Utilisation of indigenous knowledge to mitigate challenges of gastrointestinal nematodes

in goats

By

Sithembile Zenith Ndlela

A dissertation written in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN ANIMAL SCIENCE

in the

School of Agricultural, Earth and Environmental Sciences

College of Agriculture, Engineering and Science

University of KwaZulu-Natal

Supervisor

Professor M. Chimonyo

ii

General Abstract

Gastrointestinal nematodes (GIN) constitute a huge challenge to goat productivity worldwide,

leading to production losses. Anthelmintic drugs have been used to control GIN, but their

effectiveness has been reduced due to their high cost, scarcity in resource-limited farms, and

drug resistance and residue challenges. Therefore, other sustainable control measures that are

cheaper, readily available, and not chemically manufactured, such as indigenous knowledge

(IK), are required. The broad objective of this study was to investigate IK methods and

practices used to control gastrointestinal parasites in goats.

Face-to-face interviews were conducted on IK experts in Jozini Municipality, KwaZulu-Natal,

South Africa. Experts used IK because it is part of their culture, locally available and

guaranteed to work. Indigenous knowledge was sourced from their forefathers through oral

communication and training. Traditional healers had more sources of IK, including visions,

dreams and spirits. Experts identified GIN as the most common parasites in goats. They used

shape, size and colour in the identification of parasites. Indigenous knowledge was used to

identify symptoms caused by GIN infestations. Thirty-three plant species were identified to

control worm burdens in goats.

A cross-sectional survey was used to determine the extent of IK used to control gastrointestinal

parasites in goats. Cissus quadrangularis Linn. was the most widely used plant (67 %),

followed by Albizia anthelminthica Brongn. (47 %), Cissus rotundifolia (Forssk.) Vahl (42 %),

Vachellia xanthophloea (Benth.) P.J.H. Hurter (38 %), Aloe marlothii A. Berger (38 %),

Sclerocarya birrea (A. Rich.) Hochst (36 %), Gomphocarpus physocarpus E. Mey (36 %), Aloe

maculata All. (35 %), Trichilia emetica Vahl (33 %), Aloe ferox Mill. (32 %), Vernonia

neocorymbosa Hilliard (20 %) and Schkuhria pinnata (Lam) Kuntze ex Thell (16 %). The odds

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of farmers using IK in the dry environment were 7.9 times more likely than in the wet

environment. The likelihood of males influencing the use of IK was twice compared to females

(P < 0.01). Adults (> 50 years old) were 1.8 times likely to influence the use of IK than youths

(P < 0.05). Farmers residing on-farm were one time likely to use IK (P < 0.05) than those

staying outside the farm. The likelihood of having a herbalist in the area was 3.6 times likely

to influence the use of IK to control GIN in goats.

A structured questionnaire was also used to determine differences in the extent of IK use to

control GIN in goats between wet and dry environments. The likelihood of males using IK in

the dry environment was eight times (P < 0.01) compared to 1.7 times in the wet environment

(P < 0.05). Adults were 1.2 times likely to use IK than youths in the dry environment (P <

0.05), whereas youths used more IK than adults in the wet environment. Unemployed farmers

in the dry environment were 4.3 times likely to use IK than employed farmers (P < 0.01).

Informally educated farmers used IK more than formally educated farmers in both

environments. Farmers who practiced the traditional Zulu culture were 2.1 times more likely

to use IK in the dry environment and 1.1 times in the wet environment than those who practiced

Christianity (P < 0.05). Farmers who received livestock training were 1.74 times more likely

to use IK in a dry environment than the untrained. The presence of herbalists in the dry

environment was 3.6 times likely to influence the use of IK (P < 0.01), compared to the

likelihood of one time in the wet environments (P < 0.05).

Because IK is based on using symptoms to identify goats infested with GIN, relationships

between faecal egg count (FEC) and packed cell volume (PCV), body condition score (BCS),

and FAMACHA score were determined. A total of 120 Nguni goats made up of weaners, does

and bucks were used across all seasons (post-rainy, cool-dry, hot-dry, hot-wet). Higher egg

iv

counts were observed in weaners (7406 ± 401.4) and does (4844 ± 401.4) during the hot-wet

season, while bucks had the highest counts (5561 ± 529.7) in the cool-dry season. Strongyloides

(30 %), Haemonchus contortus (28 %), Trichostrongylus sp. (23 %), Oesophagostomum sp.

(17 %), and Ostertagia (2 %) were identified in goats and had higher percentage counts in the

hot-wet season. There was no effect of sex on BCS, FAMACHA, PCV and FEC. There was an

interaction (P < 0.05) between age and season on FAMACHA score, BCS, PCV and FEC. A

lower BCS and PCV were observed in weaners in the cool-dry season. Weaners had higher

FAMACHA scores and FEC in the cool-dry season. The rate of change in FAMACHA score

was higher in weaners than does and bucks, as FEC increased (P < 0.01). The rate of change

in the FAMACHA score was higher in the post-rainy season as FEC increased (P < 0.01)

compared to other seasons. There was a linear relationship between FEC and FAMACHA

scores.

The anthelmintic activity of aqueous extracts of Cissus quadrangularis Linn., Aloe marlothii

A. Berger, Albizia anthelmintica Brongn., Cissus rotundifolia (Forssk.) Vahl., Sclerocarya

birrea (A. Rich.) Hochst and Vachellia xanthophloea (Benth.) P.J.H. Hurter against GIN was

investigated. Each plant was used in two forms: dry and fresh. Three extraction methods were

employed, i.e., cold water (infusion), boiled water (decoction) and methanol. Extract

concentrations of 8, 16, 24, 32, 40 % v/v were tested in vitro on the mortality of L3 nematodes.

There was a linear relationship between larvae mortality and concentration of the boiled fresh

form of C. rotundifolia (P < 0.01) extract, cold-water extract of the fresh form of A. marlothii

(P < 0.05), cold-water and methanolic extracts of the fresh form of C. quadrangularis (P <

0.01), methanolic extract of the fresh form and cold-water extract of the dry form of V.

xanthophloea (P < 0.05), cold-water and methanolic extracts of the dry form of S. birrea (P <

0.0001). Quadratic relationships were observed between larvae mortality and concentration of

v

the fresh form of methanolic extract of C. rotundifolia (P < 0.05), fresh form of methanolic

extract of A. anthelmintica (P < 0.01), fresh form of cold and boiled water extracts of V.

xanthophloea (P < 0.0001), the fresh form of methanolic extract and the dry form of boiled A.

marlothii extract (P < 0.001), fresh form of methanolic extract (P < 0.05) and dry form of boiled

S. birrea extract (P < 0.01), and dry form of boiled and methanolic extracts of V. xanthophloea

(P < 0.05) plant. Farmers used different plant forms and extraction methods of C.

quadrangularis, A. marlothii, A. anthelmintica, C. rotundifolia, S. birrea and V. xanthophloea

based on availability and the knowledge they possessed. The effects of most of the plant

extracts were not influenced by concentrations, suggesting that lower concentrations could be

beneficial for plant preservation and toxicity reduction. However, quadratic relationships

observed in other plant extracts suggest that concentrations with high larvae mortality could be

adopted. These relationships need to be considered as an integrated approach to achieve

sustainable nematode control in goats.

vi

Dedication

This thesis is dedicated to my parents Gugu and Mshiyeni, my sisters Londiwe and Silindile,

my brother Siphelele, my first family MBChB 6th-year candidate Sihalaliso ‘Dr. Nana’ and

my late grandmother Emily ‘Gogoe’.

vii

Acknowledgments

I acknowledge The Ancient of Days, The King of Kings, The Lord of Lords, The King of

Glory, The Almighty God for His grace, guidance and strength that He has deposited in me

throughout such a stormy journey. My sincere gratitude goes to my supervisor, Prof. M.

Chimonyo for his tireless effort, support, guidance and encouragement.

I acknowledge the National Research Funding (NRF) through the Centre for Indigenous

Knowledge System (CIKS) at the University of KwaZulu-Natal, who provided a bursary and

met some research costs. I thank the Bews Herbarium at the University of KwaZulu-Natal for

the identification of plant specimens.

I greatly acknowledge the co-operation of farmers and the chairperson of Jozini Livestock

Association, Mr. Moses Nkosi. I also thank Muzi Nkosi, Thandeka Thabethe and Thabiso

Nkosi from eMkhonjeni village in Jozini for their assistance with data collection. I am indebted

to employees from the Department of Agriculture at Makhathini Research Station in Jozini for

their assistance with plant collection, particularly Dr. Mbongeni Khanyile and Mr. Sithole.

A special appreciation goes to Dr. M.V. Mkwanazi ‘Veloh’, my research partner, who has been

a pillar of strength throughout this study. His assistance in all steps of my research, motivation,

constructive criticism and inputs have been invaluable to the construction of the thesis. I also

thank my fellow PhD colleague, Mehluli Moyo ‘Mandate’, for his support, encouragement and

sharing of ideas to improve the quality of this dissertation. I will not forget my other PhD

colleague, Dr. Z. Mdletshe ‘Mphathi wohlelo’, for assistance with data collection. I thank my

team members, Mr. Nkanyiso Majola ‘Joloh’ and Creswell Mseleku “M’nhlonhlo” for

assistance during data collection. We experienced hard but interesting times together,

viii

particularly in the field, that taught us the qualities of a successful team. Without them, it might

not have been possible. Their hard work and efforts are much appreciated. My gratitude goes

to Mr. Sam Khumalo ‘Mkhulu’, Ntuthuko Mkhize ‘Ntukza’ and Mr. Sya Mlotshwa for their

technical inputs during faecal sample collection. I thank my friends, Dr. Zama Mbulawa, Dr.

Bongani Kubheka, Pam Mngadi and Swazi Magwaza, for their support throughout the journey.

I am indebted to my family for their love, support and prayers. Words cannot express my

earnest gratitude to our beloved Dr. Nana for love, patience, encouragement, understanding,

and taking care of me when working late to finalise this thesis. I am so grateful to my wise

grandmother Emily Msiya, ichwane loMsuthu, uMtubatsi, who motivated me at a tender age

to invest in education as a passport to the future, by reiterating these words ‘Nifunde S’thembi

mtano mtanami, ningabi okhamisa ngithele’. I exceptionally thank my mother for being such

an inspiration, whereby I observed her furthering her studies as an educator, while taking care

of us at the same time.

“Moreover, whom He predestined, these He also called; whom He called, these He also

justified; and whom He justified, these He also glorified” – Romans 8:30

ix

Thesis output

Publications: (Accepted)

1. Ndlela SZ, Mkwanazi MV and Chimonyo M (2021). Factors affecting utilisation of

indigenous knowledge to control gastrointestinal nematodes in goats grazing in

dry and wet environments. Agriculture 11(2): 160

https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11020160

2. Ndlela SZ, Mkwanazi MV and Chimonyo M (2021). In vitro efficacy of plant extracts

against gastrointestinal nematodes in goats. Trop Anim Health Prod 53, 295 (2021).

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11250-021-02732-0

Publications: (Under review)

1. Ndlela SZ, Mkwanazi MV and Chimonyo M (2020). Mitigation of effects of climate

change on gastrointestinal parasites in goats using indigenous knowledge.

Indilinga: African Journal of Indigenous Knowledge Systems.

2. Ndlela SZ, Mkwanazi MV, Khanyile M and Chimonyo M (2021). Ethnoveterinary

medicinal practice against gastrointestinal nematodes in goats: A systematic

review. Small Ruminant Research.

3. Ndlela SZ, Mkwanazi MV and Chimonyo M (2021). Characterisation of the

indigenous knowledge used for gastrointestinal nematode control in smallholder

farming areas of KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa. BMC Veterinary

Research.

4. Ndlela SZ, Mkwanazi MV and Chimonyo M (2021). Relationship between faecal egg

count and health status in Nguni goats reared on semi-arid rangelands. Small

Ruminant Research Journal.

x

Conference Proceedings

1. Ndlela SZ, Mkwanazi MV and Chimonyo M (2020). The utilisation of indigenous

knowledge to control worm burden in goats. UKZN Postgraduate Research and

Innovation Symposium (PRIS) - ONLINE. 10-11 December 2020.

xi

Table of Contents

Declaration ................................................................................................................................... i

General Abstract .......................................................................................................................... ii

Dedication .................................................................................................................................. vi

Acknowledgments ..................................................................................................................... vii

Thesis output .............................................................................................................................. ix

Conference Proceedings ............................................................................................................... x

List of Tables ....................................................................................................................................xvi

List of Figures ................................................................................................................................. xviii

List of Abbreviations ........................................................................................................................ xix

Chapter 1: General Introduction ................................................................................................... 1

1.1 Background ................................................................................................................................... 1

1.2 Justification ................................................................................................................................... 3

1.3 Objectives ..................................................................................................................................... 4

1.4 Hypotheses .................................................................................................................................... 5

1.5 References ..................................................................................................................................... 6

Chapter 2: Literature Review ........................................................................................................ 9

2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 9

2.2 Importance of goats ....................................................................................................................... 9

2.3 Adverse effects of gastrointestinal nematodes in goats .............................................................. 14

2.4 Adoption and utilisation of indigenous knowledge .................................................................... 15

2.5 Appropriate research approaches for investigating IK utilisation ............................................... 17

2.5.1 Systematic reviews ............................................................................................................. 17

2.5.2 Face-to-face interviews ...................................................................................................... 19

2.5.3 Focus group discussions ..................................................................................................... 19

2.5.4 Cross-sectional surveys ...................................................................................................... 20

2.5.5 Longitudinal studies ........................................................................................................... 21

2.5.6 Relationships between faecal egg counts and symptoms of nematode infestation ....... 21

2.5.7 In vitro and in vivo anthelmintic activities ...................................................................... 22

2.6 Conceptual framework ................................................................................................................ 23

2.7 Summary ..................................................................................................................................... 25

2.8 References ................................................................................................................................... 25

Chapter 3: The role of indigenous knowledge in controlling gastrointestinal nematodes of goats in

Africa: A systematic review ........................................................................................................ 30

Abstract ..................................................................................................................................... 30

xii

3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 31

3.2 Materials and methods ................................................................................................................ 33

3.2.1 Scope of the study, search strategy and research questions ........................................... 33

3.2.2 Eligibility assessment, inclusion and exclusion criteria .................................................. 34

3.2.3 Quality assessment of articles ........................................................................................... 34

3.3 Results ......................................................................................................................................... 35

3.3.1 Article screening process ................................................................................................... 35

3.3.2 Common gastrointestinal parasites affecting goats ........................................................ 35

3.3.3 Effects of gastrointestinal nematodes on goats ................................................................ 35

3.3.4 Challenges of anthelmintics ............................................................................................... 38

3.3.5 Plants used to control gastrointestinal nematodes .......................................................... 40

3.3.6 Threats to the use of indigenous knowledge in helminth control .................................. 49

3.3.7 Opportunities of integrating indigenous knowledge and conventional knowledge ...... 51

3.4 Discussion ................................................................................................................................... 52

3.5 Conclusions ................................................................................................................................. 69

3.6 References ................................................................................................................................... 69

Chapter 4: Mitigation of effects of gastrointestinal nematodes in goats using indigenous

knowledge ................................................................................................................................. 78

Abstract ..................................................................................................................................... 78

4.1 Background ................................................................................................................................. 79

4.2 Materials and Methods ................................................................................................................ 81

4.2.1 Description of the study site .............................................................................................. 81

4.2.2 Selection of key informants and research design ............................................................ 82

4.2.3 Data collection .................................................................................................................... 82

4.2.4 Data analyses ...................................................................................................................... 83

4.3. Results ........................................................................................................................................ 83

4.3.1 Role of indigenous knowledge systems in goat health management .............................. 83

4.3.2 Source and transfer of indigenous knowledge ................................................................. 83

4.3.3 Preservation of indigenous knowledge ............................................................................. 84

4.3.4 Effects of climate change on availability of medicinal plants ......................................... 84

4.3.5 Gastrointestinal parasite infestations in goats ................................................................. 85

4.3.6 Predisposing factors to gastrointestinal nematode infestation ....................................... 85

4.3.7 Effects of gastrointestinal nematode in goats .................................................................. 88

4.3.8 Treatment of gastrointestinal nematode infestation in goats ......................................... 88

4.3.9 Indigenous plants used to treat gastrointestinal nematodes in goats ............................ 88

xiii

4.3.10 Indigenous practices used to treat gastrointestinal nematodes in goats...................... 95

4.4 Discussion ................................................................................................................................... 95

4.5 Conclusions ............................................................................................................................... 103

4.6 References ................................................................................................................................. 103

Chapter 5: Extent of use of indigenous knowledge to mitigate challenges of gastrointestinal

nematodes in goats .................................................................................................................. 110

Abstract ................................................................................................................................... 110

5.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 112

5.2 Materials and Methods .............................................................................................................. 114

5.2.1 Description of the study site ............................................................................................ 114

5.2.2 Data collection .................................................................................................................. 115

5.2.3 Statistical analyses............................................................................................................ 116

5.3 Results ....................................................................................................................................... 117

5.3.1 Use of indigenous knowledge .......................................................................................... 117

5.3.2 Livestock species kept by farmers .................................................................................. 117

5.3.3 Constraints of goat production ....................................................................................... 120

5.3.4 Common goat parasites identified by participants ....................................................... 120

5.3.5 Sources of indigenous knowledge and reasons for its use in controlling gastrointestinal

nematodes .................................................................................................................................. 120

5.3.6 Indigenous knowledge used by participants to control gastrointestinal nematodes in

goats ............................................................................................................................................ 126

5.3.7 Odds ratio estimates of the extent of using IK to control gastrointestinal nematodes

.................................................................................................................................................... 126

5.4 Discussion ................................................................................................................................. 130

5.5 Conclusions ............................................................................................................................... 138

5.6 References ................................................................................................................................. 138

Chapter 6: Factors affecting the utilisation of indigenous knowledge to control gastrointestinal

nematodes .............................................................................................................................. 146

Abstract ................................................................................................................................... 146

6.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 147

6.2 Materials and Methods .............................................................................................................. 148

6.2.1 Ethical clearance .............................................................................................................. 148

6.2.2 Description of the study site ............................................................................................ 148

6.2.3 Data collection .................................................................................................................. 150

6.2.4 Statistical analyses............................................................................................................ 150

6.3 Results ....................................................................................................................................... 151

6.3.1 Household demographic information ............................................................................. 151

xiv

6.3.2 Reasons for using indigenous knowledge ....................................................................... 151

6.3.3 Indigenous and conventional methods used to control nematodes .............................. 151

6.3.4 Odds ratio estimates of the factors influencing IK used to control nematodes in goats

.................................................................................................................................................... 155

6.4 Discussion ................................................................................................................................. 157

6.5 Conclusions ............................................................................................................................... 162

6.6 References ................................................................................................................................. 162

Chapter 7: Indigenous methods of predicting nematode burdens in goats using clinical signs ..... 166

Abstract ................................................................................................................................... 166

7.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 167

7.2 Materials and methods .............................................................................................................. 169

7.2.1 Description of the study site ............................................................................................ 169

7.2.2 Goat selection and study design ...................................................................................... 169

7.2.3 Data collection .................................................................................................................. 170

7.3 Results ....................................................................................................................................... 173

7.3.1 Seasonal distribution of gastrointestinal parasitic infestation in goats ....................... 173

7.3.2 Body condition score and faecal egg count .................................................................... 173

7.3.3 FAMACHA score and packed cell volume .................................................................... 177

7.3.4 Relationships between faecal egg counts, FAMACHA score, packed cell volume and

body condition score ................................................................................................................. 177

7.4 Discussion ................................................................................................................................. 179

7.5 Conclusions ............................................................................................................................... 186

7.6 References ................................................................................................................................. 187

Chapter 8: Efficacy of different concentrations of aqueous plant extracts against gastrointestinal

nematodes in goats .................................................................................................................. 191

Abstract ................................................................................................................................... 191

8.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 193

8.2 Materials and methods .............................................................................................................. 194

8.2.1 Plant collection and extraction ........................................................................................ 194

8.2.2 Plant extraction ................................................................................................................ 195

8.2.3 Phytochemical screening of plant extracts ..................................................................... 196

8.2.4 In vitro anthelmintic assessment of plant extracts of L3 nematode larvae of goats ... 197

8.2.5 Statistical analyses............................................................................................................ 199

8.3 Results ....................................................................................................................................... 199

8.3.1 Phytochemical screening of plant extracts ..................................................................... 199

8.3.2 In vitro anthelmintic screening of plant extracts .......................................................... 203

xv

8.4 Discussion ................................................................................................................................. 206

8.5 Conclusions ............................................................................................................................... 210

8.6 References ................................................................................................................................. 210

Chapter 9: General discussion, Conclusions and Recommendations ........................................... 215

9.1 General Discussions .................................................................................................................. 215

9.2 Conclusions ............................................................................................................................... 219

9.3 Recommendations ..................................................................................................................... 220

9.3.1 Practical recommendations ............................................................................................. 221

9.3.2 Further studies ................................................................................................................. 221

9.4 References ................................................................................................................................. 226

Appendix 1: Quality assessment of included articles ................................................................. 227

Appendix 2: Humanities and Social Sciences Research Ethics Committee Approval (Reference

number: HSS/0852/017) ........................................................................................................... 231

Appendix 3: Interview Questions .............................................................................................. 232

Appendix 4: Questionnaire ....................................................................................................... 235

Appendix 5: Proof of manuscript publication ............................................................................ 241

Appendix 6: Animal Research Ethics Committee Approval (Reference number: AREC/043/017) . 255

Appendix 7: Proof of manuscript publication ............................................................................ 256

xvi

List of Tables

Table 2.1 Characteristics of Nguni goats ................................................................................. 10

Table 2.2 Volumes of different stomach compartments relative to the whole stomach and all

intestines relative to the entire digestive tract .......................................................................... 12

Table 2.3 Volumes of the retico-rumen of goats and sheep receiving different diets ............. 13

Table 3.1 Resistance of gastrointestinal parasites against different anthelmintic drugs .......... 39

Table 3.2 Ecotoxicity of anthelmintic drugs to different organisms ....................................... 42

Table 3.3 Ethnoveterinary plants used to control gastrointestinal parasites ............................ 44

Table 3.4 Mortality (%) of adult nematodes treated with different plant extracts in vitro within

48 hours .................................................................................................................................... 50

Table 4.1 Symptoms and disease conditions associated with gastrointestinal nematode

infestation in goats ................................................................................................................... 86

Table 4.2 Indigenous plants used to control gastrointestinal nematodes in goats ................... 89

Table 5.1 Household characteristics of respondents that use indigenous knowledge to control

gastrointestinal parasites in goats........................................................................................... 118

Table 5.2 The proportion of livestock herd sizes of farmers that are using indigenous

knowledge (%) ....................................................................................................................... 119

Table 5.3 Ranking of challenges facing goat production (N = 294) ...................................... 121

Table 5.4 Common indigenous plants used to control gastrointestinal nematodes in goats .. 127

Table 5.5 Odds ratio estimates, lower (LCI) and upper confidence (UCI) interval of the factors

influencing the extent of use of indigenous knowledge to control gastrointestinal nematodes

................................................................................................................................................ 129

Table 6.1 Household demographic information of farmers who participated in the study ... 152

Table 6.2 Measures used to control gastrointestinal nematodes ............................................ 154

xvii

Table 6.3 Odds ratio estimates, lower (LCI) and upper confidence (UCI) interval of the factors

influencing the use of IK to control gastrointestinal nematodes in the wet and dry environment

................................................................................................................................................ 156

Table 7.1 Least square means for season, sex and age on BCS, FAMACHA, PCV and FEC of

Nguni goats ............................................................................................................................ 176

Table 7.2 Pearson’s correlation coefficients among BCS, FAMACHA, PCV and FEC of Nguni

goats ....................................................................................................................................... 178

Table 8.1 Ethnoveterinary plants used to control gastrointestinal nematodes in goats ......... 200

Table 8.2 Qualitative phytochemical screening of plant extracts .......................................... 201

Table 8.3 Anthelmintic efficacy of fresh plant extracts on larval mortality .......................... 204

Table 8.4 Anthelmintic efficacy of dry plant extracts on larval mortality ............................. 205

xviii

List of Figures

Figure 2.1 Theorised approach to investigating IK utilisation in goat health .......................... 18

Figure 2.2 Conceptual framework ........................................................................................... 24

Figure 3.1 Flow diagram of the screening process of the literature ......................................... 36

Figure 3.2 Contamination of the environment by anthelmintic drugs ..................................... 41

Figure 5.1 Types of goat parasites prevalent in the study site ............................................... 122

Figure 5.2 Common gastrointestinal parasites that are infecting goats in the study site ....... 123

Figure 5.3 Sources of indigenous knowledge used to control gastrointestinal parasites in the

study area ............................................................................................................................... 124

Figure 5.4 Reasons for using indigenous knowledge to control gastrointestinal parasites in

goats ....................................................................................................................................... 125

Figure 5.5 The most used anthelmintic plants by frequency of use ....................................... 128

Figure 6.1 Location of the study site ..................................................................................... 149

Figure 6.2 Reasons for using indigenous knowledge to control nematodes in goats ............ 153

Figure 7.1 Mean faecal egg counts of different classes of goats in each season ................... 174

Figure 7.2 Seasonal occurrence of different species of gastrointestinal nematodes in goats 175

Figure 7.3 Relationship of seasonal changes between faecal egg count and FAMACHA scores

................................................................................................................................................ 180

Figure 7.4 Relationship of seasonal changes between faecal egg counts and body condition

scores...................................................................................................................................... 181

Figure 7.5 Relationship between faecal egg count and FAMACHA scores in different age

groups of Nguni goats ............................................................................................................ 182

xix

List of Abbreviations

IK Indigenous knowledge

CK Conventional knowledge

GIN Gastrointestinal nematodes

EVM Ethnoveterinary medicine

GDP Gross domestic products

NGO’s Non-governmental organisations

GI Gastrointestinal

BCS Body condition score

FAMACHA FAfa MAlan CHArt

PCV Packed cell volume

FEC Faecal egg count

PRISMA Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses

CASP Critical appraisal skills programme

BMC BioMed Central

PMC PubMed Central

CIKS Centre for Indigenous Knowledge System

1

Chapter 1: General Introduction

1.1 Background

Agriculture contributes about 38 % of the gross domestic product (GDP) in the Southern Africa

economy (Dzama, 2016). Sixty-two percent of resource-limited households in the sub-Saharan

region depend on agriculture for their livelihood (FAO, 2008). Resource-limited farmers keep

three-quarters of the livestock population in communal production systems (Dzama, 2016).

Communal production systems are directly affected by climate change since livestock depends

on natural pastures and are subjected to changes in weather patterns as extensive systems are

practiced. It is, therefore, important to select species and genotypes that are robust and tolerant

to harsh environmental conditions (Rust and Rust, 2013). Goats are widely distributed and

owned by resource-limited farmers (Masika and Mafu, 2004). They are adaptable and tolerant

to heat and water stress, able to utilize limited and often fibrous fodder. Most goats possess a

natural resistance to many tropical diseases (Mdletshe et al., 2018; Mseleku et al., 2020).

Goats constitute a major protein source for humans and a household income source and

wellbeing in tropical and subtropical regions (Bakunzi et al., 2013). They are multifunctional

animals providing milk, mohair, skins, manure and cashmere (Haenlein and Ramirez, 2007).

Goats are also used to control bush encroachment in pastures and play a role in traditional

ceremonies (Bakare and Chimonyo, 2011). Additionally, goats are prolific and require low

inputs to reach maturity for a moderate production level (Mahanjana and Cronje, 2000).

Although goats possess these worthy attributes, communal goat production systems are faced

with a plethora of challenges such as low levels of management and poor veterinary services

(Slayi et al., 2014) and those arising from climate changes. Such effects include the influence

of climate change on the quality and quantity of feed and water, and the high prevalence of

diseases and parasites (Van den Bossche and Coetzer, 2008). Goat production in rural

2

communities is highly vulnerable to climate extremes and variability as they depend on natural

pastures for nutrition (Mkwanazi et al., 2020).

The high prevalence of gastrointestinal nematodes (GIN) is arguably the major constraint to

goat productivity. The nematodes cause production losses in grazing goats (Githiori et al.,

2006; Marume et al., 2011). They also compete with goats for nutrient consumption, which

could result in the impaired ability of the goat to digest and absorb nutrients. Consequently,

low milk production, low growth rates, poor hair coat growth, dehydration, anaemia, general

weakness, diarrhoea and, eventually, death occurs (Valentine et al., 2007; Singh et al., 2013;

Villarroel, 2013). Gastrointestinal nematodes infestation, therefore, limits goat productivity

(Molefe et al., 2012).

The most common control method used against gastrointestinal parasites is the use of

conventional anthelmintic drugs. The use of these anthelmintics, however, depends on the

availability, effectiveness, cost, ease of application and sustainability. It is often difficult for

resource-limited farmers to afford and have access to anthelmintics, as they have low incomes

(Masika and Afoloyan, 2003). Furthermore, anthelmintic drugs do not provide a long-term

solution as GIN have developed resistance and may also remain in animal products meant for

human consumption (Moyo, 2008). Anthelmintic drugs are also toxic and destructive to the

environment when not used safely and appropriately. Parasite resistance has been reported in

goats (Terrill et al., 2001). It leads to a resurgence of interest in using indigenous knowledge

(IK) to control gastrointestinal parasites in goats. Indigenous knowledge is more user-friendly,

safer, and more pleasant with biological systems (Erasto, 2003). The chances for the

development of resistance are also scarce when using IK because there is usually a mixture of

various active ingredients with different action mechanisms (Mkwanazi et al., 2020).

3

Indigenous knowledge is generally transmitted from older generations to the younger by word

of mouth (Phondani et al., 2010). The demise of the older generation presents a predicament

whereby IK may disappear and be lost without being documented and promoted to strengthen

the animal health systems. In addition, the knowledge may be altered and lost during transfer,

as it is not well documented. As a result, it is important to document and affirm IK used so that

it is to be preserved, conserved, and sustainability is achieved. There is, however, limited

information on the utilization of IK to control GIN in goats, hence the need for the study.

Indigenous knowledge that farmers use to identify goats infested with GIN needs to be

quantified to establish whether the relationships concur with conventional laboratory tests used

in assessing goat health. Placing value on such knowledge could strengthen cultural diversity

and enhance the use of IK to acquire sustainable animal health systems.

