-nation is that drivers seldom experiencethe reduced friction caused by a wet roadsurface and are thus not prepared for thecombined effects of wind gust and reducedroad friction, while on the contrary an icyroad triggers an “automatic reflex” in mostdrivers.

Vehicle categoryThe aerodynamic properties of vehicles areimportant to the stability on a windy day.On exposed sites, cross winds acting lateral-ly on the side of the vehicle are commonlyas strong as the vehicle velocity induced air-speed, the air pressure acting sideways can

Traffic Safety on Wind-exposed Roads in

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thus be high as the drag force in the dri-ving direction. The appearance of the dif-ferent vehicle categories in the data con-firms the theory. Once an accident hashappened, the chances that the recordedmean wind speed is 10 m/s or more, aredouble for high-sided vehicles such astrucks and trailers, than for passenger cars.With respect to this it should be mentionedhere that some national insurance compa-nies in Iceland discourage commercial traf-fic during adverse weather conditions, dec-laring a limited responsibility when thewind speed exceeds a certain limit

Wind direction, wind speedIn the Kjalarnes area, when the recordedwind direction is 40° north-east, most acci-dents happen at the Esjuberg black-spot,and wind gusts on the order of 1,5 to 2,5times the mean wind speed can be expec-ted. On the other hand, when the weatherstation records 80° east, the Dalsmynniblack spot (a few kilometres away) is themost common location of wind inducedaccidents. Anyhow, regardless of the inci-dent wind direction being 40° or 80°, thewhole Kjalarnes area of almost 12 kilomet-res is dangerous in either case.

Driving SpeedA higher driving speed can increase theoverall aerodynamic forces on the vehicle.By reducing the driving speed duringextremely windy conditions, drivers not

only reduce the risk of accidents takingplace but also increase their chances of cor-recting the course in time should the vehic-le come out of control. Last but not leastwill they reduce their risk of injury if thedriving speed is moderate. In the accidentdatabase, the vehicle speed at the time ofaccident is recorded according to the dri-ver’s own assessment. In accidents happe-ning at mean wind speeds lower than 10m/s at Kjalarnes, 85% of the drivers statethat their driving speed was 89 km/h orlower (V85 = 89 km/h). When the meanwind speed is higher than 10 m/s, V85 isreduced to 78 km/h.

Thanks to the sub-pavement sensors,V85 is easily calculated and sorted accor-ding to the recorded wind speed in a near-by weather station. For last October tillJanuary, on Kjalarnes, this exercise revealsthat V85 is close to 103 km/h when thewind gust is lower than 15 m/s (equallingmean wind speed lower than approx. 10m/s). When the wind gust is 40 m/s (78knots or 144 km/h !), V85 is only reducedto 90km/h.

Concluding on this fact it sounds reaso-nable to say that drivers only slightly mode-rate their driving speed according to windspeed, and are probably not paying thedeserved respect to the wind. And obvious-ly, driver’s own assessment of the drivingspeed once the accident has happenedgives a biased picture!

Future tasksThe researchers believe that the risk ofwind induced accidents can be heavilyreduced by driver education, early war-ning, traffic control and possibly local shel-tering measures on exposed sections orroad class improvements. However, due toIceland’s harsh climate and sparse vegeta-tion, the risk of wind induced traffic acci-dents will always be there. Even thoughwind induced accidents are most commonduring the winter, August is also a riskymonth, when the autumn is approachingand lots of holiday makers are still out onthe roads with their caravans, which haveproved to be the wind’s own favourites!

FACTS:Thordarson & Snæbjörnsson, 2004,2006. Traffic accidents and wind condi-tions. Reports for RannUm, part I & II.The Icelandic Board for Road TrafficSafety Research. (In Icelandic).

Snæbjörnsson, J. Th., Baker, C.J. &Sigbjörnsson, R., 2005. Probabilisticassessment of road vehicle safety inwindy environments. EACWE4 – Thefourth European & African Conferenceon Wind Engineering.

Contact: Skuli Thordarson, PhD. Civ. [email protected]

Minivan with a mobile wind measuring device attached to the roof, atthe Hafnarfjall study site. The vehicle is here parked in the curve closeto the weather station on the following map.

Hafnarfjall study site.Red cross indicatesthe road weather sta-tion in the area.

The relationship betwe-en driving speed andwind gust for all vehic-les at the Kjalarnesstudy site. The arrowsdefine V85 under nor-mal and under extreme-ly high wind gustsrespectively.

Iceland


Facts on M3With almost 125,000 cars per day the M3 isthe most important ring road ofCopenhagen, Denmark. The 17 km motor-way connects the Danish capital to the restof Denmark and Europe through fivemotorways and a motorway to Sweden. Theneed for more capacity has been urgent forseveral years. The project widens the M3 byone extra lane in each direction plus anemergency lane in both directions. Thework started March 2005 and will be finis-hed by the end of 2008. Total cost is 255million Euro.

The M3 surrounds the Danish capitalCopenhagen for a length of 17 km, goingfrom North to South. It is the most impor-tant ring road of the region. To design anurban motorway, such as the Motorring 3(M3) requires necessary aesthetic decisionsas regards elements such as bridges,lighting, noise barriers, crash barriers,plants, etc. In brief, everything, which ispart of a heavily trafficked road. If the aimis to give road users and neighbours a beau-tiful, safe and high quality impressionwithin the framework of the project, allelements must be considered to give acomprehensive picture.

AimsThe aim of the Danish Road Directoratehas been to create a modern urban motor-way within the economic framework of theproject for the extension of the M3. A

AlI phases of the project of the extension of the Motorring 3 –from idea to the completed road – is carried out in close co-ope-ration with architects. The purpose is to construct an urbanmotorway which is safe and which lives up to the requirementsfor quality and aesthetics set by the Danish Road Directorate,the road users, and the neighbours of the road.

modern urban motorway should be crea-ted which corresponds to the expectationsof the surroundings and the road users.The architects have therefore been in closedialogue with the Danish Road Directorateand have been involved in all phases of theproject from idea to completion.

Comprehensive picture of the projectClaus Bjarrum Arkitekter has designed theM3 seen from several points of view andconsiderations. Some basic questions havebeen asked which form the basis for the de-sign of the motorway. How can a high capa-city road be designed where traffic safetyhas the highest importance? How can theredesigned road contribute to the creationof higher quality and identity in thoseurban areas through which the road pas-ses? How can the barrier effect of the roadbe reduced? How are the elements of theroad experienced by the road users, whodrives on the road at high speed? Andmaybe the most important questions of all

for the neighbours of the road – how willthe new road appear in relation to the clo-sest surroundings?

SurroundingsBy analysing the surroundings and theurban conditions it has been possible toestablish those characteristics which formthe basis for the aesthetics for M3. The M3is fused by its many ramps and bridges tothe landscape and urban areas it passes. Aroad user, driving at approximately 100km/h passes an interchange approximate-ly every 90 seconds. The road is situatedabove, below and on level with the surroun-ding level and gives a varying experience,when the road user drives from one end ofthe road to the other.

The basic plan was produced by urbandevelopers back in 1947. This plan, knownas “Finger Plan” has had great influence onthe development of the area and landscapein Greater Copenhagen. The provincialtowns are today situated along the radialroads of Copenhagen and are a part of thecharacteristic star formation of the FingerPlan. Between the fingers or arms of thestars are rural areas which spread far intothe urban areas.

The radial roads crossing the M3 areclean crossings of the infrastructure andare therefore a natural starting point foraesthetic thoughts. At the interchangesvarious different trees are planted, whichthus give each place an individual identity.

Designing the Urban Motorring 3

ROAD DESIGN

The completed road (illustration).

NORDIC NO. 2 2006 | 17

The neighbourThe neighbours to the M3 have conside-rable nuisance from noise, coming fromthe road. Thus a 3-4 meter high noise bar-rier will be constructed for the total lengthof 18 km. The noise barrier is slanted at 10°towards the centre of the motorway, partlyto achieve the greatest possible effect ofthe noise absorbing capacity of the noisebarrier, but also to soften the experience ofthe barrier as seen from the side of theneighbour. In order for the noise barriersto look harmonious - and for them to havea good design - the barrier on theneighbour’s side is covered with trellisworkto allow climbing plants to grow there.

