New evidence of Palaeolithic rock art at the Cova del Comte (Pedreguer, Spain): Results of the first surveys

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Quaternary International xxx (2016) 1e16

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New evidence of Palaeolithic rock art at the Cova del Comte(Pedreguer, Spain): Results of the first surveys

Josep Casab�o a, *, Juan de Dios Boronat b, Yolanda Carri�on Marco c,Marco Aurelio Esquembre e, Pere Miquel Guillem d, Rafael Martínez-Valle d,Bego~na Soler f, Pasqual Costa g, Joaquím Bolufer g

a Museu de La Valltorta, Pla de l'Om s/n, 12179 Tírig, Spainb Fundaci�o CIRNE, Ada. d'Alacant, 18, 03730 X�abia, Spainc Departamento de Geografía, Prehistoria y Arqueología, Universidad del País Vasco (UPV/EHU), Spaind ARPA Patrimonio, Spaine IVCR, CulturArts, Generalita Valenciana, Area de Arqueología y Paleontología, Spainf Museu de Prehist�oria de Val�encia, Spaing Museu Arqueol�ogic i Etnogr�afic “Soler Blasco”, Spain

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:Available online xxx

Keywords:Rock artPaleolithicGravettienSolutrean

* Corresponding author.E-mail address: [email protected] (J. Casab�o).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2015.12.0611040-6182/© 2016 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights

Please cite this article in press as: Casab�o, J.,first surveys, Quaternary International (2016

a b s t r a c t

In the Mediterranean watershed of the Iberian Peninsula, Palaeolithic rock art remains a rare phenom-enon. Thanks to the discovery of the Cova del Comte, where the art is accompanied by an archaeologicaldeposit, we are able to study it within a defined chronological context.

The stylistic features of some of the figures correspond to ancient pre-Magdalenian art, which places itwithin the Gravettian and early Solutrean period; this information is consistent with the results of theexcavation.

© 2016 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

The recent discovery of Upper Palaeolithic cave art in the Covadel Comte led to the launch of an excavation project, which aims toput the art into the context of the different human occupations thathave occurred on the site. This article presents the study of the rockart and archaeological materials recovered in the first interventionperformed in the cave. Although the results must still be consideredpreliminary, they offer a valuable contextualization of the art(Fig. 1).

2. Excavation and dating

The cave presents a peculiar morphology, with two chambersconnected by a narrow gallery with a low ceiling, which constitutedan important logistical setback during the sediment extraction

reserved.

et al., New evidence of Palaeo), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j

process. We started with a small soil survey in the inner chamber,just below panel 1, in an environment of permanent darkness(Fig. 2). Our intentionwas only to document and describe the levelswith Palaeolithic occupation in order to contextualize the cave art,taking care to cause the least possible disturbance to the art. Assoon as we achieved our goal, we stopped the intervention.

We excavated two stratigraphic units (SUs), one completely andone superficially. Both contained artifacts with clear Palaeolithicmarkers, which were homogeneous in appearance.

The surface unit (SU 1001), made up of a dark gray sediment,contained numerous sharp-edged stones within a silty, loose soilmatrix. Excavators noted a certain contamination or alteration inthe upper part of the stratum due to the intrusion of two fragmentsof handmade ceramics, but the context of the material was ho-mogeneous and clearly Palaeolithic. The sediment of SU 1002 wasvery similar to the overlying level, but it had a more compactconsistency and appeared to be intact. We took two wood charcoalsamples of Pinus sylvestris, one per stratigraphic unit, obtaining adate for each, detailed in Table 1.

lithic rock art at the Cova del Comte (Pedreguer, Spain): Results of the.quaint.2015.12.061

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Table 1Radiocarbon dating results.

Level Sample data Material Methodology Measured radiocarbon age Conventional radiocarbon age 2 Sigma calibrated result

SU1001 Beta 413715 Wood charcoal AMS 25,050 ± 100 BP 25,070 ± 100 BP 29,350e28,865 BPSU1002 Beta 413716 Wood charcoal AMS 24,010 ± 90 BP 24,030 ± 90 BP 28,255e27,860 BP

Fig. 1. Location of the Cova del Comte and the main Palaeolithic sites in the surrounding area. The sites with rock art are indicated in red; with only portable art, in blue; and with noart, in green. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

Fig. 2. Planimetric map of the Cova del Comte, indicating the main panels of rock art and the detail of the floor and the stratigraphy of survey 1.

J. Casab�o et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2016) 1e162

Please cite this article in press as: Casab�o, J., et al., New evidence of Palaeolithic rock art at the Cova del Comte (Pedreguer, Spain): Results of thefirst surveys, Quaternary International (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2015.12.061

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3. Rock art

At the time of writing, our team had discovered close to ahundred petroglyphs and pictographs on 19 panels; a detaileddescription of these has recently been published (Casab�o et al.,2014).

The compendium of represented animals has features of pre-Magdalenian art, such as a relative lack of naturalism, highlydisproportionate bodies, small heads, voluminous bodies andconvex bellies (Fig. 3). For example, the horse head (F12) on panel 1shows the muzzle as an angular, duck-like beak, with parallels inMediterranean rock art (Sanchidri�an, 1994), such as in the horse ofthe Cova de Parpall�o (Beltr�an, 2002), the stone slab (16113B) of thesame site, and the M3 horse of Meravelles. All of these figures havebeen attributed to the Lower and Middle Solutrean (Villaverde,2008; Villaverde et al., 2009). The head of the Iberian ibex, orwild goat (F7), on panel 1 was engraved using a closed, trilinearconvention, leaving a space between the two horns, but with astraight line closing off the muzzle. The execution of the limbs,parallel for the horse and triangular for the ibex, along with thenarrowness of the equine image, are elements that are firmlyrooted within the ancient pre-Magdalenian regional period.