1.2 Justification

Understanding the use of IK to control GIN makes goat producers predict goat performance

and veterinary costs. Conventional drugs are unaffordable to resource-limited farmers,

triggering farmers to seek less-costly alternatives, such as IK. The use of IK to control GIN can

benefit farmers as it is readily available and acceptable in their communities. The information

generated from this research could assist in designing appropriate strategies and approaches to

control parasites’ burdens in goats. A reduction in GIN is likely to increase goat health and

productivity. The reduction in the use of anthelmintic drugs lowers chevon contamination;

therefore, consumers can benefit by consuming safe meat. It is also crucial to conduct on-farm

research to understand the challenges farmers face and the indigenous methods they use to

control GIN. This includes IK that farmers use to relate symptoms to GIN infestation and the

efficacy of ethnoveterinary plants that farmers use, which needs affirmation so that various

groups of farmers and professionals could easily embrace it. Such could assist in devising

4

strategies that can address the needs of farmers in collaboration with farmers, hoping that

farmers will easily adopt them.

Understanding the use of IK in sustaining goat health is also expected to benefit farmers,

extension officers, non-governmental organisations (NGO’s) and researchers and consumers.

Policymakers and farmers may appreciate the IK used to control GIN and their toxicity levels

to ensure that goats' health status is not compromised. Extension officers and NGO’s could

extract information from this study and distribute it to farmers. The knowledge could also

benefit commercial goat agriculture by providing more available options for controlling GIN.

Investigating the use of IK also assists farmers with the standardization of remedies to not

underutilize or overuse the plant material by affirming the IK methods and practices.

Researchers could also use information as a build-up on further research in IK on goat health.

Improving goat health using IK is beneficial to the environment, human health and livelihoods

since goats have the potential to counteract the global crisis of climate change. It is also

important to build a database of information on IK and preserve it for future generations since

there is a continuing loss of this knowledge due to colonisation and adaptation to conventional

knowledge.

1.3 Objectives

The broad objective of the study was to investigate indigenous knowledge methods and

practices used to control gastrointestinal parasites on goats in communal production systems.

The specific objectives were to:

1. Explore indigenous knowledge methods and practices used to control gastrointestinal

parasites in resource-limited areas;

5

2. Determine the extent of use of indigenous knowledge to control gastrointestinal

parasites;

3. Identify factors affecting the utilisation of indigenous knowledge to control

gastrointestinal nematodes in goats;

4. Assess the use of indigenous knowledge in establishing relationships between faecal

egg counts and body condition, FAMACHA score, packed cell volume of goats grazing

in communal rangelands; and

5. Determine the anthelmintic activity of selected medicinal plants to control

gastrointestinal nematodes and response of larvae mortality to different extract

concentrations.

1.4 Hypotheses

The following null hypotheses were tested:

1. Farmers in resource-limited production systems do not use indigenous knowledge to

control gastrointestinal parasites;

2. There is minimal use of indigenous knowledge to control gastrointestinal parasites in

goats;

3. Factors affecting the use of indigenous knowledge to control gastrointestinal nematodes

in goats in resource-limited areas are not known;

4. There are no relationships between faecal egg counts and body condition scores,

FAMACHA scores, packed cell volume and use of indigenous knowledge in goats; and

5. Efficacy and anthelmintic activities of medicinal plants are not influenced by the

concentration of the extract.

6

1.5 References

Bakunzi, F.R., Motsei, L.E., Nyirenda, M., Ndou, R.V., Mwanza, M. (2013). The effects of

strategic anthelmintic treatments on goat performance under extensive management in

the semi-arid area of South Africa. Life Science Journal 10(2): 1195-1197.

Bakare, A.G., Chimonyo, M (2011). Seasonal variation in time spent foraging by indigenous

goat genotypes in a semi-arid rangeland in South Africa. Livestock Science 135: 251-

256.

Dzama, K. (2016). Is the livestock sector in Southern Africa prepared for climate change?

South African Institute of International Affairs Policy Briefing 153: 1-4.

Erasto, P. (2003). Phytochemical analyses and antimicrobial studies on Bolusanthus speciosus

and Cassia abbreviata. MPhil thesis, Chemistry Department, University of Botswana.

FAO (2008). Mapping poverty, water and agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa. Interventions for

improving livelihoods are in sub-Saharan Africa: 17-40.

Githiori, J.B., Athanasiadou, S., Thamsborg, S.M. (2006). Use of plants in novel approaches

for control of gastrointestinal helminths in livestock with emphasis on small ruminants.

Veterinary Parasitology 139: 337-347.

Haenlein, G.F.W., Ramirez, R.G. (2007). Potential mineral deficiency on arid rangelands for

small ruminants with special reference to Mexico. Small Ruminant Research 68: 35-41.

Mahanjana A.M., Cronje, P.B (2000). Factors affecting goat production in communal farming

system in the Eastern Cape region of South Africa. South African Journal of Animal

Science 30: 2.

Marume, U., Chimonyo, M., Dzama, K. (2011). A preliminary study on the responses to

experimental Haemonchus contortus infection in indigenous goat genotypes. Small

Ruminant Research 95: 70-74.

7

Masika, P.J. Afolayan, A.J. (2003). An ethno botanical study of plants used for the treatment

of livestock diseases in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. Pharmaceutical

Biology 41(1): 16-21.

Masika, P.J., Mafu, J.V. (2004). Aspects of goat farming in the communal farming systems of

the central Eastern Cape, South Africa. Small Ruminant Research 52(1-2): 161-164.

Mdletshe, Z.M., Ndlela, S.Z., Nsahlai, I.V., Chimonyo, M. (2018). Farmer perceptions on

factors influencing water scarcity for goats in resource-limited communal farming

environments. Tropical Animal Health and Production 50(7): 1617-1623.

Mseleku, C., Ndlela, S.Z, Mkwanazi, M.V., Chimonyo, M. (2020). Health status of non-

descript goats traveling long distances to water source. Tropical Animal Health and

Production 52: 1507–1511.

Mkwanazi, M. V., Ndlela, S. Z., Chimonyo, M. (2020). Utilisation of indigenous knowledge

to control ticks in goats: a case of KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa. Tropical

Animal Health and Production 52(3): 1375-1383.

Molefe, N.I., Tsotetsi, A.M., Ashafa, A.O.T., Thekisoe, O.M.M. (2012). In vitro anthelmintic

effects of Artemisia afra and Mentha longifolia against parasitic gastro-intestinal

parasites of livestock. Bangladesh Journal of Pharmacology 7(3): 157-163.

Moyo, B. (2008). Determination and validation of ethnoveterinary practices used as

alternatives in controlling cattle ticks by resource-limited farmers in the Eastern Cape

Province. MSc Thesis, South Africa.

Phondani, P.C., Maikhuri, R.K., Kala, C.P. (2010). Ethnoveterinary uses of medicinal plants

among traditional herbal healers in Alaknanda catchment of Uttarakhand, India. African

Journal of Traditional, Complementary and Alternative Medicines 7(3): 195-206.

Rust, J.M., Rust, T. (2013). Climate change and livestock production: A review with emphasis

on Africa. South African Journal of Animal Science 43(3): 255-267.

8

Singh, V., Varshney, P., Dash, S.K., Lal, H.P. (2013). Prevalence of gastrointestinal parasites

in sheep and goats in and around Mathura, India. Veterinary World 6(5): 260-262.

Slayi, M., Maphosa, V., Fayemi, O.P., Mapfumo, L. (2014). Farmers’ perceptions of goat kid

mortality under communal farming in Eastern Cape, South Africa. Tropical Animal

Health and Production 46(7): 1209-1215.

Terrill, T.H., Kaplan, R.M., Larsen, M., Samples, O.M., Miller, J.E., Gelaye, S. (2001).

Anthelmintic resistance on goat farms in Georgia: efficacy of anthelmintics against

gastrointestinal nematodes in two selected goat herds. Veterinary Parasitology 97:

261–268.

Valentine, B.A., Cebra, C.K., Taylor, G.H. (2007). Fatal gastrointestinal parasitism in goats:

31 cases (2001-2006). Journal of American Veterinary Medical Association 231(7):

1098-1103.

Van den Bossche, P., Coetzer, J.A.W. (2008). Climate change and animal health in Africa.

Scientific and Technical Review of the Office International des Epizooties 27(2): 443-

452.

Villarroel, A. (2013). Internal parasites in sheep and goats. EM95. Oregon State University:

Extension Service.

http://ir.library.oregonstate.edu/xmlui/bitstream/handle/1957/36666/em9055.pdf

9

Chapter 2: Literature Review

2.1 Introduction

In developing countries, most resource-limited households depend on goats for food security

and income generation (Mdletshe et al., 2018). Goats are a reliable source of meat, milk, hides

and manure. The world goat population is increasing from 348 million in 1961 to over one

billion in 2019 (FAOSTAT, 2020) due to their resilience to high temperatures, droughts, feed

and water shortages (Silanikove, 2000). They have low productivity and economic losses due

to nematode infestations (Emiru et al., 2013). Resource-limited farmers rely on indigenous

knowledge (IK) to control gastrointestinal nematodes (GIN) in livestock. Indigenous

knowledge is not fully exploited and recognised by extension services and other stakeholders

such as policymakers since it is less formalized and usually passed within generations verbally

(Vilakazi et al., 2019). It, therefore, needs to be developed and upscaled. Exploring IK used to

control GIN should promote sustainable goat productivity and health management. Such

knowledge could be blended with conventional knowledge (CK) to strengthen goat health care.

As a result, veterinary services, traditionalists, policymakers and farmers stand to benefit. The

review was conducted to give a perspective on IK used in goats and research approaches that

should be considered in understanding the role of IK in GIN control.

2.2 Importance of goats

Goats are important nutritionally, culturally and economically. Goats are ideal for people with

little capital investment since they require less space and input requirements (Ng’ambi et al.,

2013). Goats are of considerable economic importance than other livestock, particularly for

resource-limited farmers because of their early sexual maturity and higher prolificacy (Kumar

et al., 2010). Such characteristics of Nguni goats are shown in Table 2.1. Goats utilize available

feed efficiently compared to other ruminants, enabling them to survive in unfavourable

10

Table 2.1: Characteristics of Nguni goats

Description Source

Body structure

Coat colour

Coat texture

Small to medium frame

Multi-coloured

Short and glossy

Snyman (2014)

Snyman (2014)

Snyman (2014)

Litter size 2.0 ± 0.2 Lehloenya et al. (2005)

Average gestation period

(days)

Mean birth weight (kg)

149.1 ± 0.8

2.7 ± 0.5

Lehloenya et al. (2005)

Lehloenya et al. (2005)

Age at first kidding (months) 17 to 18 Webb and Mamabolo (2004)

Breeding season Polyestrous Mamabolo and Webb (2005)

Source: Ndlela (2016)

11

environments withstanding feed shortages, high temperatures and droughts. Such superior

digestion capacity is due to physiological features such as the large absorption area in the rumen

epithelium (Table 2.2) and the rapid change of the foregut volume in response to diet changes

(Table 2.3).

Goats are used to control bush encroachment and for security in case of emergencies such as

against crop failure and other household issues. They are sold to acquire cash to pay for

household needs (Ng’ambi et al., 2013). Farmers also keep goats for social status and to display

wealth (Kumar et al., 2010). Approximately 97 % of goat meat is produced by developing

countries. The meat is usually consumed within households and not traded like other meat

types, such as beef and mutton (Ng’ambi et al., 2013). Goat milk is, however, unpopular in

resource-limited communities, although it is nutritious with better digestibility and contains

10% less lactose than cow milk (Dekker, 2004). For this reason, it is used to feed infants, the

elderly and convalescing people that are lactose-intolerant (Kumar et al., 2012).

Skin from goats is used to make rugs, bags, clothing, book covers, gloves, shoes, and other

leather products. Resource-limited farmers do not afford to buy inorganic fertilisers due to low

incomes; therefore, they use animal manure in crop production. Despite providing such

benefits, goat productivity is reduced by parasitic diseases, feed scarcity, and non-adoption of

improved technologies and management practices (Kumar et al., 2010). The productivity and

profitability of goats need to be improved to harness their potential. The high prevalence of

GIN largely constrains the roles, importance and contribution of these goats to livelihoods.

These GIN have adverse effects on goats.

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Table 2.2: Volumes of different stomach compartments relative to the whole stomach and all intestines relative to the entire digestive tract

Species Reticulum (%) Rumen (%) Omasum (%) Abomasum (%) All intestines References

Sheep 11 62 5 22 51-56 Church (1976)

Cows - 64 25 11 37.7 Church (1976)

Goats:

Saanen - 84 4 12 52.6 Tamada (1973)

Angora 9 76 4 11 - Battacharya

(1980)

Kil 8 77 4 11 - Battacharya

(1980)

Source: Tisserand et al. (1991)

13

Table 2.3: Volumes of the retico-rumen of goats and sheep receiving different diets

Species Pasture hay Sodium hydroxide

treated straw

Sodium hydroxide

treated straw + soya oil

cake

Sodium hydroxide

treated straw + urea

Goats 10.4 ± 1.6 10.2 ± 0.6 10.5 ± 0.6 10.0 ± 2.1

Sheep 8.4 ± 0.2 10.2 ± 0.3 10.9 ± 0.3 8.6 ± 0.9

Source: Tisserand et al. (1991)

14

2.3 Adverse effects of gastrointestinal nematodes in goats

Parasitic diseases are a major constraint of poor goat health and productivity (Hassan et al.,

2019). Gastrointestinal nematodes are highly pathogenic and widely distributed, particularly in

the tropics. Its prevalence in developing countries is owed to warm temperatures associated

with inadequate control measures and poor management practices (Maphosa and Masika,

2010). This is further exacerbated in resource-limited communities, where only sick goats are

treated, other than taking preventive measures (Idamokoro et al., 2016).

Gastrointestinal nematode infestations are implicated in economic losses, which include

morbidity and mortality costs, particularly in young animals (Hassan et al., 2019). Nematodes

suck the blood of host animals, causing anaemia, anorexia, retarded growth, and sudden death

(Zenebe et al., 2017). Emiru et al. (2013) added that such economic losses are due to losses

through the reduction in milk, wool and meat production, reduced weight gains and feed intake,

lower fertility, involuntary culling, high veterinary costs, and mortality of severely infested

animals. Djoueche et al. (2011) argued that nematode infestations are responsible for high goat

mortality. This is in association with goats being more susceptible to GIN infestation, which is

mainly reflected through the exhibition of clinical symptoms; however, in most cases, it may

not develop under heavy loads in a single host (Molefe et al., 2012).

Nematodes have developed resistance towards conventional drugs, thereby reducing the

effectiveness of anthelmintic drugs. These drugs have also become expensive and

inconsistently available in resource-limited areas. Therefore, this necessitates the exploration

of methods that are less chemically based, easily accessible and affordable. One way could be

indigenous knowledge, which farmers use from time immemorial and still depend on and prefer

15

as an essential component of veterinary health care (Williams et al., 2013). There are; however,

numerous challenges constraining the widespread use of indigenous knowledge.

2.4 Adoption and utilisation of indigenous knowledge

Approximately 80 % of people worldwide depend on IK for veterinary health care (WHO,

2008). Such use of IK is based on the availability of the medicinal plants and farmers' high

degree of efficacy in ethnoveterinary medicine (EVM) and, at times, the only treatment method

that subsists (Mahomoodally, 2013). Indigenous knowledge encompasses using EVM and

traditional practices such as river salt and traditional brews to control GIN (Gabalebatse et al.,

2013).

Indigenous knowledge has contributed substantially to veterinary health care advancement

from ancient times, although its value has not been fully realised and utilized (Mkwanazi et al.,

2020). Changes to culture, agriculture, environment, technology, and socioeconomic factors

such as employment, income and education threaten the survival and sustainability of IK

(Gakuubi and Wanzala, 2013; Sanhokwe et al., 2016). Some IK experts keep knowledge as a

family secret and are unwilling to share it with people outside their households until they die

(Tamiru et al., 2013). What complicates the knowledge transfer process is that most IK experts

are older, and the chances of dying with undocumented knowledge are high. Such knowledge

transfer method is unsustainable and poses a danger that it may be distorted or disappear

(Sanhokwe et al., 2016).

Urbanization and acculturation contribute to the loss of IK, leading people to adopt lifestyles

that do not embrace IK (Ritter et al., 2012). The adopted education systems also do not embrace

IK. The shifting bias in religious beliefs has created a perception that some IK socio-practices

16

are witchcraft and satanic (Gakuubi and Wanzala, 2013). The increase in the human population

has placed pressure on plant diversity through natural and anthropogenic activities, such as

deforestation, conversion of grasslands into cultivated lands, overgrazing, soil erosion,

desertification, industrialization, urbanization, and others. Overexploitation of ethnoveterinary

plants is a threat to biodiversity and has driven several indigenous plant species to extinction.

Unsustainable harvesting of medicinal plants is one of the threats to plant degradation and loss

since whole plants, roots, stems, bulbs, and tubers are collected in some cases (Kuma et al.,

2015). For example, Drimia altissimia is on the red list of declining plants in South Africa due

to its bulb use. Repercussions of overharvesting trees make them vulnerable to extinction since

they grow and reproduce slowly and have specific habitat requirements limiting their

distribution (Van Wyk and Prinsloo, 2018).

The population of other plant species may be threatened by the change in temperature and

precipitation regimes and an increase in pests and pathogens. This change in environmental

stress may cause changes in the chemical contents of some plants, which may reduce the quality

and safety of medicines. The change of seasons threatens not only the growth of plants but also

influences the secondary metabolites. This could lead to a decrease in plant potency, which

might go unnoticed or be misinterpreted as a lack of efficacy and may result in the abandonment

of valuable plants (Applequist et al., 2019).

Some plants may be contaminated by pathogenic micro-organisms, particularly those sold on

the streets and open markets, which could tarnish the quality and safety of ethnomedicine.

Although traditional uses of ethnoveterinary plants have been tested and frequently used, there

is a lack of evidence regarding secondary metabolite analysis, safety and efficacy of medicines,

and proper dosages (Kuma et al., 2015). Therefore, there is a need to document and develop

17

strategies for preserving IK, including scientific assessment of anthelmintic effects of plants

and identification of compounds responsible for anthelmintic activities. To achieve a better

understanding of how IK should be exploited, different research approaches and strategies

should be employed.

2.5 Appropriate research approaches for investigating IK utilisation

There are several approaches available in research, including desk and population methods. In

finding the existing literature and identifying research gaps, the literature and systematic

reviews become useful tools.

2.5.1 Systematic reviews

Even though a literature review can present an unbiased, critical analysis of existing literature

on a particular topic, but it uses informal or subjective methods to collect data and interpret

results (Kysh, 2013). That makes it unable to provide a detailed and in-depth analysis

addressing precise research questions since it does not use a robust methodology to answer

research questions. Thus, a systematic review is instrumental in answering focused and clearly

defined questions using a pre-specified eligibility criterion while assessing the validity of

findings and developing the methodology to set a theoretical framework.

A theoretical approach to this ethnoveterinary research is indicated in Figure 2.1. The starting

point for this research should be to collect information on IK that farmers use to control GIN

in goats. That could be achieved through consultation with IK experts, made up of local leaders,

traditional healers, traditionalists and farmers. A participatory approach could be identified as

the first step since IK custodians are elderly (Mkwanazi et al., 2020), therefore interviewing

them from the comfort of their homes could be a viable and appropriate option.

18

IK – indigenous knowledge, BCS – body condition score, FAMACHA – FAFA Malan Chart

score, PCV – packed cell volume, FEC – faecal egg count, GIN – gastrointestinal nematodes

Figure 2.1: Theorised approach to investigating IK utilisation in goat health

IK experts

Assaying of secondary metabolites

Extraction of plants

Preparation/processing of plant

material

Authentication of plant specimens at

Herbarium

Participatory appraisal studies

(Face-to-face interviews + Group focus + Survey using structured questionnaires)

Plant identification & collection of

specimens

Researchers

In vitro and in vivo studies on GIN

Seasonal prevalence of

gastrointestinal parasites, BCS,

FAMACHA, PCV & FEC

19

2.5.2 Face-to-face interviews

A one-on-one conversation using open-ended questions is likely to prompt even the secretive

people to share IK information due to being afforded privacy and freedom to talk. An

interviewer can also probe for the explanation of responses. The goal for an interview should

be clearly stated and consent from the custodians should be sought. Most IK custodians are

illiterate (Mkwanazi et al., 2020), and some are expected to have deteriorated eyesight mainly

due to their age. A probable solution could be to record their answers. The recorded interviews

would need to be transcribed and then analysed. Therefore, human error possibilities are high

with manual data entry. Transcription of tape recordings consumes a lot of time. Another

challenge of this method could be not to take notes manually, relying on the recorder. Taking

notes could help to check if all questions were answered. It could also assist in malfunctioning

of the recorder and an interviewer where for example, an interviewer forgets to push a record

button (Opdenakker, 2006).

The information generated from face-to-face interviews should provide background and

identify gaps of knowledge. These gaps can be filled by conducting focus group discussions,

where for example, IK experts from similar backgrounds or personal experiences are gathered

together to discuss a specific topic.

2.5.3 Focus group discussions

Focus groups are useful when the existing information is inadequate and pertinent issues need

elaboration. They are also helpful to ensure data validity, mainly coming from many experts in

a single forum. An added advantage of using focus groups is that it gives a full range of

perspectives from the group members. However, focus group discussions may be superficial,

generating only surface information from active or dominating individuals in a group (Powell

20

and Single, 1996). It is difficult to capture and understand each farmer's perspective in a group,

which could also provide more qualitative data. Some group members may be shy or do not

want to disclose certain information in the presence of their peers since they view IK as a

household property or family inheritance. For example, traditional healers are among those that

are secretive with IK to the public (Madibela et al., 2017). Therefore, some information may

be withheld, making it difficult to understand some aspects of IK. In contrast to focus group

discussions, cross-sectional surveys could be used to allow farmers to express their views

explicitly.

2.5.4 Cross-sectional surveys

A cross-sectional survey collects data from an individual and involves looking at data of

particular variables of interest from diverse populations at a single period in time. Surveys can

be used to describe existing characteristics in a community and make inferences about possible

relationships. They are subjective and cannot justify factors accounting for differences among

participants, for example, differences in IK distribution among farmers’ age groups. A survey

provides quantitative data that is large enough to accurately represent the population sample

(Yee and Niemeier, 1996).

Cross-sectional surveys could be an appropriate tool to execute close-ended questions to goat

farmers to understand the extent of IK use in GIN control. Given that a cross-sectional survey

could not account for differences among informants, it was important to establish why such

differences exist in goat health parameters over time to enhance the understanding of IK on

GIN control. Therefore, this could be achieved by conducting a longitudinal study whereby

changes are monitored in the field over time.

21

2.5.5 Longitudinal studies

The increased statistical power and the capabilities to estimate a greater range of conditional

probabilities is a major benefit of using a longitudinal survey (Yee and Niemeier, 1996).

Implementing a longitudinal study in communal areas poses various challenges, particularly

because data is collected from farmers’ animals in their facilities. There is often a reluctance

from some farmers to use their facility and animals for more extended periods of study, such

as a year (Minson and Rees, 1976). Among other factors, farmers get concerned about their

goats’ health if it is not hampered during the data collection process.

Minson and Rees (1976) argued that a challenge with this sampling method is that farms are

divided into treatment groups. In contrast, when designing experiments, this problem is

overcome by randomizing treatments between farms, which is impossible when using survey

data. Farmers are likely to use IK methods to identify symptoms of GIN infestations in different

ages of goats, where they can even tell on the intensity of the infestation. It is, therefore, crucial

to detect the extent of using such symptoms to predict nematode infestation in goats.

2.5.6 Relationships between faecal egg counts and symptoms of nematode infestation

Traditionally, several parameters could be used to assess the health status of goats, including

body condition assessment, signs of anaemia, and body weight changes (Mseleku et al., 2020).

Information on the change of parameters with time, for example, seasonal effects of nematode

infestation and their differences among goat classes, could be included. This, therefore, calls

for a design of a trial to assess the relationship between nematode infestation and these health

parameters that farmers use, as they are crucial in the maintenance of goat health and outlines

effective control management systems against GIN in goats (Mpofu et al., 2020). Considering

22

that farmers use IK to control GIN in goats (Sanhokwe et al., 2016), it is important to

investigate the anthelmintic activity of plants used.

2.5.7 In vitro and in vivo anthelmintic activities

A variety of methods are used to evaluate anthelmintic properties in vitro and in vivo. In vitro

studies allow for screening plants at a large scale because the process has a rapid turnover and

is cost-effective (Githiori et al., 2006). The downfall of in vitro methods is that concentrations

of phytochemicals used do not always correlate with in vivo bioavailability in studies

performed with free-living nematodes. Where nematodes are used, the conditions used are not

comparable to those in vivo, thus could produce slightly different results. This could be due to

physiological differences, including the bioavailability of active compounds within the host.

In vivo studies are costly at a large scale and unaffordable to most researchers since a large

number of animals are needed, and time expenditure would be required (Githiori et al., 2006).

Hence, validation of anthelmintic effects should be accompanied by in vivo studies. In vitro

tests are valuable for the initial screening of anthelmintic activity and establishing biologically

realistic extract concentrations for further animal testing. Using IK, farmers have tested plant

extracts in vivo, as they use them to control GIN in goats (Sanhokwe et al., 2016). Therefore,

establishing relationships between larvae mortality and extract concentrations could help

understand the reasons behind extract preparations and dosages that farmers use. The

approaches to improving goat productivity in resource-limited communities can be

summarized in a theoretical framework.

23

2.6 Conceptual framework

The conceptual framework (Figure 2.2) outlines steps that are needed to enhance the

productivity of goats. Research and development efforts are consistently necessary to improve

the productivity of goats to enhance livelihoods. Resource allocation and national programmes

designed to improve goat productivity are generally biased towards nutrition (Devendra, 1999),

and other aspects are often ignored or less prioritised. Hence, a more enlightened approach is

necessary.

The profitability of a goat enterprise depends on good health and productivity. It is crucial to

identify and control diseases and parasites that limit goats' productivity to maintain good health.

The most vogue method to achieve such has been conventional knowledge, which involves

applying commercial anthelmintic drugs. Conventional knowledge, however, has many

setbacks, such as inconsistent supply, high cost of medication, contamination of meat and other

animal products purposed for human consumption, and the development of parasite resistance

towards drugs (Zenebe et al., 2017).

One practical approach, therefore, to developing cheaper and safe products is to explore the

use of IK. It has, however, evolved through the trial-and-error method proven to be appropriate

to deal with complex challenges (Vilakazi et al., 2019). Indigenous knowledge is holistic in

approach, user-friendly and affordable. The challenge with IK is that it remains undocumented

and rests within the memory of the elders. As such, there is a need to explore and document

IK. Indigenous knowledge used to treat GIN in goats is also dismissed by Western orthodox as

it lacks scientific validation, hence doing this study allows us to affirm and advance IK.

25

2.7 Summary

Goat farmers still use indigenous knowledge for animal health care. Hence, several challenges

are still associated with the use of EVM, including matters on quality, safety, efficacy and

dosing. Such challenges necessitate that research be conducted to affirm and enhance the use

of IK to control GIN in goats. This could be achieved by involving IK experts who provide

information on IK. Their involvement establishes EVM credibility and collaboration while

promoting easy adoption of the scientific research outcomes by stakeholders. The purpose of

the study was to promote the use of indigenous knowledge in goat health management.

2.8 References

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30

Chapter 3: The role of indigenous knowledge in controlling gastrointestinal

nematodes of goats in Africa: A systematic review

Under review in Small Ruminant Research

Abstract

Communities have relied on indigenous knowledge (IK), despite the advent of conventional

knowledge (CK). The review focuses on the utilization of IK through which ethnoveterinary

medicine (EVM) is used to control gastrointestinal nematodes (GIN) in goats and the

anthelmintic activity of ethnoveterinary plants. Helminthosis remains a major challenge in goat

productivity, particularly in developing countries. The use of anthelmintics could lead to

resistance, environmental toxicity and threatens the safety of chevon. To counteract these

challenges, the contribution of IK needs to be exploited. A total of 44 plants from 30 families

were identified to control gastrointestinal (GI) parasites in goats. These included plants such as

Aloe ferox Mill., Elephantorrizha elephantina (Burch.) Skeels, Kigelia africana (Lam.) Benth

and Nicotiana tabacum. Plant species such as Detarium macrocarpum are combined with other

plants. Some plants such as Vachellia seyal and Anogeissus leiocarpus are mixed with non-

plant materials and feed, for example, rock salt, oil cake, and millet bran for synergy effects

and to influence the absorption of plant compounds. These plants contain phytochemicals,

including saponins, flavonoids, polyphenolic compounds and alkaloids. The most used plant

parts in EVM are leaves, stems, bark and fruits, with leaves taking superiority. Custodians of

IK widely use water in plant extractions. Antiparasitic remedies are administered orally. It is,

therefore, important to do further work on collecting information on ethnoveterinary plants

used to control GIN in goats and determine their anthelmintic efficacy.

Keywords: Ethnoveterinary medicine, ethnoveterinary plants, gastrointestinal parasites.

31

3.1 Introduction

Goats are a source of livelihood in resource-limited areas that contribute to ensuring food

security, particularly in Africa (Mdletshe et al., 2018). They are vital in socio-cultural

functions, serving as a food source (Mkwanazi et al., 2020). Goats thrive under marginal

conditions than cattle due to their small frame size and low metabolic requirement, able to use

low-quality forages and browse efficiently, enabling them to survive in arid and semi-arid areas

(Emiru et al., 2013). Gastrointestinal parasitic diseases are, however, an obstacle to goat health

and productivity worldwide (Kuma et al., 2015). Infestations with gastrointestinal nematodes

(GIN) are implicated in economic losses, including morbidity and mortality. Among the

gastrointestinal (GI) parasites, nematodes such as Haemonchus and other strongyles are

considered the most pathogenic and of economic importance (Zvinorova et al., 2016).

Gastrointestinal nematodes have a direct life cycle, being transmitted from contaminated

pastures to goats. Eggs excreted from goat faeces hatch into stage 1 through to stage 3 infective

larvae (L3). Goats, therefore, ingest the L3 larvae, molts, and develop through L4 to dioecious

adults and voracious bloodsuckers in the abomasum (Tyasi and Tyasi, 2015). They destroy the

stomach lining and can cause gastritis, anaemia and associated complications, leading to

reduced productivity and death in severely infested goats (Zvinorova et al., 2016). The growth

and spread of GIN depend on suitable warm and moist environmental conditions. With an

increase in temperatures due to climate change, it is envisaged that GI parasites will increase

(Dzama, 2016). Such temperature increases are likely to reduce feed and water resources

(Mseleku et al., 2020), which may aggravate an increase in GI parasite loads.

Control of GIN in goats relies largely on the use of anthelmintic drugs. Their inadequate usage

has led to evolving of various problems, such as the resistance of nematodes to several classes

32

of drugs. Compounds from these drugs are found to contaminate the environment and chevon.

Such drugs are uneconomical and inadequately or inaccessible in resource-limited areas,

coupled with poor veterinary services (Kuma et al., 2015). To combat goat ailments in

resource-limited communities, indigenous knowledge (IK) has played a significant role

(Mkwanazi et al., 2020). The emergence of various problems with chemotherapeutic control practices

has stimulated the revival of IK to control GIN.