On some stretches the M3 is situatedsome 4-5 meters over the surrounding ter-rain. On the major part of these kind ofstretches supporting walls are establishedin order to minimise the expropriationsnecessary. The four meter high noise barri-er is placed on top of the supporting wall.In total, the height of wall and noise barri-er can become up to nine meters. As aneighbour, this is an overwhelming barrier.Here also, climbing plants will be plantedso in some years’ time, this will appear tobe a green, coherent surface.

The character of the roadM3 passes a varied environment. It can bedivided into two types: • The open countryside: Along some of

the way, the road passes a stretch of woo-ded area.

• The urban part lies very close to hou-sing areas. This part of the M3 will havenoise barriers of up to four meters inheight and in places where the road isabove or below the normal level, sup-porting walls will be constructed. On the northern side, the noise barriers

will form a smooth course. The road usermoves through an environment which iscalm and the traffic can largely flow with-out hindrances. At the different inter-changes one sees vertical tress which catchone’s attention and which is in agreementwith the fact that it is important to be awareof other road users, who come into or leavethe M3. On the southern part, the motor-way construction expands and catches theroad user’s attention through the surroun-

More information: www.trafikken.dk/m3. Contact: tel. +4533413700, Email: [email protected]

Cross section (illustration).

The motorwaywith noise bar-rier, light andgantry for intel-ligent trafficmanagementsystems.

Article specially written for NordicRoad & Transport Research by JesperKrilov Sørensen, architect MAA, ClausBjarrum Arkitekter A/S

dings and the most important landscape. It is a positive development in these

years that there is so much focus on impro-vement of the physical environment.Hopefully, the ongoing design work on M3will be considered a practical example of acareful and integrated effort to create qua-lity improvements and a new identity forinfrastructure and town development.


Using Clean Clay as Cap Material:

Environmental Aspects of theBjoervika Project in Oslo

The Bjoervika Project is not a typical road project, but part of acity development plan in an old harbour area.

The E18 motorway passes through Oslo’s(Norway) city centre with an annual

average daily traffic volume of 95,000vehicles. The Bjoervika Project will realignthe motorway from the surface to underthe harbour area by means of an immersedtunnel. The new alignment will cross twosmall bays: Bjoervika and Bispevika, andrelease valuable land sites for city develop-ment Figure 1. Construction work startedin the summer of 2005 and constructionwork in the water will be going on until theend of 2008. The whole project will befinished during spring 2011.

Particular attention has been given to

environmental aspects of the road projectboth during construction and for thecompleted road system. This includes fin-ding acceptable solutions for mass disposal,maintaining fresh and salt water environ-ments, polluted sediments and sea-bottom,excavation and transportation of soil mate-rial, vegetation, air pollution, and noise.

After removing a minor layer of conta-minated marine sediment, approximately380,000 m3 of clean clay will be dredged tomake space for the prefabricated tunnelelements. An additional 180,000 m3 ofclean clay will also be excavated from landapproach areas.

The clay is very soft and not suitable forconstruction work. Transportation and dis-posal of 560,000 m3 clay on land wouldgenerate traffic and air pollution, plusextra costs if the clay is defined as waste.The plan is therefore to use this non-conta-minated clay to cap areas of the sea bed inthe Inner Oslo fjord that are heavily conta-minated. This will establish a physical barri-er between the contaminated seabed andsea life.

The Pilot ProjectTo test the feasibility and effectiveness ofthis concept, a pilot project was carried outin the autumn of 2004. The results (2005)

showed that the pilot project was a success.Clay slurry of suitable consistency was pro-duced and seems to provide a valuable capon contaminated sea bed. The negativereaction of the media has been hard tounderstand. It is possible that they are scep-tical to capping contaminated seabed initself.

Challenges Related to the MarineEnvironment In the sea area the tunnel will mostly belower than the present seabed level.Therefor during the time of the buildingproject, a deep canal down to about con-tour line -20 has to be excavated belov thebottom of the sea. This will be laying openuntil the prefabricated elements of theimmersed tunnel are installed and the mas-ses filled back to cover the tunnel ele-ments. The construction site will also crossthe outlet of a river (Akerselva) and unlessnecessary measurements are carried out,migrating fish could be negatively affectedby particles, pollution and noise. The mas-ses from the excavation consist of differenttypes of material of which some fractionshave a high concentration of heavy metalsand organic environmental poison whichhave to be handled in a way that preventspreading of pollution.

A overwiew of the new alignment crossing Bjoervikaand Bispervika.

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Analysis have shown that spawning fishand fry should manage to pass through theconstruction site during the constructionperiod and be secured from negative expo-sure of particles, pollution and noise if app-ropriate measures are taken. In additionthe bottom contour line and the river bedof the Akerselva will be restored so that theriver mouth remains as it is today.

Status by August 2006The construction work on the alignment ofthe immersed tunnel has begun.Contaminated clay has been disposed, andclean clay is now being excavated. Whenthe excavation for the alignment is over,this clean clay will be used as cap materialon the immersed tunnel. The alignment is110 m wide and the excavation will last forabout a year and a half. The first two 112.5m long elements of the immersed tunnelmanufactured in Bergen, Western Norway,are also tugged into the construction site.

More information:http://vegvesen.no/region_ost/prosjekter/bjorvika/english.stmContact: Turid Winther-Larsen, [email protected]

Inspection of migrating fish in the cleanwater corridor made by a bilge system.

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Construction works for the immersed tunnel whichalso will cross The Bjoervika pier.


NTS records personal travel of all types,including short trips taken on a daily

basis and longer journeys undertaken lessfrequently, and all modes of transport inc-luding walking. The Norwegian NTS iscomparable with most European and theAmerican Passenger Travel Surveys. A totalof 17,514 persons aged 12 and above wereinterviewed in the 2005 NTS. The figureincludes a representative sample of theentire country of around 10,000 and sup-plementary, regional samples.

Increased car accessCar access is one of the most important fac-tors affecting mode choice. In 2005, 87 percent of the population belonged to a hou-sehold with at least one car, one third hadtwo cars and seven percent had three ormore cars. 68 per cent said that they alwayshad access to a car; an increase of four per-centage points from 2001.

2005 Norwegian Travel Survey

The 2005 Norwegian National Travel Survey (NTS) is the fifthnational survey of travel behaviour conducted in Norway, andmarks 20 years of NTS surveys in Norway. This article summari-ses some key findings of the survey.

Access to a car varies considerably. Mencontinue to have better car access thanwomen. Other characteristics of those withgood access to a car are high income, hig-her education, couples with children, andage group 45-54. There are considerablegeographical differences in car access.People living in the capital, Oslo, have thelowest car access rates; whereas those livingin smaller towns and in sparsely populated

areas have highest access. People living inareas surrounding the big cities have goodaccess to cars, too.

During the 1990s, the proportion ofyoung people aged 18-24 with driving licen-ce fell. In 2005, the relatively low propor-tion of driving licence holders in thisgroup remained at the same level as 2001,73 per cent. Among young people, the pri-mary reasons for not having a driving licen-ce are that they do not need one and thatthey cannot afford it.

The quality of public transport, measu-red in terms of the distance to the bus ortram stop and in terms of service frequen-cy, varies extremely between differentareas. The quality is clearly best for peopleliving in Oslo. Also those living in the citiesof Bergen, Trondheim and Stavanger enjoyrelatively good levels of service, whereasservice levels in areas surrounding thelarge cities are considerably poorer.

24 percent of the sample reported that

Figure 1: Proportionof men and womenwho can alwaysaccess a car in1992, 2001 and2005

Figure 2: Proportiondriver licence holdersamong women andmen aged 18-24 in1992, 2001 and2005

NORDIC NO. 2 2006 | 21

very good public transport services wereavailable to them, 46 per cent good or fair-ly good services and 30 per cent statedpoor or very poor public transport services.This is an improvement compared with2001, when 38 per cent reported poor orvery poor public transport.

A large proportion of the populationowns a bicycle, 76 per cent. This figureremains stable over time.

More trips and more car useThe average trip length is 11.1 km, a slightreduction from 2001, and takes 20 minu-tes. The total length travelled per day foreach person is 37.4 km, a slight increasefrom 2001. Men, those in employment,people with high income and education,and those living in the Oslo region travelthe longest distances.