With regard to the ideograms of the Cova del Comte, most fallinto the wide chronological period between the Lower Solutrean tothe Magdalenian. A few, due to their precise stratigraphic position,their rarity or their superimpositions, merit a more detaileddescription. The first of these is the rectangular shape on panel 4(P4-F2), which is superimposed onto a tectiform (roof-shaped) sign(P4-F1). The presence of this form has also been documented inParpall�o throughout the Solutrean, and especially in the UpperSolutrean (Fig. 4).

The most characteristic ideomorphs of the Cova del Comte aretwo carved spirals (P2-F1 and P4-F7) (Fig. 4). These are rare signsin the archaeological register, whose only parallel in the Valen-cian region is found on the stone slab 16726A of Parpall�o,attributed to the Upper and Final Solutrean (Villaverde, 1994). A

Fig. 3. Horse F12 and Iberian ibex (wild goat) F7 of panel 1. (red ¼ petroglyphs; black ¼ pictis referred to the web version of this article.)

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similar chronology is proposed for the S17 of Cosquer (Clotteset al., 2005).

The semicircular concentric sign on panel 4 presents clearsimilarities with the spirals, and although there are no knownparallels in the region of Valencia, it does resemble the “jellyfish” inCosquer (Clottes et al., 2005) and the tectiforms of Lascaux (Leroi-Gourhan, 1958) and Pileta, where the signs are attributed to theSolutrean period.

4. Results: materials

4.1. Lithic industry

The study of the lithic industry in Cova del Comte is hindered bythe limited surface area that has been excavated. Thus, the numberof artifacts in SU 1001 is relatively low, althoughwe trust that in thefuture, this limitation can be rectified through the open areaexcavation of the sector with the entry chamber and gallery(Table 2).

For the study of the lithic industry, we used Laplace's AnalyticalTypology (1972). The basic characteristics of the industrial complexinclude an elevated percentage of scrapers, burins, and backed edgeartifacts, while the percentage of simple retouched pieces, trun-cations, and denticulate and splintered pieces is lower. Most of thesimple scrapers (G11) are on flakes, while the opposite is the casewhen the blank has complementary retouches (G12) (Fig. 5. 18e22,24e41). The burins are mainly dihedral, straight or offset; only onewas identified on a lateral retouched edge, while two were simpleburins (Fig. 6. 2e11).

If we hew strictly to typological measurements, we have not yetidentified any gravette points among the pieces with a backed edge.We have classified five points with bilateral abrupt retouches(Fig. 6. 20, 25e28), two of them bipolar with complementary re-touches on the opposite side (PD25), two points with partialretouch (PD21), one unilateral straight point (PD23) (Fig. 6. 19), andone with marginal retouch (PD11). The single backed edge point

ographs). (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader


Fig. 4. Doe and spiral sign on panel 2; and group of signs on panel 4, (red ¼ petroglyphs; black ¼ pictographs). (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend,the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)


has a deep square and vertical truncated retouch with a marginalbacked edge.

The marginality in the retouch is also present in six bladelets(Fig. 6. 16e18, 22e24): two are bilateral, with abrupt retouch ontwo edges, (LD11, LD12), three are backed edge bladelets (LD21)(Fig. 6. 14, 15, 21), and one may be a very long corner-notched point(LD31).

In the Mediterranean Gravettian context, corner-notchedpointsare scarce, but all have been recovered in the surroundingsof Comte. Up to now, only four pieces have been documented; theseare distributed equally between Malladetes, Barranc Blanc(Villaverde and Pe~na, 1981; Villaverde et al., 2007e2008), Cendres(Villaverde and Rom�an, 2004), and possibly Parpall�o (Fullola et al.,

Table 2Lithic industry of Cova del Comte.

Main types of artifacts SU 1001 SU 1002

Scrapers 26 34.2 3Denticulates 4 5.2 e

Side scrapers 7 9.2 1Indet. abrupt retouched pieces 1 1.3 e

Truncated pieces 6 7.9 e

Borers/Perforators e e 1Backed edge bladelets 10 13.2 e

Backed edge points 9 11.8 e

Truncated backed blades e e e

Truncated backed points 1 1.3 e

Splintered pieces 2 2.6 e

Burins 11 13.2 e

Total 76 5


2007). The typology of these pieces is similar to that observed inComte, but all of them were executed on blade blanks, unlike theone presented here, which is of a microblade typometry. This factshould not be considered relevant, though, given the scarcity of thesample and the importance of the microblade component in theMediterranean Gravettian period (Rom�an and Villaverde, 2006; dela Pe~na and Vega, 2012).

4.2. Worked bone industry

Despite the limited extent of the excavation, we have recoveredfivebone tools, all of them fromSU1001. In every case, the recoveredpieces are only fragments, which complicates their exact classifi-cation; however, they are undoubtedly from the Palaeolithic period.

Table 3Total number of ornamental remains in relation to the rest of the mollusks.

Species No. of remains Perforated

BivalvesAequipecten opercularis 1 1Pectínidae 20 0Glycimeris sp. 1 1ScaphopodaAntalis sp. 2 e

GastropodsNucella lapillus 2 1Cyclope neritea 4 4Theodoxus fluviatilis 3 3indeterminate 1 1Total 34 11


Fig. 5. Lithic industry from UE 1001. Retouched flakes and bladelets.