The veterinary health of about 90 % of the livestock population in Africa is based on IK (Oyda,

2017). It has, however, not been recognized and adopted in the conventional system. Its use

could be attributed to its local availability, contextual appropriateness and cultural base, user-

friendly, environmentally benign, and efficacious value against certain diseases.

Notwithstanding that, the oral transmission of IK from one generation to another makes it

informal (Vilakazi et al., 2019). Indigenous knowledge systems involve a broad and diverse

spectrum of appropriate community-based approaches, addressing different societal

challenges. Therefore, incorporating such existing knowledge on IK in GIN control in goats

contributes to policy implementation to promote goat health and productivity.

Livestock has self-medicating behaviours where they selectively eat plants with nutraceutical

properties on their own for medical or health benefits, including controlling diseases.

Indigenous knowledge is linked to indigenous germplasm conservation, forming a base for

future drug development, although there are concerns about its quality and safety (Madibela et

al., 2017). This calls for the identification and characterisation of the active ingredients that are

present in these plants. These efforts create opportunities for the integration of IK into CK,

thereby promoting collaboration between veterinarians, herbalists, farmers and researchers for

33

the benefit of all. Therefore, the objective of this chapter is to review the contribution of IK in

veterinary health care, particularly used to combat helminthiasis in goats.

3.2 Materials and methods

3.2.1 Scope of the study, search strategy and research questions

The systematic review explores the use of indigenous knowledge to combat the challenges of

gastrointestinal nematodes in goats. In the current study, the word IK is defined according to

Vilakazi et al. (2019), which refers to knowledge that evolves within a specific community,

that has been tried and tested over centuries, however, found to be worthy to assist communities

in coping with different challenges arising over time. The review was carried out following the

PRISMA guidelines (http://prisma.thetacollaborative.ca/) for systematic reviews. The

following scientific databases were used Google scholar, Science direct, Cab direct, Sabinet,

Semantic scholar, Web of Science, and Google Books to search for the information. Publishing

sites such as BioMed Central (BMC), PubMed Central (PMC), Springer Link, and IntechOpen

were also used. Additional sources of information are used during the search, such as

ResearchGate, google, and reference lists from key articles.

Keywords used during article search included: gastrointestinal parasites, nematodes,

indigenous knowledge, ethnoveterinary plants, medicinal plants, botanical plants, traditional

medicine, ethnomedicinal uses, ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry, resistance to

anthelmintics, environmental toxicity of anthelmintics, the efficacy of medicinal plants,

integration of indigenous and conventional knowledge and geographical coverage (i.e., Africa),

except for environmental toxicity of anthelmintics and economic effects of GIN, where

literature is limited in Africa. The research questions addressed in the review are common GI

parasites affecting goats, the effects of GIN on goats, and the challenges of using

anthelmintics? What is IK used against GIN on goats? What are the preparation methods, plant

34

parts, routes of administration and dosages used? What is the efficacy, safety and quality of IK

used? What are the threats facing the use of indigenous knowledge? Can IK be integrated with

conventional knowledge (CK) in the control of nematodes?

3.2.2 Eligibility assessment, inclusion and exclusion criteria

When the literature search was completed, all duplicated publications were removed. Prior to

the qualitative synthesis, information on article titles, authors, journals, type of publications in

English, and focus of IK in GIN was collected. Full article texts were evaluated and rejected

based on the following exclusion criteria: studies presenting data out of the scope of research

questions, most of the old literature except in cases where recent papers could not be sourced,

work that was conducted outside the study area except for environmental challenges of

anthelmintics due to limited availability of literature. Data collected from a study conducted in

two countries were excluded. Data retrieved from PhD and MSc theses were excluded. All

relevant articles in full texts were reviewed and summarized using a standardized data

extraction table in a word document. Reference lists of included articles were screened for

additional records.

3.2.3 Quality assessment of articles

The critical appraisal skills programme (CASP) was applied for quality assessment (Appendix

1). For the article assessment, they were aggregated into a quality score based on the four

criteria: aim, method, result, and literature application. Yes, No, and cannot tell (CT) are

assessment outcomes. With six questions, the score was categorized into groups: weak means

(1) < 50 % having “yes” answers, (2) moderate means 50 -75 % having “yes” answers, and (3)

high means > 75 % having “yes” answers. The quality ranking was classified into three groups:

35

High meant >75 % of all six sub-criteria were met, moderate meant between 50 and 75 % were

met, and weak meant < 50 % of criteria were met.

3.3 Results

3.3.1 Article screening process

After a thorough search of the articles, a total of 110 articles were retrieved (Figure 3.1).

Duplicate articles were removed, and an initial review of titles and abstracts for relevance was

conducted. A total of 61 articles were found to be eligible for full-text screening based on the

inclusion criteria and were found to be relevant and retained (Appendix 1).

3.3.2 Common gastrointestinal parasites affecting goats

Parasitic diseases remain a challenge in goat productivity, particularly in developing countries.

A range of GI parasite species and their prevalence has been documented in various studies of

goats, including Egypt (Hassan et al., 2019), Tanzania (Mhoma et al., 2011), South Africa

(Mpofu et al., 2020), Zimbabwe (Zvinorova et al., 2016), Cameroon (Ntonifor et al., 2013),

and Ethiopia (Emiru et al., 2013). The most common GI parasite species identified are

Haemonchus contortus, Trichostrongyles, Strongyloides, Oesophagostomum, Nematodirus

spp., and Trichuris. Mpofu et al. (2020) identified Haemonchus spp., Oesophagostomum spp.,

Trichuris, and Strongyloides papillosus infestation in goats in South Africa.

3.3.3 Effects of gastrointestinal nematodes on goats

The impact of GIN on goats includes physical and economic effects.

3.3.3.1 Physical effects of nematodes on goats

Clinical signs such as anaemia, bottle jaw, scouring, weight loss, stunted growth and milk

production, rough coat, and sudden death are observed in goats with heavy worm infestation

37

(Emiru et al., 2013). Amongst factors contributing to the susceptibility of goats to worm

infestation are age, sex, season, environment and nutritional status (Zvinorova et al., 2016).

Younger goats, male goats, goats grazing from communal or heavy infested pastures, warm

and humid climate (Zvinorova et al., 2016), and goats with poor nutrition (Ntonifor et al., 2013)

are susceptible to GIN infestation.

3.3.3.2 Economic effects of gastrointestinal nematodes on goats

Gastrointestinal nematodes are a health and production challenge in goats. Prevalence studies

revealed that Haemonchus contortus and other strongyles such as Trichostrongylus,

Strongyloides, and Oesophagostomum are amongst the most common and economically

important causes of infectious diseases in goats (Zvinorova et al., 2016). Gastrointestinal

nematodes cause economic losses due to reduction in feed intake, lowered fertility, weight loss,

lower milk, wool and meat production, morbidity, higher veterinary costs, mortality in heavily

infested goats (Emiru et al., 2013), and lowers the vitality of breeding animals (Tyasi and Tyasi,

2015). Mixed infections are also prevalent in goats (Ntonifor et al., 2013).

Gastrointestinal nematode infestation also affects milk production and composition, hair

production, and meat production. The GIN infestation causes a decrease in milk yield in dairy

goats that are not dewormed compared to treated goats (Suarez et al., 2017). It also has an

adverse effect on the milk composition of goats (Alberti et al., 2012). Gastrointestinal

nematode infestation indirectly damages fibre production in goats. For example, Haemonchus

contortus infection reduces hair production (Scarfe, 2016).

38

In India, Ilangopathy et al. (2019) reported that every unit increase in egg per gram of sheep

faeces contaminated with GIN resulted in a weight gain loss of about 8 g. The mean loss of

body weight due to GIN was 3.225 kg, with 1.613 kg net capita loss of meat production per

year recorded in the infected group of sheep. In the same study, an egg per gram of faeces (epg)

of 501-1000 range resulted in USD 16.08 loss per animal and $22.55 for epg of >1000.

Mphahlele et al. (2019) also reported an annual cost of 1 billion USD in Australia, 7.11 billion

USD in Brazil, and 10 billion USD globally due to parasitic diseases.

3.3.4 Challenges of anthelmintics

Under dosage, overdosage, and frequent use of anthelmintic drugs have resulted in widespread

challenges such as resistance of nematode populations towards anthelmintics, environmental

toxicity and drug residues on chevon.

3.3.4.1 Resistance

Gastrointestinal nematodes are resistant to three major classes of anthelmintics:

benzimidazoles, imidazothiazoles and macrocyclic lactones in most countries of the world

(Mphahlele et al., 2019). Although drug resistance is of global concern, the South African

sheep industry is reported to be the most affected worldwide (Van Wyk et al., 1997; 1999). For

example, the primary drugs used in South Africa are ivermectin, albendazole and levamisole,

and there is evidence that anthelmintic resistance was detected against these drugs (Tsotetsi et

al., 2013; Table 3.1). Van Wyk et al. (1997) also reported that approximately 90 % of sheep

farms in South Africa housed parasite strains resistant to at least one anthelmintics class, while

40 % of farms had parasite strains resistant to three or more classes of anthelmintics.

Haemonchus species, for example, was identified as the most dominating anthelmintic resistant

nematode in goats and sheep (Van Wyk et al., 1999; Tsotetsi et al., 2013).

39

Table 3.1: Resistance of gastrointestinal parasites against different anthelmintic drugs

Study site Anthelmintic used pre-trial Test period Anthelmintics used

during the trial

Interpretation Nematode genera identified

post-treatment

Hammanskraal (sheep) Ivermectin, Albendazole, Niclosamide February 2010 Ivermectin Resistant Haemonchus

Levamisole Resistant Haemonchus; Telad/Trich

Nigel (sheep) Albendazole, Levamisole, Ivermectin April 2010 Ivermectin Resistant Haemonchus

Albendazole Resistant Haemonchus; Telad/Trich

Sharpeville (goats) Albendazole, Levamisole, Ivermectin May 2010 Ivermectin Resistant Haemonchus; Telad/Trich

Albendazole Resistant Haemonchus

Levamisole Resistant Haemonchus

Kalbaasfontein (sheep) Ivermectin February 2011 Ivermectin Resistant Haemonchus

Albendazole Resistant Haemonchus

Levamisole Resistant Haemonchus

Libanon (goats) None February 2011 Ivermectin Resistant Haemonchus

Albendazole Resistant Haemonchus

Levamisole Resistant Haemonchus

Source: Tsotetsi et al. (2013)

40

3.3.4.2 Environmental toxicity

Anthelmintics and endectocides can reach the environment through treatment and manufacturing

processes, disposal of used, unused containers and medicines (Figure 3.2). These drugs are excreted

from the body of treated goats with faeces and urine to the environment via various routes (Jacobs and

Scholtz, 2015). Residues are found in surface waters, influent and effluent wastewater from the

pharmaceutical industry, and leachate from the animal manure to drainage water (Figure 2). Compounds

of different anthelmintic drugs are potent against a wide range of GI parasite species, arthropod

parasites, soil organisms and aquatic organisms (Table 3.2).

3.3.4.3 Meat safety

Anthelmintics are associated with residual effects in goat meat and goat products (Tyasi and Tyasi,

2015, Eichberg et al., 2016). The use of large amounts of drugs could result in the deposition of

antimicrobial residue in muscles, organs and other goat products. Consumption of such residues could

result in health risks to consumers, such as developing antibiotic resistance, hypersensitivity reaction,

carcinogenic effect, disruptions of normal intestinal flora, mutagenic effect and teratogenic effect

(Falowo and Akimoladun, 2019). The average annual consumption of drug residues per kilogram of

animal produced is > 100 mg/kg globally (Vishnuraj et al., 2016).

3.3.5 Plants used to control gastrointestinal nematodes

Farmers in developing countries rely more on EVM than CK because of socio-economic challenges and

inadequate veterinary services (Kuma et al., 2015). The value of EVM lies in the presence of chemicals

in plants, which may possess complex structures not available on synthetic compound libraries (McGaw

and Eloff, 2008). These chemicals include secondary metabolites, such as tannins, saponins, alkaloids,

flavonoids, steroids, phenols, and other phytochemicals with anthelmintic activity (Mazhangara et al.,

2020).

41

Figure 3.2: Contamination of the environment by anthelmintic drugs

Pharmaceutical

industry

Soil

Excretion via urine

and faeces

Disposal of used

and or unused

medicine

Oral Injection

Route of administration

Livestock therapy

Topical

Wash-off from

animal skin

Surface

water

Soil

Water run-off

Manure

application

Effluent

Discharge or leak to

surface water, water

run-off

Waste disposal

ANTHELMINTICS

Groundwater

Air pollution

42

Table 3.2: Ecotoxicity of anthelmintic drugs to different organisms

Anthelmintic Test organism Ecotoxicity effect Reference

Flubendazole and Fenbendazole Crustacean (Daphnia magna) Strong negative impact Wagil et al. (2015)

Ivermectin Dung beetle (Aphodius fosso) Impaired dung removal Manning et al. (2017)

Abamectin and doramectin Earthworm (Eisenia andei) Weight loss Kolar et al. (2008)

Abamectin and doramectin Enchytraeid (Enchytraeus crypticus) Reproduction Kolar et al. (2008)

Emaectin Benzoate Copepod (Acartia clausi) Reduced egg production Willis and Ling (2003)

Abamectin and doramectin Springtail (Folsomia candida) Reproduction Kolar et al. (2008)

Ivermectin Green algae (Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata) Growth rate and yield Garric et al. (2007)

Ivermectin Free living nematode (Caenorhabditis elegans) Reproduction Liebig et al. (2010)

Eprinomectin Dung beetle (Onthophagus Taurus) Larval mortality Wardhaugh et al. (2001)

Moxidectin Horn fly (Haematobia irritans) Reduced egg-adult survival Iwasa et al. (2008)

Spinosad Fly (Ctenocephalides felis) 100 % Mortality of adult flies Blagburn et al. (2010)

Spinosad Rat Reproduction and developmental WHO (2012)

Spinosad Blue gill sunfish (Lepomis macrochirus) Acute toxicity WHO (2012)

Cydectin and moxidectin Temperate grassland (Centaurea jacea, Galium

verum, Plantago lanceolate)

Germination percentage decrease,

synchrony of germination and

increase in mean germination time

Eichberg et al. (2016)

43

Plants are collected within households, bushes, swamps and in the wild. A total of 44 plants

from 30 families were identified to control GIN (Table 3.3). These included plants like Aloe

ferox, Elephantorrhiza elephantina, Kigelia Africana and Nicotiana tabacum. Medicinal plants

are used on their own (Djoueche et al., 2011) or combined with other plants or non-plant

material (Maphosa and Masika, 2010). Non-plant materials such as milk, salt, soup, porridge,

honey, animal fats, and others are mixed with different plant species (Gakuubi and Wanzala,

2012). For example, Detarium macrocarpum is combined with Khaya senegalensis bark.

Plants such as Vachellia seyal, Anogeissus leiocarpus and Piliostigma reticulatum are mixed

with non-plant material and feed, such as salt, cereal bran, oil cake, and millet bran. Plant parts

used, plant preparation methods, medicine administration, and dosage levels are also presented

in Table 3.3.

3.3.5.1 Preparation methods and plant parts used

Methods of extract preparation and plant parts used varied within individuals (Mthi et al.,

2018). Almost all plant parts, including leaves, roots, stems, bark, fruits, flowers, and young

shoots are used to prepare different medicines (Kuma et al., 2015). The frequently utilized

plant parts are leaves constituting 63 %, 26 % for barks (Mthi et al., 2018), 24 % for whole

plants (Setlalekgomo and Setlalekgomo, 2013), 13 % for roots and 10 % for fruits (Maroyi,

2012).

Gakuubi and Wanzala (2012) reported that IK custodians primarily used water to extract plants;

however, extracts from organic solvents yielded more consistent antimicrobial activity. Molefe

et al. (2012) and Mphahlele et al. (2016) reported the high anthelmintic effect of water extracts

compared to acetone extracts. Among the methods used are decoction, concoction, maceration,

infusion, and mixing plant material with feed or non-plant material (Djoueche et al., 2011;

Maroyi, 2012; Gakuubi and Wanzala, 2012).

44

Table 3.3: Ethnoveterinary plants used to control gastrointestinal parasites

Scientific name Family Plant part Preparation methods, administration and dosage levels References

Acokanthera oppositifolia Apocynaceae Leaves Decoction: Grind leaves, boil, cool and drench the animals. Dose with 1 L

bottle for adults and 300 ml for kids

Sanhokwe et al. (2016)

Agapanthus praecox Agapanthaceae Leaves Infusion: Grind the leaves, soak in water overnight and dose 500 ml Sanhokwe et al. (2016)

Ajuga remota Benth. Lamiaceae Whole plant Decoction Gakuubi and Wanzala,

2012

Albuca setosa Hyacinthaceae Tuber Decoction: Crush the tuber, boil, and dose with a 500 ml bottle Sanhokwe et al. (2016)

Allium sativum L. Amaryllidaceae Bulb - Tamiru et al. (2013)

Aloe ferox Mill. Asphodelaceae Leaves Infusion: Leaves are crushed, and the juice is mixed with drinking water Sanhokwe et al. (2016)

Decoction Qokweni et al. (2020)

Aloe latifolia Haw. Asphodelaceae Leaves Decoction Gakuubi and Wanzala,

2012

Anogeissus leiocarpus Combretaceae Bark Grind the bark and administer to the animal in rock salt, millet bran, or oil

cakes

Djoueche et al., 2011

Artemisia afra Asteraceae Leaves Decoction Qokweni et al. (2020).

Azadirachta indica A. Meliaceae Leaves Decoction Gakuubi and Wanzala,

2012

Bulbine latifolia Asphodelaceae Leaves Decoction: Grind leaves, boil and drench with 1 L Sanhokwe et al. (2016)

45

Cassia abbreviate Fabaceae Bark Infusion/decoction: Grind the bark, soak in water overnight or boil, cool,

sieve, and drench the animals

Luseba and Van der

Merwe, 2006

Centella coriacea Apiaceae Bark Decoction: Chop the bark, boil, sieve, and dose approximately 500 ml Sanhokwe et al. (2016)

Crinum abyssinicum Hochst.

Ex A. Rich.

Amaryllidaceae Bulb - Tamiru et al. (2013)

Crotalaria laburnifolia L. Fabaceae Roots Decoction Gakuubi and Wanzala,

2012

Cussonia spicata Araliaceae Bark Infusion: Grind the bark, soak overnight and dose 300 ml Sanhokwe et al. (2016)

Detarium macrocarpum Fabaceae Roots, bark Mix ground bark with Khaya senegalensis and administer to the animal Djoueche et al., 2011

Elephantorrhiza elephantina

(Burch.) Skeels

Fabaceae Roots Decoction: Grind the roots, boil in water for 30 minutes until the water turns

red, dose 300 ml

Sanhokwe et al. (2016)

Ficus craterostoma Moraceae Leaves,

roots

Infusion Qokweni et al. (2020)

Gardenia ternifolia Rubiaceae Roots Maceration: Wash and grind the roots, then administer ¼ L of the solution

until the goat is cured

Djoueche et al., 2011

Gunnera perpensa Gunneraceae Tuber Decoction: Crush the tuber, boil and dose 300 ml Sanhokwe et al. (2016)

Khaya senegalensis Meliaceae Bark Burn the bark, mix with rock salts and administer to the goat in its feed until

cured

Djoueche et al., 2011

46

Kigelia africana (Lam.)

Benth.

Bignoniaceae Bark Decoction Gakuubi and Wanzala,

2012

Lepidium sativum L. Brassicaceae Seed - Tamiru et al. (2013)

Maytenus senegalensis Celastraceae Leaves Decoction: Boil the leaves and administer in any quantity until the goat is

cured

Djoueche et al., 2011

Melia azedarach Meliaceae Leaves Decoction Qokweni et al. (2020)

Musa paradisiaca Musaceae Roots Grind roots and mix with water Maroyi, 2012

Nicotiana tabacum Solanaceae Leaves Grind leaves and mix with water Maroyi, 2012;

Setlalekgomo and

Setlalekgomo, 2013

Nigella sativa L. Ranunculaceae Seed - Tamiru et al. (2013)

Olea europaea L. Oleaceae Bark Decoction Gakuubi and Wanzala,

2012

Parkia biglobosa Fabaceae Grains Grind the grains, mix with rock salt and administer to the goat Djoueche et al., 2011

Piliostigma reticulatum Caesalpiniaceae Bark Grind the bark and administer to the goat in rock salt or cereal bran Djoueche et al., 2011

Psidium guajava Myrtaceae Leaves Infusion Qokweni et al. (2020)

47

Pterocarpus angolensis Fabaceae Bark Infusion/decoction: Chop the bark, soak in cold water, dose once only with

bottle or horn (approximately 750 ml) after the water has changed to

reddish or boil for 30–60 min.

Luseba and Van der

Merwe, 2006

Sarcostemma viminale Asclepiadaceae Stem Grind the stem and mix with water Maroyi, 2012

Securidaca

longepedunculata

Polygalaceae Roots Decoction: Boil the roots and administer in any quantity to the animal until

it is cured

Djoueche et al., 2011

Solanum incanum L. Solanaceae Roots Decoction Gakuubi and Wanzala,

2012

Trema orientalis (L.) Blume Cannabaceae Leaves, bark Infusion Qokweni et al. (2020)

Vachellia karroo Fabaceae Bark, leaves Decoction Qokweni et al. (2020)

Vachellia seyal Fabaceae Fruit & bark Mix the fruits and ground barks with rock salt and administer to the animal

until it is cured

Djoueche et al., 2011

Vernonia amygdalina Asteraceae Leaves Crush leaves to soot and mix with water Maroyi, 2012

Warburgia ugandesis

Sprague

Canellaceae Bark Infusion Gakuubi and Wanzala,

2012

Zingiber officinale Roscoe Zingibraceae Rhizome - Tamiru et al. (2013)

Ziziphus mucronata Rhamnaceae Leaves Infusion Qokweni et al. (2020)

48

A decoction is when the plant material is boiled in water to soften the material and release

active ingredients, whereas a concoction is just a mixture of plant ingredients (Kuma et al.,

2015). Maphosa and Masika (2010) reported decoctions as the most used plant preparation

method (70 %). Maceration involves soaking a plant in the liquid inside an airtight container

at room temperature, while in the infusion process, the plant material is suspended in a liquid

over time to allow active ingredients to infuse into the water. Some ground plant parts are

mixed with feed, such as cereal bran or oil cake (Djoueche et al., 2011). Some plants, such as

Aloe ferox Mill. are extracted using various methods (Table 3.3).

Plant extracts are prepared from fresh or dried plant forms. For example, plant parts of Hagenia

abyssinica are processed either fresh or dry (Kuma et al., 2015). However, remedies prepared

from fresh plant material are rarely stored for future use. Gakuubi and Wanzala (2012) reported

that some plant parts such as the bark of W. ugandensis and Commiphora eminii Engl. are

usually preserved in house roofs, but not for a very long period.

3.3.5.2 Route of administration, dosages and efficacy of plant extracts

Ethnoveterinary medicines are administered in different ways, with common routes including

oral, topical, nasal and smoke bath treatment (Kuma et al., 2015). Drenching remains the most

common route for liquid anthelmintic remedies. Dosages are determined using teacups, water

glasses, cans and drink bottles, plant parts, such as the number of bulbs or number of seeds and

using their own hands as a handful. However, there are still discrepancies and difficulties in

determining actual dosages of various ethnoveterinary remedies and medication frequency

(Gakuubi and Wanzala, 2012; Kuma et al., 2015). Custodians of IK administer dosages based

on the degree and duration of sickness, considering the age, size and body condition of a goat

(Tamiru et al., 2013; Kuma et al., 2015). Gradé et al. (2008) reported that the dosage of 0.8 g

49

of Albizia anthelmintica plant extract was more effective and closely approximated the 0.9 g

that IK holders used.

The efficacy, safety and quality of ethnoveterinary plant material depend on intrinsic and

external factors, such as contamination by chemical, microbial, or other plants' species. Some

plants are rendered unsafe due to misidentification or adulteration. Highly concentrated

remedies may cause toxicity, and those too diluted may be considered weak and ineffective

(Madibela et al., 2017). The anthelmintic efficacy of plants has been tested (Table 3.4). For

example, 95 % mortality at a 10 mg/ml concentration in vitro of S. molle extract was reported

by Zenebe et al. (2017). Muthee et al. (2018) reported a faecal egg reduction percentage of 83

% when Myrsine Africana extract was used in vivo. Ahmed et al. (2017) reported a reduction

in egg per gram of faeces from 1667 to 492 when sheep were fed 250 g of Aloe ferox daily for

ten weeks.

3.3.6 Threats to the use of indigenous knowledge in helminth control

The documentation and storage of IK are based on one’s ability to remember the acquired

knowledge (Gakuubi and Wanzala, 2012). Indigenous knowledge is mainly limited to

herbalists, traditional healers and elderly people (Bhat, 2014). Traditional healers are secretive

with IK to the public (Madibela et al., 2017). Elderly people and males are more knowledgeable

than females and young people (Luseba & Van der Merwe, 2006). Custodians of IK die

untimely with knowledge (Gakuubi and Wanzala, 2012). People have adopted the modern

lifestyle and education system that does not embrace IK. The emergence of new religious

values also contributes to the erosion of IK. Some ethnopractices are perceived as unhygienic,

satanic, and witchcraft (Gakuubi and Wanzala, 2012).

50

Table 3.4: Mortality (%) of adult nematodes treated with different plant extracts in vitro within 48 hours

Plant extract Percentage larval

mortality

Concentration Type of

extract

Reference

Schinus molle 95 10 mg/ml Methanolic Zenebe et al. (2017)

Cissus quadrangularis 100 10 mg/ml Methanolic Zenebe et al. (2017)

Aloe ferox 87 20 % v/v Ethanolic Ahmed et al. (2017)

Elephantorrhiza elephantina

Crinum macowanni

97

98

15 mg/ml

40 % w/v

Ethanolic

Ethanolic

Mazhangara et al. (2020)

Fomum and Nsahlai (2017)

Nicotiana tabacum 95 40 % w/v Ethanolic Fomum and Nsahlai (2017)

Cassia abbreviata 94 7.5 mg/ml Cold water Mphahlele et al. (2016)

Peltophorum africanum 90 7.5 mg/ml Boiled water Mphahlele et al. (2016)

Artemisia afra 99 2.5 mg/ml Cold water Molefe et al. (2012)

Mentha longifolia 84 2.5 mg/ml Cold water Molefe et al. (2012)

51

Climate change influences the population of ethnoveterinary plants due to changing temperatures

and precipitation patterns, droughts, and an increase in pests and pathogens. Overgrazing, soil

erosion, and desertification have contributed to reducing plant species (Kumar et al., 2015). Some

plant species migrate upslope and others are extinct (Gakuubi and Wanzala, 2012). Seasonal

availability of plants and herbs threatens the use of IK (Madibela et al., 2017).

The increase in the human population has led to deforestation. The conversion of forests and

grasslands into cultivated lands and industries poses a threat to biodiversity. The lack of systematic

conservation and overexploitation of plant species has led to habitat loss and degradation. Poor

market conditions prevent cultivators from producing ethnoveterinary plants for the market

(Kumar et al., 2015). Ethnoveterinary plants may be contaminated by pathogenic microorganisms

(Madibela et al., 2017), particularly those sold by street vendors. The drawback of IK is the lack

of scientific evidence of its efficacy (Oyda, 2017).

3.3.7 Opportunities of integrating indigenous knowledge and conventional knowledge

Seventy percent of resource-limited farmers use both IK and CK to control GIN in goats, with 17

% using CK only, 10 % using IK only, and the remaining 3 % not using any medication

(Setlalekgomo and Setlalekgomo, 2013). Commercial anthelmintics are becoming expensive and

limitedly available in resource-limited areas (Tyasi and Tyasi, 2015). These challenges, therefore,

calls for the use of different combined control methods.

Due to cultural acceptability, local availability, easy preparation and administration, affordability,

effectiveness, sustainability and a source of commercial drugs (Tyasi and Tyasi, 2015; Oyda, 2017;

52

Falowo and Akimoladun, 2019), IK can easily be adopted and combined with CK. Further to that,

goats metabolize ethnoveterinary plants, which are environmentally friendly (Oyda, 2017). To

combat drug resistance and environmental toxicity and minimize residues in meat and meat

products, EVM can be employed. The World Health Organization reported a 10-20 % lower

prevalence of drug resistance where drug usage was limited than when it was not.

3.4 Discussion

Parasitic diseases are a major cause of poor goat productivity in many developing countries (Kuma

et al., 2015). The low productivity exacerbates poverty and food insecurity amongst resource-

limited farmers who greatly rely on livestock for their livelihood. Enhancement of livestock

productivity will have a major impact in favouring sustainable development and improving the

conditions of resource-limited farmers. Ethnoveterinary medicine can play a significant role in

animal production and livelihood development since it has been an integral part of the animal

healthcare system since ancient times (Oyda, 2017). Hence, the inadequacy in providing veterinary

health care in resource-limited areas has been a challenge (Kuma et al., 2015).

The observation that GIN are of major concern is due to their high fecundity and pathogenicity,

which results in heavy contaminations of pastures, increasing the likelihood of infections in goats.

This concurs with Ntonifor et al. (2013), who identified mixed infections in communal areas as

the major cause of parasitic gastroenteritis in goats. Such worm burdens lead to the development

of clinical signs in goats, causing morbidity, which could lead to mortality.

53

The finding that high worm infestations lead to the development of clinical signs is due to the

voracious blood feeder nature of parasites that infect the abomasum and aggravate nutrient

imbalance (Zvinorova et al., 2016). This finding agrees with Kuma et al. (2015), who reported that

the heavy burden of GI parasites leads to gastritis, anaemia, reduced body weight gain, lowered

fertility, reduced meat and milk production. Such morbidity reduces productivity and may increase

mortality in severely infested goats (Molefe et al., 2020). The prevalence of GI parasites during

the rainy season is attributed to suitable conditions for growth, survival and proliferation (Ntonifor

et al., 2013). Knowledge of GI parasites’ diversity, geographic distribution, and seasonal

prevalence are important for their effective control and health management in goats.

The finding that communal rangelands have higher rates of infections with a possibility of re-

infection is due to poor animal and rangeland management systems exercised by resource-poor

farmers (Zvinorova et al., 2016). This also exposes younger goats to contaminated pastures, where

their susceptibility to infestation is ascribed to immunological immaturity and immunological

unresponsiveness (Emiru et al., 2013; Zvinorova et al., 2016). Other contributing factors could be

the failure to separate younger goats from adults at the pre-weaning stage, the lack of deworming

at the weaning stage, or the improper use of anthelmintics. On the contrary, Ntonifor et al. (2013)

found adult goats to be more susceptible than young ones, while Emiru et al. (2013) argued that

there was no difference in parasite infestation among different age groups.