In 2005 the population made an averageof 3.3 trips per day. This is a slight increasefrom the 2001 average of 3.1 trips and ismainly caused by an increase in car travel.The number of trips by other modes of tra-vel is stable. In 2005, 54 per cent of all trips

were made by car drivers. When we addtrips made as a car passenger, the car repre-sents two thirds of all trips being made.One trip in five is a walking trip, and intotal one out of four trips is non-motorised.Public transport trips constitute eight per-cent of all trips.

Trip purpose Commuting constitutes 19 per cent of allindividual trips, but is often connectedwith trips for other purposes, such as shop-ping, taking children to activities etc.Nearly 30 per cent of daily trips are relatedto shopping. This a slight increase from2001. More than half of these shoppingtrips involve grocery purchases.Accompanying children to activities andtrips for other care purposes constitute 10per cent of daily trips. Separate leisure tripsare 17 per cent of daily trips, and travelrelated to private visits 13 per cent.

More long tripsOn average Norwegians made 1.6 longtrips per month, defined as trips longer

Title: 2005 Norwegian Travel Survey - key resultsAuthors: Jon Martin Denstadli, ØysteinEngebretsen, Randi Hjorthol and Liva VåganeTØI report no 844/2006 All TØI reports are available on www.toi.no

than 100 km (62 miles) and trips abroad.This is a clear increase since 2001. Morethan half of the population made a longtrip in 2005.

Holiday and leisure travel dominatelong trips. Every third trip takes place inthe context of a holiday, with visits comingin addition. Altogether these two purposesconstitute 56 per cent of long trips. Work-related trips represent 18 per cent.

For domestic long trips, the car is thedominant mode with a 71 percent modalshare. Aviation accounts for 13 percent, asdo train and coach together. There is anincrease in car use since 2001. For holidayand leisure trips abroad, travel by air is thedominant mode of transport.

Car access is one of the most important factors affecting mode choice. PHOTO: PHOTOS.COM


Under-sea Tunnels: New World Record

A new world record for deepest under-sea tunnel was set inNorway on the 31st of May this year when, under construction ofthe new Eiksund tunnel in the north-western part of the country,a depth of 266 m under mean sea level was reached. The recordis expected to increase to 287.32 m this autumn and expertsbelieve this record will not be broken in many years.

More information (only in Norwegian):http://www.vegvesen.no/region_midt/prosjekter/eiksundsambandet/index.stm

Never before have road builders rea-ched as far below the ocean surface as

the builders of Eiksund tunnel. The oldrecord of 264 m below sea level, whichbelongs to Hitra tunnel in Sør-Trøndelag,is now history. The new record was reachedafter constructing 3.940 m tunnel startingfrom Steinnesstranda in Ørsta district.

The Eiksund tunnel, which runs fromEika under Yksenøysund and Yksen island,and further under Vartdalsfjord to Berknespeninsula will be 7.765 meter long. Thetunnelling goes deeper and deeper and thelowest point of 287.32 m will be reached inthe autumn. Breakthrough in Eiksund tun-nel is expected at the end of December thisyear depending on the quality of the rockin the remaining 2.300 meters.

The Eiksund tunnel will have threelanes (climbing lane) from the lowest pointup to Eika where the slope is 9.6%. Theexit to Steinnesstranda where the slope islower (7.6%) and the view is better, willhave two lanes.

The total cost of the project includingsupporting roads, two tunnels and a newbridge is about 100 million Euros (2003).The cost of the Eiksund tunnel itself isabout 47 million Euros (2003).

When the Eiksund link on the nationalroad 653 becomes completed in 2007, theisland districts of Hareid, Herøy, Sande,and Ulstein with their 22,000 inhabitantswill get ferry-free road connection to themain land. The Eiksund link will also con-

nect Ørsta and Volda on the main land sideto the island districts to form a region withover 40,000 inhabitants, who will get bettercommunication and access to: • diverse schools• wider and diverse job market• physician and hospital services• Wider and better trading opportunities.

The Eiksundlink. Graphicdesign: WiggoKanck/Graphiccentre, NPRA

• Wider offer in public and private ser-vices.

• Attractive recreational areas in themountains and near the sea.

• An active and well developed industrialenvironment in ship building andmechanical industries.

• Fishing activitiesThe tunnel builders were praised very

much during celebration of the new worldrecord. The good teamwork that was con-ducted by all those involved in the projectand the fact that the work was conductedwithout any injury was highly appreciated.In addition it was noted that the project ison the right track with regard to progress,quality and economy.

Never before have road builders reached as far belowthe ocean surface as the builders of Eiksund tunnel.

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Fires in road tunnels have happened more frequently over the last decade.To be able to prevent such fires, there is a need for understanding thespecific elements related to fires and tunnels and how these mattersinfluence each other. Laboratory testing has been usual, full scale testingis rarer. The Norwegian contribution is an abandoned tunnel, The RunehamarTunnel, upgraded with equipment to execute full scale fire tests.

Fire in Tunnels:

The Runehamar Test Tunnel

The Tunnel Fire Test SiteThe Runehamar test site is located 5 kmfrom the town centre of Åndalsnes in thenorth western part of Norway. Åndalsnes islocated 500 km from Oslo and 40 km fromMolde. The Runehamar test site has threeroad tunnels closed down for ordinary traf-fic, where two can be used for fire testing.The Old Runehamar tunnel has previouslybeen used for fire testing of various tunnelinsulation materials. All tunnels at the siteare easy to access by road. They are locatedabout 1 km from road E136. The entrancehas a key closed gate entering into a shorttunnel, which leads to the site. The road isin good condition with asphalt paving.

The Runehamar Test TunnelThe Runehamar tunnel is made of hardGneiss type rock. It is about 1.650 m long andthe cross section is about 50 m2. The tunnelhas a small slope (1%-3%) downwards (goingwest) and a slight curve going north. The tun-nel was constructed in the early sixties.

The site of the tunnel, length and sha-ping make the Runehamar Tunnel ideal as atunnel for research and development of tun-nel safety technology. The benefit of such atest tunnel will be related to the fact thatevery research activity conducted in this tun-nel will be in full scale. Previous laboratorytests can be evaluated in realistic conditionsand environment compared to real life:• Large scale fire tests• Size of fires influencing accept criteria• Size of fires and structural response• Accept criteria for evacuation in tunnel

smoke

• Tests of insulation materials• Mitigation measures.

Large Scale Fire Tests in the RunehamarTunnel In the frame of Swedish national andEuropean research programs on tunnelsafety, comprehensive large scale fire testshave been conducted in September 2003in the Runehamar road tunnel. Especiallysemi-trailer fires similar to the size of thefires in Mont Blanc Tunnel (France/Italy)and St. Gotthard Tunnel (Switzerland)were used. The Swedish National Testingand Research Institute (SP) have carriedout the tests in collaboration with ourUPTUN partners from TNO Building andConstruction Research in the Netherlandsand the Norwegian Fire ResearchLaboratory (SINTEF/NBL). Total fourlarge-scale tests with different semi-trailerfire loads where carried out. The world'shighest peak heat release rate ever measu-red in a tunnel fire test was registered. Itwas higher than 200 MW and the gas tem-peratures in the vicinity of the fire wereregistered above 1.350 °C.

Why Testing?The purpose of the fire tests was to measu-re the rate of growth of various types ofsemi-trailer cargoes and to investigate theheat exposure to the tunnel linings. Thepurpose was also to obtain information toassist a new approach to fighting fires intunnels. The information will be used todevelop design scenarios for road tunnelsand guidelines for protection of such tun-

More information about the tests and the resultscan be found at the website: www.uptun.net,www.sp.se andhttp://vegvesen.no/servlet/Satellite?cid=1156250661871&pagename=vegvesen%2FPage%2FSVVsubSideInnholdMal&c=PageContact: Harald Buvik, [email protected]

nels. Variation of loads is infinite, but weshall attempt to restrict the number tothose most commonly encountered.

During 2005 two full scale tests wereconducted in the tunnel:• Test of tunnel membrane used for water

protection. A total length of 30 m of mem-brane was installed and the test fire wasapproximately 25 – 30 MW with a time-temperature curve similar to HC. The testconfirmed that the given demands forsuch a membrane were fulfilled.