Please cite this article in press as: Casab�o, J., et al., New evidence of Palaeolithic rock art at the Cova del Comte (Pedreguer, Spain): Results of thefirst surveys, Quaternary International (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2015.12.061

Fig. 6. Burins and backed edge bladelets and points.

CC-1001-1 Pole weapon, in bone, in three fragments, on a convex-plane section. 18 mm � 8 mm � 4 mm.CC-1001-2 Polished diaphyseal segment, transversally and longitudinally fractured, which could be part of an awl. 14 mm � 8 mm � 4 mm.CC-1001-3 Medial segment of a bone pole awl, in a circular section. 23 mm � 5 mm � 5 mm.CC-1001-4 Medial segment of a bone pole awl, transversally and longitudinally fractured, probably of a circular section. 17 mm � 6 mm � 3 mm.CC-1001-5 Fragment of probably point with a small bevel. 17 mm � 8 mm � 8 mm.


4.3. Adornments

The compendium of adornments in the Cova del Comte adds tothe already important records of the Upper Palaeolithic period in


the Valencian region, including those from the Cova del Parpall�o inGandia (Soler, 1990, 2015), the Volc�an del Faro in Cullera (Soleret al., 2013), the Cova Beneito de Muro in Alcoi (Iturbe, 1991), theTossal de la Roca in La Vall d'Alcal�a, (Cacho et al., 2001a,b), the Cova



dels Blaus in La Vall d'Uix�o, (Casab�o, 2001a), the Cova Foradada inX�abia (Casab�o, 2001b), the Coves de Santa Maira in Castell deCastells (Soler, 2001), and the Cova de les Cendres in Teulada (Soler,2001; Villaverde and Rom�an, 2004), among others.

The material studied comprises a total of 34 pieces. Thirteen areperforated adornments: 11 malacological remains and 2 scapho-pods. The rest, 1 gastropod and 19 bivalve fragments, do not showperforation (Table 3).

The material used to produce the adornment artifacts are shellsfrom malacological marine and freshwater fauna. Although therewas presence of terrestrial malacological fauna (mainly Iberusalonensis and Rumina decollata), we did not find any evidence thatthey were used to make adornments.

Malacological marine fauna: Documented species are Glyci-meris sp., Nucella lapillus, Cyclope neritea, Antalis sp., and Aequi-pecten opercularis.

Malacological freshwater fauna: Documented species are Mel-anopsis tricarinata and Theodoxus fluviatilis.

Nucella lapillus and Aequipecten opercularis stand out among thespecies we identified. The presence of Nucella lapillus, a cold-habitatspecies, may be related to the cold intervals of the period, when thetemperature of the sea water would have been sufficiently cold tosupport this species in the Mediterranean (Cacho et al., 2001a,b;Jord�a et al., 2008, 2010). This same explanation justifies the pres-ence of Littorina obtusata in the Cueva de Nerja. The appearance ofthis species in the Solutrean period of the Volcan del Faro, SantaMaira and Parpall�o supports the hypothesis that its presencemay beattributable to a favorable habitat rather than trade between groups,although this point is still open. En the case of Aequipecten oper-cularis, its appearance stands out for its scarcity, given that it is aspecies found in other sites of the region (Parpall�o, Volc�an del Faro).

Once we identified the species, we proceeded to analyze thefeatures of the worked shells: dimensions, degree of alteration, andcolor embellishments. We then studied the perforations using amicroscope (specifically, a Leica M165C, with a Leica KL 1600 LEDilluminator) and photographed the remains using a Leika MC170HD digital camera, coupled with the Leika app.suite 4.3 software,which allows images to be captured at 3.65 to 60� magnification.

Fig. 7. Perforation


Themicroscopic analysis allowed us to determine the techniquesused to perforate the shells: abrasion, external incision þ pressure/percussion, and internal direct pressure/indirect percussion.

� Abrasion: performed on a Glycimeris valve. We observe stria-tions on the umbo, which (though shallow) indicate the direc-tion of movement (Fig. 7, 1).

� External incision þ pressure/percussion: performed on aNucella lapillus. This artifact presents a rectangular perforationon the back surface of the shell; remains of a grooved prepa-ratory incision can also be seen (Fig. 7, 2). On the incised surface,direct pressure or indirect percussion is carried out. Small,irregular negatives of removal are on the edges of the perfora-tion. Different experimental approaches can shed light on howthis combination of actions led to the perforation (D'Errico et al.,1993; Avenzuela et al., 2011; Tata et al., 2014). The combinationof grooving and pressure/percussion is not common, although ithas been documented on some remains found in French Solu-trean sites (Peschaux, 2012).

� Internal direct pressure/indirect percussion: either of thesetwo actions causes removals on the back surface of the shell,where the perforation is carried out (Fig. 7, 3).

This perforation technique is documented on three Theodoxusfluviatilis and four Cyclope neritea. It is possible that the specimen ofMelanopsis tricarinata was also perforated using internal pressurefrom the opening, as there are subtle external removals on the edgeof the orifice (Fig. 8).

On the whole, the number of remainsdand their con-servationdis notable given the limited extent of the soil survey;indeed, �Alvarez-Fern�andez and Avezuela (2013) set the totalnumber of documented elements from the Gravettian culture at152 objects for all Mediterranean sites. Likewise, the record ofspecies is characterized by the malacological elements mostrepresentative of the Upper Mediterranean Palaeolithic period. Wefound some non-perforated items pertaining to the same species asthose used for adornments, as also occurs in other sites. With re-gard to the remains of dye, the color red is clearly observed on onlyfour pieces.

techniques.