The observed high GI parasite infestation in male goats agrees with Zvinorova et al. (2016), who

attributed it to genetic predisposition and hormonal control. The results from this study disagree

with Emiru et al. (2013), where females were more susceptible than males. The higher

54

susceptibility of females is attributed to lowered resistance due to peri-parturition events and

shortage or unbalanced diet against higher needs (Zvinorova et al., 2016). Ntonifor et al. (2013)

asserted that feed shortages or an imbalanced diet impacts the immunity of goats and predisposes

them to infections due to a shortage of protein intake. Therefore, this necessitates developing new

or intensifying strategies necessary to curb challenges associated with parasite prevalence.

The observed loss of body weight in untreated goats is ascribed to the shortage of nutrients

consumed by worms, disabling goats to meet their nutrient requirements. Such reduction in the

body weight of goats results in meat production loss, which is a loss of income to farmers

(Ilangopathy et al., 2019). Tyasi and Tyasi (2015) contended that the treatment associated with the

reduction in goat production and the lowered vitality in breeding animals attributable to nematode

burdens in goats also result in an additional production cost. With the prevalence of mixed

infections in all classes of goats (Ntonifor et al., 2013), treatment costs increase eminently.

Dejectedly, the unaffordable high cost of anthelmintic drugs has forced some farmers to leave the

livestock business (Ahmed et al., 2018). Implementing an efficient deworming practice and

sustainable control of GI parasites in goats will help farmers with better income generation.

The finding that GIN have developed resistance towards anthelmintics is due to improper use such

as underdosing, increased rate of dosing, prophylactic mass treatment, and repeated use of the

same group of drugs (Mphahlele et al., 2019). The severity of anthelmintic resistance has led to

decreased drug efficacy (Tsotetsi et al., 2013). The probable reason why farmers use lower dosages

of anthelmintics than the recommended therapeutic ones is that they are trying to reduce veterinary

costs. Underdosing might also be caused by underestimating the actual goat weight used to

55

administer the correct anthelmintic dosage. Underestimation of weight could be due to the visual

appraisal of animals to estimate their weights, other than the actual weights. Consequently,

subtherapeutic doses might allow for the survival of heterozygous resistant worms (Mphahlele et

al., 2019). Therefore, it is of paramount importance that farmers determine the accurate weight of

an individual goat to ensure a correct dose.

The observed regular deworming and repeated use of the same group of drugs contributing to

anthelmintic resistance concurs with Mphahlele et al. (2019). This is attributed to frequent

exposure of worms to the same antiparasitic compounds, which decrease responses to treatment

where GIN tolerates a normally effective dose of drugs. Such parasites develop resistance, and

since it is inherited and selected for, genes for resistance are passed onto offsprings (Mphahlele et

al., 2019). Farmers should be taught not to perform deworming mass treatments but only treat

goats with high worm counts to ensure that the progeny of worms that survived the therapy do not

consist of worms that carry the gene that confers resistance only. This is more significant in South

Africa, where the resistance of Haemonchus contortus towards anthelmintic groups such as

ivermectin, benzimidazoles, levamisole, salicylamide was documented over two decades ago by

Van Wyk et al. (1997). The probable explanation for this could be that fewer groups of

anthelmintic drugs were available in South Africa and were used frequently.

The finding that chemicals with biological activity are excreted with faeces or urine of treated

animals is because few anthelmintics and endectocides are completely metabolized to inactive

moieties (McKellar, 1997). This result corroborates findings from Jacobs and Scholtz (2015). For

example, McKellar (1997) reported that the persistence of ivermectin in faeces of treated cattle

56

was not degraded for 45 days, which indicated the minimal effect of photodegradation. Drug

residues in dung may adversely affect harmless or beneficial organisms that feed or breed on dung,

which could delay dung dispersion and degradation from the pasture (Jacobs and Scholtz, 2015).

This agrees with Beynon (2012), who reported an impact of ivermectin on cattle dung fauna.

McKellar (1997) and Beynon (2012) reported that drugs such as ivermectin pose sub-lethal effects

on growth, molting, metamorphosis, and reproduction of insects and kill adult insects.

Consequentially, when there is no biological cycling, toxic dung may also cause a reduction in

pasture phosphorus (Beynon, 2012), which reduces pasture growth, production and quality. This

result concurs with Eichberg et al. (2016) that anthelmintics such as cydectin and moxidectin

impacted plant regeneration by decreasing the percentage of germination, synchrony of

germination and increasing the mean time of germination.

Anthelmintics end up affecting aquatic organisms because antiparasitic residues leach from

manure to drainage water and from pharmaceutical industries to influent and effluent wastewater,

thereby promoting effects ranging from cellular impairment to lethality. For example, the toxicity

of flubendazole and fenbendazole was reported on crustacean Daphnia magna, green algae

Scenedesmus vacuolatus and duckweed Lemna minor (Wagil et al., 2015). In soil, the toxicity of

earthworm Eisenia Andrei, springtails Folsomia candida, and enchytraeids Enchytraeus crypticus

by abamectin and doramectin was reported. Reproduction of springtails and enchytraeids was

reduced, while weight loss was observed on earthworms (Kolar et al., 2008).

With the increased use of a broad spectrum of antiparasitic drugs, the situation will worsen and

increase the potential to affect non-target organisms. Creating awareness about the negative impact

57

of anthelmintic misappropriation on the environment would reduce drug abuse to a large extent

within the farming community. This includes knowledge on the safe disposal of used or unused

anthelmintic containers and medicines. The less availability of anthelmintic toxicity research

information in Africa, particularly South Africa, may require strengthening the Regulation of

Veterinary Pharmaceuticals and close monitoring to ensure compliance by pharmaceutical

companies.

The observation that anthelmintics leave residues on goat meat and goat products is due to drug

overuse leading to deposition of residues in muscles and organs. This finding agrees with Eichberg

et al. (2016), who reported that moxidectin accumulated in the fat tissue of sheep with a residue

depletion of 13.5–15.0 d after administration. Such residues pose a risk to human health since the

resistance gene is transferable, and it compromises the effective treatment of bacteria or diseases

in humans. As research has indicated that meat and meat product consumption will double by 2050

due to an increase in the human population worldwide, producers have to meet such demand;

therefore, the use of antimicrobials to treat animal diseases is rising to increase productivity

(Falowo and Akimoladun, 2019). This calls for farmers to be cautious about reading labels on

anthelmintic drugs, divulging information on the direction of use and its withdrawal periods, to

fully comply and enquire where they lack understanding. Interestingly, Madibela et al. (2017)

reported that farmers have a perception that some animal food products from animals treated with

conventional medicine cause some diseases in humans. The missing link to farmers’ knowledge is

that these diseases are caused by improper use of anthelmintic drugs. Farmer’s perception might

be one of the drivers to the preference of EVM over conventional medicine, considering EVM as

less toxic and safe (Madibela et al., 2017).

58

The widespread use of EVM could be attributed to culturally acceptable, cost-effective, sustainable

and environmentally kind. The reliance of farmers on EVM includes claims that it poses no side

effects on animals, leaves no residues on meat, and is more efficacious against certain diseases

than CK (Maroyi, 2012; Kuma et al., 2015, Madibela et al., 2017). Poor veterinary services and

socio-economic challenges also compel farmers to rely on EVM. According to McGaw and Eloff

(2008), it is observed that what sets EVM apart from CK is the presence of phytochemicals that

could possess complex structures not available on synthetic compounds. The observed

combinations of active ingredients found in plant extracts exhibit synergistic interactions. It is

more evident where farmers use an ethnoveterinary plant to cure more than one ailment due to its

general broad-spectrum medicinal uses. The secondary metabolites in plant extracts interfere with

membrane integrity, microtubules, neuronal signal transduction, DNA alkylation and intercalation,

and depletion of energy reserves in GI parasites (Mphahlele et al., 2019). These wealthy resources

should, therefore, be explored to improve animal health.

For example, the observed popularity of Aloe ferox is due to its laxative effect, as it contains

glycoside aloin, causing the expulsion of worms from the gastrointestinal tract. Besides GIN

control, Aloe ferox enhances weight gain in sheep (Ahmed et al., 2018). Maphosa and Masika

(2010) argued that Aloe ferox is also used to control gall sickness and heartwater in goats. Its wide

use is because it contains medicinal agents, including anti-inflammatory, anti-viral, analgesic,

antiseptic and germicidal effects. These include various phenolic compounds, such as chromones,

anthraquinones, glycosides, indoles, and alkaloids that Aloe ferox contains.

59

Besides being used to control parasites, Elephantorrhiza elephantina provides food and medicine

to people and is a popular source of tanning and dye material, particularly for hides. It treats a wide

range of diseases in humans, including anaemia, blood pressure, breast cancer, chest pain,

indigestion, eczema, erectile dysfunction, fever, herpes, infertility, heart diseases, syphilis and

tuberculosis in humans. It is used in animals to treat black quarter, heartwater, gall sickness,

pneumonia, mange, and retained placenta (Maroyi, 2017). It is also used as a purgative in goats to

control GIN (Sanhokwe et al., 2016). This is because it contains a wide range of biological

activities such as anthelmintic, antifungal, antibacterial, antinociceptive, anti-inflammatory

antioxidant, antireckettsial, antiplasmodial, and antibabesial activities. Such activities come from

phytochemicals, including anthocyanidins, glycosides, saponins, polysterols, ester, fatty acids,

anthraquinones, flavonoids, phenolic compounds, tannins, sugars, and triterpenoids that E.

elephantina rhizome contains (Maroyi, 2017). In addition to parasite control in goats, leaf extracts

of Nicotiana tabacum are used for respiratory problems in chickens (Maroyi, 2012). Kigelia

Africana is rich in flavonoids, phenolic compounds (hydrolysable tannins), glycosides, alkaloids

and reducing sugars. Its fruit is a purgative and is used to treat ulcers and increase milk flow in

lactating mothers. Roots and unripe fruits of Kigelia Africana are used as a vermifuge and treat

rheumatism and haemorrhoids (Abdulkadir et al., 2015).

The finding that plants are combined with other plants is because they contain mixtures of

secondary metabolites, which act individually, additively, or synergy to improve health in goats.

Contrastingly, the use of more than one plant is believed to neutralize the toxicity and or bitterness

of a certain part of the plant extract, making it palatable and easily administered (Gakuubi and

Wanzala, 2013). The use of mixtures of different plant species is inconsonant with studies by

60

Maphosa and Masika (2010) and Gakuubi and Wanzala (2012). In contrast, Djoueche et al. (2011)

argued that ethnoveterinary plants were rarely combined with other plants. However, the use of

complex mixtures involving different plants and non-plant materials is common with traditional

healers who are part of IK holders (Van der Merwe et al., 2001).

The reason behind mixing plant extracts with non-plant material is also for synergistic effects to

influence active substances. For example, Epsom salt is reported to have a laxative effect aiding

in the excretion of GI parasites (Maphosa and Masika, 2010). This result, however, contradicts the

findings of Luseba and Van der Merwe (2006), who reported that plants are not mixed with any

material. The observation around using rock salts is that it forms stable emulsions in the

gastrointestinal tract and increase the solubilisation of alkaline compounds in plants to enhance

their absorption. Interestingly, Luseba and Van der Merwe (2006) reported that mixtures of non-

plant materials only were used to treat intestinal conditions. The mixing of plants with feed may

influence the absorption of plant compounds. For example, oil cakes are used to increase bile

secretion, which helps with the solubilisation of water-insoluble compounds (Djoueche et al.,

2011). Contributions of non-plant extracts should be established to understand the interaction

between CK and IK, to enhance the integration of the two systems.

The use of leaves, barks and fruits in ethnomedicine preparation may be due to the ease of finding

these plant parts and preventing the loss of whole plants from natural habitats. The higher use of

leaves could also be attributed to that they could contain higher concentrations of active

compounds. However, Gakuubi and Wanzala (2013) highlighted that harvesting leaves pose a

threat to the survival of plants, particularly when young leaves are harvested. On the contrary,

61

Djoueche et al. (2011) reported barks amongst the most widely used parts. Kuma et al. (2015)

argued that roots are the most used part by traditional healers, but it is not endorsed as it

exacerbates the loss of plants from the habitats. The use of the whole plant is also not recommended

for the same reason.

Custodians of IK extract ethnoveterinary medicines using water, either in a cold or boiled form

(Gakuubi and Wanzala, 2012). This concurs with findings from Tamiru et al. (2013) and

Mphahlele et al. (2016). Hence, the shortcoming of water extracts is the inability to suppress

microbial infection like other solvents such as methanol and ethanol (Molefe et al., 2012). Water

is probably used because it is the only solvent naturally available and regarded safe for

consumption by humans and animals. Although organic solvents are found to yield more consistent

anthelmintic activity, they are not safe for home use as they require specialized equipment to

extract phytochemicals and evaporate the solvent or concentrate the extract. This indicates that

EVM uses a low level of technological sophistication that is applicable in any resource-limited

environment.

The observed high effectiveness of water extracts in larval mortality experiment compared to

acetone extracts was reported by Molefe et al. (2012). Remarkably, Mphahlele et al. (2016)

reported that water extracts of Markhamia obtusifolia displayed the double anthelmintic activity

of the acetone extract. The use of water could indicate the high polarity of active ingredients in

plants extracted using a polar solvent. Indigenous knowledge is based on the trial and error of

individuals and is the reason behind differences in plant extraction and preparation. Such

differences may affect its quality due to the lack of standardization (Madibela et al., 2017).

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The finding that decoctions were the most used methods could be that farmers know that some

plants contain volatile oil esters that could be fused with some compounds, requiring high

temperatures to increase the diffusivity and solubility of phenolic compounds (Mphahlele et al.,

2016). This finding concurs with Djoueche et al. (2011), who reported the wide use of decoctions

by farmers. Some plant materials, such as barks, are hard, so farmers boil to soften them and release

active ingredients (Kuma et al., 2015). Farmers would also try to reduce or alter the toxicity of

ethnoveterinary plants through boiling for a certain period to evaporate aromatic compounds

(Sanhokwe et al., 2016) while minimizing the degradation of sensitive compounds. Famers also

add more water during plant extractions to reduce the toxicity of certain plants (Sanhokwe et al.,

2016). This finding agrees with that of Maphosa and Masika (2010).

The probable explanation of the use of infusion extraction by farmers is the knowledge that the

required active compounds are water-soluble. The mixing of plant material with feed and non-

plant material is ascribed to that it influences the absorption of compounds while enhancing the

taste of some plants and obvious uptake. Non-plant material such as salt increases the solubilisation

of alkaline compounds in plants (Djoueche et al., 2011). The use of different extraction methods

for the same plants, such as Aloe ferox, could be influenced by the individual’s belief in the potency

of the remedy. The same belief applies to the preferred form of a plant used.

The observation that extracts prepared from fresh plant materials are used immediately after

preparation is based on farmers’ belief that remedies lose their efficacy if stored for longer periods.

This may be due to prolonged shelf-life leading to photodecomposition and oxidative

polymerization of active ingredients in ethnoveterinary plants (Madibela et al., 2017). Farmers

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also apply the same principle to dried plant material, where extracts are used directly after

preparation (Gakuubi and Wanzala, 2012). However, traditional healers believe that fresh material

is more effective than dried because the ground material might lose efficacy after a year (Luseba

and Van der Merwe, 2006). In contrast, Ahmed et al. (2018) reported dried leaves of Aloe ferox

Mill. to have the greatest effect of suppressing egg production in sheep compared to the bulb,

cuticle and gel of fresh leaves. This, therefore, displays the benefit of studying the pharmacological

effects of EVM to improve methods that farmers are using.

The preference for drenching could be due to the ease of handling goats. The drenching method is

easier and more economical to adopt, as reusable containers such as drink bottles, cans, water

glasses, and cups are used. Farmers use these containers to determine dosages, but discrepancies

and difficulties in determining actual dosages still exist. However, no undesired effects have been

reported due to undefined dosages (Djoueche et al., 2011). Farmers base dosages on the severity

of sickness and duration, considering goats' age, size, and body condition (Tamiru et al., 2013).

This coincides with findings from Kuma et al. (2015). The research conducted by Gradé et al.

(2008) provided evidence that dosages from farmers may be the same as those that are

scientifically proven, where a closely approximated dosage of Albizia anthelmintica was found to

be effective against GIN.

The farmers’ claim that one of their major drives to use EVM is its high efficacy in the treatment

of some diseases in comparison to conventional medicine is due to that farmers have a high degree

of confidence in the efficacy of their EVM, even though it has not been scientifically evaluated

(Maroyi, 2012; Tyasi and Tyasi, 2015). What differs from one farmer to another is how plants are

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handled, extracts prepared, dosages administered to goats and the medical intent, whether

prophylaxis or therapeutics. Such differences influence the efficacy, safety and quality of EVM.

Efficacy could be affected by over diluting an extract, which could weaken and reduce its

effectiveness in controlling parasites. In cases where plants are not properly stored, they might be

contaminated by microbes, chemicals, other plant species, or even decay, and that could produce

toxins that may reduce their efficacy and safety (Madibela et al., 2017). The observation that some

plants are unsafe and of low quality could also be due to misidentification or adulteration. Some

plants from the same genus may look alike, although they possess different medicinal uses and can

be easily misidentified. For example, Aloe marlothii could be mistaken for Aloe ferox.

Some plants could be mixed with substances that reduce their quality, like the addition of non-

plant material that may suppress the extraction of certain active ingredients. Extraction procedures

used by farmers play a critical role in the extraction yield and phytochemicals content. For

example, boiling might deactivate the active ingredients needed to treat a particular ailment when

a decoction extraction method is used instead of a cold-water infusion. The efficacy of EVM has

been scientifically proven by various researchers, including Ahmed et al. (2017), Zenebe et al.

(2017) and Muthee et al. (2018) amongst others, where a reduction in faecal worm eggs and an

increase in L3 larvae mortality were reported. Efficacy results from Gradé et al. (2008) were much

more interesting, where 0.8 g of Albizia anthelmintica plant extract was more effective and closely

approximated to 0.9 g used by farmers to treat GIN. This indicates that farmers have tested the

efficacy of IK through trial and error, and there is credence in its ethnomedicinal use against GIN

in goats.

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The observed poor method of archiving and preserving IK is attributed to the information being

kept in IK custodians’ minds and verbally transferred to the next generation using the same storage

method. When these custodians die, they go with the knowledge (Gakuubi and Wanzala, 2012),

which could be among the reasons why the youths are less knowledgeable. Another probable

explanation could be that most youths are at schools, and since the education system is

westernized, it does not embrace IK. The observed acculturation could also be due to

modernization, which contributes to the loss of IK, making it viewed as unhygienic, backward and

associated with poverty.

The observed finding that males are more knowledgeable than females could be influenced by the

fact that knowledge about EVM is the prerogative of males who normally pass it to their sons,

hence women are involved in raising small stock but disadvantaged (Gakuubi and Wanzala, 2012).

This finding concurs with Mkwanazi et al. (2020), who reported that men acquire knowledge as

they herd goats from younger ages. Availing this knowledge to women and daughters will be of

great benefit to goat health management. It is also imperative to build capacity among the youths

to sustain the already proven technologies, making them a foundation for goat development in

communities. The observed shifting bias in religious beliefs is attributed to the belief that IK is

superstitious and unchristian, subsequently embracing the popularity of faith healers (Gakuubi and

Wanzala, 2012). Under these changes, there is a need to document and preserve IK to avail it to

the current generations.

The secrecy of IK in traditional healers and herbalists conforms with Bhat (2014) that may be

owing to the belief that the efficacy of IK will be lost when revealed to people outside their family

66

lineage. Such belief in the loss of efficacy is ascribed to the fact that IK is inherited from their

forefathers and or acquired through spiritual procedures, making it a family property (Oyda, 2017).

In addition, Luseba and Van der Merwe (2006) ascribed the secrecy to that it is the source of their

livelihood. However, Mkwanazi et al. (2020) argued that they share knowledge when remunerated.

The finding that climate change influences the population of ethnoveterinary plants is due to that

it has altered environmental conditions, making it no longer ideal for the survival of some plant

species. This makes some plant species move to higher latitudes, others undergo habitat

fragmentation and might result in extinction, and some go through phenological change (Gakuubi

and Wanzala, 2012; Madibela et al., 2017). Seasonal availability of plants is a threat to the

sustainable use of IK; therefore, developing herbal gardens or nurseries could circumvent their

seasonality provided they can adapt to the garden environment (Madibela et al., 2017). Although

traditional healers solely believe that the potency of cultivated and wild plants is different, but

farmers feel no difference. This is driven by the fact that traditional healers prefer gathering plants

from the wild where there is little human activity, believing that activities from many people would

reduce the power of plants (Van der Merwe et al., 2001).

With the observed continued global warming, some plant diseases and exotic pests increase in

range, leading to habitat destruction. High temperatures give rise to disease-bearing insects

(Gabalebatse et al., 2013). Overgrazing, soil erosion and desertification because of climate change

also contribute to the reduction of natural habitat (Kuma et al., 2015). The finding that an increase

in the human population poses a threat to plant availability is due to deforestation to obtain wood

to build houses, conversion of grasslands and forests to cultivated lands and industries, and

67

overexploitation of plant species (Kuma et al., 2015). The probable explanation for the main cause

of overexploitation of plants, especially in Africa, could be the high unemployment rate.

The misidentification of plant species by street vendors could be due to the lack of knowledge,

particularly of plants that come from the same family or genus. Such misidentification of plant

species could render EVM inefficient because of the absence of anticipated active ingredients to

control ailments. This requires the government to implement a systematic conservation planning

approach to prevent unsustainable harvesting methods and overexploitation of plant species and

organize market conditions so that cultivators could produce ethnoveterinary plants for the market.

The observation that ethnoveterinary plants may be contaminated could be due to improper

storage, for example, storing plants in a moist place could result in contamination by pathogenic

microorganisms (Madibela et al., 2017). Contamination of ethnoveterinary plant products needs

to be addressed, and regulatory guidelines developed and enforced.

An observation that the lack of scientific evidence on efficacy is a drawback to IK use is due to

that scientists are trained using the western paradigm, therefore, only accepting results validated

by modern modes of testing (Madibela et al., 2017). Hence, several research studies (Gradé et al.,

2008; Ahmed et al., 2018; Muthee et al., 2018) were conducted to validate the efficacy of

ethnoveterinary plants, dosages, quality and safety. This, therefore, provides enough evidence of

the effectiveness of the so-called anecdotes and encourages an increase in scientific studies to

validate, quantify and determine the quality and safety of ethnoveterinary plants.

68

The observed limited availability of anthelmintics in resource-limited areas is because farmers

mostly rely on sourcing anthelmintics from extension services; hence poor veterinary services

hamper service delivery. Another limitation includes the shortage or unavailability of antiparasitic

drugs in shops nearby. These challenges make farmers resort to IK since it is trusted for its efficacy,

local availability, and sustainability (Tyasi and Tyasi, 2015). The observation that most farmers

interface IK and CK may be due to their available resources, outcomes from their previous

experiences, and the associated cost. The observed use of both IK and CK concurs with findings

from Mkwanazi et al. (2020). The main contributing factor could be that farmers perceive these

two methods as having the same efficacy level. This could emanate from the fact that the available

drugs or their synthetic analogues are derived from ethnoveterinary plants (Kuma et al., 2015).

Since there is no GIN resistance attached to ethnoveterinary plant extracts documented (Molefe et

al., 2012), its integration with conventional drugs may assist in controlling challenges of

resistance.

Based on the observation that ethnoveterinary plants are a source of commercial drugs, it enhances

the prospects of being adopted and combined with CK. The main challenge is that veterinarians

view IK with skepticism because it does not scientifically prove its efficacy in the western

paradigm (Madibela et al., 2017). Therefore, systematic research in EVM will promote its

credibility, increase its application and integration into CK. This will promote collaboration

between veterinarians, herbalists and researchers. Herbalists will provide IK on the history of

diseases and their phytotherapeutics and then benefit from researched scientific evidence of their

EVM and the diagnostic expertise of veterinarians. Such partnerships would assist in developing

strategies for disease management while increasing meat safety and reducing organism resistance

69

and environmental toxicity of anthelmintics. Therefore, this will lead to the optimization of goat

productivity and the enhancement of sustainable livelihoods. Availability of cheaper, locally

produced remedies will contribute to sustainable solutions for improving animal health.

3.5 Conclusions

Gastrointestinal parasite infestation hampers goat productivity and causes economic losses.

Despite the wide use of anthelmintic drugs to control GIN in goats, their residues are a global

concern, as they are toxic to the environment, contaminate meat and other meat products, and

nematodes have developed resistance against them. Using IK could be a sustainable control

measure since it is plant-based, environmental-friendly and readily available within communities,

with no proven record of meat contamination and resistance. Indigenous knowledge plays a

significant role in mitigating day-to-day challenges in animal health; however, threatened by

disappearance due to improper storage and transfer. Modernisation, acculturation and change of

religious beliefs have contributed to the disappearance of IK. Therefore, there is a need for IK to

be documented and preserved. An increase in the human population has led to deforestation and

the overexploitation of plants. This, therefore, requires that plants be preserved and sustainably

conserved while being utilised in the control of nematodes in goats.

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1905987, 6 pages https://doi.org/10.1155/2017/1905987.

Zvinorova, P.I., Halimani, T.E., Muchadeyi, F.C., Matika, O., Riggio, V. and Dzama, K. (2016).

Prevalence and risk factors of gastrointestinal parasitic infections in goats in low-input low-

output farming systems in Zimbabwe. Small Ruminant Research 143: 75-83.

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Chapter 4: Mitigation of effects of gastrointestinal nematodes in goats using

indigenous knowledge

Under review in Indilinga African Journal of Indigenous Knowledge Systems

Abstract

Indigenous knowledge (IK) plays a major role in the primary health care of ruminants in rural

communities. The objective of the study was to explore IK used to control gastrointestinal (GI)

parasites in goats. Face-to-face interviews were conducted on IK experts in Jozini, Northern

KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa. Two types of GI parasites were identified: roundworms and

tapeworms. Roundworms were the most common parasites in goats. Shape, size and colour are

parameters used to identify GI parasites. Gastrointestinal parasites cause scours, body weight loss,

enlarged abdomen, rough hair coats, anaemia, appetite loss, teeth-gnashing, foaming at the mouth,

dry and elongated faeces, and bottle jaw in goats. Kids also bend their tails when highly infested

with GI parasites. Parasite infestation reduces conception rate, kidding rate, water intake and

increases the mortality rate. The distribution and prevalence of GI parasites are the most significant

impacts of climate change. Indigenous knowledge is preferred because it is locally available and

effective. Most goat keepers do not prevent GI parasite infestations; however, they treat goats upon

the manifestation of symptoms. A total of 33 plant species belonging to 17 families are used to

control worm infestations. Medicinal plants could be used in combination with other plants and/or

non-plant substances. Decoctions, infusions and powders made with plants are administered orally.

Dosages are higher for adult goats in comparison to kids. It was concluded that IK holders have

abundant knowledge of the efficacy of herbal remedies to control GI parasites. Therefore,

documentation and further scientific research are needed to affirm and exploit these

ethnomedicines.

Keywords: Gastrointestinal nematodes, Nguni goats, ethnoveterinary medicine, medicinal plants

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4.1 Background

More than 80% of poor people in Africa rely on livestock agriculture for sustainability (FAO,

2009). Goats play a fundamental role in household food security and income. Other functions of

goats include the provision of skin, milk, manure, and cultural roles. Goats are also useful in

eradicating bush encroachment. Goats are unique because they thrive in harsh environments

encompassed by feed shortages, unfavourable temperatures such as severe cold and hot climates,

water scarcity and are tolerant to endemic diseases (Silanikove, 2000). Rearing of goats in these

areas is beneficial economically because of low initial investment and input requirements. The

ability to reach sexual maturity early and high prolificacy are other advantages of goats (Kumar et

al., 2010).

Most goats are kept by resource-limited farmers who rely on communal pastures (Bakare and

Chimonyo, 2011). Communal production systems are vulnerable to climate variability and

extremes; goats are more exposed to such climate changes and depend on natural resources for

nutrition (Thornton et al., 2007). Climate change impacts on changes in productivity of crops and

forage, feed availability, water availability and diseases. Gastrointestinal nematodes (GIN) remain

a major constraint to goat productivity globally (Rumosa Gwaze et al., 2009; Owhoeli et al., 2014;

Rupa and Portugaliza, 2016). Eimeria spp. causes clinical coccidiosis, particularly in young goats,

with moderate to high pathogenic effects (Zvinorova et al., 2016). Although tapeworms such as

Moniezia spp. are not highly pathogenic, their presence in high numbers has adverse effects in

older goats. Heavy infestation of Eimeria spp. and Moniezia spp. are common in suckling kids

(Mpofu et al., 2020).

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Infestations with GIN lead to morbidity and eventually death (Risso et al., 2015). Their distribution

and infestation levels strongly depend on climate (Van Dijk et al., 2010). Temperature changes

increase the developmental success of GIN, leading to an increase in pasture contamination with

infective stages of larvae (Morgan and Van Dijk, 2012). For example, Kenyon et al. (2009)

reported an alteration of nematode infestation patterns as climates change.

The major control strategy employed against nematodes is the use of anthelmintics in combination

with grazing management. The threat to this strategy is, however, that through improper dosages,

excessive and frequent use of anthelmintics, the evolution of drug resistance in parasite

populations has occurred (Bakunzi, 2003; Roeber et al., 2013; Arece-Garcia et al., 2017). Parasites

have developed resistance towards benzimidazoles, macrocyclic lactones, imidazothiazoles, or

tetrahydroxypyrimides (Mickiewics et al., 2017). One sustainable alternative to synthetic

anthelmintics could be medicinal plants that possess anthelmintic properties and are more

culturally and spiritually acceptable (William, 2006). Most medicinal plants are traditionally

known to contain pharmacologically active compounds (Bahrami, 2011). The cost of veterinary

services and synthetic anthelmintics has also contributed to the developing interest in using

ethnoveterinary medicines (Maphosa and Masika, 2010).

Medicinal plants are a component of IK. Indigenous knowledge is the unique knowledge

developed by the local community with a long history of interaction with their natural surroundings

and animals through culture and personal experiences. As IK on medicinal plants is passed orally

from one generation or person to another, it may be lost or altered during the transfer. Urbanization

and acculturation also contribute to the loss of IK (Ritter et al., 2012). It is, therefore, important to

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conduct and document in-depth research on the use of IK to control GI parasites. This information

is vital because it will assist veterinary services as reference material to distribute and promote IK

to community members. Veterinary services will reduce their costs by alternatively investing in

cultivating more medicinal plants in secured plots and distributing them to community members.