• A full scale mitigation test was conduc-ted at the end of the year. For the resultsof this test the “Ministerie van Verkeeren Waterstaat” in the Netherlands has tobe contacted: http://www.rws.nl/r w s / b w d / h o m e / w w w / c g i - b i n /index.cgi?site=3For 2006 The Norwegian Public Roads

Administration is planning for three diffe-rent full scale fire tests of materials relatedto water-frost insulation and protected with80 mm sprayed concrete with polypropyle-ne fibres. The fire growth, caused by poolfire, of these tests are decides to be of a sizearound 50 MW for at least 90 minutes.

Åndalsnes is located 500km from Oslo. TheRunehammer test site islocated 5 km from thetown centre of Åndalsnes.


Sweden, the UK and the Netherlandsare countries which have the highest

traffic safety measured in terms of thenumber killed in traffic per head of popu-lation and the number killed in traffic inrelation to the total mileage driven byvehicles on the road network in the coun-try. A comparison of countries requiresinformation concerning different groupsof roads, age groups of road users or dri-vers, and so on. The more detailed theinformation on road accidents or traffic,the better and more reliably road safetycan be described. In the end, the compari-sons are limited by the fact that one ormore countries do not have the necessaryinformation or that the information is tooimperfect to be used.

The method used is formulated as a

SUNflower– Developments in Traffic Safety inSweden, the UK and the Netherlands

By commission of the EU, the project SUNflower, a comparison oftraffic safety in Sweden, the United Kingdom and theNetherlands, was carried out in 2002. The aim was to find infor-mation that several countries could use and in this way improvetheir traffic safety. The project was extended since these coun-tries acted as models for many other countries. Two other groupsof three countries in Europe have also performed projects of verymuch the same type as that in the original SUN countries.

pyramid where the objective is to describethe “costs” of society for road safety. Thelevel below this contains the number killedand injured in traffic. Below this level thereis information concerning the road net-work, traffic and traffic user behaviour.The two lowest levels comprise the roadsafety measures of society and the structureof society and the traffic system. Thedescription of these levels requires annualreporting and registration routines, andpreferably the same routines in all coun-tries. Sweden, the UK and the Netherlandssatisfy these requirements for comparisonsto a very high degree. The years used as thebasis for the work have been those between2000 and 2003. The total number of roadfatalities is largely unchanged between2000 and 2003, but the population and the

traffic have increased, which means thatthe total risks have decreased. From 2003to 2004, the number of road fatalities wasdrastically reduced in these three coun-tries. At the same time, the situation waslargely the same in the whole of Europe.

There are nine areas that have receivedparticular study, pedestrians, cyclists,moped riders, motorcyclists, young drivers,heavy vehicles, speed limit systems, surveil-lance and sanctions, and traffic safety mea-sures such as 30 km/h limits in urbanareas, speed cameras and the use of cyclehelmets. Every country was responsible forthree of these areas; Sweden was represen-ted by VTI.

Some results concerning traffic safety inSweden, the UK and the Netherlands:• in relation to the population, the num-

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ber of pedestrians killed is twice as highin the UK as in the Netherlands andSweden. The greatest problem inSweden relates to elderly pedestrians.

• in relation to cycling, the risk of beingkilled per cycle km in the UK is twice ashigh as in the Netherlands and Sweden.Cyclists have been given their own spaceto a greater extent in the Netherlandsand Sweden, and need not, in general,mix with vehicular traffic to such anextent as in the UK.

• the risk run by moped riders of beingkilled is twice as high in the Netherlandsas in Sweden and the UK. The majorityof those involved are younger than 20.Generally, mopeds do not conform tothe traffic system and/or are used by aless responsible age group, often forpurposes other than transport.

• the number killed in motorcycle acci-dents in relation to the number ofmotorcycle km is twice as high in the UKas in Sweden. What is surprising is thatmotorcycles are now less common in the“motorcycle country” UK than inSweden and the Netherlands.

• the risks run by young car drivers in thethree countries are about the samewhen consideration is given to the num-ber of km driven. There has been atrend for risks to increase in recentyears, primarily in Sweden. The risks are4-5 times higher than for those aged 30-

59. There is largely the same differencebetween young men and young womenas car drivers, which indicates that this ismainly a male problem. The combina-tion young man and car driver is inmany ways an unfortunate one.

• the speed limit systems in the threecountries are different, but the thinkingbehind the systems is the same. Becauseof the limited surveillance and the per-formace of the cars, car drivers haveadapted to a greater extent to the“limits” of surveillance. A large propor-tion of car drivers drive within the limitsthat are accepted by the police, and/orthat the likelihood of a reasonable finecan be accepted.

• as regards police resources, the UK andthe Netherlands have about 270 policeper 100,000 population against 180 inSweden. Police in the Netherlands issuefines in traffic much more often (at least10 times as often) than in Sweden andthe UK. In Sweden, the action taken bypolice in traffic is only about one half ofthat in the UK. What is perhaps moststriking is that in the UK and theNetherlands more car drivers want tohave greater surveillance and higherfines for speeding than in Sweden.

• three measures have been treated withregard to their introduction and theattitudes of the countries to these mea-sures. These are 30 km/h limits in

FACTSAs mentioned above, the project com-prised two other groups of three coun-tries, Portugal, Spain and Greece, andCzech Republic, Slovenia and Hungary;these are described in separate reports.The project has thus given rise to fivereports:

“An extended study of the developmentof road safety in Sweden, the UnitedKingdom and the Netherlands”“A comparative study of the develop-ment of road safety in the CzechRepublic, Hungary and Slovenia”“A comparative study of the develop-ment of road safety in Greece, Portugal,Spain and Catalonia”“Development and application of afootprint methodology for theSUNflower+6 countries”“A comparative study of the develop-ment of road safety in the SUNflower+6countries”You can find the reports on www.transguide.se

urban areas which are most common inthe Netherlands, speed cameras that arerelatively rare in Sweden, and the use ofcycle helmets that is most common inSweden.

Magdalena Greeen, VTI, Sweden

ILLUSTRATION: MAGDALENA GREEN, VTI

Vibrations on Trains Disturb Passenger Activities

Many travellers like to read orwrite during a train journey, butunfortunately they often experi-ence disturbances due to thevibrations in the train. A newthesis shows that the stan-dards used at present to eva-luate vibrations are not ade-quate and must be revised.

Title:Difficulties to Read and Write UnderLateral Vibration Exposure. Contextual studies oftrain passengers' ride comfort.Contact:Jerker Sundström, [email protected]

Alarge number of people who use thetrain for their daily travel read and

write during the journey. Many of them aredisturbed in their activities due to vibra-tions onboard the train. At present thereare international and european standardsfor evaluating the vibrations in the train,but a doctoral thesis from VTI researcherJerker Sundström shows that these shouldbe revised. According to the standards, inthe simplest case only vibrations at floorlevel are measured. The thesis demonstra-tes however that vibrations at the seat andtable are often higher. In the thesis, onefield study and two laboratory studies were

made to investigate how vibrations affecttrain travellers ability to read and write. Inthe field study onboard three types of tra-ins in normal traffic, 80% of travellers sta-ted that they read at some time duringtheir journey, 25% wrote by hand and 14%worked on portable computers. The travel-lers applied a number of different seatedpostures for their activities. In the labora-tory studies, the vibration frequency andamplitude were found to have a great influ-ence on the perceived difficulty in readingand writing. The vibration spectra in theactual train also appear travellers to coinci-de with the frequencies that causes the

most difficulties. It was also found thatmoderate levels of difficulty to read andwrite are experienced already at low vibra-tion levels. The seated posture and the typeof activity were also found to have a greatinfluence on how vibrations cause readingand writing difficulties. According to thestandardised vibration measurements, eventhe trains that travelled on poor trackswere shown to have acceptable vibrationslevels. On the same trains 60% of passen-gers said that they were disturbed by noiseand vibrations when they performed asimple writing test.