Fig. 8. Mollusc shell adornments.


One aspect that struck us is the fact that half of the completeshells we studied belong to young specimens, which is very un-common. Pending the complete excavation, it is difficult to spec-ulate on the meaning of this finding. Their small size (between4mm and 10mm), suggests that they could have beenmanipulatedby the group members with the smallest hands, that is, childrenandwomen, whowere entrustedwith giving form to objects whoseultimate symbolic function is unknown, but whose ethnographysuggests a certain importance.

5. Results of the environmental context

5.1. Fauna

The sample is composed of bone remains in a state of uniformfossilization, which indicates the coherence of the deposit; we onlyidentified one example of a micromammal (Rattus rattus) from ahistorical period. This finding, together with the fact that the SU isat surface level, shows that the cave has seen little to no intrusionsin historical times, although there may still have been moderateprocesses of geological deposits.

This section presents a preliminary evaluation of the sample,which includes remains of macrofauna, microfauna, birds, andichthyofauna.

5.1.1. MicromammalsThe osseous remains of micromammals in the Cova del Comte

were retrieved after washing and sifting the sediment of theexcavation using mesh sieves with nominal openings of 1 cm,0.5 cm, and 0.5 mm. Once the sediment was dry, the bones wererecovered with the help of a 20� magnifying glass.

The results presented here are still preliminary and derivemainly from the analysis of microvertebrates from SU 1001. The


sample of micromammals in SU 1002 is smaller and is therefore notsignificant.

Our study focuses on the taphonomic aspects of the aggregatesample of bones and on the paleoclimatic considerations, whichderive from the ecological requirements of the micromammals.

SU 1001 contains a diverse range of micromammals, includingthree species of insectivores: Talpasp.(mole), Erin�aceus europaeus(European hedgehog) and Crocidura sp. (greater white-toothedshrew); three types of bats: Rhinolophus ferrumequinum (greaterhorseshoe bat), Myothis myothis (greater mouse-eared bat), andPi-pistrellus sp. (common pipistrelle); and six rodents:Arvicola sapidus(southwestern water vole or southern water vole), Terricola duo-decimcostatus (Mediterranean pine vole), Microtus arvalis (commonvole), Microtus cabrerae (Cabrera's vole), Apodemus sylvaticus (woodmouse) andEliomys quercinus (garden dormouse) (Fig. 9).

5.1.2. Taphonomic aspectsThe formation of a bone deposit of microvertebrates in a karstic

system is usually related to predation or natural death. In the Covadel Comte, the presence of bones altered by gastric juices in SU1001 indicates that the origin of these bones is coherent with theconcentration of pellets or excrements coming from nocturnalbirds of prey or carnivores (Andrews, 1990) (Fig. 9D and E).

In order to characterize the predator(s) responsible for thistaphocenosis, we will examine two main aspects: the changes inthe prey's bones provoked by the predators' gastric juices and theirfracturing.

Our analysis of the erosion focused on the molars of Terricoladuodecimcostatus, which are themost frequent. The rate of erosion ofthemolars is 39.73%, a highpercentage similar to thatobserved in thebone deposit of micromammals coming from carnivorous andnocturnal birds of prey (Andrews, 1990). In the samples of ourreference collection, which we use for purposes of comparison(Guillem, 1996), Athene noctua erodes 48.38% of the molars of


Fig. 9. Micromammals in the Cova del Comte. A: left jawbone of Apodemus sylvaticus; B: lower left M1 of Microtus cabrerae; C: lower left M1 of Terricola duodecimcostatus; D: lowerleft M1 ofMicrotus arvalis; E: lower left M1 of Arvicola sapidus; F: distal end epiphysis of left humerus of Eliomys quercinus; G: right jawbone of Rhinolophus ferrumequinum; H: distalend epiphysis of right humerus of Myothis myothis; I: left jawbone of Pipistrellus sp.; J: right humerus of Talpa sp.; K: right jawbone of Crocidura sp. Graphic scale of 1 mm.

Table 4Percentages of fractures in large bones in the Cova del Comte.

Number of bones Whole bones % Of whole bones

Humerus 54 6 11Femur 39 4 10Tibia 26 0 0


Crocidura; Strix aluco erodes 33.33% of the molars of Apodemus and58.67% of those of Crocidura; and Vulpes vulpes erodes 100% of themolars in the isolated excrements, a percentage which decreasessubstantially if the analyzed molars come from a burrow (Guillem,2002).

However, the wide range of possible predators that may beresponsible for contributing to the osseous deposit in SU 1001narrows considerably if we take into account the fracturing of theosseous remains. In the current group of nocturnal birds of prey, thelong bones are complete in 88%e100% of the cases, whereas thebones consumed by carnivorous species are fractured approxi-mately 80%e100% of the time (Guillem, 1996).

In the Cova del Comte, only 10% of the femurs and 11% of thehumeri are whole, while all of the tibias are fractured (Table 4). In


this process of fracturing, many of the maxillae (upper jaws) ofthe Terricola were completely crushed (Fig. 10A); the same occurswith the mandibles (lower jawbone) (Fig. 10B). In addition, aconsiderable number of fractures have rounded edges due to theaction of the gastric juices (Fig. 10C), an aspect that can beobserved in the osseous remains of the micromammals left bycarnivores.


Table 5Number of identified specimens, and percentage of the total, of micromammals inthe Cova del Comte.