Institutions can also use this information for the development of new drugs. Farmers have a vast

knowledge of indigenous methods (Chapter 3) used to control GIN in goats. The objective of the

study was to identify and document IK used to control gastrointestinal parasites in goats as climate

changes. The hypothesis tested was that farmers do not use indigenous knowledge to control

gastrointestinal parasites.

4.2 Materials and Methods

4.2.1 Description of the study site

The study was conducted at Jozini municipality, Umkhanyakude district in the Northern part of

KwaZulu-Natal Province lying on 27° 24' 06.9' S, 32° 11' 48.6 E. Jozini experiences a subtropical

climate, with an average annual rainfall of 600 mm. The average daily maximum and minimum

temperatures are 20 ºC and 10 ºC. The altitude ranges from 80 to 1900 m above sea level (Gush,

2008). The vegetation at Jozini consists of coastal sand-veld, bushveld and foothill wooded

grasslands (Morgenthal et al., 2006). One of the agricultural practices of people at Jozini is to raise

livestock extensively. KwaZulu-Natal is part of the leading South African Provinces with the

largest goat distribution in communal production systems (Botha and Roux, 2008). The study site

was selected based on the existence of traditional practices (Ndawonde, 2006) and extensive

rearing of livestock (Mpendulo, 2016). The Humanities & Social Sciences Research Ethics

Committee at the University of KwaZulu-Natal granted ethical clearance; reference number:

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HSS/0852/017 (Appendix 2). The livestock association granted written consent to interview

participants, and participants gave their consent verbally.

4.2.2 Selection of key informants and research design

Participants were selected based on the ownership of goats, the use of IK, and their willingness to

participate in research. A local member of the livestock association helped identify participants or

experts with in-depth knowledge of IK in goats. Elderly people, spiritual healers or diviners,

herbalists, village heads and chiefs were IK possessors.

4.2.3 Data collection

Data were collected using face-to-face interviews (Appendix 3) from 39 participants. IsiZulu

vernacular was used when collecting data from participants in their homesteads. Open-ended

questions were used in the interview to collect data. Verbal probes were used where necessary to

gather more data from the participants to elaborate on their knowledge in depth. Interviews lasted

for approximately an hour for each participant.

During interviews, a voice recorder was used to convert speech into a digital sound for later

playback and information storage. Information collected included predisposing factors, effects and

seasonal prevalence of GIN in goats, changes of GIN species and loads over time, methods used

to control GIN, factors influencing the choice of method, indigenous ways of controlling diseases

or conditions associated with GIN, and identification of medicinal plants used to control GIN

infestations. IK holders assisted with the identification and collection of plant specimens in the

field. Plant specimens were then authenticated at the Bews Herbarium (University of KwaZulu-

Natal, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa).

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4.2.4 Data analyses

Voice recordings were translated from IsiZulu to English and transcribed. Data were analysed

using NVivo 12 Pro software. NVivo allowed data to be coded and categorised into themes.

Themes included understanding what GI parasites in goats are, predisposing factors, symptoms

and effects, prevention and treatment, and general information on IK, including its role, source,

transfer, and preservation.

4.3. Results

4.3.1 Role of indigenous knowledge systems in goat health management

The Zulu people are closely connected to the indigenous ways of doing things, including animal

healthcare practices as part of goat management. It is an old practice to use indigenous plants and

traditional practices to treat diseases in goats. Indigenous knowledge is used because their

ancestors used it; therefore, it is their culture and a way of life. Moreover, IK is readily available

locally, cheap and guaranteed to work. The other reason for using IK is because conventional

medicine is expensive and unaffordable to resource-limited farmers.

4.3.2 Source and transfer of indigenous knowledge

Indigenous knowledge is passed from elders to younger generations; however, it is not the only

source for other IK holders as information is shared among farmers. Traditional healers only share

IK within their households and remain secretive with it to the public. Visions, dreams, and spirits

are other sources of knowledge on animal diseases, particularly for traditional healers. Indigenous

knowledge is transferred through oral communication and training. Youths are encouraged to

observe proceedings as animals get treated. Indigenous knowledge is passed to children, spouses

and other people; however, male children are preferred to girls since they look after goats. Most

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children lack interest in IK; therefore, knowledge is transferred chiefly to those interested,

including a few female children. Some male IK possessors do not pass IK to their children and

spouses.

4.3.3 Preservation of indigenous knowledge

People should be educated on how to harvest indigenous plants so that plants can be preserved and

conserved for sustainability. This knowledge should also be incorporated into school curriculums

so that that interested youth can learn about IK. The need to educate other youths is seen as

immaterial because it believes in conventional methods over indigenous methods. Indigenous

knowledge should be documented and distributed to all livestock owners through workshops,

meetings and other farmers’ gatherings. In addition, IK should be stored for future generations by

writing books and published peer reviews. The head of the household should compile a book on

IK uniquely used in own household so that other family members can refer from it. Veterinary

services should put strict control measures on harvesting existing indigenous plants within

communities, where one would have to obtain approval to harvest from authorities.

4.3.4 Effects of climate change on availability of medicinal plants

Climate change influences medicinal plant availability, quantity and quality. Some medicinal plants are no

longer available locally, some are available in low quantities, while some have become dry. For example,

the quantity of Cissus quadrangularis, Schkuhria pinnata and Clematis brachiata has decreased

in local areas. Similarly, Pittosporum viridiflorum, Clerodendrum sp., Turraea obtusifolia,

Callilepis laureola, Elephantorrhiza elephantina, Othonna natalensis and Vernonia

neocorymbosa have migrated to distant places. Plants such as Pellaea calomelanos are extinct in

the area. Medicinal plants are harvested when available, dried, and stored for dry seasons. Plants are

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thoroughly dried in a warm, shaded and well-ventilated area to avoid quick degradation of medicinal

constituents by the sun. Dried plants are stored in airtight containers away from excess heat and direct

sunlight.

4.3.5 Gastrointestinal parasite infestations in goats

Gastrointestinal parasites are a huge challenge in indigenous goats. They are identified according

to shape, size, colour, the damage they cause in the gut and symptoms. For example, white long

cylindrical tube-like body with two openings at either end (roundworms), white short with round

bodies (roundworms), red with round bodies (roundworms), and white flat with segments

(tapeworms). Amongst these parasites, roundworms are the most lethal. Gastrointestinal parasites

cause symptoms shown in Table 4.1. Diarrhoea and bodyweight losses are the main symptoms and

disease conditions associated with GI parasite infestation, followed by an enlarged abdomen,

rough hair coat, teeth grinding, and kids bending the tail, in that order. Worm burdens increase in

the hot-wet season, but their effects are more significant in the cool-dry season. Parasite loads have

increased with the change in the climate. There are no new GI nematode species observed to be

introduced by the change of climate.

4.3.6 Predisposing factors to gastrointestinal nematode infestation

Feed shortages are a major predisposing factor. Gastrointestinal parasites mostly affect weaners

than suckling kids. Very old goats with all broken or worn down or fallen out teeth are more

susceptible to parasite infection. Does are mostly affected by worm infestation than bucks, which

is mainly associated with hormonal changes and immunity. Communal pastures are the primary

source of GI parasite infestation in communal areas. Goats with shorter legs and low body

condition scores are prone to parasite infection.

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Table 4.1: Symptoms and disease conditions associated with gastrointestinal nematode infestation in goats

Symptom/disease

condition

Description

Diarrhoea Droppings turn soft during mild parasite infestation and may not make the back leg or the goat dirty

under the tail. Watery diarrhoea with a foul smell that may contain mucous or blood is a clear

indication of heavy parasite loads. Diarrhoea may also look blackish, showing advanced cases of

infection.

Body condition loss Infection with parasites results in a marked reduction of appetite and metabolic efficiency.

Consequently, the goat loses body weight. Goats that are eating but not gaining weight have GI

parasites. With severe infestation, the goat can become emaciated and ultimately die.

Enlarged abdomen The goat's stomach starts by making loud gurgling noises due to abdominal ailments. When the goat

humps its back, it reflects high parasite burdens.

Rough hair coat The change of colour and quality of the hair coat from ordinary to dull and rough indicates parasite

infestation.

Anaemia It is reflected by lethargy, inappetence, less or no energy accompanied by a dull coat. Farmers use

symptoms to diagnose anaemia caused by parasites.

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Bottle jaw The swelling of the lower jaw is an indication of parasite infestation. When it manifests, they treat

goats immediately. If not treated instantly, goats die.

Hanging of parasites from

the anus or their visibility in

faeces

When loads of parasites are high, adult worms get excreted with faeces and are seen on the ground or

hanging on the goat’s anus. Some look like small pieces of white cotton thread. This shows chronic

cases of infestation, and goats are treated immediately.

Dry and elongated faecal

pellets

During high loads of worms, faeces become dry and are excreted with adult tapeworms, taking their

shape.

Loss of appetite Goats do not browse for long and sometimes do not eat at all. Some goats even lose appetite for

drinking water due to loss of energy.

Bending of the tail by kids The tail of a kid with high parasite burdens does not point up like a healthy kid, but it arches.

Gnashing of teeth Goats exhibit loud convulsive grinding movements of the teeth, indicating the high infestation of

parasites.

Foaming at the mouth When goats have high burdens of GI parasites, they produce foam in the mouth.

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4.3.7 Effects of gastrointestinal nematode in goats

Gastrointestinal parasite infestations lead to growth retardation, particularly in kids and growing

goats. Gastrointestinal parasite burdens reduce the conception and kidding rates in goats, and this

is because parasite infestation affects the health of goats, thereby compromising their reproductive

performance. The decrease in feed and water intake is also associated with heavy parasite loads.

Meat from goats with high worm infestations becomes dry, very lean and tasteless. The high

burden of parasite infections leads to mortality in goats.

4.3.8 Treatment of gastrointestinal nematode infestation in goats

Prevention of GIN infestations using indigenous plants is done on weaners only before they are

released to eat from communal pastures. The plants used in prevention are the same as those used

to treat symptoms and disease conditions associated with GIN. Decoctions of Clematis branchiata,

Tetradenia ripania, Vernonia neocorymbosa, and Clerodendrum glabrum are mixed, and half a

cup is given to each weaner just before they start eating grass. Aloe marlothii, Cissus

quandrangularis, Plectranthus madagascariensis, Stychnos henningsii and Othonna natalensis

extracts are prepared individually. Dosages of these extracts are the same as those administered to

kids (Table 4.2).

4.3.9 Indigenous plants used to treat gastrointestinal nematodes in goats

A total of 33 medicinal plants were documented (Table 4.2). The most important medicinal

families are Asteraceae (5 species), Fabaceae (4 species), Asphodelaceae (3 species), Lamiaceae

(3 species), Hyacinthaceae (3 species), Vitaceae (2 species), Meliaceae (2 species) and

Euphorbiaceae (2 species). The medicinal use of leaves is dominant over stem, bark, roots and

whole plant. This is influenced by an easy collection of leaves than underground parts,

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Table 4.2: Indigenous plants used to control gastrointestinal nematodes in goats

Plant name Family Local name Zulu name Voucher

no.

Part of the

plant used

Method of preparation & Dosage (D)

Agave Americana

L.

Agavaceae American

aloe

Uhalibhoma NU0068137 Leaves Infusion of leaves

D: 1 cup = adult goat, ½ cup = kid

Albizia

anthelmintica

Brongn.

Fabaceae Worm-cure

Albizia

Umnala NU0068151 Bark/roots Decoction of bark/roots.

Bark could also be dried, ground &

mixed with feed.

D: 1 mug = adult goat, ½ mug = kid

Aloe ferox Mill. Asphodelaceae African aloe Inkalane NU0068138 Leaves Infusion of leaves

D: 500ml = adult goat, 250ml = kid

Aloe maculate

Forssk.

Asphodelaceae Krantz aloe Icena/Isithezi NU0068164 Leaves Infusion of leaves

D: 1 cup = adult goat, ½ cup = kid

Aloe marlothii A.

Berger

Asphodelaceae Mountain

aloe

Inhlaba NU0068166 Leaves Infusion of leaves

D: 500ml = adult goats & 1 cup = kid

Aloe is dried, ground and burnt to make

snuff (Isinemfu)

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D = 1 spoon = adult goat, ½ spoon =

kid

Bidens Pilosa L. Asteraceae Blackjack Uqadolo NU0080836 Leaves Infusion of leaves

D: 1 cup = adult goat, ½ cup = kid

Callilepis laureola

DC.

Asteraceae Country

borage

Amafuthomhlaba NU0068170 Leaves Decoction or infusion of leaves

D: 500ml = adult goat, 250ml = kid

Cissus

quandrangularis

Linn

Vitaceae Veld grape Inhlashwana NU0068142 Leaves

(aerial part)

Decoction or infusion of leaves

D: 700ml = adult goat, 350ml = kid

Cissus Rotundifolia

(Forssk.) Vahl

Vitaceae Round-

leaved vine

Umtshovane NU0068158 Leaves Infusion of leaves

D: 700ml = adult goat, 350ml = kid

Clausena anisata

(Willd.) Hook.f. ex

Benth.

Rutaceae Horse urine Umnukelambiba NU0068156 Leaves/

Roots

Decoction of leaves/roots

D: 500ml = adult goat, 250ml = kid

Clematis brachiate

Thunb.

Ranunculaceae Traveller’s

joy

Umdladlatho NU0068141 Leaves/

roots

Infusion of leaves. Decoction of roots

D: 1 cup = adult goat, ½ cup = kid

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Roots dried, ground into a powder, and

mixed with ground nuts/salt/Othonna

natalensis Sch.Bip.

D: 2 spoons = adult goat, 1 spoon = kid

Clerodendrum

glabrum E. Mey.

Lamiaceae Tinderwood Umqaqongo NU0068169 Leaves Decoction of leaves

D: 1 cup = adult goat, ½ cup = kid

Croton

pseudopulchellus

Pax

Euphorbiaceae Small

lavender

fever-berry

Umhuluka NU0068152 Leaves Decoction of leaves

D: 500ml = adult goat, 250ml = kid

Drimia altissima

(L.f.) Ker Gawl.

Hyacinthaceae Tall white

squill

Umahlanganisa/

Isihlenama

NU0068172 Bulb Infusion of bulb

D: 500ml = adult goat, 250ml = kid

Drimia elata Jacq. Hyacinthaceae Brandui Undonga

zibomvana

NU0068165 Bulb Decoction of bulb

D: 500ml = adult goat, 250ml = kid

Elephantorrhiza

elephantina

(Burch.) Skeels

Fabaceae Elephant root Intolwane

NU0068144 Roots Roots are ground and mixed with maize

stover and leaves of Callilepis laureola

DC.

D: Given with feed

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Euphobia ingens E.

Mey. ex Boiss.

Gomphorcapus

physocarpus E.

Mey

Euphorbiaceae

Apocynaceae

Candelabra

tree

Baloon

milkweed

Umnhlonhlo

Uphehlecwathi

NU0068140

NU0083347

Leaves

Leaves

Infusion of leaves

D: 1 cup = adult goat, ½ cup = kid

Infusion of leaves. Leaves could be

ground and mixed with milk for kids.

D: 700ml = adult goat, 350ml = kid

Ipomoea sp. Convolvulaceae False assegal Ubhoqobhoqo NU0068173 Roots Decoction of roots

D: 1 cup = adult goat, ½ cup = kid

Kigelia Africana

(Lam.) Benth.

Bignoniaceae Sausage tree Umvungutha NU0068153 Leaves Infusion of leaves

D: 500ml = adult goat, 250ml = kid

Ornithogalum

longibracteatum

Jacq.

Hyacinthaceae Sea onion Umababaza NU0068146 Bulb Infusion of bulb

D: 500ml = adult goat, 250ml = kid

Othonna natalensis

Sch.Bip

Asteraceae Natal

Geelbossie

Incama NU0068131 Bulb Dry and grind into powder

D: 1 spoon = adult goat, 1 teaspoon =

kid

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Pittosporum

viridiflorum Sims

Pittosporaceae Cheesewood Umfusamvu NU0068168 Stem/bark Decoction of stem/bark

D: 500ml = adult goat, 250ml = kid

Plectranthus

madagascariensis

(Pers.) Benth.

Lamiaceae Madagascar

spurflower

Ibozana NU0068145 Leaves Infusion of leaves

D: 1 cup = adult goat, 250ml = kid

Sanseviera

Hyacinthoides (L.)

Druce

Asparagaceae Mother-in-

law’s tongue

Isikholokotho NU0068147 Leaves Infusion of leaves

D: 1 cup = adult goat, ½ cup = kid

Schkuhria pinnata

(Lam) Kuntze ex

Thell.

Asteraceae Dwarf

marigold

Ikhambi lesisu NU0068157 Whole plant Decoction of the whole plant

D: 1 mug = adult goat, ½ mug = kid

Schotia

brachypetala Sond.

Fabaceae Worm-bark

False-thorn

Uvovovo/

Umgxamu

NU0068151 Bark/roots Decoction of bark/roots

D: 500ml = adult goat, 250ml = kid

Sclerocarya birrea

(A. Rich.) Hochst.

Anacardiaceae Marula plant Umganu NU0068149 Bark Decoction of bark

D: 1 mug = adult goat, ½ mug = kid

Stychnos henningsii

Gilg

Loganiaceae Hard pear Umqalothi NU0068150 Leaves/

roots

Decoction of leaves/roots

D: 500ml = adult goat, 250ml = kid

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Trichilia emetica

Vahl

Meliaceae Natal Forest

Mahogany

Umkhuhlu NU0068135 Bark Decoction of bark

D: 1 mug = adult goat, ½ mug = kid

Turraea obtusifolia

Hochst.

Meliaceae Honeysuckle-

tree

Uswazi NU0068148 Leaves,

bark &

rootbark

Decoction of leaves/bark/rootbark

D: 500ml = adult goat, 250ml = kid

Vachellia

xanthophloea

(Benth.) P.J.H.

Hurter

Fabaceae Fever tree Umkhanyakude NU0068155 Leaves/bark Leaves & bark mixed with feed

Vernonia

neocorymbosa

Hilliard

Asteraceae Mountain

bitter tea

Uhlunguhlungu NU0068161 Leaves/

roots

Infusion of leaves. Decoction of roots.

D: 1L = adult goat, 500ml = kid

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and the ability to harvest larger quantities without destroying the plant. Medicinal plants are used

as a single plant extract or as concoctions, for example, Drimia altissima, Drimia elata,

Ornithogalum longibracteatum and Cissus quandrangularis could be combined. Similarly, Aloe

ferox, Stychnos henningsii, and Pittosporum viridiflorum could also be combined.

4.3.10 Indigenous practices used to treat gastrointestinal nematodes in goats

Three practices are used to control GI parasites in goats, namely river salt, traditional or Zulu beer,

and monkey intestines. Some of these practices are used independently, and some are combined

with medicinal plants. For example, river salt is mixed with aloe gel, while homemade beer and

monkey intestines are used individualistically. River salt is mixed with gel from the aloe plant, and

one tablespoon is administered to adult goats and half a spoon to kids. The river salt is used to heal

damages caused by parasites in the gastrointestinal tract lining, and the aloe gel is used to expel

parasites by killing them. The beer is administered to goats as is, by giving 500 ml to the adult

goat and 250 ml to the kid. It is used to kill parasites. Monkey intestines are dried, ground to

powder, and boiled in water. A cup of the monkey intestine mixture is given to the adult goat three

times a day and a kid. This mixture is used to kill parasites. Such practice is not condoned since it

may lead to a decline in monkey populations.

4.4 Discussion

Indigenous knowledge in animal health care is freely shared among households and community

members, as they believe it is a way of life. The finding that traditional healers were secretive with

IK could be because traditional healers have more sources of IK, including visions, dreams, and

spirits. Ancestors use visions, dreams and spirits to communicate about herbs used to treat specific

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ailments to traditional healers, agreeing with Hirst (2005). The main challenge with IK is that it is

passed orally and not documented anywhere, which poses threats to it being lost or incorrectly

transferred. The main reason male children are taught the most is that fathers are the key holders

of IK used in livestock health, and they work closely with their sons, whereas female children

spend most of their time with mothers. Some household heads do not pass IK to their children and

spouse, which could probably be because fathers want to remain superior and dominating, as they

will continuously be consulted every time an animal is sick.

The lack of interest in using IK by the youth is escalated by colonization, imperialism, civilization

and urbanization. The youth disregard IK, thinking that it is an old way of living based on

mythology and witchcraft; therefore, they prefer the conventional method with the belief that it

works better than IK. This is also exacerbated by the majority of youth migrating to higher learning

institutions whereby their training is more based on conventional knowledge that is scientifically

proven and, hence, neglects IK that has been proven for long periods. Furthermore, most youths

end up residing in urban centres since agriculture is considered dirty and uneconomically viable

(Grant, 2012).

Holders of IK are convinced that the youth that is interested in knowing IK should be taught at

home and school to preserve and promote its use. This can assist in addressing the issue of

acculturation that characterises modern society. The suggestion that each household compiles a

book on their indigenous methods used is significant because it addresses animal needs or

challenges specific to each household. Indigenous knowledge holders indicated that Animal health

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technicians in the study area do not promote IK because they have no scientific information from

credible sources. This poses a challenge to veterinary services to play a major role in promoting

IK.

Climate has grown warmer and drier, causing the reduction in medicinal plant quality and

population size decline, thereby exacerbating plant species declines and extinction in the area.

Such change in climate can alter nutrient, hydrologic, and carbon cycles, changing the availability

of energy, water and nutrients in plants (Prato, 2009). Similar results were reported by Feelay and

Silman (2010) and Gedir et al. (2015) that as climate changes, some areas become unsuitable for

plant species persistence, affecting plant growth, development, and fecundity and demographic

trends. Indigenous knowledge holders contemplate that some plants are not affected by climate

change, and the reason could be that those plants are still within the bounds of their climatic

tolerances.

The increase of the human population using medicinal plants has posed a great threat to

biodiversity due to overexploitation of medicinal plant species and human land use (Feelay and

Silman, 2010). Indiscriminate harvesting of wild medicinal plants drives some species towards

extinction, as many local people harvest medicinal plants indiscriminately as a source of income.

For example, plant families such as Hyacinthaceae are threatened by indiscriminate harvesting

practices. Plant species such as Elephantorrhiza elephantina (Burch.) Skeels, are heavily harvested

and traded mainly in the Eastern Cape; however, due to its extensive underground stem that coverts

when injured, it is nearly impossible to be detached entirely; instead, the risk of over-exploitation

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is lowered (Williams et al., 2013). Therefore, there is a need to formulate good harvesting practices

and sustainable use of medicinal plants.

The findings that GI parasites are a major challenge in goat productivity could be because goats in

communal areas forage in pastures with high numbers of multiple parasites, with high possibilities

of re-infection. Seemingly, Torres-Acosta and Hoste (2008) and Calvete et al. (2014) found that

goats in communal areas have high parasite burdens due to multiple infections. This also

corroborated with findings from Zvinorova et al. (2016). The challenge mostly arises from the fact

that most resource-limited farmers do not vaccinate goats due to a lack of knowledge on the

importance of vaccination programs. This was consistent with the report by Idamokoro et al.

(2016).

Since farmers identify parasites according to shape, size, colour and symptoms, roundworms were

the most prevalent parasite in goats. This could be because roundworms have high fecundity and

individual females produce thousands of eggs a day, leading to rapid pasture contamination

(Roeber et al., 2013). Farmers could relate clinical symptoms to the type of parasite infecting goats,

for example, heavy roundworms’ infestation causing anaemia and black diarrhoea. Farmers

reported common symptoms that goats infested with intestinal parasites might present, as Risso et

al. (2015) described. The observation that diarrhoea and body weight loss were rated high is

because they are the most visible clinical symptoms one could visualise without uncertainty.

In addition to common symptoms, kids bending a tail, gnashing of teeth, and frothing at the mouth

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when goats have high loads of GI parasites were the main indicators of the importance of

monitoring animals’ behaviour. The bent tail might be a sign that minerals are deficient, which

could result from the worm's burden. Teeth gnashing is a neurological sign that may be associated

with pain and distress (Underwood, 2002). Frothing at the mouth is abnormal and is a sign of a

disease. The higher incidence of parasite infestation during the cool-dry season is related to the

shortage of feed and the availability of natural pastures that are deficient in nutrients, which

predisposes goats to parasite infection, thereby interfering with their defence mechanism.

Goats largely depend on grazing in deteriorated rangelands. The parasitic infestation rate is

recognized to be high in undernourished goats (Hoste et al., 2005). Due to malnourishment and

heavy parasite infection, mortality could occur. The prevalence of parasites during the hot-wet

season is associated with conducive conditions favourable for survival, multiplication and

propagation. The changes in climate further exacerbate this. When fresh grass appears during the

hot-dry season, goats graze closer to the ground and are more exposed to the larvae that live low

down on the blades of the grass. Goats show effects of GI parasite manifestations more during the

cool-dry season due to a shortage of feed, leading to malnourishment. Malnutrition causes

consequent abnormalities of the immune system; therefore, goats struggle to fight against

parasites, and parasite burdens become exacerbated.

Given that farmers noted an increase in parasite loads with the change in the global environment,

it indicates the relevance of alteration in the loads and distribution of parasites (Singh and Prasad,

2016). Transmission of parasites to goats could, however, be controlled through a good

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management system that is lacking from resource-limited farmers, as indicated by Solomon-

Wisdom et al. (2014). It cannot be guaranteed that no new species in the area were introduced by

climate change because worms from the same genus have the same shape. Their size varies from

as little as several millimeters up; therefore, not distinctive to the naked eye. It is for this reason

that parasites in the area need to be scientifically identified and quantified.

Higher numbers of goats increase the intensity of GI parasite contamination in pastures, which is

in line with findings from Stadalienė et al. (2014). Suckling kids remain at home when their

mothers go to communal pastures to protect kids from contracting diseases, getting lost, or being

exposed to predation. Kids are only subjected to communal grazing after weaning, and due to their

weak immune systems, are predisposed to parasite infection. Very old goats are

immunocompromised, therefore, predisposed to parasite infection as well.

The finding that does have higher worm infection than bucks is because it loses much of its

resistance to parasites in late gestation and after parturition due to hormonal and photoperiod

effects. Lactating does are in a negative energy balance, therefore, weak and less able to resist

parasite infestation. This agrees with Solomon-Wisdom et al. (2014) and Shakya et al. (2017),

who reported that does are more prone to parasite infection than bucks but differed with Zvinorova

et al. (2016). Goats with shorter legs could be predisposed to parasite infection because they graze

closer to the ground. Goats with a poor body condition are more susceptible than counterparts with

a normal body condition, which conforms with Nuruzzaman et al. (2012), who reported that the

fecundity of parasites is usually increased in immunocompromised goats.

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Heavy parasite infestation in goats leads to decreased conception and kidding rate because bucks

do not mount sick does. Molefe et al. (2012) also reported that gastrointestinal parasites reduce

fertility in goats. Parasite infestation weakens the dam immunity of goats inhibiting does from

transmitting immunity to the offspring during pregnancy. Consequently, this leads to kids dying

prematurely, as they are born with impaired immunity that makes them unable to survive harsh

environmental conditions (Sikiru and Makinde, 2017). The decrease in water and feed intake of

goats with heavy parasite loads is because of loss of appetite. Tasteless, lean, and dry meat could

be due to variations in the composition of fatty acids and reduced total nutrient availability caused

by heavy parasite loads (Arsenos et al., 2009).

Commercial vaccines used to prevent parasite infestation are expensive and not affordable to users.

It has transpired that there is a perception that it is the only method to prevent diseases. Most

farmers do not vaccinate goats but treat the whole flock when they have spotted clinical symptoms

from one or more goats or hear from neighbours that their goats are sick. Farmers that use

commercial vaccines against GI parasites in goats are usually given anthelmintics by veterinary

services. Such use of commercial drugs is mainly based on availability and is why some farmers

use both commercial and ethnoveterinary medicines. The veterinary services usually give farmers

one bottle of medication occasionally, irrespective of the flock size. This could result in under

dosages to ensure that all goats are treated. The use of commercial drugs in sub-optimal doses

contributes to the widespread development of drug resistance in parasites (Shalaby, 2013). The

limitation to vaccination programs is the lack of knowledge on the importance of using plants as a

prophylactic measure to prevent worm infections.

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The preference for IK is driven by the ease of access, low cost or cost-free, and insignificance of

side effects compared to synthetic drugs. This concurs with Sanhokwe et al. (2016). Indigenous

methods are guaranteed to work, as they never failed them previously. The most important

medicinal families are known to possess antiparasitic, antiviral, antibacterial, antifungal,

antidiarrheal, and laxative effects. This agrees with Williams et al. (2013), who identified

Asteraceae, Fabaceae, and Asphodelaceae amongst families used mainly in traditional medicine.

For example, Aloe marlothii A. Berger and Cissus quandrangularis Linn. are amongst the most

used plants in the area, belonging to the same families reported by Williams et al. (2013).

Traditional practices are believed to exterminate GI parasites on their own or when combined with

ethnoveterinary plants. It is unclear which ingredients have anthelmintic effects in traditional beer

and monkey intestines, or maybe laxative effects that flush GI parasites out. Hence, the need to

determine the active compounds in these remedies.

The high use of leaves could be attributed to being easily obtained in large quantities than other

plant parts. Since they are the main photosynthetic part of the plant, they could have a high

accumulation of active ingredients (Tugume et al., 2016). Medicinal plants are mostly prepared

from fresh plants, hence dried for more extended storage, which is rejuvenated by adding water

before use. Concoctions are perceived as stronger and more effective than extracts from single

plants, probably due to high concentrations of multiple biological properties. This agrees with

findings from Gololo et al. (2017). Farmers dose goats according to their age, which defines their

understanding of the importance of body weight when administering medication.

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4.5 Conclusions

Farmers have vast indigenous knowledge of effective medicinal plants and phytomedicines used

to control GI parasites. The importance of indigenous knowledge and the potential of the resource

for development needs to be exploited. Consequently, urgent conservation priority of medicinal

plants and mechanisms for protecting the associated indigenous knowledge is required. The use of

indigenous knowledge can maximize therapeutic outcomes and be cost-effective if used ethically.

To develop effective advocacy and promotion strategies, the extent of use of IK to control GIN in

goats needs to be explored.

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Molefe, N.I., Tsotetsi, A.M., Ashafa, A.O.T., Thekisoe, O.M.M. (2012). In vitro anthelminthic

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status of Nguni goats, PhD thesis, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, South

Africa.

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University of Zululand, KwaDlangezwa, South Africa.