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The Danish Road Institute/Road Directo-rate (DRI) and Road and Hydraulic

Engineering Institute in the Netherlands(DWW) is cooperating on the DRI-DWWnoise abatement programme that includesa project on Thin Layer Pavements. Animportant part of this project is to carryout a full scale test of different types ofnoise reducing thin layers on a highway inDenmark with speed limits of 110 km/h forpassenger cars and 85 km/h for heavyvehicles. The test site is located on highwayM10 at Køge Bugt Motorvejen near Solrød.The purpose of this experiment is to docu-ment the noise reducing effect, and on along term the acoustical and the structurallifetime of the thin layers.

In the summer of 2004, five differentpavements including a reference pavementwere constructed. In the last part of 2004(year 0) when the mentioned pavementswere a few months of age, the DRI perfor-med a series of detailed noise measure-ments. A sixth pavement was constructedin August 2005. A new series of measure-ments was conducted in December 2005(year 1) in order to monitor the develop-ment of the noise emission of these pave-ments. The measurements were performedaccording to the international standardISO 11819-1 characterizing road surfaceinfluence on traffic noise, the so-called“SPB” method (Statistical Pass By method).Furthermore, a series of CPX (CloseProximity) measurements were performedin year 0, as a part of the project on acous-tical characteristics in the DRI-DWW noiseabatement program. To describe the surfa-ce texture of the pavements on the five sec-tions, the DRI has performed detailed tex-ture measurements by using laser equip-ment also in year 0. And finally, friction has

Motorring 10 and Noise ReducingPavements

been measured by DRI.The completed SPB measurements are

used to evaluate the noise reduction of thetested pavements relative to the referencepavement. When the actual distribution ofthe traffic is used as it was in the noise map-ping of the M10 at Solrød with 90 % pas-senger cars, 5 % dual-axle trucks and 5 %multiaxle trucks, then the results, themodified SPB index (SPBIM10) for each tes-ted pavement is as shown in the tablebelow. The total uncertainty on theSPBIM10 is around 0.4 dB.

Modified SPB indices for each pavementand difference re reference pavement,when the actual traffic distribution was used(SPBIM10 dB re 20µPa). Year 0/ 1.

There was an increase in the noise emis-sion of 0 to 1.3 dB from year 0 to year 1. Atthe dense reference pavement there was noincrease in the noise emission. This is themain reason that the year 1 measurementsshowed a less effective noise reductioncompared to year 0 noise reductions.

It can be seen that relative to the referen-ce pavement there was a reduction in themodified SPB index for the tested pave-ments of between 0 and 3 dB in year 0 andyear 1 with a trend for lower noise reductionin year 1. The noise reduction was around1.5 dB at the SMA6+ pavement for bothyears, while the initial noise reduction at thetwo thin layers (TP8c and AC8o) was 2-3 dB,in year 1 this was reduced to 1-2 dB. AC8oand TP8c have the biggest built in air voidsof 15.3 % and 14.4 %, respectively. At theSMA8+ the measured noise reduction was of2.4 dB. in year 0. The marginal noise reduc-tion at the SMA8 pavement was of no signi-ficance.

The AC8o and the SMA8+ pavementshad the best noise reduction performance;

the same could be said about the TP8cpavement in year 0, whereas it seemed inyear 1 that the traffic noise at this pave-ment had increased.

A 1/3-octave-band frequency analyseshas been made for the SPBIM10 indices. Inthe frequency spectra below 800 Hz thenoise from vibrations in the tyres (andengine noise) is dominating. Below 800 Hzin year 0 the spectra were very similar forboth the reference and the thin layer pave-ments. This indicates that there was no sig-nificant reduction in the noise generatedfrom tyre vibrations. Above 1000 Hz thenoise from the air pumping effect is domi-nating. The noise reduction relative to thereference pavement AC11d takes place atthe high frequencies above 1000 Hz. Thisindicates that the air pumping noise wasreduced by the thin layers. This must becaused by the open surface structure ofthese pavements.

CPX measurements have also beenmade. The two indices (SPB and CPX) forpassenger cars and passenger tyres showedthe same tendency but there was no uniquelinear relation.

The surface texture measurements yiel-ded the Medium Profile Depth (MPD). TheMPD value for the layers SMA8, AC8o andTP8c was around 0.9 mm, and this was a sig-nificantly higher MPD value than that of thereference pavement and SMA6+ which was0.4 to 0.5 mm. All pavements fulfilled therequirements for the friction as stated in thehighway standards. The thin layer pave-ments had better friction than the referencepavement. Both the texture and the frictionvalues were homogenous in the longitudi-nal direction for all pavements.

AC11d SMA8 AC8o TP8c SMA6+ SMA8+

Year 0 Year 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1

SPBIM10 84.0 84.1 83.2 84.1 81.2 81.8 81.8 83.1 82.6 82.6 81.6 -

Difference re. AC11d [dB] 0 0 -0.8 0.0 -2.8 -2.3 -2.2 -1.0 -1.4 -1.5 -2.4 -

1

1 Due to intense traffic only 38 light vehicles were measured, whereas at least 100 light vehicles were included in the other measurements.


There is an increasing focus in Denmarkon the possibilities of using thin layer

pavements, which have been optimised toreduce noise. The Danish RoadDirectorate/ Danish Road Institute (DRI)has published two new reports about inter-national experiences with noise reducingthin layer pavements based on literaturestudies and visits to France and USA. Thepurpose was to obtain the latest internatio-

Noise Reducing Pavements – Internationally!

The latest international experiences are presented. Goodnoise reduction and durability as well as good friction havebeen achieved in Europe.

nal knowledge, which can form the back-ground for a continued development andoptimisation of noise reducing propertiesand durability of thin layer pavements inHolland and Denmark.

The work has been carried out withinthe framework of the co-operation on rese-arch and development, which DRI is carry-ing out with Road and HydraulicEngineering Institute (DWW) in the

Netherlands in the period from 2004 –2007, called the “DRI-DWW noise abate-ment programme” [1].

Thin layer pavements were introducedin the early 1990s and have since been usedin France and other European countrieson a large scale. The purpose was to obtaingood friction at a relatively low price. Inthe late 1990s, work was started to modifythese pavements to also obtain noise reduc-tions. France also has worked on optimi-sing the pavements to obtain noise-redu-cing qualities, not only on urban roads, butalso on rural roads and motorways. Thiswork has changed existing mix designs,which can have consequences on the dura-bility, friction and other relevant proper-ties.

Use of thin layer pavements is not newin Denmark either, but the new aspect isthat the pavements are being optimised inorder to obtain better noise reducing pro-perties.

There are two important mechanismswhich influence the amount of tyre-roadsurface noise:• Noise from the vibration of tyres is gene-

rated by the contact between the rubberblocks on the surface of the tyre and thesurface of the road. These vibrationsstart moving the air surrounding the

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tyre, which then creates noise. Thisnoise is in the frequency area less than1000 Hz. The more even the road pave-ment, the less noise.

• Noise from air pumping occurs when atyre goes over a pavement. As the rub-ber blocks of the tyre hit the road surfa-ce, they are compressed, and thus theair between the rubber blocks is pushedout. When the rubber blocks are relea-sed from the road surface, air is suckedin again. These quick movements in theair result in high frequency noise over1000 Hz. If the road pavement has anopen structure the air will to a greaterextent be pressed into the pavementand be sucked up again, which reducesthe level of noise produced.When comparing noise levels, it is

always necessary to have a reference pave-ment against which the noise level can becompared.

The layer thickness has in fact no directinfluence on the noise level from noisereducing pavements. But as mentionedabove, there is an indirect effect by using alittle maximum aggregate size of 6 or 8mm. Since as a rule of thumb, pavementsusually are constructed three times the size

Literature: 1. The DRI-DWW Noise Abatement Programme —Project description. Technical Note 24, 2005.Danish Road Directorate, Danish Road Institute 2. International experiences with thin Iayer pave-ments. Technical Note 29, 2005. Danish RoadDirectorate, Danish Road institute 3. French experience on noise reducing thin Iayer.Technical Note 28, 2005. Danish RoadDirectorate, Danish Road Institute

Article specially written for Nordic Road &Transport Research by Senior Researcher HansBendtsen, Road Directorate Danish Road [email protected].

of the aggregate in thickness, noise redu-cing pavements with an open structure willusually have a small layer thickness of typi-cally 15-25 mm. This can give a noise redu-cing effect. However, not all thin pave-ments are noise-reducing.