Species No. of identified specimens %

Talpa sp. 1 1.27Erinaceus europaeus 3 3.80Crocidura sp. 2 2.53Rhinolophus ferrumequinum 1 1.27Myothis myothis 1 1.27Pipistrellus sp. 1 1.27Arvicola sapidus 1 1.27Terricola duodecimcostatus 38 48.10Microtus arvalis 2 2.53Microtus cabrerae 9 12.50Apodemus sylvaticus 16 20.25Eliomys quercinus 4 5.06Total 79 100.00


These high percentages of fractured bones in the Cova del Comtemay also be due to trampling by humans and by other animals.

5.1.3. Paleoclimatic aspectsIn SU 1001, the association of documented micromammals

suggests the development of temperate conditions, although theclimate would be cooler than the present day; we arrive at thisconclusion based on the presence of taxa that require coolerecological conditions, such as Microtus arvalis (common vole).

Although the vole was present in the Valencian regionthroughout the cold intervals of the Upper Pleistocene, forexample in Salt (Guillem, 1995), Cova del Bolumini, and Cova deles Cendres (Guillem et al., 1992), from the Holocene onwards, itsgeographic distribution began to be more circumscribed asincreasingly temperate climatic conditions took hold. In the Covadel Comte, the species is discreetly represented, while in theGravettian levels of the Cova de les Cendres (from a similar timeperiod to the SU under analysis), it has not been documented at all(Tormo, 2010). In the Valencian region today, this species has avery limited distribution, having been documented only inPenyagolosa (Jim�enez et al., 1989), in the Rinc�on de Ademuz, andto a lesser extent in the region of Requena-Utiel (Jim�enez, 2012).Based on this analysis, we can speculate that the climate of thetime was relatively cold.

The high percentage of Microtinae in Table 5 (Microtus cabreraeand Terricola duodecimcostatus) compared to Muridae (Apodemussylvaticus) is coherent with the development of humid climaticconditions. This analysis is also supported by the presence of Talpa

Fig. 10. A: maxilla (upper jaw) of Terricola duodecimcostatus; B: mandible (lower jaw)decimcostatus; D: lower right M1 of Apodemus sylvaticus. Graphic scale of 1 mm.


sp., an insectivore that occupies regions with soil amenable toburrowing (i.e., loose and rich in prey). These ecological conditionshave disappeared with the onset of a markedly dry and hot Medi-terranean summer, which has impeded the survival of the speciesof mole endemic to the Iberian Peninsula (Talpa occidentalis) andthe Talpa europaea in the eastern part of the peninsula.

5.2. Macromammals

The osseous sample of SU 1001 includes remains of Capra pyr-enaica, Rupicapra rupicapra, Cervus elaphus, Capreolus capreolus,

of Terricola duodecimcostatus; C: proximal end epiphysis of femur de Terricola duo-


Fig. 11. Macromammilian osseous remains in SU 1001. A: lateral segment of righthumeral diaphysis of Iberian ibex; B: distal segment of left metacarpal of Iberian ibex;C: distal lateral segment of left metacarpal of Iberian ibex; D: proximal segment ofmetacarpal bone of deer; E: distal segment of first phalanx of deer; F: distal segment ofsecond phalanx of deer; G: lower canine of Iberian lynx. H: proximal segment of leftradius of Iberian lynx; I: left calcaneus (heel bone) of Iberian lynx.


Lynx pardina, Felis silvestris, Equus Ferus, Equus hydruntinus, Bosprimigenius, Sus scropha, Oryctolagus cuniculus,and Lepus sp.There are also abundant remains of birds and reptiles aswell as a fewbones of ichthyofauna and two bone fragments of Homo sapiens.

The most abundant remains are of rabbit, with percentagessimilar to those observed in the records of fauna in the regionalUpper Palaeolithic (Martínez Valle, 1996; P�erez Ripoll and MartínezValle, 2001) and with the same standardized patterns for pro-cessing meat, which include filleting and fracturing the long bonesto remove the marrow (Fig. 11). Moreover, there are a few remainsof hare with the same evidence of human manipulation.

Among the macromammals, the most abundant species are theIberian ibex, or wild goat (Capra pyrenaica), and the deer (Cervuselaphus), whose remains make up 77% of the total macro-mammilian remains. The third species in numerical importance isthe Iberian lynx (Lynx pardina), with 6% of the total bones. None therest of the species are represented by more than 3% of the total.


Among the ibex remains, the anatomical parts recovered seemto be fairly balanced, indicating that the animals were transportedand consumed inwhole. On the other hand, the remains of the deerare dominated by postcranial skeletons, which seems to suggest amore selective transport.

A general feature of the macromammilian osseous record, forboth herbivores and carnivores, is the high degree of fracturing,attributable to the anthropic manipulation of different anatomicalparts to extract the bonemarrow. This practice is evident in all bonesof the skeleton: skull, long bones, short bones, vertebra, and ribs.

The lynx remains also show marks of consumption, similar tothose observed in other Palaeolithic sites like the Cova de lesCendres (Martínez Valle, 1996; Villaverde et al., 2007e2008).

In addition to this anthropic fracturing, other fractures areevident, alongwith some erosion of the edges of the diaphyseal andepiphyseal segments and the general splintering of the teeth, whichpoints to relatively intense trampling on the site after the manip-ulation, consumption, and deposition of the bones (table 6).