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Zuffo, T., Dallago, M., Castro, P. (2015). Influence of pathological conditions caused by

gastrointestinal parasites infection on pregnant ewe’s behaviour. Acta Scientiae Veterinari 43:

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Chapter 5: Extent of use of indigenous knowledge to mitigate challenges of

gastrointestinal nematodes in goats

Under review in BMC Veterinary Research

Abstract

The use of indigenous knowledge (IK) to control gastrointestinal nematodes has been known since

ancient times. The objective of the study was to determine the extent of use of IK to control

gastrointestinal (GI) parasites in goats. A structured questionnaire was used to collect data from

farmers. There was an association between the use of IK and gender (P < 0.05), with a higher

percentage of men (60 %) than women. An association was found between age distribution and IK

use (P < 0.05), where older generations (> 50 years) were the main users of IK. Internal parasites

were ranked as the main constraint limiting goat productivity. Roundworms were identified as the

most common GI parasites affecting goats. Twelve plant species were commonly used to control

gastrointestinal nematodes (GIN) in goats, with Cissus quadrangularis Linn. distinguished as the

most widely used plant (67 %), followed by Albizia anthelminthica Brongn. (47 %), Cissus

rotundifolia (Forssk.) Vahl (42 %), Vachellia xanthophloea (Benth.) P.J.H. Hurter (38 %), Aloe

marlothii A. Berger (38 %), Sclerocarya birrea (A. Rich.) Hochst (36 %), Gomphocarpus

physocarpus E. Mey (36 %), Aloe maculata All. (35 %), Trichilia emetica Vahl (33 %), Aloe ferox

Mill. (32 %), Vernonia neocorymbosa Hilliard (20 %) and Schkuhria pinnata (Lam) Kuntze ex

Thell (16 %). The probability of farmers influencing the use of IK in the dry rangeland was 7.9

times more likely than the wet rangeland. Males were 2 times more likely to influence the use of

IK than women (P < 0.01). The likelihood of adults influencing the use of IK was 1.8 times

compared with youths (P < 0.05). Farmers residing on-farm were 1.1 times more likely to influence

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the use of IK than farmers that stayed outside the farm (P < 0.05). Herbalists were 3.6 times more

likely to influence IK's use within their area (P < 0.05). The type of rangeland, gender, age, farmers

residing on-farm, and herbalist presence in the area were the common factors that influenced the

use of IK to control GIN in goats.

Keywords: Anthelmintic plants; ethnoveterinary knowledge; helminthiasis; roundworms

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5.1 Introduction

Goat production is practiced worldwide, and goat numbers are increasing enormously, especially

in developing countries (Skapetas and Bampidis, 2016). Developing countries are characterised

by marginal degraded lands, water scarcity and harsh environmental conditions, where the survival

of imported and crossbreds is minimal. Indigenous goat breeds, therefore, remain predominant due

to their low input requirements and ability to adapt to harsh environmental conditions prevalent in

these areas. These breeds play a significant role in ensuring food security and poverty reduction,

especially in resource-limited areas. Goats contribute to economic, religious and socio-cultural

enrichment and symbolize prestige in resource-limited areas (Ng’ambi et al., 2013). Goats are used

as an additional income source through the sale of live goats, skin, mohair, cashmere and milk.

Goats are also slaughtered for traditional ceremonies and religious rituals (Rumosa Gwaze et al.,

2009a).

Goats have comparative advantages over other livestock species such as sheep and cattle in

resource-limited areas due to their efficient use of available feeding resources and rapid turnover

(Kumar et al., 2010). Although goats possess such worthy attributes, however, several factors

constrain goat productivity in resource-limited areas. The prevalence of the long dry season

coupled with drought has a negative impact on goat productivity. The increasing human population

size reduces the grazing land for cattle and exacerbates the lack of fodder, thus creating room for

goats to take precedence (Mkwanazi et al., 2020). Gastrointestinal parasitic infections are a

worldwide challenge with greater impact in the Sub-Saharan region due to warm temperatures,

associated with inadequate control measures and poor management practices (Rumosa Gwaze et

al., 2009b; Zvinorova et al., 2016; Atanásio-Nhacumbel and Sitoe, 2019). Gastrointestinal

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nematodes (GIN) are the most common parasites in goats, causing diarrhoea, dysentery, loss of

body condition, poor growth rate, anaemia, and subsequently mortality leading to economic losses

(Rumosa Gwaze et al., 2009b).

Gastrointestinal nematodes are usually controlled using anthelmintic treatments; however, their

efficiency has decreased over the years due to various factors such as incorrect dosages, repeated

use and use of low-quality drugs (Kebede, 2019). Such incongruities render anthelmintics

unsustainable due to the development of parasite resistance, which is widespread worldwide and

threatens their utilisation (Kaplan and Vidyashankar, 2012). The resistance of parasites to

anthelmintic drugs, unsustainable provision of drugs by government institutions, inability to reach

medication shops, extortionate prices of drugs, and chemical residue in animal products limit the

use of anthelmintics.

Efforts to develop sustainable integrated novel non-chemical approaches to treat GIN, such as the

use of indigenous knowledge (IK) are, therefore, required. Indigenous knowledge is the local

cumulative and dynamic body of knowledge and skills unique to native people developed from

centuries of interaction with the natural environment. Indigenous knowledge is part of a

community-based approach that has been providing basic services, such as veterinary care, to

resource-limited farmers in the past decades. To date, approximately 80 % of the world population

predominantly relies on IK for the welfare of their livestock, including goats (FAO, 2005). For

example, when goats are infested with GIN, plants such as Agapanthus praecox are used to control

parasites (Sanhokwe et al., 2016). Plants produce a wide range of secondary metabolites that play

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several roles, such as fighting diseases and parasites, which possess chemical structures that are

not present in synthetic compounds (McGaw and Eloff, 2008).

Experts indicated in Chapters 3 and 4 that IK is passed from generation to generation orally;

therefore, there is a danger that it may be altered or lost due to acculturation, technical and socio-

economic changes (Sanhokwe et al., 2016). Indigenous knowledge plays a vital role in grassroots

development to empower communities by enhancing their knowledge and resources for

sustainable development and should thus, be encouraged and promoted. Sharing IK in

communities could enhance understanding of cross-culture and promotion of cultural dimension

of development. Understanding the extent of IK utilisation provides a productive context for

designing activities that assist communities and strengthen the contribution of IK to livestock

veterinary care. The objective of the study was to determine the extent of use of indigenous

knowledge to control GI parasites in goats.

5.2 Materials and Methods

5.2.1 Description of the study site

The study was conducted at Jozini municipality of Umkhanyakude district in the Northern part of

KwaZulu-Natal Province lying on 27° 24' 06.9' S; 32° 11' 48.6 E. Jozini experiences a subtropical

climate, with an average annual rainfall of 600 mm. The average daily maximum and minimum

temperatures are 20 ºC and 10 ºC. The altitude ranges from 80 to 1900 m above sea level (Gush,

2008). The vegetation at Jozini consists of coastal sand-veld, bushveld and foothill wooded

grasslands (Morgenthal et al., 2006). One of the agricultural practices of people at Jozini is to raise

livestock extensively. KwaZulu-Natal is part of the leading South African Provinces with the

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largest goats’ distribution in communal production systems (Botha and Roux, 2008). The selection

of the study site is based on the existence of traditional practices (Ndawonde, 2006) and the high

population of goats in the area. The study was conducted in the following randomly selected

villages that are amongst communities active in goat production: Nyawushane, Biva, Mkhonjeni,

Madonela, Makhonyeni, Mamfene, Mkhayana and Gedleza. Communities were grouped

according to wet and dry rangeland. The wet environment is characterised by high rainfall,

favouring the growth of many medicinal plants, while the dry environment is dominated by poor

rainfall patterns with limited plant growth. The study protocol was approved by the Humanities &

Social Sciences Research Ethics Committee of the University of KwaZulu-Natal, Reference

number: HSS/0852/017 (Appendix 2).

5.2.2 Data collection

A total of 294 households were interviewed at their homesteads. Data were acquired through

interviews using a structured questionnaire. Questionnaires were administered in the local

vernacular IsiZulu by trained enumerators. Enumerators were obtained from local communities.

Meetings with local authorities such as chiefs and local headmen were conducted to enable easy

access to communities. Local livestock officers, veterinarians, farmer’s association, and extension

officers from the Department of Agriculture were interviewed to help identify communities to

generate a list of farmers that keep goats and give an overview of the challenges of controlling

gastrointestinal parasites on livestock in the area. Households were selected based on goats’

ownership and willingness to participate in the study.

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Data were collected on household demographics, the socio-economic status of households,

livestock species kept by farmers, constraints of goat production, parasite species prevalent in

goats, and common GI parasites. The questionnaire (Appendix 4) also included questions on the

extent of use of IK to control nematodes, sources of IK, reasons for using IK and IK used to control

nematodes. Plants were identified and collected in the field with assistance from IK holders. Plant

specimens were authenticated at the Bews Herbarium, University of KwaZulu-Natal.

5.2.3 Statistical analyses

Data were analysed using SAS (2012). The PROC FREQ procedure for chi-square was used to

compute associations between household demographics, livestock herd sizes and indigenous

knowledge use. General Linear Model (GLM) was used to rank goat production constraints,

parasite species prevalence, common gastrointestinal parasites, and reasons for using indigenous

knowledge in the study area. An ordinal logistic regression (PROC LOGISTIC) was used to

estimate the odds ratio of the extent of use of indigenous knowledge to control gastrointestinal

parasites. The gender of the household farmer, age, education status, residence, employment status,

livestock training, member of the Farmers Association, rangeland type, and presence of herbalist

in the area was fitted in the logit model. The following logit model was used:

In [P/1−P] = β0 + β1X1 + β2X2… + βtXt + ε

Where:

P = probability of the group using indigenous knowledge; [P/1−P] = odds ratio of the group using

indigenous knowledge; β0 = intercept; β1X1...βtXt = regression coefficients of predictors; ε =

random residual error.

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5.3 Results

5.3.1 Use of indigenous knowledge

There was an association between IK use and gender (P < 0.05). Males (60 %) were using IK more

than females (Table 5.1). The association between IK use and farmers residing on-farm was (P <

0.05), where those residing on-farm used more IK than their counterparts. Approximately 45 % of

respondents that stayed at the farm were married. There was an association between IK use and

farmers that received training on livestock production (P < 0.05), where a great number of

household heads (79 %) that did not receive training used more IK. There was an association

between IK use and age (P < 0.05). The age distribution of respondents showed that they were

mostly of the older generation above 31 years, with a bulk of them over 50 years. About 5% was

found in the young generation (18-30 years old). Most respondents (38 %) who had no formal

education used IK to a greater extent than other groups, with only 1 % of respondents who had

tertiary education. Most respondents using IK received government old age and social grants as

the main source of income (35 %), whereas livestock products are around 5 %.

5.3.2 Livestock species kept by farmers

Most households owned different livestock species, mainly cattle, goats, sheep, pigs, and chickens

(Table 5.2). There was an association between IK use and livestock ownership in cattle, goats, and

chickens (P < 0.05). Indigenous knowledge was mainly used at herd sizes of < 28 in cattle, < 20

in goats, and < 32 in chickens. The less use of IK is presented at large herd sizes of > 56 in cattle,

> 70 in goats, and > 80 in chickens.

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Table 5.1: Household characteristics of respondents that use indigenous knowledge to

control gastrointestinal parasites in goats

Characteristic IK use (%) X2 Significance

Gender of the head of household

Male 60.11 4.25 *

Female 39.89

Farmers residing on-farm 89.84 1.80 *

Training on livestock production 20.72 0.09 *

Marital status

Married 45.85 1.60 NS

Not married 36.76

Divorced 3.17

Widowed 14.23

Age

18-30 4.89 0.04 *

31-50 40.60

>50 54.51

Level of education

No formal education 37.94 2.52 NS

Grade 1-7 34.12

Grade 8-12 26.77

Tertiary 1.12

Source of household income

Livestock sales 14.60 4.86 NS

Crops 25.60

Livestock products 5.47

Salary 13.50

Government old age and social

Grant

35.40

Other 5.43

Other - represent other sources such as money from working sons and daughters, ploughing for

neighbours and taxi driving. IK – indigenous knowledge

*P < 0.05, NS: Not significant

119

Table 5.2: The proportion of livestock herd sizes of farmers that are using indigenous

knowledge (%)

Livestock species IK use x2 Significance

Cattle

< 28 62.51 0.93 *

29-42 5.86

43-56 2.73

> 56 0.39

Goats

<20 70.00 8.79 *

21-30 16.67

31-40 8.33

41-50 1.18

51-60 0.83

61-70 0.72

> 70 0.70

Sheep

< 21 2.25 0.56 NS

22-42 0.75

> 42 0.37

Pigs

< 8 3.33 0.67 NS

9-16 1.48

> 16 0.37

Chickens

<32 75.31 2.20 *

33-48 15.06

49-64 5.02

65-80 0.84

>80 0.84

*P < 0.05, NS: Not significant

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5.3.3 Constraints of goat production

The mean rank scores of challenges facing goat production in the study area are shown in Table

5.3. Internal parasites were ranked as the highest constraint that limits goat productivity, followed

by feed shortage. Diseases were ranked third, ectoparasites the fourth, and water scarcity as the

fifth constraint.

5.3.4 Common goat parasites identified by participants

Gastrointestinal parasites and ticks were identified as the most important parasites affecting goats

in descending order of rank (Figure 5.1). Roundworms were ranked as the most important GI

parasites, followed by tapeworms and coccidia (Figure 5.2).

5.3.5 Sources of indigenous knowledge and reasons for its use in controlling gastrointestinal

nematodes

Farmers indicated that family members (51 %) are the main source of IK, followed by 32% of

elderly people in the community (older than 50 years) and other farmers (25 %) (Figure 5.3).

Herbalists and culturalists were other IK sources in the area (13 % of each, respectively). Extension

services were ranked as the least important reason for using IK to control GIN. Despite availability

being the most important reason for using IK, effectiveness and simplicity ranked the same

following the former (Figure 5.4). Affordability and IK working the same as conventional

knowledge (CK) had a lower ranking.

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Table 5.3: Ranking of challenges facing goat production (n = 294)

Constraint Rank Means

Feed shortage 2 2.13

Ectoparasites 4 2.50

Water scarcity 5 2.81

Diseases 3 2.15

Inbreeding 7 5.29

Theft 6 3.26

Internal parasites 1 2.11

The lower the mean rank of a challenge to goat production, the greater is its importance

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Figure 5.1: Types of goat parasites prevalent in the study site

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

4

Lice Flies Mites GI parasites Ticks Liverfluke

Mea

n r

ank

sco

res

Parasites

123

Figure 5.2: Common gastrointestinal parasites that are infecting goats in the study site

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

1.2

1.4

1.6

1.8

2

Roundworms Tapeworms Coccidia

Mea

n r

ank

sco

res

Parasites

124

Figure 5.3: Sources of indigenous knowledge used to control gastrointestinal parasites in the

study area

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Parents Farmers Elderly people(>50 yrs)

Herbalists Culturalist Extensionservices

Fre

qu

en

cy (

%)

Sources

125

IK: Indigenous knowledge, CK: Conventional knowledge, Effectiveness works better than CK, Availability: easily

accessible, Affordability: less costing, Simplicity: easy to use

Figure 5.4: Reasons for using indigenous knowledge to control gastrointestinal parasites in

goats

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

Effectiveness Availability Affordability Simplicity IK same as CK

Mea

n r

ank

sco

res

Reasons

126

5.3.6 Indigenous knowledge used by participants to control gastrointestinal nematodes in

goats

The most common indigenous plants, part of the plant used, and voucher numbers are summarised

in Table 5.4. Leaves were identified as the most used part of the plant, followed by bark. The most

popular plants by frequency of mention were Cissus quadrangularis Linn. (67 %), Albizia

anthelminthica Brongn. (47 %) and Cissus rotundifolia (Forssk.) Vahl (42 %) (Figure 5.5). Other

plant species reported were Vachellia xanthophloea (Benth.) P.J.H. Hurter, Aloe marlothii A.

Berger, Sclerocarya birrea (A. Rich.) Hochst, Gomphocarpus physocarpus E. Mey, Aloe maculata

All., Trichilia emetica Vahl and Aloe ferox Mill. (32-38 %) of use. Vernonia neocorymbosa

Hilliard and Schkuhria pinnata (Lam) Kuntze ex Thell were 20 % and 16 %, respectively.

5.3.7 Odds ratio estimates of the extent of using IK to control gastrointestinal nematodes

The odds ratio estimates for the use of IK to control GI parasites in goats are shown in Table 5.5.

The probability of influencing the use of IK in dry rangelands is 7.9 times higher than in wet

rangelands (P < 0.05). Male farmers were 2 times more likely to influence the extent of use of IK

than their female counterparts (P < 0.01). Adults were 1.8 times likely to influence the extent of

use of IK than youths (P < 0.05). A unit increase in the number of farmers who did not receive

formal education is likely to increase the odds of influencing the use of IK to control GI parasites

by 2. Farmers residing at their farms were likely to influence the use of IK by 1.1 (P < 0.05). The

likelihood to influence the use of IK by farmers who did not receive livestock training is 1.4 times

higher than that of trained farmers. Farmers that are members of the Farmers Association were 1.4

times probable to influence the use of IK than non-members.

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Table 5.4: Common indigenous plants used to control gastrointestinal nematodes in goats

Plant name Family Vernacular name Plant part Voucher no.

Albizia anthelmintica Brongn. Fabaceae Umnala Bark/roots NU0068151

Aloe ferox Mill. Asphodelaceae Inkalane Leaves NU0068138

Aloe maculata All. Asphodelaceae Icena/Isithezi Leaves NU0068164

Aloe marlothii A. Berger Asphodelaceae Inhlaba Leaves NU0068166

Cissus quadrangularis Linn. Vitaceae Inhlashwana Leaves (aerial part) NU0068142

Cissus Rotundifolia (Forssk.) Vahl Vitaceae Umtshovane Leaves NU0068158

Gomphorcapus physocarpus E. Mey Apocynaceae Uphehlecwathi Leaves NU0083347

Schkuhria pinnata (Lam) Kuntze ex Thell Asteraceae Ikhambi lesisu Whole plant NU0068157

Sclerocarya birrea (A. Rich.) Hochst Anacardiaceae Umganu Bark NU0068149

Trichilia emetica Vahl Meliaceae Umkhuhlu Bark NU0068135

Vachellia xanthophloea (Benth.) P.J.H. Hurter Fabaceae Umkhanyakude Leaves/bark NU0068155

Vernonia neocorymbosa Hilliard Asteraceae Uhlunguhlungu Leaves NU0068161

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Table 5.5: Odds ratio estimates, lower (LCI) and upper confidence (UCI) interval of the factors influencing the extent of use of

indigenous knowledge to control gastrointestinal nematodes

Predictor Gastrointestinal nematodes Significance

Odds LCI UCI

Rangeland type (dry vs. wet) 7.93 1.51 21.81 *

Gender (male vs. female) 1.99 1.03 7.55 **

Age (adult vs. youth) 1.82 0.32 6.12 *

Education (formal vs. informal) 0.48 0.05 2.79 NS

Employment status (unemployed vs. employed) 1.36 0.51 4.02 NS

Farmer residing on-farm (yes vs. no) 1.11 0.42 2.93 *

Livestock training (yes vs. no) 0.74 0.34 4.52 NS

Members of Farmers Association (yes vs. no) 1.42 0.36 5.75 NS

Herbalist in the area (yes vs. no) 3.63 1.61 11.96 *

Higher odds ratio estimates indicate a greater difference in occurrence between levels of predictors.

* P < 0.05; ** P < 0.01; NS = Not different (P > 0.05), vs indicates versus

130

The probability of having a herbalist in the locality is 3.6 times likely to influence the use of IK

than in communities with no herbalists.

5.4 Discussion

Gastrointestinal parasites are a major constraint to goat productivity in many developing countries,

leading to high mortality and morbidity (Rumosa Gwaze et al., 2009b; Zvinorova et al., 2016;

Atanásio-Nhacumbel and Sitoe, 2019). The impact of GI parasites in goats under resource-limited

areas is exacerbated by inadequate livestock veterinary care. The extension support delivery

system has challenges in resource-limited areas, emanating from a shortage of transport measures,

shortage of medication, lack of equipment, and incapacitation, amongst others (Mutibvu et al.,

2012). Other researchers have reported the poor and failure of extension support systems in other

developing countries (Jenjezwa and Seethal, 2014; Adira, 2015). Consequently, resource-limited

farmers rely on indigenous knowledge to control nematodes in goats.

Indigenous knowledge has an important contribution to socio-economic growth and sustainable

development and should be promoted and encouraged, thus the need for the study. Indigenous

people possess essential experience acquired through interacting with the environment and their

livestock for centuries. The study showed that more males were using IK than females, which

might be because males are most favoured in a shift of knowledge as head of households and

livestock owners. Males interact more with goats at an early age, as they commonly herd and graze

livestock. Dissemination of livestock information is usually done through livestock organisations

and dip tank committees (Jenjezwa and Seethal, 2014), whose membership is generally limited to

men who are legal owners of livestock. Culturally, women are associated with family care, limiting

131

their involvement in livestock production and health. In addition, women are culturally not

permitted to enter kraals; thus, it becomes hard for them to practice IK, even though they

sometimes possess substantial knowledge (Mkwanazi et al., 2020).

Most respondents that reside on-farm were using IK, and they were older and unemployed, relying

on a government grant for survival. Farmers residing on-farm were possibly more knowledgeable

than those staying outside the farm since they were fully involved in taking care of their goats’

health. This concurs with Sanhokwe et al. (2016) findings, who reported that most farmers were

old and poor; therefore, grants were their major source of income. Older generations are sole

bearers of IK, and they mostly own livestock. In contrast, younger generations are unlikely to own

livestock due to career advancement, life development, migration to urban areas, and the lack of

interest in such practice attributable to the effects of modernisation (Hussain et al., 2008). The

younger generation neglect IK as they associate the knowledge with backwardness and witchcraft,

making it difficult for the older generation to share knowledge with them (Mkwanazi et al., 2020).

The extraversion and acculturation that characterise modern society need to be addressed.

Formally educated farmers tend to undermine IK simply because the educational structures

promote conventional knowledge more than IK (Mkwanazi et al., 2020), which usually portrays

CK as superior, universal, and having no cultural footprints appearing conspicuous to IK (Kaya

and Seleti, 2013). The use of IK by not formally educated farmers is likely influenced by their

illiteracy, whereby they cannot read instructions written on medicines. Their low-income status

also reduces the affordability of conventional drugs. Livestock training on animal health care is

132

usually conducted using CK; therefore, it does not invest in the development of IK theory building

and interpretation as the heart of the scientific process and thus influences the use of IK by those

that were not trained.

South Africa's government has played a role in promoting commercial products that are part of

CK over IK through extension officers, animal health technicians, and veterinarians. Scantlebury

et al. (2013) indicated that veterinarians, as heads of veterinary services, do not favour the use of

indigenous knowledge. The main reason for the failure of veterinarians and other veterinary

professionals not to adopt IK is the lack of scientific validation (Phondani et al., 2010). Integration

of IK into the existing animal health care service could improve communications and contacts

between livestock owners, veterinarians and extension support services. This could revive the

extension support delivery system and improve service delivery, mainly because resources are

locally available.

The higher association of the use of IK in goats could be because goats were the earliest

domesticated animals reared for food, religious, cultural, and economic reasons from ancient times

(Manivannan et al., 2018). The length of the interaction between goats and indigenous people

resulted in the evolution of traditional practices in livestock veterinary care. Convenience could

have influenced the higher use of IK in smaller herds of livestock with regards to sourcing and

processing medicinal plants and the labour force involved. Moreover, farmers with smaller herds

are perceived as poor (Hefferman, 2004) because their lower purchasing power limits them from

affording conventional medicines.

133

Water scarcity remains a constraint in goat production in the study site due to droughts, erratic,

and uneven distribution of rainfall. The shortage of water forces goats to travel long distances to

water sources, which impacts their health (Mseleku et al., 2020). Water shortage also reduces the

availability, growth, composition, and quality of fodder, leading to reduced productivity and

increased mortality in goats (Tolera and Abebe, 2007; Mdletshe et al., 2018). Poor nutrition may

lead to the susceptibility of goats to diseases due to weaker immune responses, preventing them

from coping with the consequences of parasitism and other diseases (Powell and MacDonald,

2017).

Parasites could be the main challenge in the study area due to poor management of communal

grazing rangelands contaminated with heavy loads of GI parasites and ticks. Findings from

Zvinorova et al. (2016) agree that there are high multiple parasite burdens in communal grazing

areas and a great possibility of re-infections. Gastrointestinal parasites aggravate the imbalance of

nutrients, leading to decreased growth performance and increased morbidity and mortality in goats

(Rumosa Gwaze et al., 2009a). The prevalence of ticks in goats at the study site concurs with

Mkwanazi et al. (2020). Ticks were identified as major disease-causing pathogens as they transmit

several tick-borne diseases, particularly heartwater, and contribute to the development of

secondary infections in goats in the study area. The poor control of ticks is exacerbated because

the dipping of goats in the area is rare (Mkwanazi et al., 2020).

Amongst GI parasites, roundworms were of significant concern, possibly because of their high

fecundity and pathogenicity, causing heavy burdens in pastures and resulting in clinical signs.

134

Roundworms are the most pathogenic nematodes of small ruminants with significant economic

impact worldwide (Roeber et al., 2013). When tapeworm segments are expelled, they are visible

in faeces than nematodes that commonly exhibit symptoms or excretion of eggs in faeces. This

often raises more concern amongst goat producers than with nematodes; however, tapeworms

contribute to the worm burden in goats (Sissay et al., 2008). According to farmers, another

problematic type of GI parasite, especially in kids, is the one that causes lesions, thereby forming

whitish scattered nodules and thickening of the intestinal wall. The observed symptoms are for

coccidiosis, which concurs with those observed by Kaur et al. (2017) on goat intestines with mixed

coccidial infection. According to Mohamaden et al. (2018), coccidia causes more pathogenic

effects in kids but may severely affect adult goats, especially the subclinical type.

Phondani et al. (2010) reported that indigenous knowledge is orally transferred from one

generation to the other and is not fully documented, which could explain why family members are

the custodians of IK, especially elderly people from within families and the community at large.

Farmers share information on animal health care challenges affecting their livestock and control

measures to curb such ailments during their gatherings, at farmers' meetings, dipping tanks,

auctions, etc. The finding agrees with Luseba and Tshisikhawe (2013) that IK was recommended

by other farmers, family members and elders. Herbalists and culturalists remain sources of IK

since it is more compatible with their personal beliefs and values; however, it was not anticipated

that they would not be a major source of IK. It was not surprising that extension services were

identified as the least IK source because of the lack of veterinary support for resource-limited

farmers (Bath et al., 2016).

135

The preference of IK over CK is ascribed to the combination of its easy availability, effectiveness,

practical applicability, lower cost, one treatment for various diseases, its acceptability in

communities, and a claim that it leaves no residues on the meat of treated animals. Research by

Luseba and Van der Merwe (2006), Maphosa and Masika (2010), Sanhokwe et al. (2016), and Giri

et al. (2017) concurs with these findings. Medicinal plants are locally available in natural

vegetation, which makes them easily accessible and affordable. Its simplicity and applicability are

due to the practical training provided by elders to younger generations. The culturally linked

traditions and trust in IK influence its effectiveness more than CK, although some participants

stipulated that the efficiency of these methods is the same. The parallel use of IK and CK to control

GIN, as indicated by some farmers, shows the complementarity of these practices. This trend is in

consonance with a study by Mkwanazi et al. (2020).

The most frequently mentioned plant families used by farmers to control nematodes,

Asphodelaceae, Fabaceae, Vitaceae, Asteraceae, could be due to their vast natural distribution in

the area and utilization for multiple diseases, which is a widespread practice in ethnoveterinary

medication. Similarly, Williams et al. (2013) also identified these families amongst those that are

widely used. This might suggest that these families can withstand environmental changes caused

by climate change, although various studies have reported a decrease in the number of

ethnoveterinary plants because of exploitation and environmental degradation (Van Wyk and

Prinsloo, 2018; Williams et al., 2013). These families are rich in secondary metabolites, such as

alkaloids, saponins, flavonoids, tannins, and steroids, enhancing their utilization to treat digestive

system problems in livestock and humans. It should be noted that the popularity of these plants

136

does not indicate their effectiveness, which could only be ascertained by efficacy assessment. Such

plants could be prioritised for further research to meet farmers’ needs (Nyahangare et al., 2015).

The frequent use of the Cissus quadrangularis Linn. plant could be due to its natural availability

and broad-spectrum. Cissus quadrangularis Linn. is widely used for the treatment of multiple

ailments, such as controlling ticks (Mkwanazi et al., 2020), promoting bone fracture and tissue

healing (Giri et al., 2017), treatment of Newcastle disease (Kpodékon et al., 2015), retained

placenta (Chitura et al., 2018) and worm infestation (Pathaki et al., 2010). According to the

literature, some popular plants that participants identified have been reported to possess

anthelmintic properties amongst other medicinal uses; Albizia anthelminthica Brongn (Muthee,

2018), Sclerocarya birrea (A. Rich.) Hochst (McGaw et al., 2007), Trichilia emetica Vahl (Moyo

et al., 2015), Aloe ferox Mill. (Sanhokwe et al., 2016), Vernonia neocorymbosa Hilliard

(Hutchings et al., 1996), and Schkuhria pinnata (Lam) Kuntze ex Thell (McGaw et al., 2007).

There is scarce literature on the use of Vachellia xanthophloea (Benth.) P.J.H. Hurter, Aloe

maculata All., Gomphocarpus physocarpus E. Mey, Cissus rotundifolia (Forssk.) Vahl and Aloe

marlothii A. Berger. as anthelmintics, which shows their unique use in the study area and

familiarity through long-term experience.

The published literature on Vachellia xanthophloea (Benth.) P.J.H. Hurter has indicated that it is

also used to treat Foot and mouth disease (Gakuubi and Wanzala, 2012). Aloe maculata All. has

been scientifically proven to treat blood scours in calves and enteritis (Hutchings et al., 1996).

Gomphocarpus physocarpus E. Mey is used to treat stomach aches (Sreekeesoon et al., 2014).

137

Cissus rotundifolia (Forssk.) Vahl is used as a digestive in the food industry (Al-Fatimi et al.,

2007). Aloe marlothii A. Berger uses are not documented, but farmers reported that it has

anthelmintic properties like Aloe ferox Mill. The use of leaves is advantageous because it conserves

plants compared to roots, tubers, and the whole plant, which is destructive and unsustainable

(Maphosa and Masika, 2010). The tree bark also followed the same pattern as the leaves.

The higher odds of the dry rangeland influencing the use of IK to control GIN in goats could be

because the dominant plant species are long-lived and resilient to extreme climate changes,

providing rare opportunities for manipulating the vegetation. Wet rangelands are subject to

vegetation change triggered by drought resulting in loss, such as perennial shrubs or grasses

(Vetter, 2009). Decision-making dynamics are widely influenced by men as household heads,

regardless of whether they own livestock or not, stemming from cultural ideologies that dictate the

roles of men and women.