Noise reductionIn France, researchers and asphalt produ-cers have worked for a number of years todevelop noise reducing thin layer pave-ments. Thin pavements are divided intotwo classes depending on the voids in thepavement mix. They have a thickness of 20-30 mm. Also a type of ultra thin pavementis being considered with a thickness of 15-20 mm. In order to obtain an efficient sea-ling, an emulsion layer is usually put under-neath the thin pavement. Modified bitu-men is used in places where there is a riskof shear forces. According to the FrenchRoad Research Laboratory, LCPC, thinpavements are resistant to rutting, theyreduce splashing from rain and have a highfriction. It would seem that pavements with6 mm aggregate have a better friction thanpavements with 10 mm aggregate.

Noise reductions were measured inFrance in relation to a dense asphalt

concrete with 10 mm maximum aggregatesize, which basically corresponds to theDanish reference pavement. Noise is mea-sured at 80 km/h and 90 km/h. In general,noise reductions are measured on thinlayer pavements of 2-4 dB, which is lessthan can obtained on a drainage asphalt,which is 4-6 dB. It can be seen that the bestnoise reduction can be obtained on pave-ments with the smallest aggregate and forClass 2 pavements with the largest possiblevoids. The noise reduction is in generalsomewhat greater for cars than lorries.

Hans Bendtsen

Microphone on roadside to measure noise. PHOTO: HANS BENDTSEN

The proposal is as follows:• By using one or moreconcrete substructures as "islets"in a fjord, the bridge span may behalved compared with traditional

bridge constructions. This will allowfor greatly reducing the necessary

steel and concrete volumes. Visible col-lision buffers are built between thefoundation and the tower to avoid boatcollisions with the bridge tower. This willprevent accidents.

• By bringing steel platforms to land,these may be used for several smallertransportation projects across Norway.Flare stacks, gangways, platform decks,etc. can be scrapped for reuse.


Recycling of Oil Installation

In our millennium the petroleum activities have provided aneconomic and technological basis for innovation and opportunitiesfor large and bold projects. Concrete substructures with technology that keeps pushing the limits are some of the boldeststructures in more recent times.

Norwegian oil and gas produc-tion has passed through

various production phases duringthe last three decades.• The 1970s are known for being

the infancy of the Oil Age withAmerican expertise and develop-ment of the first oilfields on theNorwegian and British sides.

• The 1980s for large projects and relati-vely extensive Norwegian participation.

• The 1990s for increased pressure andinjection into the reservoirs to extendthe lifetime and improve recovery fromthe fields.

• The 2000s for field cessations, deepwater technologies and increased inter-national focus.The 1990s phase with focus on prolon-

ged lifetime initiated research within seve-ral fields. In addition to reservoir technolo-gy, studies were carried out on maintenan-ce and exact lifetime calculations for facili-ties. The studies concluded that theconcrete quality and technology far excee-ded the other marine structures we arefamiliar with in quay facilities and bridgestructures.

A platform or installation on the openseas represent a limited environmentalproblem. A large number of platforms andfields scattered across large areas of opensea represent a major environmental andsafety problem for the North Sea. What isthe best way to handle this issue?International and national authoritieswork diligently, but there are still manyunresolved issues. What is done to removegravity base concrete structures?

Over the last 4-5 years an idea based onreuse of concrete substructures from theNorth Sea for bridge foundations havecome up among several professionals. Alsoreuse of steel constructions is relevant.

Title: R&D: Reuse of concrete and steel substructures from the petroleum industry

Author: Bjørn Martin AlsakerLanguage: EnglishContact: [email protected]

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Drugs Cause High Accident Riskin Road Traffic

Title: The prevalence and relative risk of drink anddrug driving in NorwayAuthor: Terje AssumTØI report no: 805/2005Language: EnglishAvailable on www.toi.no

The relative risk of road trauma associatedwith psychoactive substance use was deter-mined by comparing the prevalence ofseven substances between a sample of kil-led and seriously injured drivers and a sam-ple of the general driver population. Dueto data collection problems both samplesobtained were smaller than planned, a factwhich limits the conclusions of the study.Nevertheless, the prevalence of five of theseven drugs studied is higher among thekilled and injured drivers than among thegeneral drivers. 32 per cent of the killed orinjured drivers had taken at least one ofthe seven drugs studied, whereas only oneper cent of the general drivers had takenone or more of these drugs. This is an indi-cation that these drugs cause high acci-dent risk in road traffic.

Bicycle Injuries and the Risk ofCycling

Title: Bicycle injuries, risk of cycling and the toolfor cost-benefit analysis of measures towards cyc-lingAuthors: Knut Veisten, Kjartan Sælensminde,Karl-Erik HagenTØI report no: 816/2005Language: Norwegian with summary in EnglishAvailable on www.toi.no

This report provides an estimate of thetotal extent of cyclist injuries in Norway. Bymeans of hospital data, the non-recordedaccidents are split according to injury seve-rity. Approximately 13 per cent are policerecorded out of a total annual injury num-ber of slightly less than 6,000. In discussingthe risk of cycling, we show how importantit is to distinguish between pure section

risk and pure crossing risk. Construction ofcycle paths reduces the section risk, but thecombined section and crossing risk mayincrease if crossing measures are notbrought about simultaneously. Finally thereport indicates how to include non-recor-ded accidents and the issue of section risk/crossing risk into a tool for cost-benefitanalysis of measures towards cycling.

Norwegian Air Travel Survey

Title: 2005 Norwegian Air Travel SurveyAuthors: Jon Martin Denstadli, Arne Rideng, JonInge LianTØI report no: 828/2006Language: Norwegian with summary in EnglishAvailable on www.toi.no

This report presents results from the 2005Norwegian Air Travel Survey (ATS).Information from 91,581 passengers travel-ling on scheduled international anddomestic flights have been collected andanalyzed. During recent years the numberof international passengers travelling toand from Norwegian airports has increa-sed substantially. Results from the ATSshow that approximately 1.4 millionNorwegians made one or more internatio-nal flight in 2005, an increase by 300,000 intwo years. The growth has primarily takenplace within the leisure market. Leisure tra-vel constitutes 60 per cent of the market,compared to 56 per cent in 2003. Increasedcompetition and fare reductions areimportant factors behind these changes.Passengers travelling on domestic flightshave also experienced price reductionsduring recent years, in particular withinthe business segment.

ANNOTATED REPORTS

Cycling Against Red Light -Extent and Causes

Title: Cycling against red light - extent and causesAuthors: Torkel BjørnskauTØI report no: 821/2006Language: NorwegianAvailable on www.toi.no

On average, bicyclists ride against redlights in one out of three cases. Men do somore often than women, but there are nodifferences between age groups. The pro-bability of riding against red increases (i) atright hand turns; (ii) when signals are loca-ted at the bottom of a downhill trajectory;(iii) when signals are slow to change togreen; and (iv) when others walk or rideagainst red. The probability of stoppingincreases (i) when one rides together withchildren; (ii) when children wait for greenlight; (iii) at left hand turns; and (iv) whenthe crossing road has more than two lanes.A majority think that those who ride aga-inst red lights are law abiding in otherareas and that the best countermeasure isto better arrange for bicycling in general. PH

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ANNOTATED REPORTS

Deliberate Offences in Traffic

Title: Traffic violations – a review of the literatureAuthor: Sonja Forward and Catharina LewinSeries: R534Contact: Sonja Forward, [email protected] Lewin, [email protected]

Traffic safety research previously focusedon describing the cause of accidents withreference to various types of shortcomingsof the driver, which has resulted in attemptsto improve driving ability and to changethe traffic environment. In recent years,researchers have begun to understand thatthe solution to the problem does not alwayslie in what the driver can or cannot do, butin what he/she actually intends to do.Human errors are of three types:• deliberate offences such as speeding,

drink driving• mistakes such as erroneous assessment

of their own or others’ speed, anddefective sight conditions

• routine offences that are due to care-lessness or forgetfulness.As regards traffic accidents, it has been

found that it is deliberate offences whichare the principal cause, rather than mista-kes or routine offences. Deliberate offen-ces have been described as a deliberatedeparture from routines which, in theusual case, can protect the individual fromdanger. Research has shown that peoplewho commit deliberate offences oftenthink that they are better drivers thanothers, which means that they feel trafficrules need not apply to them.The following are the typical characteris-tics of a person who deliberately takes risksin traffic:• has an overweening belief in his/her

capacity as a driver and believes thathe/she can handle the car even in a dif-ficult situation

• overestimates the advantages and unde-restimates the risks

• has difficulty in controlling his/herbehaviour

Respirable Particles in RailwayEnvironments

Title: Inhalable particles in railroad environmentsAuthor: Mats Gustafsson, Göran Blomqvist,Andreas Dahl, Anders Gudmundsson, ErikSwietlickiSeries: R538Contact:Mats Gustafsson,[email protected]öran Blomqvist, [email protected]

The environmental quality standard forrespirable particles (PM10) came into effectin January 2005. This standard has increa-sed interest also in particulates in railwayenvironments.