5.2.1. BirdsBirds are very abundant. The remains appear to be mainly

medium-sized species, predominantly partridges (Alectoris sp.).The analyzed remains show clear indications that the partridgesand waterfowl were captured and consumed by humans, includingbutchery marks (especially on the humeri), fracture marks causedby teeth, tooth marks, and perforations produced as a result ofeating the meat and fat (Fig. 12).

Some remains of small passerine bird species have corrosionsand eroded fracture lines that indicate that they were partiallydigested by nocturnal birds of prey.

5.2.2. Human remainsAmong the osseous remains analyzed, we have identified two

human remains with an identical level of fossilization as the rest ofthe fauna, a clear indication that they have the same stratigraphicorigin. Specifically, we found a small cranial fragment and the firstphalanx of a little finger, belonging to a youth. The bone has in-cisions produced with a lithic artifact in the palmar distal end andon the dorsal surface, clearly denoting defleshing cut marks.

5.3. Flora

The analysis of the flora in the Cova de Comte is still in a pre-liminary phase. We have analyzed 240 wood charcoal remains, 120from SU SU 1001 and 120 from SU1002. The resultsare similar inboth units, so wewill consider the data as awhole. The radiocarbondates show chronological coherence.

We have identified five arboreal taxa: Acer sp. (maple), Juniperussp., (juniper), Leguminosae (legumes), Pinus halepensis (Aleppo pine),Pinus nigra-sylvestris, (Black pine, Scots pine) Pinus sp., Prunussp.(the genus of the blackthorn), and Quercus sp. deciduous (oak)(Figs. 12 and 13).

The juniper is a pioneer species that is able to occupy very poorsoil and resist extreme thermic conditions. Mountain pines are alsopioneer species, although they require somewhat more humiditythan junipers. In any case, both give rise to relatively openlandscapes; the pines dominate in the more humid areas, whilethe junipers prevail in more arid lands (Badal et al., 2012) (Fig. 14).

The presence together of mountain pine and Aleppo pine isinconsistent ecologically, because the second is the warmest spe-cies of the genus. In this case, and as mentioned in previous sec-tions, the presence of a few fragments of Aleppo pine in the S.U.1001 could be considered an intrusive element. However, the rest ofthe cast of species is perfectly consistent.


Fig. 12. Osseous remains of lagomorphs and birds in SU 1001. A: left humeral diaphysis of Oryctolagus cuniculus; B: right humeral diaphysis of Oryctolagus cuniculus; C: right tibiadiaphysis of Oryctolagus cuniculus; D: left humerus of Alectoris sp.; E: left humerus of Alectoris sp., F: right humerus of Alectoris sp.


The genus Prunus includes a variety of diverse ecological species,but its sporadic appearance with pines and junipers brings to mindthemountain varieties with cold habitats, such as the blackthorn orthe mahaleb cherry. Only one fragment of Quercus was identified,which, given the regional context, is most likely to be Portugueseoak. This species could be present in a more protected enclave orwith more edaphological development.

The identified flora corresponds to arboreal species or highbushes, although the pine and juniper woodlands also tend to beaccompanied by other bushes and understory, including labiates,leguminous plants, rockroses, ephedra, heather, boxwood, etc.,depending on the ecology of the formation. The absence of thesespecies among the charcoal remains in the Cova del Comte preventsus from characterizing the environmental conditions of the sur-rounding area in more detail. In any case, it is interesting that oursample only contains arboreal species, which could indicate apreference for thick logs due to their better efficiencywhen used forfuel; it might also indicate a brief or isolated instance of firewoodcollection, which might not yield a representative sample of thevegetation in the area. However, the scarce number of wood char-coal remains warrants some caution when interpreting this point.

Fig. 13. Frequencies of arboreal taxa identified at Cova del Comte.


The charcoal assemblage in the Cova del Comte is in an excellentstate of conservation and size, despite its age, therefore the effects oftrampling do not seem to have been significant, even on the surfacelevel stratum. However, we detected some frequent anatomicalalterations, which must be related to the combustion of the wooditself or with taphonomic agents that have not yet been identified(Fig. 15). Indeed, although little is known about the processes thatmight bring about these alterations, it seems obvious that some ofthem (vitrification, radial cracks) have to do with combustion inspecific conditions (Thery-Parisot, 2001); in the Cova del Comte, thefrequent presence of these alterations in the material can corrobo-rate the homogeneity of the record under study.

6. Discussion

6.1. Compendium of archaeological materials

The statistical results of our sample are provisional and should beinterpretedwith caution. Despite this caveat, the industrial structureis consistent with the information obtained from other Gravettiansites in theValencian region, although theextremevariabilityof theserecords needs a coherent explanation, which today is still pending.The data not only show considerable differences between sites, theyalso fail to establish evolutionary patterns along a defined path, apartfrom confirming the importance of microblade technology from thebeginning of the sequence (Villaverde et al., 2007e2008).

Previous research suggested the early appearance of the IberianMediterranean Gravettian and the posterior absence of a clearlydefined serialization, beyond the supposed evolution of backededge instruments (Fullola et al., 2007). However, the data availablefrom ongoing research and the revision of previous investigationsdo not support this at all (de la Pe~na and Vega, 2013a, 2013b). Themonolithic vision of this period, in its own right as well as inrelation to other areas, clashes with the still scarce evidence pro-vided by the archaeological register. One way or the other, it wouldnot be prudent to rule out an evolutionary process that sets theregion apart from other areas.


Fig. 14. SEM photographs of the arboreal taxa identified at Cova del Comte. 1: Juniperus sp., cross section; 2: Juniperus sp., radial section; 3: Pinus nigra sylvestris, cross section; 4:Pinus nigra sylvestris, radial section; 5: Prunus sp., cross section; 6: Prunus sp., tangential section; 7 and 8: Quercus sp. deciduous, cross section.