Males grew up herding livestock as the cultural norm, enabling them to gain knowledge in animal

husbandry. Therefore, they are seen as having superior knowledge of what and what should not be

done (Mkwanazi et al., 2020). This enables men to be of influence, as they are naturally selected

from young ages to be apprentices of the ethnoveterinary practice. Moreover, kraals are

traditionally considered as sacred spaces. Women cannot be allowed to enter since they are seen

to be contaminating it, which could lead to sickness and death of livestock. Findings from

Mkwanazi et al. (2020) agree to gender bias favouring men.

138

As sole bearers of IK, adults provide information to document and use their experience to influence

the youth to adopt ethnoveterinary practices. The finding that most farmers are elderly and stay

on-farm was anticipated to influence the use of IK to treat GIN. This finding concurs with that of

Mkwanazi et al. (2020), where older people influenced the use of IK to treat ticks and tick-borne

diseases. It was anticipated that the availability of herbalists in the area would influence the use of

IK. Findings from Luseba and Tshisikhawe (2013) agree that herbalists play a huge role in

promoting IK, as they mostly share information with the elders. It is of paramount importance that

IK is conserved to attain sustainability.

5.5 Conclusions

The study revealed that farmers use sufficient indigenous knowledge to control gastrointestinal

parasites in goats. The age, gender, type of rangeland, availability of herbalists in the area and

farmers residing on-farm were the factors that influenced the use of IK to control GIN in goats.

Understanding the factors that influence IK use is an essential step in developing an alternative or

integrated system for sustainable goat intervention strategies. The influence of the rangeland type

on the extent of IK use warrants investigating these factors in the wet and dry environment.

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Chapter 6: Factors affecting the utilisation of indigenous knowledge to control

gastrointestinal nematodes

Published in the Agriculture Journal (Appendix: 5)

Abstract

The adoption and utilisation of indigenous knowledge (IK) is on the decline. The objective of the

study was to determine differences in the extent of use of IK to control gastrointestinal nematodes

(GIN) in goats between wet and dry environments. A structured questionnaire was used to collect

data. Almost all households used IK in controlling parasites. There was a close association among

environment, gender, and religion (P < 0.05) on IK use. Less poor farmers were 2.38 times more

likely to use IK (P > 0.05) than poor farmers. Adults were 1.20 more likely to use IK (P < 0.05)

than younger people. Unemployed farmers were 4.26 more likely to use IK compared to their

employed counterparts (P < 0.01). Having a herbalist in the community was 3.6 times more likely

to influence the use of IK (P < 0.05) than the environment where there was no herbalist. Farmers

that received an informal education in the dry environment were 5.88 more likely to use IK (P <

0.05) than those in the wet environment. Farmers who practiced traditional Zulu culture were more

2.05 likely to use IK compared to those following the Christian faith (P < 0.05). The considerable

variation in IK adoption suggests that intervention strategies that advance IK use should consider

socio-demographic information of the community.

Keywords: Anthelmintic plants; ethnoveterinary knowledge; helminthiasis; small ruminants

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6.1 Introduction

Goat production in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is increasing enormously (Skapets and Bampidis,

2016). Developing countries are characterised by marginal and degraded lands, water scarcity and

harsh environmental conditions, where the survival of imported goats is minimal. Indigenous goats

are, therefore, predominant (Ng’ambi et al., 2013). Indigenous goats are a backbone of rural

economies and are useful for nutrition and poverty alleviation (Mdletshe et al., 2018). Goats are

also kept for traditional ceremonies and help during crop failure (Durawo et al., 2017). Despite

their contribution, goat rearing is often characterised by low levels of management, lack of good

animal husbandry practices, and lack of veterinary care. Low productivity is also exacerbated by

high infestation with infectious diseases and parasites. Gastrointestinal parasitic infestation is rife

owing to warm temperatures and inadequate control measures (Zvinorova et al., 2016; Atanasio-

Nhacumbel and Sitoe, 2019).

Control of gastrointestinal nematodes (GIN) using conventional anthelmintic drugs is not

sustainable due to inconsistent supply, high prices, reduced efficiency because of incorrect dosages

and use of expired drugs (Kebede, 2019). These challenges contribute to the nematodes developing

resistance against anthelmintics (Kaplan and Vidyashamkar, 2012). The presence of chemical

residue in animal products also limits the use of anthelmintics. Development of sustainable,

affordable, integrated, novel and non-chemical approaches to treat GIN are required. One such

strategy is to promote the use of IK. The utilisation of IK may depend on socio-economic and

demographic status (Weckmuller et al., 2019), cultural and religious beliefs, gender, age, ethnicity,

and environmental conditions (Cunningham, 1993, Matavele and Habib, 2000, Hunn, 2002;

Mkwanazi et al., 2020).

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Urbanisation, accessibility to resources, and the presence of extension services actively contribute

to the loss of IK. Due to climate change, changes in vegetation structure also influence the species

of plants available in any given community. Findings in Chapter 5 showed that the type of

environment influences the use of IK, where the likelihood was higher in the dry than in the wet

environment. The influence of these factors on IK utilisation in different environment types needs

to be considered when designing sustainable strategies that promote goat health under resource-

limited settings. The objective of the study was to determine the differences in factors influencing

IK used to control GIN in goats between the wet and the dry environment. The hypothesis tested

was that the factors influencing IK used are similar in both wet and dry environments.

6.2 Materials and Methods

6.2.1 Ethical clearance

The respondents’ rights, religions, culture, and dignity were respected. The respondents were

assured that no confidential information would be disclosed, and they had a right to stop the

interview whenever they felt uncomfortable. The experimental procedures were performed

according to the ethical guidelines specified by the Certification of Authorization to Experiment

on Living Humans provided by the Social Sciences – Humanities & Social Sciences Research

Ethics Committee, Reference No: HSS/0852/017 (Appendix 2).

6.2.2 Description of the study site

Details on the description of the study site are described in section 5.2.1. The location of the study

site is shown in Figure 6.1.

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Figure 6.1: Location of the study site

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6.2.3 Data collection

A total of 294 households were interviewed within their homesteads. Data were acquired through

interviews using a structured questionnaire. Questionnaires were administered in the IsiZulu

vernacular by trained enumerators. Enumerators were obtained from local communities. Meetings

with local authorities such as chiefs and local headmen were conducted to enable easy access to

communities. Local livestock officers, veterinarians, farmer’s association, and extension officers

from the Department of Agriculture were interviewed to help in identifying communities to

generate a list of farmers that kept goats and give an overview of the challenges of controlling GIN

on livestock. Households were selected based on goats’ ownership and willingness to participate

in the study. Data were collected on household demographics, the socio-economic status of

households. The questionnaire also captured the extent of use of IK to control GIN, reasons for

using IK, measures used to control GIN, and factors influencing the use of IK (Appendix 4).

6.2.4 Statistical analyses

All the data were analysed using SAS (2012). An ordinal logistic regression (PROC LOGISTIC)

was used to estimate the odds ratio of the factors influencing the use of indigenous knowledge to

control GIN. The gender of the household farmer, age, education status, residence, employment

status, livestock training, and member of the farmer association, type of environment, and presence

of herbalists in the area was fitted in the logit model. The following logit model was used:

In [P/1−P] = β0 + β1X1 + β2X2… + βtXt + ε

Where: P = probability of the group using indigenous knowledge;

[P/1−P] = odds ratio of the group using indigenous knowledge;

β0 = intercept; β1X1...βtXt = regression coefficients of predictors;

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ε = random residual error.

6.3 Results

6.3.1 Household demographic information

Household demographic information of farmers who participated in the study is shown in Table

6.1. There was an association between environment and livestock training on the use of IK (P <

0.01). Farmers in the wet environment who received livestock training (80 %) used IK more than

those in the dry environment. Farmers who attended tertiary education were less likely to use IK

in both environments to control GIN.

6.3.2 Reasons for using indigenous knowledge

Figure 6.2 shows the ranking of major reasons for using IK. As expected, farmers ranked the

purposes of using IK differently (P < 0.05) in both environments. Approximately 70 % of farmers

in the wet environment ranked effectiveness as their major reason for using IK compared to those

in the dry environment (50 %). Farmers ranked the availability of medicinal plants second in the

wet environment. The use of IK in the wet environment was influenced by affordability compared

to their counterparts in the dry environment. Most farmers reported that IK produces similar results

with conventional knowledge (CK).

6.3.3 Indigenous and conventional methods used to control nematodes

Table 6.2 shows the indigenous and conventional methods used to control nematodes. Farmers

used both IK and conventional knowledge to control GIN, respectively. Most farmers in the dry

environment used dewormers (54 %) to control GIN in goats (P < 0.05). There was no effect of

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Table 6.1: Household demographic information of farmers who participated in the study

Characteristics Wet environment

(158)

Dry environment

(136) χ2 Significance

Gender

Male 49 59 2.988 *

Females 51 41

Age

18-30 6 4.2

31-50 43 40 0.655 NS

>50 52 56

Level of education

No formal education 39 38.1

Grade 1-7 35 34 0.377 NS

Grade 8-12 25 27

Tertiary 0.70 1.36

Source of income

Livestock sales 31 26.3

Crops 16 16.1

Salary 13 17 3.331 NS

Government grants 36.7 40.2

Other 3.13 0.73

Religion

Christianity 39 45 10.372 **

Traditional 61 55

Livestock training 80 20 11.433 **

Other - represents other sources such as money from working sons and daughters, ploughing for

neighbours and taxi driving. *Significant association at P < 0.05, ** P < 0.01, NS not significant

(P > 0.05). χ2 – represents a Chi-square value.

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Table 6.2: Measures used to control gastrointestinal nematodes

Methods used Environments P-

value

Conventional

knowledge

Wet

environment

Dry

environment

Dewormers

45 54 *

Injections 47.7 52.3 NS

Vaccination

50.5 49.5 NS

Indigenous

knowledge

Use of plants 68 32 **

Non-plant-based

material 40 60 **

Occasional pasture

burning 69 31 **

*P < 0.05, ** P < 0.01, NS: Not significant

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vaccinating goats in both environments (P > 0.05). Of those using ethnoveterinary plants, a

significant population (68 %) was from the wet environment and only (32 %) in the dry

environment (P < 0.01). The majority of the farmers (P < 0.01) in the dry environment depended

on non-plant-based materials (60 %) to control GIN. About 69 % and 31 % of farmers in the wet

and dry environment (P < 0.05), respectively, practiced occasional pasture burning.

6.3.4 Odds ratio estimates of the factors influencing IK used to control nematodes in goats

The odds ratio estimates for the factors influencing IK use are shown in Table 6.3. Male farmers

in the wet environment were 1.69 times more likely to influence the extent of use of IK than their

female counterparts (P < 0.05). The youths residing in the wet environment were 1.47 more likely

to influence the use of IK. The probability of farmers who received informal education was 1.85

times more likely to influence IK use in the wet environment (P > 0.05). The likelihood of farmers

who believe in tradition (P < 0.05) was 1.11 times more likely to influence the use of IK to control

GIN than farmers who practice Christianity. The probability that farmers who did not receive

livestock training influenced the use of IK was 1.4 times higher (P > 0.05) than that of farmers that

were trained.

Less poor farmers were 2.38 times more likely to influence the use of IK (P > 0.05) than poor

farmers. The probability of having an herbalist in the wet environment was 3.6 times more likely

to influence the use of IK (P < 0.05). The probability of gender influencing the extent of use of IK

was significant (P < 0.01). Male farmers were 8.05 times more likely to use IK to control

nematodes in a dry environment. Adults in the dry environment were 1.20 more likely to influence

the use of IK. The informally educated farmers in the dry environment were 5.88 more likely to

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Table 6.3: Odds ratio estimates, lower (LCI) and upper confidence (UCI) interval of the factors influencing the use of IK to

control gastrointestinal nematodes in the wet and dry environment

Predictor

Wet environment

Significance

Dry environment

Significance

Odds LCI UCI Odds LCI UCI

Gender (male vs female) 1.69 0.47 6.90 * 8.05 1.14 16.11 **

Age (adult versus youth) 0.68 0.17 2.63 * 1.20 0.068 6.04 *

Education (formal vs informal) 0.54 0.13 2.23 NS 0.17 0.01 1.46 NS

Employment (unemployed vs employed) 1.36 0.51 4.02 * 4.26 0.03 1.92 **

Religion (tradition vs christianity) 1.11 0.42 2.93 * 2.05 0.42 7.93 *

Livestock training (yes vs no) 0.54 0.14 1.26 NS 1.74 0.34 5.52 *

Socio-economic status (poor vs less poor) 0.42 0.36 5.75 NS 1.67 0.36 5.75 NS

Herbalist (yes vs no) 1.03 1.61 11.96 * 3.63 1.61 9.96 **

Higher odds ratio estimates indicate greater difference in occurrence between levels of predictors; * P < 0.05; ** P < 0.01; NS = Not

different (P > 0.05), vs indicates versus.

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influence the use of IK (P < 0.05). Unemployed farmers were 4.26 more likely to influence the

use of IK in the dry environment compared to their employed counterparts (P < 0.01). Farmers

who practiced traditional Zulu culture in the dry environment were 2.05 more likely to

influence the use of IK than Christians (P < 0.05). The probability of receiving livestock

training was 1.74 more likely to influence the use of IK in the dry environment. The likelihood

of having an herbalist in the dry environment was 3.63 more likely to influence the extent of

use of IK (P < 0.01), respectively.

6.4 Discussion

The significant association between environment and gender on IK use was not surprising. It

was, however, expected that men would use IK similarly in both environments because they

usually make decisions about livestock, including goats. Male farmers attend livestock

meetings, which then increase the knowledge of IK amongst them. Women have to educate

themselves on how to raise goats as they depend on them for income generation and food

security. The finding that most females in the wet environment use IK could be influenced by

the fact that most households are now headed by women (Vilakazi et al., 2019). Farmers who

are traditional used IK more in both environments, which was expected. The finding that most

livestock-trained farmers used IK could influence plant availability and accessibility in the wet

environment compared to those in the dry environment.

Livestock information is usually shared through livestock organisations and dip tank

committees (Mkwanazi et al., 2020), whose membership is generally limited to men who are

legal owners of livestock. The high availability and accessibility of remedies in the wet

environment being associated with farmer support groups can also boost knowledge level

towards IK as they witness other farmers sharing their ideas. The observation that farmers

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above 50 years of age in both environments used IK could presumably be due to that older

generations are sole bearers of IK, and they mostly own livestock, while younger generations

are unlikely to own livestock due to career advancement and migration to urban areas (Hassain

et al., 2008). The younger generation neglects IK as they associate the knowledge with

witchcraft and backwardness, making it difficult for the older generation to share knowledge

with them. The use of IK by farmers with no formal education in both environments is

attributed to the high illiteracy level, whereby they cannot read instructions written on

conventional anthelmintics. Their low-income status also reduces the affordability of

conventional drugs.

The perception that farmers used IK because of its effectiveness more in the wet than the dry

environment could be because, since the vegetation grows well in this environment, there is a

wide variation of plants with anthelmintic properties than the dry environment (Mkwanazi et

al., 2020). The traditions linked to culture and trust in IK influence its effectiveness more than

CK, even though some participants indicated that the efficiency of these methods is the same.

This could also explain the high use of IK due to availability in the wet than the dry

environment. Mkwanazi et al. (2020) agree with this finding; however, Gumbochuma et al.

(2013) reported that people view the efficacy of indigenous practices to be low. Most farmers

in both dry and wet environments perceived that IK produces similar results with CK, which

could mean that farmers deem the efficacy of these two knowledge systems the same. Hence,

the need for knowledge complementarity. The easier to use IK in both environments could be

because practical training is provided by elders to younger generations.

The observation that farmers in dry environments depended more on dewormers to control GIN

could be linked to the scarcity of medicinal plants in the area as more plants have been lost due

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to climate change. This finding, however, disagrees with Van Averbeke et al. (2000). The

finding that farmers in both dry and wet environments vaccinate their goats could be the

influence of extension services, which usually offer veterinary precautions to farmers. The use

of vaccination programmes could also be the factor limiting IK adoption by extension services.

Extension services are trained using Western science; hence it is hard for them to accept IK

because it is considered not scientifically approved. Thus, the need to merge veterinary

structures and other veterinary institutions of higher training with what people are exposed to

at a ground level.

The finding that IK was the most prominent method used to control GIN agrees with Van

Averbeke et al. (2000), who reported that 75 % of farmers in resource-limited areas use

traditional medicine to treat livestock. Medicinal plants are locally available in natural

vegetation, making them easily accessible and affordable (Sanhokwe et al., 2016). The higher

use of plant remedies in a wet environment could be influenced by the abundance of vegetation

that possesses anthelmintic properties in the area. There is a need to control and develop

methods that farmers can use to grow plants to keep IK sustainable. Farmers in the dry

environment depend on non-plant-based materials. In the absence and limited diversity of

medicinal plants possessing anthelmintic properties, farmers should seek possible approaches

to deal with gastrointestinal parasites. The observation that most farmers in the wet

environment practice occasional pasture burning is difficult to explain. A possible explanation

for this result, however, could be that farmers burn pastures to limit the possibilities of re-

infection of pastures with parasites, even though this approach is not recommended as it

reduces feed availability.

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The finding that odds ratio estimates were in favour of males in both environments to influence

the use of IK could be due to that decision-making processes in resource-limited households

are widely influenced by men as household heads, irrespective of whether they own livestock

or not, stemming from cultural ideologies that dictate the roles between men and women. Most

males grow up herding livestock as the cultural norm, enabling them to gain knowledge in

animal husbandry. Men are seen as having superior knowledge of what to and should not be

done (Mkwanazi et al., 2020). Differences in knowledge and perception between men and

women can also be partly explained by the consequence of sexual division in traditional

societies because learning is culturally conditioned. For example, kraals are traditionally

considered sacred spaces. Women are not allowed to enter under normal circumstances since

they are seen to be contaminating it, which could lead to sickness and death of livestock. The

issue of gender biases that favours men, where kraal access is patriarchal and strictly territorial,

resonates with Mkwanazi et al. (2020). Such patriarchal set-ups need to be considered when

designing sustainable goat management programs due to the increased dominance of women

in goat production.

The observation that age influenced the use of IK was anticipated in both environments. It was,

however, surprising that in the wet environment, the odds were in favour of younger people.

This finding could be influenced by the scarcity of job opportunities for young people; hence

agricultural farming becomes the gateway. While the observation that in the dry environment

adults influenced the use of IK could be because the older generation is usually the sole bearers

and recognises the usefulness of IK more than youth. It is also logical that with progressive

age, people tend to have more time to accumulate knowledge and, thus, become more

informative than the younger generation (Weckmuller et al., 2019). Other authors see the

reason for lesser knowledge in the younger population as ongoing socio-economic and cultural

161

changes. Hence, there is a need to close the barriers and age gaps to ensure a smooth transition

of IK from elders to younger generations. The re-surfacing and the need for government

institutions to revive IK could be useful in creating opportunities for young people. The

observation that the level of education influenced the use of IK with the odds in favour of

farmers who received an informal education in both environments agrees with Mkwanazi et al.

(2020). The probable explanation for this finding could be that Western schooling and training

institutions do not incorporate nor recognise African histories, cultures, and ways of learning

and traditional knowledge. As a result, farmers with informal education have not been

brainwashed into believing that CK is superior to IK. In comparison, the educated group of

farmers has rendered IK toxic and based on mythology.

The finding that employment status influenced the use of IK, with the odds in favour of

unemployed farmers is in agreement with that, resource-limited farmers in sub-Saharan Africa

are characterized by poverty and high unemployment rate and also survive with less than 1

USD per day (Chimonyo et al., 2005). Consequently, they cannot afford expensive commercial

anthelmintics as the few remittances they receive from the government are used to support

children’s education and food purchases. The finding that religious belief influences the use of

IK with the odds in favour of tradition was not surprising. Most Christians associate the use of

IK with unclean spirits; hence they do not rely on it. Such observation renders challenges to

the continued use of IK because the influx of Christian converts in developing countries is on

the rise.

In resource-limited areas, farmers usually have back-to-back training where they share

knowledge about livestock. Hence, the probability that receiving livestock training influenced

IK use was not surprising because, in the absence of commercial anthelmintics, farmers teach

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each other indigenous ways of controlling parasites. It was anticipated that the availability of

herbalists in the study areas would influence the use of IK. Findings from Mkwanazi et al.

(2020) agree that herbalists play a huge role in promoting IK, as they mostly share information

with the elders. It is of paramount importance that people such as herbalists are included in IK

development policies. Policymakers should consult with indigenous people to ensure effective

and inclusive development policies of IK.

6.5 Conclusions

The factors that influence the use of IK vary with the environment. The extent of the use of IK

was influenced by gender, employment status, age and religion, and the presence of herbalists.

Understanding these factors forms the basis for the development of sustainable goat

intervention strategies. Since there are IK methods of identifying nematodes, it was necessary

to determine if there exist relationships between goat health status and GIN to quantify the

findings using conventional knowledge methods.

6.6 References

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gastrointestinal nematode parasites of goats from smallholder farms in

Mozambique. Insight-Veterinary Science 3: 23-29.

Botha, A.F., Roux, J.A. (2008). Fibre, yarn and fabric properties of South African indigenous

goat hair. 4th International Cashmere/wool Technique Symposium. Erdos City, China,

17 - 18 November, pp 140-147.

Chimonyo, M., Bhebhe, E., Dzama, K., Halimani, T.E., Kanengoni, A. (2005). Improving

smallholder pig production for food security and livelihood of the poor in Southern

Africa. In African Crop Science Conference Proceedings 7(2 of 3): 569-573).

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Cunningham, A.B. (1993). African medicinal plants. United Nations Educational, Scientific

and Cultural Organization: Paris, France.

Durawo, C., Zindove, T.J., Chimonyo, M. (2017). Influence of genotype and topography on

the goat predation challenge under communal production systems. Small Ruminant

Research 149: 115-120.

Gush, M.B. (2008). Measurement of water-use by Jatropha curcas L. using the heat-pulse

velocity technique. Water SA 34(5): 579-584.

Gumbochuma, G., Hamandishe, V.R., Nyahangare, E.T., Imbayarwo-Chikosi, V.E., Ncube, S.

(2013). Ethnoveterinary practices for poultry and cattle in Zimbabwe: a case study of

Takavarasha village. Scholarly Journal Agricultural Science 2(12): 355-359.

Hussain, A., Khan, M.N., Iqbal, Z., Sajid, M.S. (2008). An account of the botanical

anthelmintics used in traditional veterinary practices in Sahiwal district of Punjab,

Pakistan. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 119(1): 185-190.

Hunn, E.S. (2002). Evidence for the precocious acquisition of plant knowledge by Zapotec

children. Ethnobiology and Biocultural Diversity 604: 13-31.

Kaplan, R.M. Vidyashankar, A.N. (2012). An inconvenient truth: global warming and

anthelmintic resistance. Veterinary Parasitology 186(1-2): 70-78.

Kebede, A. (2019). Review on anthelmintic drug resistance nematodes and its methods of

detection in Ethiopia. Journal of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Sciences 2: 1013.

Matavele, J., Habib, M. (2000). Ethnobotany in Cabo Delgado, Mozambique: use of medicinal

plants. Environment, Development and Sustainability 2(3): 227-234.

Mdletshe, Z.M., Ndlela, S.Z., Nsahlai, I.V., Chimonyo, M. (2018). Farmer perceptions on

factors influencing water scarcity for goats in resource-limited communal farming

environments. Tropical Animal Health and Production 50(7): 1617-1623.

164

Mkwanazi, M.V., Ndlela, S.Z. and Chimonyo, M. (2020). Utilisation of indigenous knowledge

to control ticks in goats: a case of KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa. Tropical

Animal Health and Production 1-9.

Morgenthal, T.L., Kellner, K., Van Rensburg, L., Newby, T.S and Van der Merwe, J.P.A.

(2006). Vegetation and habitat types of the Umkhanyakude Node. South African

Journal of Botany 72(1): 1-10.

Ndawonde, B.G. (2006). Medicinal Plant Sales: A case study in northern Zululand. Doctoral

dissertation, University of Zululand, KwaDlangezwa, South Africa.

Ng’ambi, J.W., Alabi, O.J., Norris, D. (2013). Role of goats in food security, poverty

alleviation and prosperity with special reference to Sub-Saharan Africa: a

review. Indian Journal of Animal Research 47(1): 1-9.

SAS (2012). Statistical Analysis System User’s Guide, Version 9.4. SAS Institute Incorporate

Cary, North Carolina, USA.

Sanhokwe, M., Mupangwa, J., Masika, P.J., Maphosa, V., Muchenje, V. (2016). Medicinal

plants used to control internal and external parasites in goats. Onderstepoort Journal of

Veterinary Research 83(1): 1-7.

Skapetas, B., Bampidis, V. (2016). Goat production in the World: present situation and trends.

Livestock Research and Rural Development 28(11): 200.

Van Averbeke, W., Sonandi, A. Masika, P.J. (2000). Use of herbal remedies by small-scale

farmers to treat livestock diseases in central Eastern Cape Province, South

Africa. Journal of the South African Veterinary Association 71(2): 87-91.

Vilakazi, B.S., Zengeni, R., Mafongoya, P. (2019). Indigenous strategies used by selected

farming communities in KwaZulu Natal, South Africa, to manage soil, water, and

climate extremes and to make weather predictions. Land Degradation &

Development 30(16): 1999-2008.

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Weckmüller, H., Barriocanal, C., Maneja, R., Boada, M. (2019). Factors affecting traditional

medicinal plant knowledge of the Waorani, Ecuador. Sustainability 11(16): 4460.

Zvinorova, P.I., Halimani, T.E., Muchadeyi, F.C., Matika, O., Riggio, V., Dzama, K. (2016).

Prevalence and risk factors of gastrointestinal parasitic infections in goats in low-input

low-output farming systems in Zimbabwe. Small Ruminant Research 143: 75-83.

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Chapter 7: Indigenous methods of predicting nematode burdens in goats using

clinical signs

Under review in Small Ruminant Research Journal

Abstract

Gastrointestinal parasitism is a major constraint to goat productivity, particularly in resource-

limited production systems and resource-limited farmers have the expertise to predict worm

burdens based on clinical signs. The objective of the study was to assess whether the indigenous

methods of predicting worm burdens concur with the conventional techniques of assessing goat

health in different classes of Nguni goats. Packed cell volume (PCV), body condition score

(BCS), FAMACHA score, and faecal egg count (FEC) were measured in 120 goats of different

ages (weaners, does and bucks) across seasons. Significantly higher egg counts were observed

in weaners (7406 ± 401.4) and does (4844 ± 401.4) during the hot-wet season, while bucks had

the highest counts (5561 ± 529.7) in the cool-dry season. The identified gastrointestinal

nematodes (GIN) were Strongyloides (30 %), Haemonchus contortus (28 %), Trichostrongylus

sp. (23 %), Oesophagostomum sp. (17 %) and Ostertagia (2 %), and these had higher

percentage counts in the hot-wet season. Sex had no effect on BCS, FAMACHA, PCV and

FEC. An interaction (P < 0.05) between age and season on FAMACHA score, BCS, PCV and

FEC was observed. Weaners had lower BCS and PCV during the cool-dry season. Higher

FAMACHA scores and FEC were observed in weaners during the cool-dry season. The rate of

change in the FAMACHA scores was higher in the post-rainy season than in other seasons as

FEC increased (P < 0.01). The rate of change in FAMACHA score was higher in weaners than

does and bucks as FEC increased (P < 0.01). The significant relationship between FEC and

FAMACHA scores suggests that farmers can adopt the FAMACHA technique to improve the

prediction of GIN burden.

Keywords: FAMACHA; nematodes; packed cell volume; seasonal prevalence

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7.1 Introduction

The Sub-Saharan Africa possesses 38 million goats in the SADC region, where they are kept

by resource-limited farmers (Dzama 2016). In developing countries, goats represent a major

asset in resource-limited farmers by providing money through the sale of live goats, meat and

hides (Zvinorova et al., 2016). Goats possess the ability to utilise low-quality and undesirable

feeds, have minimal input requirements and are easy to manage (Mkwanazi et al., 2020). Their

productivity, however, remains marginal due to the high prevalence of parasites and diseases,

leading to increased economic losses. Parasite challenges negatively impact goat health. The

repercussion of gastrointestinal nematodes (GIN) includes lowered fertility and milk

production, high veterinary costs, morbidity and mortality (Regassa et al., 2006).

Infestation with GIN changes the metabolism of a goat, reducing protein and energy retention

and disturbing the mineral balance (Rupa and Portugaliza, 2016). Worm infestations are

characterized by the loss of body condition, anaemia, diarrhoea and death as significant

challenges in goats (Nwoke et al., 2015). Goats survive in hardy conditions with high

temperatures, scarce water and feed shortages (Zvinorova et al., 2016). Nevertheless,

temperatures are expected to increase due to climate change. Such climate changes have altered

the seasonal patterns and increased the number of gastrointestinal parasites (Dzama, 2016).

The most pathogenic gastrointestinal parasites of goats commonly encountered include

Haemonchus, Strongyloides, Trichostrongylus and Oesophagostomum (Mpofu et al., 2020).

The FAMACHA score and PCV are useful tools for predicting anaemia associated with high

worm burdens due to the blood-sucking nature of GIN. Hoste et al. (2008) reported an

interaction between parasitism and nutrition in goats; however, there is no information on the

relationship between parasite loads and the health status of different classes of Nguni goats in

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different seasons. It is, therefore, important to determine the relationship between worm

infestation and the health status of Nguni goats to establish their adaptability mechanisms and

health measures appropriate to detect GIN infestations by resource-limited farmers to improve

goat health.

Gastrointestinal parasites are sensitive to temperature and moisture as they multiply and

proliferate during warm, humid conditions (Rumosa Gwaze et al., 2010). Gastrointestinal

nematodes were ranked as a major challenge in goat productivity in Chapters 4 and 5; hence it

is important to relate the prevalence of nematodes to the season, age and sex of goats in the

survey. Indigenous methods of identifying goats infested with nematodes include anaemia,

changes in body frame and condition. Conventional methods focus on determining faecal egg

counts and FAMACHA to determine the health status of different classes of goats.

It is important to predict nematode infestation and establish whether the conventional and

indigenous systems concur. Knowing such information is vital for developing appropriate,

effective worm control strategies for Nguni goats and promoting and upscaling the adoption of

IK in goat production systems. Findings from the study may also serve as a reference to other

resource-limited areas under similar production systems. The objective of the study was to

assess whether the indigenous methods of predicting worm burdens concur with the

conventional techniques of assessing goat health in different classes of Nguni goats. The

hypothesis tested was that there is no relationship between the faecal egg count and the health

status of Nguni goats.