Particulate pollutants from rail traffichave been noted as an air pollution pro-blem, especially in underground railwayenvironments. In many underground rail-ways all round the world, emissions frombrakes and high particulate contents havedrawn attention to the sources of these par-

ticles and to the ways in which the pro-blems can be tackled. But the problem hasalso been noted above ground.

Over a period, VTI has made measure-ments of particulate contents at several pla-ces both above and below ground. Theresults show that, during the periods ofmeasurement, particulate contents in rail-way environments above ground do notexceed the environmental quality stan-dard. On the other hand, the average 24-hour concentration on the platforms of theunderground stations is considerably hig-her than the limit value. However, under-ground railway environments are exemptfrom the environmental quality standard atpresent.

The measurements in the undergroundenvironments also give some interestingresults associated with measures againstparticulates. It was found, for instance, thatflushing the tunnels had no effect at all onthe particulate contents, which was ratherunexpected.

The results of the studies show that tra-ins give rise to high concentrations of iron-containing respirable particles, especiallyin underground railway environments. Instation environments above ground, whichare mostly of a very open character, theemissions are ventilated away quite effecti-vely, and therefore high concentrationspersist for only short periods. During jour-neys by rail, particulate concentrations are

• believes that his/her nearest accepthis/her behaviour

• overestimates the inclination of otherdrivers to commit deliberate offences

• does not feel that his/her behaviour isanything be ashamed of.Increased knowledge of what induces a

driver to commit deliberate offences mayform the basis for various measures thataim to change his/her behaviour. Thelongest lasting effect is achieved when theinternal motivation is modified, i.e. theindividual’s assessment of his/her behavio-ur is changed.

Measures addressed to target groups arepreferable, but campaigns directed at allcitizens have also had good effect. It is pos-sible to change people’s behaviour, but thisrequires good knowledge of the targetgroup, which, in turn, is also a help in for-mulating the message. This work demandswell thought-out methods and patience. Abehaviour that has taken years to form can-not be changed in one day.

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ANNOTATED REPORTS

generally low but rise when the train stopsat stations and, most of all, when the traindrives into the investigated tunnels.

The sources of PM10 from the railway areprobably the wheels, tracks and brakes, butan allocation to various sources could notbe made in this project. The concentra-tions of both PM10 and ultrafine particlesvary greatly for different trains. The ultrafi-ne particles, in particular, appear to beassociated with certain trains, but it has notbeen possible to determine their source.For the construction and operation ofexisting and future railway and under-ground railway tunnels and for their traffic,it is important to investigate the significan-ce of the sources, the health hazard posedby the particles and the measures that canbe taken to reduce their concentrations.

Speed is Governed by the TrafficEnvironment

Title: Car drivers’ spontaneous speed choice inurban areas Author: Jan Törnros, Sven Dahlstedt and GabrielHelmers Series:N9-2006Contact: Jan Törnros, [email protected]

Drivers do not bother too much aboutspeed limits; it is the traffic environmentthat determines speed.

VTI has performed a test in which sometwenty drivers drove along roads with 30,50 and 70 km/h speed limits in a town inSweden, with the speedometer covered.The test group consisted of experienceddrivers; one group had at least five years’experience of driving in this town, whilethe other group had little experience ofdriving in this town. This experiment wasused in comparing the drivers’ spontane-ous choice of speed in an urban environ-ment with the signed speed limits.

The measured speed was found to varygreatly between the traffic environments.On some sections, the test subjects drovefaster, and on other sections more slowly,

than the signed speed limit. The driverswho were unfamiliar with the traffic envi-ronment drove faster on some sectionsthan those who were familiar with the envi-ronment. The variation in speed betweenthe traffic environments can to the greatestextent be explained by the variation in traf-fic environments and, to a considerably les-ser extent, by the variation between drivers.Factors that influenced the speed chosenby drivers were road width, visibility andthe amount of traffic.

The results of the study are relevant for,and bring to the fore, the issue of moreflexible speed limits in towns.

Riihimäki Inland Port

Further information: [email protected] [email protected]

The growth of unitised transport and theconstruction of a new unit port in Helsinkihave given rise to several feeder terminalplanning projects. This study looks at inter-modal terminal planning in Riihimäki. Thebiggest container ports in Finland areHelsinki and Kotka, representing a volumeof 400,000 TEUs each.

The aim was to draw up a general planfor an intermodal terminal. The potentialand possibilities of the new terminal were

Figure 1. Illustration of the planned terminal.Source: Pöyry Infra

evaluated in the light of operational con-cepts, viewpoints of potential operatorsand financial and operations models.

Terminal facilities include offices, flow-through terminals, warehouses (paletteplaces) and enlargement capacity.Operations include the handling of parcelgoods, storing, crossdocking, and value-added services. Three possibilities of ope-ration were identified for the Riihimäki ter-minal:

1. Terminal for combined transport, e.g.intermodal terminal, serving mainly railtransport

2. Nationwide distribution centre ser-ving both truck and rail transport

3. Local terminals serving the logisticsof local enterprises.

Based on the study the Riihimäki termi-nal appears to have good potential.Because the new Helsinki Port will notcater for loading or unloading of contai-ners, this must be done elsewhere. Thelocation of Riihimäki (70 km North ofHelsinki on the main railroad line) is excel-lent from the viewpoint of road and railtransport to and from all the other mainports in southern Finland, and it has agood central location for nationwide distri-bution.

The driving force in the Riihimäki–Hyvinkää area is the combination of diffe-rent terminals, including intermodal traf-fic to and from ports, containerloading/unloading, transport connectionsto Russia, and an otherwise optimal loca-tion. The main challenge is to find the firstoperators and end customers for the termi-nal. The terminal will need marketing anddissemination of information, not only inFinland but elsewhere in Europe andRussia as well.


ANNOTATED REPORTS

Cost-benefit Analysis on Noise-reducing Pavements

Title: Cost-benefit analysis on noise-reducing pave-ments Author: Lars Elleberg LarsenSeries: VI report 146(http://www.vejdirektoratet.dk/publikationer/VIrap146/index.htm)Language: English

This report presents the Danish results ofthe project on cost-benefit analysis underthe DRI-DWW noise abatement program.This program is a co-operation betweenthe Danish (DRI) and Dutch (DWW) roadinstitutes and is a part of the large DutchNoise Innovation Programme, also calledthe IPG research programme. The Road

Public Authorities as Providers ofTraffic Management Services

Title: Public authorities as providers of trafficmanagement servicesAuthors: Risto Öörni, Risto KulmalaSeries: Finnra Reports 18/2006(http://alk.tiehallinto.fi/julkaisut/pdf/4000515-v-viranom_liikent_hall_palv_toteut.pdf)Language: Finnish with English abstract

The main objective of the study was toidentify what services should be providedby public authorities, and why. The workwas carried out as an international literatu-re and interview study for the Finnish RoadAdministration (Finnra).

Efficient markets do not exist for trafficmanagement and information services inFinland. The markets are biased, servicedemand is quite low, and there are few ser-vice providers.

Factors favouring outsourcing and pri-vatisation include:• Legal responsibilities can be considered

with specific contracts and regulations• Service provision is more efficient and

service quality is better in competitivemarkets

• Authorities are under less pressure tomake developments

• With privatisation, public sector budgetneeds are reduced unless there are increa-sed resources for regulation. With out-sourcing, budget needs diminish unlessthe supplier has an actual monopoly.