Some investigators have attempted to explain the discrepanciesbetween different industry collections through functionalistmechanisms (Villaverde and Rom�an, 2012), but we are still lackingsites with abundant and well-dated series that would support thishypothesis. From a typological perspective, the endscraper-burinratiodand the morphology of the latterd present important dif-ferences between sites. With regard to the relationship betweenthe gravette andmicrogravette points, we do not have traceologicalstudies at a regional level, although the typometric analysis appearsto indicate a certain rupture between the pieces with awidth underand over 8e10 mm (Rom�an and Villaverde, 2006). In the Comtesurvey there are no gravette points, but this fact is not statisticallyrelevant given the limited surface area that was excavated and thesize of the local raw materials. Another source of doubt, which also


affects the validity of the supposed temporal evolution of thesetools, is that fact that microgravettes only outnumber the gravettesin the sites that have been excavated recently.

Another matter to consider is the link between the IberianMediterranean Gravettian and the regional Aurignacian. In Mal-laetes the initial Upper Paleolithic is attributed to the Aurignacian,based on the bone industry recovered in the excavations of the1940s and a dating obtained for this survey in the 1970s (Fortea andJord�a, 1976). The problem lies in the fact that these items appear indifferent sectors, on levels that are impossible to correlate. More-over, the dating is for a level with so few materials that a definitiveattribution is impossible (de la Pe~na and Vega, 2013a). In Beneito,on the other hand, there is a documented sequence in which theGravettian period is superimposed over an evolved Aurignacian;


Fig. 15. Anatomical alterations observed in the charcoal from Cova del Comte. 1: radial cracks in Juniperus cross section; 2: collapsed cells in Juniperus cross section; 3: vitrified cellsin Pinus radial section; 4: undetermined particle in Juniperus radial section.


however, in this case we lack dating for the Gravettian period(Iturbe et al., 1993).

Finally, the evolved Aurignacian of Level I of sector II in Foradadadates to 26,610 ± 460 BP and 28,310 ± 170 BP, but in the upperportion there are important problems related to recent, clandestineremovals, which may hide a greater complexity in the sequence.We do not have any dating from level IV of sector I, but it is situateddirectly above level V-a, and the upper part of this stratum has beendated to 27.170 ± 150 BP. The industrial component is similar to thatof Comte in many ways, although there are no backed edge points,and the bladelets with sporadic retouch are very well represented(Casab�o, 1997, 1999).

In strictly typological terms, the question boils down todiscovering whether there is an evolutionary continuum betweenthe evolved Aurignacian and the regional Gravettian, or if thestratigraphic problems seen in the ceiling of the sector II sequenceof Foradada have conspired to obscure the superimposition of theGravettian levels on the Aurignacian. In any case, the contributionof Comte in clarifying the problematic of the Iberian MediterraneanGravettian is still premature, but following the last two excavationcampaigns, and after obtaining very promising results, it is possiblethat this site in Alicante will constitute a new point of reference inthe immediate future.

Table 6Main typological indexes in site, based on Villaverde et al. (2007e2008).

Malladetes1.6e2.4

Malladetes2.4e3.2

Beneito N6 Beneito N7a Beneito N7b Parpall�o 7.2

IG 35.9 35.1 18.5 21.4 18.6 55.8IBc e 0.4 1.5 1.8 1.2 e

IB 5.9 7.1 23.1 15.2 12.8 3.5ID 15.7 11.2 16.9 27.7 15.1 15.1T 0.5 2.6 4.6 11.6 5.8 e

PRC 22.1 24.6 6.2 3.5 6.9 10.5E 2.3 2.6 e 1.8 e e

Iml 7.4 2.9 9.3 10.7 36.1 10.5


6.2. Environmental context

The arboreal species identified in the wood charcoal of the Covadel Comte consist mainly of pines and junipers. On the other hand,Prunus and Quercus account for only a handful of the samplescollected, suggesting that, quantitatively speaking, they had only atoken presence. The other taxa have been identified in percentagesbelow 1%.Today, this assemblage of species can be observed inhigh-altitude enclaves of the Mediterranean mountains, at a supra-Mediterranean stage; this parallel denotes a cool, relatively humidclimate in the area surrounding the cave during the Gravettianperiod.

In the Mediterranean Iberia, the dominant vegetation in thisperiod was made up of pine and juniper woodlands, with the lattermore common in arid areas. In the southern half of the peninsulaand some coastal areas of the north, species needingwarmer climesappear, such as Quercus, whereas the stone pine is relegated to theAndalusian coast (Badal et al., 2012). The vegetation of the Cova delComte is integrated within this context, with almost equal andsignificant proportions of pine and juniper and an absence of thewarm species that appear on the region's coast today. The image isvery similar to what we find in the Cova de les Cendres for theGravettian chronology, with an absolute dominance of cold climate

5e8 Barranc Blanc Cendres XVI Foradada SI-IV Foradada SII-I Comte 1001

27.8 3.1 27.3 35.5 34.20.5 e e e e

12.8 7.3 18.2 6.4 13.25.9 19.8 27.3 25.8 26.33.7 3.1 e e 7.9

27.8 10.4 13.6 12.9 9.22.7 12.5 4.5 3.2 2.62.1 25.0 27.3 25.8 26.3



pine trees and a smaller representation of junipers (Badal andCarri�on, 2001). In this case there is a good proportion of legumi-nous bushes and a sporadic presence of Quercus evergreen, a morethermophile taxon whose early (though not continuous) presencein the sequence is corroborated by radiocarbon dating that situate itat 23,350 ± 100 BP (Beta-303419). In the Cova Foradada de X�abia,we also find the same range; even here Prunus and Quercus de-ciduous appear (Badal and Carri�on, 2001), in coherence with therecord of the Cova del Comte.

The pollen analyses available for the area also attest to theimportance of the pine: in Malladetes during the Gravettian period,there are strong intervals of pines, which become the dominanttree (Dupr�e, 1988); the scarce and discontinuous presence ofQuercus and other thermophiles (despite the fact that the pollenyields a broader, regional image) suggests that these were not anabundant feature of the landscape.

With regard to the microfauna and based on the data presented,we consider the carnivores to be primarily responsible for theconcentration of rodents and insectivores.

In this same process of accumulation, chiropters may have alsoappeared, although we did not observe any kind of alteration thatwe can attribute to gastric juices in the scarce osseous remains ofbats, and all of the bones were fractured, possibly due to trampling.Therefore, the presence of bats in Comte must be related to naturaldeath processes, which can result in important concentrations ofosseous chiropter remains inside a karstic cave. Normally theseossiferous deposits come from breeding or hibernation periods,which are the times of greatest mortality.

Based on these taphonomic arguments, we consider that therewas an intermittent presence of Homo sapiens in the Cova delComte, whichwas discontinuous enough to permit its utilization bycarnivores as a den. The excrements of these animals wereresponsible for most of the ossiferous deposit of microvertebratesfound in the archaeological site.

From an environmental perspective, the micromammals sug-gest that the climate was cooler than the present day, although weshould note that the species with Mediterranean ecological re-quirements (Microtus cabrerae and Terricola duodecimcostatus) aredominant. The climate would have also been more humid, to thepoint where the dry summer season allowed the presence of molesin the surroundings of the site.

These climatic conditions would have allowed the developmentof forests populated predominantly by Apodemus sylvaticus (woodmouse) along with open meadows and prairies with well-drainedand deep soilage, where Terricola duodecimcostaus (Mediterra-nean pine vole) and Talpa sp. (Mole) would live and burrow. Therewould also have been rocky zones with old trees, where Elyomisquercinus (garden dormouse) would find an ecological niche.Meanwhile, Crocidura sp. (greater white-toothed shrew) wouldoccupy the edges of the forests and the areas with loose stones.

The same humid climatic conditions would have producedspaces with a surface water table that allowed the growth of reedsand other perennial bulrushes and meadows of gramineous plants,as the presence of Microtus cabrerae (Cabrera's vole) confirms.

In addition, the identification of Arvícola sapidus (southwesternwater vole or southern water vole) is related to the development ofa permanent body of water, whether lake or river, and the existenceof a riverbank with soil amenable to burrowing and vegetation thatwould allow the vole to fulfill its trophic needs (Gos�albez, 1987).

The macrofauna of SU 1001 of the Cova del Comte is somewhatsimilar to other Gravettian records in the Valencian region, such asMalladetes (Davidson, 1989), the Cova de les Cendres (Villaverdeet al., 2007e2008), Cova Beneito (Martínez Valle and Iturbe,1993) and the rock shelter of Cantera (Fernandez L�opezde Pablo,2012), in the sense that the importance of two species stands


out: the wild goat and the deer, whose remains compose more than70% of the total hooved animals. The rest of the species are lessabundant, although lagomorphs are also well represented.

The sample of fauna in Comte conforms to a non-specializedgaming model in which goats, deer and rabbits predominateamong the sources of meat, although in this case the particularimportance of birds in their diet is also noteworthy.

With regard to the environmental implications of the presenceof different species, the most abundant taxa, the wild goat and thedeer, populate a wide range of ecosystems, so we cannot draw anypaleoenvironmental conclusions based on their presence. However,the abundance of lagomorphs and partridges, as well as the pres-ence of the horse and wild ass, suggest that the immediate areasurrounding the sitewas dominated by open space. The presence ofthe chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra), always scarce in Mediterraneanecosystems, indicates a certain degree of environmental humidity.

6.3. Evaluation of the artistic representations

The rock art of Cova del Comte presents stylistic features char-acteristic of the regional pre-Magdalenian period, with parallelsreminiscent of its earliest years. The achaeological register of thesurvey concludes in the Gravettian, and consequently there are nocontemporary deposits from the Lower and Middle Solutrean.

If we take SU 1001 as a reference, we see how the engravedrepresentations and paintings on panel 1 fall between 80 and150 cm above the level's ceiling, and between 125 and 195 cmabove its floor. We cannot rule out that the art was produced in theSolutrean period, but if that were so, no material trace of thatoccupation remains, and the artists would have had to be kneelingor bent in order to render the figures.

The distance that separates the decorative field at the bottom oflevel 1001 is compatible with the Gravettian hypothesis, in whichcase we could confirm the stylistic unity of the initial phases of pre-Magdalenian art, which would commence in the early years of theGravettian and endure until the Middle Solutrean.

Acknowledgements

Yolanda Carri�on Marco receives support from the project“Palaeolithic Plant Use in the Western Mediterranean” (PALEO-PLANT), ERC-2013-CoGe614960.

We would like to thank Meggan Harris at Rosetta Manuscriptsfor her work in translating this paper from Spanish.

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Documents

New evidence of Palaeolithic rock art at the Cova del Comte (Pedreguer, Spain): Results of the first surveys