• Authorities are averse to risk taking Factors favouring authority-provided

services include:• Service provision requires public autho-

rity responsibility• Authority responsibility is evident and

easily verified• Equality and non-discrimination is more

easily achieved• Ensuring sufficient quality and effects

are the primary objectives of the serviceprovider

• Maximum service effects with as many

Directorate has a long tradition for develo-ping and using cost-benefit evaluation met-hods, which include external costs such asnoise, and recently the Ministry ofTransport has published guidelines on howto carry out such evaluations. These met-hods and guidelines are presented as abasis for presenting actual assessments. In2003 a working group with members fromsix ministries published a suggestion for astrategy to reduce road traffic noise, whichfocuses on the cost-effectiveness of variousmeans of noise abatement. These meansinclude barriers, various types of pave-ments, less noisy vehicles and planning ini-tiatives such as reduced speed. In 2004 theDanish Road Institute did a technical andsocioeconomic evaluation of using variouspavements - including noise reducing pave-ments - on a widening of the Motorring 3in Copenhagen.

end users as possible• Private service provision can not be

expected to occur• Costs of service provision can probably

not be reduced via outsourcing• It is easier to maintain the trust of users

and other players• Expertise is better maintained in the

long term• It is difficult to create the required regu-

lation framework for private players.The obvious conclusion from a non-

increasing budget and the necessity of qua-lity for service benefits is that the authori-ties should focus on providing only servicesof good quality. National legislation alreadyindicates which services necessarily have tobe taken care of by the public sector. ForFinnra, these are:• Traffic control,• Authority co-operation in incident

management,• Authority alerts of safety hazards on the

road network,• Real-time overseeing of winter and road

maintenance contractors, • Monitoring and information systems

required by the activities above.

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NORDIC NO. 2 2006 | 35

ANNOTATED REPORTS

Noise Reducing Pavements inJapan

Title: Noise reducing pavements in Japan Authors: Carsten B. Nielsen, Hans Bendtsen, BentAndersen, Hans Jørgen Ertman LarsenSeries: Technical Note 31 (http://www.vejdirekto-ratet.dk/publikationer/VInot031/pdf/not31vi.pdf)Language: English

A Dutch/Danish delegation visited Japan14-18 November 2005 to analyse the recentJapanese developments in the field ofDurable Silent Roads. It is aimed that thisanalysis will help the Dutch NoiseInnovation Program in implementingsilent roads. The goal of the scanning tourwas to obtain the latest Japanese experien-ces with the use and maintenance ofporous pavements as well as new conceptsand ideas in the field of noise abatement.The focus was on the following topics rela-ted to porous pavements:• Improvements in the structural durabili-

ty• Improvements in the acoustic durability• The paving of two layer porous pave-

ments in one application • Performance based contracts including

tire/pavement noiseThe current situation in Japan on these

topics is summarized in the report inclu-ding the prospective for the use in Japanand the possible implementation inEurope.

Traffic Noise Measurement

Title: Trafikstøjmåling Tesdorpfsvej (Traffic noisemeasurement, Tesdorpfsvej)Authors: Jørgen Kragh, Sigurd N. ThomsenSeries: Technical Note 34 (http://www.vejdirekto-ratet.dk/publikationer/VInot034/index.htm)Language: Danish

In the EU research project (SILVIA) aboutnoise reducing pavements, experimentshave been carried out at Tesdorpfsvej inFrederiksberg (Copenhagen). Two noisereducing thin layer pavements, TP6c and

SMA6, and a reference AC8d were inclu-ded in the experiment. Noise measure-ments were carried out according to theinternational standardized SPB (StatisticalPassBy method) measurement method.Noise measurements were also carried outon the old pavement (AC11d/HRA). Acomparison between the results of the refe-rence and the AC11d/HRA pavement, andthe reference pavements at Kongelundsvejand Søren Frichs Vej were also carried out.The references at Kongelundsvej andSøren Frichs Vej were the same as the refe-rence at Tesdorpfsvej.

Compared to the reference pavement,an insignificant noise reduction of 0.1 dBwas measured on the SMA6 pavement, and0.3 dB on the TP6c pavement. The noiselevels measured on the reference pave-ments at Kongelundsvej and Søren FrichsVej were respectively 0.8 dB and 0.6 dB hig-her compared to the noise level measuredon the reference pavement on Tesdorpfs-vej.

The noise level measured on the oldpavement was about 6 dB higher comparedto the noise level on the reference pave-ment.

Test of Thin Layers on Highway

Title: Test of thin layers on highway, Year 1 mea-surement report Authors: Sigurd N. Thomsen, Hans Bendtsen,Jørgen KraghSeries: Techical note 35 (http://www.vejdirektora-tet.dk/publikationer/VInot035/index.htm)Language: English

The aim of this project is to investigatethe noise reducing effect, and on a longterm basis, the acoustical and structurallifetime of thin layers. Five different pave-ments including a reference pavementwere tested. Noise measurements were per-formed according to ISO 11819-1(Statistical Pass By, SPB-method), characte-rizing road surface influence on trafficnoise. Results showed an increase in noise

emission of between 0 to 1.3 dB from year0 to year 1. Relative to the reference pave-ment, there was a noise reduction of betwe-en 0 and 3 dB in year 0 and year 1, with atrend for lower noise reduction in year 1.The noise reduction of one of the testedpavements turned out to be of no signifi-cance. The total expanded uncertainty ofthe results is around ±0.4 dB. 1/3-octavefrequency analyses were also performedwhich showed a significant increase innoise at one pavement in the frequencyregion 400 to 1000 Hz. Additional CloseProximity (CPX) measurement results inyear 0 showed the same tendency as resultsby using the SPB-method. The MediumProfile Depth (MPD) was around 0.9 mm,except for the reference layer and one ofthe tested layers which was around 0.4 to0.5 mm. All pavements fulfilled the requi-rements for the friction stated in thehighway standards.

Noise Reducing Thin Layers – Promising Concepts

Title: Noise reducing thin layers, Promising con-cepts Authors: Hans Bendtsen. Erik NielsenSeries: Technical note 36 (http://www.vejdirekto-ratet.dk/publikationer/VInot036/index.htm)Language: English

On the background of the latest internatio-nal knowledge, suggestions for optimizednoise reducing thin layers are developed inthis technical report. In 2006, the DanishRoad Directorate will construct a test roadnorth of Herning in Jutland where around8-10 thin layer pavements will be tested ona highway under real traffic conditions.This report is also a project description ofthe full scale testing project in Herning.This is a part of the DRI-DWW noise abate-ment program.

Danish Road Institute Helen Hasz-SinghGuldalderen 122640 HedehusenePhone +45 46 30 70 00Fax +45 46 30 71 05Email [email protected] www.roaddirectorate.dk

NORDICDENMARK

VTT Technical Research Centreof FinlandKari MäkeläP.O.Box 1000FI-02044 VTTPhone +358 20 722 4586Fax +358 20 722 7056Email [email protected] www.vtt.fi

FINLAND

Icelandic Road AdministrationHreinn HaraldssonBorgartún 7IS-105 ReykjavikPhone +354 522 1000Fax +354 522 1009Email [email protected] www.vegagerdin.is

ICELANDInstitute of Transport EconomicsNils FearnleyPb. 6110 EtterstadNO-0602 Oslo, NorwayVisiting address: Grensesvingen 7,Oslo.Phone +47 22 57 38 00Fax +47 22 57 02 90Email [email protected] www.toi.no

NORWAYNorwegian Public RoadsAdministrationThorbjørn Chr. RisanP.O. Box 8142 DepN-0033 OsloPhone +47 22 07 35 00Fax +47 22 07 37 68Email [email protected] www.vegvesen.no

NORWAY

VTIMagdalena GreenSE-581 95 LinköpingPhone +46 13 20 42 26Fax +46 13 14 14 36Orderphone +46 13 20 42 69Email [email protected] www.vti.se

SWEDEN

Questions concerning the content ofthe articles, or orders forthe publications referred to,should be directed to thepublishing institution, seeaddressed above.

Requests for back issues, and notifi-cation of address changes.Readers outside the Nordiccountries: see Swedishaddress. Readers in theNordic countries: seeadresses above.

Web www.vti.se/nordic

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Nordic road nr 2 2006