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7.2 Materials and methods

7.2.1 Description of the study site

The study was conducted at Jozini municipality of uMkhanyakude district in the Northern part

of KwaZulu-Natal Province, lying on 27° 24' 06.9' S, 32° 11' 48.6 E with altitude ranges of 80

to 1900 m above sea level. Jozini experiences a subtropical climate with an average annual

rainfall of 600 mm, occurring mainly in the hot-wet season (December to February). The cool-

dry season occurs between June and August (Gush, 2008).

The average daily maximum and minimum temperatures are 20 ºC and 10 ºC. The vegetation

at Jozini consists of coastal sand-veld, bushveld, foothill wooded grasslands (Morgenthal et

al., 2006) and poor herbage quality observed through transect walks. Livestock farming is the

major livelihood activity. The study was conducted in the following randomly selected villages:

Nyawushane, Biva, Mkhonjeni, Madonela, Makhonyeni, Mamfene, Mkhayana, Gedleza. The

study followed the standards required by the Animal Ethics Committee of the University of

KwaZulu-Natal, Reference number: AREC/043/017 (Appendix 6).

7.2.2 Goat selection and study design

A list of farmers who kept goats was generated with the assistance of extension officers,

chairperson of livestock association and community representatives. Households that had a

minimum of five goats for each of three classes were identified. Goats were selected based on

the owner’s willingness to participate in the study and the assurance of their availability

throughout the study. Based on IK, all the goats selected had no clinical symptoms that are

associated with gastrointestinal nematode infestation, as described in Table 4.1. A total of 120

goats of different ages and sex were used in the study. Goats were differentiated by age into

three classes of 40 each [weaners (> 3 months), does (> 1 year), bucks (> 1 year)]. The age of

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goats was determined by counting the number of permanent incisors. Does and bucks were ear-

tagged, and data were collected from the same goats throughout the experiment.

Weaners could not be marked because they were growing fast to adult stages; therefore, they

were randomly selected throughout the year. Goats were kept under traditional extensive

management systems where they grazed on communal rangelands together with cattle and

sheep during the day and penned at night throughout the year. Veterinary care was low to non-

existent, and goats were not dewormed or treated with conventional drugs or ethnoveterinary

medicine.

7.2.3 Data collection

All data were collected on the first day of the study period and then once every season (May

2018 – February 2019). The four seasons of data collection were the cool-dry (August), hot-

dry (November), hot-wet (February) and post-rainy (May). Body weight, body condition score,

FAMACHA score, packed cell volume and faecal egg count were measured on each goat.

7.2.3.1 Body weight and body condition scoring

The body weights (BW) of goats were estimated using a goat tape developed by the Department

of Agriculture in South Africa (De Villiers et al., 2009). The tape was placed around the heart

girth, representing the chest's circumference measured at the most dorsal point of the chest in

line with the elbow, bisecting the chest at the approximate position of the heart.

The BCS was determined according to Gerhard et al. (1996) on a scale of 1 to 5, with a score

of 1 indicating a thin, emaciated goat and 5 for an obese goat. The BCS was conducted by

assessing the amount of fat covering the spine in the loin area, ribs, tailhead and fat pad at the

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sternum. The BCS was performed by the same two individuals throughout the study to avoid

inter-personal discrepancies, and the average scores were considered.

7.2.3.2 FAMACHA scoring

The levels of anaemia were assessed using FAMACHA scores and PCV (Kaplan et al., 2004).

The colour of the ocular conjunctiva was scored on a 1-5 scale using a laminated FAMACHA

chart that was placed next to the eye of each goat, with 1 (red colour) – optimal: indicating a

non-anaemic goat, 2 (red-pink) – acceptable: non-anaemic, 3 (pink) - borderline: mildly

anaemic, 4 (pink-white) – dangerous: anaemic, and 5 (porcelain white) – fatal: a severely

anaemic goat.

7.2.3.3 Determination of packed cell volume

Packed cell volume was measured on whole blood samples using a Bull et al. (2003) method.

Ethylene diamine tetra acetic acid (EDTA) tubes were used to collect blood samples from each

goat through the jugular vein in the morning between 0700 and 0900 h. Packed cell volume

was determined within six hours of blood collection. Three-quarters of a capillary tube was

filled with blood, and one end of the tube was sealed by heating. Capillary tubes were placed

in the micro-haematocrit centrifuge and centrifuged at a relative centrifugal force of 2 000 x G

for 3 min. The haematocrit reader was used to measure the number of erythrocytes, and the

results were expressed as the percentage of red blood cells in the total volume of whole blood.

7.2.3.4 Faecal egg counting and identification of nematode larvae

Faecal samples were collected directly from the rectum into ziplock bags. Faecal egg count

(FEC) was determined using the McMaster technique (Reinecke, 1973). Faecal pellets were

crumpled finely, and 2 g was measured and mixed with 58 ml of 40 % sugar solution. The

McMaster slide was filled with the mixture where eggs and oocysts were counted and

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differentiated directly under the microscope on a 10X magnification. According to Reinecke

(1973), faecal cultures were prepared to identify further egg types that were hard to distinguish,

where 3 g of faeces were incubated at between 26 and 28 ˚C for seven days, and the infective

larvae were collected using a Baerman Technique. The L3 stage nematode larvae were

identified according to Van Wyk and Mayhew (2013). Egg count per gram of faeces was

calculated using the formula:

EPG = A x B

C x D x E

Where: A = number of eggs counted, B = 60 (total volume of faecal suspension), C = number

of chambers counted, D = grams of faeces, E = 0.15 ml (standard volume of chamber).

7.2.3.5 Statistical analyses

For the analysis of BCS, FAMACHA score and PCV, PROC UNIVARIATE (SAS, 2012) was

used to check data for normality. Logarithmic transformation was applied to the data for FEC

before analysis. Data were analysed using the general linear model (GLM) procedure for

repeated measures (SAS, 2012) to determine the effect of season, sex and age of goats and their

interactions on FEC, BCS, FAMACHA score and PCV. Means were compared using the

PDIFF procedure (SAS, 2012). Differences among the least square means were considered

significant at a confidence interval of 95 %. The model used was:

Yijk = μ + mi + Sj + Lk + (mi x Sj) + (mi x Lk) + (mi x Sj x Lk) + 𝜀𝑖𝑘𝑗

Where Yijk = BCS, FAMACHA score, PCV and FEC for each goat;

μ = overall mean;

mi = effect of the season (hot-wet, post-rainy, cool-dry, hot-dry);

Sj = is effect of the sex of animal (male, female);

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Lk = is effect of age of the goat (weaner > 3 months old, doe > 1-year old female, buck > 1-

year old male);

𝜀𝑖𝑘𝑗 = is the residual error

The PROC CORR (SAS, 2012) was used to determine the correlation among FEC, BCS,

FAMACHA score and PCV. The PROC REG (SAS, 2012) procedure was used to determine

the relationship between FEC and BCS, FAMACHA score and PCV. A t-test was used to

compare the gradients of the graphs after establishing that there were no interactions among

sex, age and season.

7.3 Results

7.3.1 Seasonal distribution of gastrointestinal parasitic infestation in goats

The distribution of GIN was affected by the season and age of goats (Figure 7.1). The cool-dry

season had higher (P < 0.05) egg counts (15003 ± 529.7 epg), and the lowest counts (P > 0.05)

were observed in the post-rainy season (3124 ± 363.9 epg). Higher egg counts were observed

in weaners (7406 ± 401.4 epg) and does (4844 ± 401.4 epg) during the hot-wet season, while

bucks had the highest counts (5561 ± 529.7 epg) in the cool-dry season.

Figure 7.2 depicts the distribution of GIN among goats across all seasons. Strongyloides egg

type (30 %) had the overall highest prevalence rate, followed by Haemonchus contortus (28

%), Trichostrongyles (23 %) and Oesophagostomum (17 %) in that descending order.

Ostertagia had a lower count of 2 %.

7.3.2 Body condition score and faecal egg count

Table 7.1 shows the effects of age, sex and season on FAMACHA, FEC, BCS and PCV. Body

condition score was not affected by age and sex. Season affected (P < 0.01) BCS. Goats had

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Table 7.1: Least square means for season, sex and age on BCS, FAMACHA, PCV and

FEC of Nguni goats

Factor BCS FAMACHA PCV FEC

Age

Weaners 2.55a 3.16a 23.33a 4273.24a

Does 2.70b 2.86b 26.26b 2145.38b

Bucks 2.77b 2.89b 27.09b 2484.36b

S.E.M 0.06 0.07 0.62 594.36

Sex

Male 2.90a 3.03a 25.59a 3222.94a

Female 2.82a 2.97a 25.46a 3297.83a

S.E.M 0.09 0.06 0.48 453.41

Season

Post-rainy 2.87a 2.60a 26.87a 805.30a

Cool-dry 2.69b 3.35b 24.62b 5470.91b

Hot-dry 2.78c 3.31b 25.32c 3778.82c

Hot-wet 2.80c 2.72c 25.82c 2917.02d

S.E.M 0.06 0.07 0.66 632.16

Significance

Sex NS NS NS NS

Season ** *** ** ***

Age ** ** *** **

Age × sex NS NS NS NS

Age × season * * * *

Sex × season NS NS NS NS

Age × Season×

Sex

NS NS NS NS

ab Within a column, values with different superscripts differ (P < 0.05), Significance level: ***P < 0.001;

**P < 0.01; *P < 0.05; NS not significant (P > 0.05); Abbreviations: BCS: body condition scoring,

FAMACHA: FAMACHA score, PCV: Packed cell volume, FEC: Faecal egg count

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higher BCS in the post-rainy season and lowered BCS in the hot-dry season compared to other

seasons. The BCS of goats was, however, similar in cool-dry and hot-wet season. Faecal egg

count was not affected by the sex of goats (P > 0.05). Age had a significant effect on FEC, with

weaners having higher FEC than does and bucks. Faecal egg count was similar in does and

bucks. There was a significant effect of season on FEC. Higher FEC was observed in goats

during the cool-dry season, with the lowest counts in the post-rainy season.

7.3.3 FAMACHA score and packed cell volume

Sex did not affect FAMACHA and PCV. There was a significant effect of age (P < 0.01) and

season (P < 0.001) on FAMACHA. Weaners had a higher FAMACHA score than does and

bucks. FAMACHA score was similar in hot-dry and hot-wet seasons. Goats in the cool-dry

season had a lower FAMACHA score compared to other seasons. Packed cell volume was

affected by age (P < 0.001) and season (P < 0.01), with weaners having the lowest PCV in

comparison with does and bucks. Packed cell volume was lower in the cool-dry season and

higher in the post-rainy season.

7.3.4 Relationships between faecal egg counts, FAMACHA score, packed cell volume and

body condition score

Correlation coefficients among BCS, FAMACHA score, PCV and FEC were shown in Table

7.2. There was a negative correlation (P < 0.01) between the FAMACHA score and BCS. A

positive correlation (P < 0.01) was observed between BCS and PCV. Faecal egg count

negatively correlated with BCS and PCV (P > 0.05). There was a positive correlation (P < 0.01)

between FEC and FAMACHA scores.

An interaction between age and season (P < 0.05) was observed in BCS, FAMACHA, PCV

and FEC. Weaners had lower BCS, higher FEC, higher FAMACHA score and lower PCV

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Table 7.2: Pearson’s correlation coefficients among BCS, FAMACHA, PCV and FEC of

Nguni goats

Significance level: **P < 0.01; NS not significant (P > 0.05)

Abbreviations: BCS: body condition scoring, FAMACHA: FAMACHA score, PCV: Packed

cell volume, FEC: Faecal egg count

Parameter BCS FAMACHA PCV FEC

BCS - -0.23** 0.14** -0.28**

FAMACHA - -0.06ns 0.29**

PCV - -0.30**

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during the cool-dry season. The relationship between FEC and FAMACHA is shown in Figure

7.3. The rate of change in the FAMACHA score was higher in the post-rainy season than in

other seasons as FEC increased (P < 0.01). The relationship between FEC and BCS across all

seasons was not significant (P > 0.05) in Figure 7.4. Figure 7.5 shows the relationship between

FEC and FAMACHA score in different classes of goats. There was a linear increase in

FAMACHA score with an increase in FEC (P < 0.01). The rate of change in FAMACHA score

was higher in weaners than does and bucks as FEC increased (P < 0.01).

7.4 Discussion

Gastrointestinal parasitism is a worldwide challenge affecting goat productivity (Marshall et

al., 2012; Emiru et al., 2013; Mpofu et al., 2020). Control of GIN using IK has been discussed

in Chapters 4. Nematode-infested goats show signs of diarrhoea, enlarged abdomen, rough hair

coat, anaemia, bottle jaw, tail-bending in kids and physical excretion of nematodes in faeces.

Gnashing of teeth also occurs in heavily infested adult goats. Heavy GIN burden in goats,

therefore, leads to poor health, reduced productivity, and increased mortality. This includes

reducing conception and kidding rates, water and feed intake, and increased mortality rates in

goats infested with heavy GIN. Establishing whether these relationships concur with

conventional methods of assessing the health status of goats is important if IK should be

promoted.

The high occurrence of parasitic infection in goats during the cool-dry season is aggravated by

the highest FEC in bucks. Bucks walk long distances to different communal rangelands.

Farmers attribute it to the loss of interest in a buck to mate with does left with it for a longer

period, therefore seeking a variety. Bucks have a high libido, which may explain the reason

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Figure 7.3: Relationship of seasonal changes between faecal egg count and FAMACHA scores

y = 0,0004x + 0,9431R² = 0,96; P<0,01

y = 0,0019x - 2,7899R² = 0,99; P<0,01

y = 0,0045x - 1,0824R² = 0,90; P<0,01

y = 0,0006x + 0,8337R² = 0,95; P<0,01

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

4

4.5

0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000

FAM

AC

HA

sco

re

Faecal egg count (epg)

Cool-dry Hot-wet

Post-rainy Hot-dry

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Figure 7.4: Relationship of seasonal changes between faecal egg counts and body condition scores

y = -0,0001x + 3,4506R² = 0,12

y = -0,0013x + 6,9966R² = 0,76

y = -0,0036x + 5,8202R² = 0,95

y = -0,0005x + 4,6462R² = 0,73

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

4

4.5

0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000

Bo

dy

Co

nd

itio

n S

core

Faecal egg count (epg)

Cool-dry Hot-wet

Post-rainy Hot-dry

182

Figure 7.5: Relationship between faecal egg count and FAMACHA scores in different age groups of Nguni goats

y = 0,0011x - 0,2442R² = 0.99; P<0.01

y = 0,001x + 0,2816R² = 0.99; P<0.01

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

4

4.5

1000.00 1500.00 2000.00 2500.00 3000.00 3500.00 4000.00 4500.00

FAM

AC

HA

Faecal egg count (epg)

Weaner Doe Buck

y = 0.0009x + 1.0392R2 = 0.98; P<0.01

183

behind going to faraway areas during this season. The shortage of feed and water in communal

rangelands during the cool-dry season may have made it difficult for bucks to fight infections.

Mseleku et al. (2020) indicated that when goats walk longer distances, their health status is

affected.

The high egg loads in weaners during the hot-wet season compared to the cool-dry season

concurred with Zvinorova et al. (2016) and could be attributed to the availability of moisture and

warmth favourable for the development, survival and proliferation of different GIN. This includes

more time that goats spend in pastures during the hot-wet season. Kids have little or no exposure

to GIN infection during nursing, resulting in a maximum egg output after weaning. This is because

kids are left behind when the flock is sent to communal rangelands to protect them from contracting

diseases, getting lost and predation (Chapter 3). The weaning stress, change of diet from milk to

forage and change of environment from staying within the household to rangelands results in

reduced immune system function, contributing towards susceptibility to GIN infestation

(Magistrelli et al., 2013). This is further exacerbated by overgrazing in infested pastures and the

lack of vaccination of kids during the weaning stage.

The prevalence of Strongyles was predominant due to geo-climatic conditions favourable for the

development of various species of Strongyle nematodes, for example, Strongyloides sp.,

Trichostrongylus sp., Haemonchus contortus and Oesophagostomum sp. The GIN species found

in the present study were identical to those reported previously in goats from the study region

(Mpofu et al., 2020). Farmers also reported in Chapters 4 and 5 that roundworms are a challenge

in the study area as they are excreted with faeces and indigenously identified through observation

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of the black diarrhoea in goats (Chapter 4). The epidemiology of Ostertagia sp. is largely unknown

in goats in South Africa since they are mostly recognized as cattle parasites. Ostertagia sp.

infection probably resulted from cross-infection with cattle in communal rangelands as livestock

graze together.

The low BCS in weaners during the cool-dry season is attributed to the reduced quality of feed due

to lignification of vegetation induced by cold, modifying the structure and chemical components

of the cell wall (Mhomga et al., 2012). Hence, the higher BCS in the post-rainy season is due to

increased feed quality during the rainy season. The finding that the season influenced BCS

disagrees with Rumosa Gwaze et al. (2010) and agrees with reports from farmers in Chapter 4.

Due to the unavailability of weighing scales, farmers hardly weigh their goats but use IK to do

body conditions and other indicators of heavy parasite loads. The finding that sex did not influence

BCS contradicts Rumosa Gwaze et al. (2010). The positive correlation between BCS and PCV

indicates that goats with a good condition can fight worm burdens due to having higher white

blood cells (Marshall et al., 2012). This study showed a negative and weak correlation between

BCS and worm burden, which could indicate the resilience of goats to infestation under poor

quality feed (Mhomga et al., 2012). This could also be the probable reason for the weak negative

correlation between worm burden and PCV, which concurs with Marshall et al. (2012).

The lower PCV in weaners during the cool-dry season could be attributed to the protein loss and

malabsorption from the damaged intestinal mucosa caused by the heavy burden of GIN (Kumar et

al., 2015) combined with the reduced feed quantity and quality during the cool-dry season. The

finding that there was an interaction of sex and season on PCV disagrees with Zvinorova et al.

185

(2016), suggesting that the seasonal fluctuation of feed availability influences the PCV of goats.

Reports have shown the susceptibility of goats to anaemia during feed and water shortages and

high worm burden, particularly during dry seasons (Rumosa Gwaze et al., 2010; Mseleku et al.,

2020). The increase in FAMACHA with an increase in FEC could be because parasite infestations

affect nutrient absorption in goats used by parasites for their growth. The positive correlation

between the FAMACHA score and FEC concurs with Marshall et al. (2012). Using IK, famers

identify anaemia from GIN using symptoms such as lethargy and inappetence in association with

a dull coat (Chapter 4). The higher and faster increase of FAMACHA score in weaners as FEC

increased in the post-rainy season could be attributed to the increased blood loss and lower levels

of erythrocytes caused by higher worm loads, which concurs with findings from Marume et al.

(2011).

The higher FEC in weaners in the present study agrees with Mpofu et al. (2020), in which young

goats showed a higher occurrence of parasitic infestations than in adult and suckling goats. This

also concurs with what farmers indicated in Chapter 4 and findings from Chapter 5. It is a general

practice in the study area that kids are not allowed to go to communal pastures before they are

weaned. Having less exposure to infection from communal rangelands, weaners showed higher

FEC due to lower levels of the immune response than older goats. Similar results were obtained in

previous studies by Rumosa Gwaze et al. (2010) and Zvinorova et al. (2016). Gastrointestinal

nematode infestation could emanate from poor management, particularly housing and kraal

cleaning, where parasites might have built up and increased the chances of kids being infected

during nursing.

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The lower FEC in adult goats could be attributed to repeated natural infections that might have

developed goat’s immunity against infection. However, a high worm incidence in adult goats than

in young was noticed by Nwoke et al. (2015), while Emiru et al. (2013) found no difference within

age groups of goats. The finding that sex did not affect worm burden corroborates with Mpofu et

al. (2020) and disagrees with Emiru et al. (2013), who reported a higher prevalence in females

than male goats due to stress exposure during the peri-parturition period favouring the egg output

of GIN. The positive linear relationship between FEC and FAMACHA conforms to Marume et al.

(2011) and Rumosa Gwaze et al. (2010) and could possibly demonstrate the usefulness of a

FAMACHA chart to identify anaemia in goats. Results, therefore, suggest that the FAMACHA

system could be more useful in resource-limited areas as illiterate individuals can also use it to

identify goats with gastrointestinal parasite burden requiring anthelmintic treatment from the herd.

Introducing the FAMACHA system in resource-limited farms could assist in easier confirmation

of anaemia, particularly when inexperienced personnel such as women and children are given an

opportunity to participate in goat health assessments. It is also important to conduct faecal counts

in goats showing various symptoms. Using regression analyses, these counts should then be related

to the clinical symptoms observed. Such information can greatly enhance the ability of resource-

limited farmers to make an early diagnosis of parasitism. Farmers may also decide whether the

goat may recover or die so that slaughter or disposal decisions are accurately made.

7.5 Conclusions

The incidence of parasitic gastrointestinal infection was higher in weaners than does and bucks.

The seasonal variation of parasites was higher during the hot-wet season in weaners and lowered

in the post-rainy season than older goats. Effects of GIN infestation were more prominent during

187

the cool-dry season. Strongyles, Haemonchus, and Trichostrongyles were predominant in the area

as major contributors to helminthiasis in goats. Age and season contributed to increased

FAMACHA scores and worm infestations and decreased BCS and PCV in Nguni goats. The

seasonal patterns of GIN coupled with FAMACHA scores will assist in devising suitable control

strategies of parasitic infestations of these genotypes to improve goat productivity. When

relationships have been ascertained, nematode infestation should be controlled using appropriate

concentrations. Therefore, the anthelmintic properties of plants claimed by farmers need

confirmation to enhance and promote their sustainable use and efficacy endorsed for adoption. The

government should be engaged to explore ways of creating an enabling environment for the formal

recognition, development, promotion, and integration of IK into veterinary extension services. The

promotion of IK ensures sustainable community livelihoods and development.

7.6 References

Bull, B., Fujimoto, K., Houwen, B., Klee, G., Van Hove, L., Assendelft, O., Bunyaratvej, A.,

Buttarello, M., Davis, B., Koepke, J., Lewis, S., Machin, S., d’onofrio, G., Rowan, R.,

Tatsumi, N. (2003). International Council for Standardization in Haematology (ICSH)

Recommendations for “Surrogate Reference” Method for packed cell volume. Laboratory

Hematology: Official Publication of the International Society for Laboratory Hematology

9: 1-9.

De Villiers, J.F., Gcumisa, S.T., Gumede, S.A., Thusi, S.P., Dugmore, T.J., Cole, M., Du Toit,

J.F., Vatta, A.F., Stevens, C. (2009). Estimation of live body weight from the heart girth

measurement in KwaZulu-Natal goats. Applied Animal Husbandry & Rural Development

2: 1-8. www.sasas.co.za/aahrd/

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Dzama, K. (2016). Is the livestock sector in Southern Africa prepared for climate change? South

African Institute of International Affairs Policy Briefing 153: 1-4.

Emiru, B., Amede, Y., Tigre, W., Feyera, T., Deressa, B. (2013). Epidemiology of

gastrointestinal parasites of small ruminants in Gechi District, Southwest Ethiopia.

Advances in Biological Research 7(5): 169-174.

Gerhard, K.L., White, R.G., Cameron, R.D., Russell, D.E. (1996). Estimating fat content of

caribou from body condition scores. Journal of Wildlife Management 60: 713-718.

Gush, M. (2008). Measurement of water use by Jatropha curcas L. using the heat pulse velocity

technique. Water SA 34(5): 579-583.

Hoste, H., Torres-acosta, J.F.J., Aguilar-caballero, A.J. (2008). Nutrition-parasite interaction

in goats: is immunoregulation involved in the control of gastrointestinal nematodes?

Parasite Immunology, 30: 79-88.

Kaplan, R.M., Burke, J.M., Terrill, T.H., Miller, J.E., Getz, W.R., Mobini, S., Valencia, E.,

Williams, M.J., Williamson, L.R., Larsen, M., Vatta, A.F. (2004). Validation of the

FAMACHA eye colour chart for detecting clinical anaemia in sheep and goats on farms in

the southern United States. Veterinary Parasitology 123: 105-120.

Kumar, S., Jakhar, K.K., Singh, S., Potliya, S., Kumar, K., Pal, M. (2015). Clinicopathological

studies of gastrointestinal tract disorders in sheep with parasitic infection. Veterinary

World 8(1): 29-32.

Magistrelli, D., Aufy, A.A., Pinotti, L., Rosil, F. (2013). Analysis of weaning-induced stress in

Saanen goat kids. Journal of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition 97: 732-739.

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Marshall, R., Gebrelul, S., Gray, L., Ghebreiyessu, Y. (2012). Mixed species grazing of cattle and

goats on gastrointestinal infections of Haemonchus contortus. American Journal of Animal

and Veterinary Sciences 7(2): 61-66.

Marume, U., Chimonyo, M., Dzama, K. (2011). A preliminary study on the responses to

experimental Haemonchus contortus infection in indigenous goat genotypes. Small

Ruminant Research 95: 70-74.

Mhomga, L.I., Nnadi, P.A., Chiejina, S.N., Idika, I.K., Ngongeh, L.A. (2012). Effects of dietary

protein supplementation on the performance of West African dwarf (WAD) goats infected

with Haemonchus contortus and Trichostrongylus colubriformis. Turkish Journal of

Veterinary and Animal Science, 36(6): 668-675.

Mkwanazi, M.V., Ndlela, S.Z., Chimonyo, M. (2020). Utilisation of indigenous knowledge

to control tick in goats: A case of KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa. Tropical

Animal Health and Production 52(3): 1375-1383.

Morgenthal, T., Kellna, K., van Rensburg, L., Newby, T.S., Van der Merwe, J.P.A. (2006).

Vegetation and habitat types of the Umkhanyakude Node. South African Journal of Botany

72(1): 1-10.

Mpofu, T.J., Nephawe, K.A., Mtilen, B. (2020). Prevalence of gastrointestinal parasites in

communal goats from different agro-ecological zones of South Africa. Veterinary World,

13(1): 26-32.

Mseleku, C., Ndlela, S.Z., Mkwanazi, M.V., Chimonyo, M. (2020). Health status on non-descript

goats traveling distances to water sources. Tropical Animal Health and Production 52:

1507–1511.

190

Nwoke, E.U., Odikamnoro, O.O., Ibiam, G.A., Umah, O.V., Ariom, O.T. (2015). A survey of

common gut helminth of goats slaughtered at Ankpa abattoir, Kogi State, Nigeria. Journal

of Parasitology and Vector Biology 7(5): 89-93.

Regassa, F., Sori, T., Dhuguma, R., Kiros, Y. (2006). Epidemiology of gastrointestinal parasites

of ruminants in western Oromia, Ethiopia. International Journal of Applied Research in

Veterinary Medicine 9(1): 51-57.

Reinecke, R.K. (1973). The larval anthelmintic test in ruminants. Technical Communication, 106.

Pretoria Department of Agriculture Technical Services: 1-20.

Rumosa Gwaze, F., Chimonyo, M., Dzama, K. (2010). Relationship between nutritionally related

blood metabolites and gastrointestinal parasites in Nguni goats of South Africa. Asian-

Australian Journal of Animal Science 23(9): 1190-1197.

Rupa, A.P.M., Portugaliza, H.P. (2016). Prevalence and risk factors associated with

gastrointestinal nematode infection in goats raised in Baybay City, Leyte, Philippines.

Veterinary World, 9(7): 728-734.

SAS (2012). Statistical Analysis System User’s Guide, Version 9.4. SAS Institute Incorporate

Cary, North Carolina, USA.

Van Wyk, J.A., Mayhew, E. (2013). Morphological identification of parasitic nematode infective

larvae of small ruminants and cattle: A practical lab guide. Onderstepoort Journal of

Veterinary Research 80(1): 539. DOI: 10.4102/ojvr.v80i1.539. PMID: 23718204.

Zvinorova, P.I., Halimani, T.E., Muchadeyi, F.C., Matika, O., Riggio, V., Dzama, K. (2016).

Prevalence and risk factors of gastrointestinal parasitic infections in goats in low-input low-

output farming systems in Zimbabwe. Small Ruminant Research 143: 75-83.

191

Chapter 8: Efficacy of different concentrations of aqueous plant extracts against

gastrointestinal nematodes in goats

Published in Tropical Animal Health and Production (Appendix 7)

Abstract

Farmers use plant extracts as a potential source of anthelmintic compounds against gastrointestinal

nematodes in goats. The objective of the study was to investigate the in vitro anthelmintic activity

of aqueous (cold and boiled) and methanolic extracts of Cissus quadrangularis Linn., Aloe

marlothii A. Berger, Albizia anthelmintica Brongn., Cissus rotundifolia (Forssk.) Vahl.,

Sclerocarya birrea (A. Rich.) Hochst and Vachellia xanthophloea (Benth.) P.J.H. Hurter plants

against gastrointestinal nematodes (GIN). Plants were used in two forms: dry and fresh. Decoction

(boiled water), infusion (cold water) and methanolic extracts at concentrations of 8, 16, 24, 32 and

40 % v/v were tested in vitro on mortality of L3 nematodes. Linear relationships were observed

between larvae mortality and concentration of the boiled fresh form of C. rotundifolia extract (P <

0.01), cold-water extract of the fresh form of A. marlothii (P < 0.05), cold-water and methanolic

extracts of the fresh form of C. quadrangularis (P < 0.01), cold-water and methanolic extracts of

the dry form of S. birrea (P < 0.0001), cold-water extract of the dry form and methanolic extract

of the fresh form of V. xanthophloea (P < 0.05). Quadratic relationships were observed between

larvae mortality and concentration of the methanolic extract of the fresh form of C. rotundifolia (P

< 0.05), methanolic extract of the fresh form of A. anthelmintica (P < 0.01), methanol extract of

the fresh form and the boiled fresh form of A. marlothii (P < 0.001), methanolic extract of the fresh

form (P < 0.05) and boiled dry form of S. birrea (P < 0.01), cold and boiled water extracts of the

fresh form of V. xanthophloea (P < 0.0001), boiled dry form and methanolic extracts of V.

xanthophloea (P < 0.05). The crude plant extracts of C. quadrangularis, A. marlothii, A.

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anthelmintica, C. rotundifolia, S. birrea and V. xanthophloea could be considered as an integrated

approach to achieve sustainable nematode control in goats. These relationships need to be factored

in when advancing IK to sustain goat health.

Keywords: Anthelmintic activity, ethnoveterinary medicine, gastrointestinal parasites,

phytochemicals

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8.1 Introduction

Gastrointestinal nematodes account for a substantial loss in goat production. The most problematic

gastrointestinal nematodes (GIN) in goats are Haemonchus spp., Oesophagostomum spp.,

Strongyloides spp., and Trichostrongyle spp. (Zvinorova et al., 2016). Goats provide meat, milk,

and income to resource-limited communities, and they are slaughtered for cultural and socio-

cultural functions (Mkwanazi et al., 2020). Despite the ability of goats to withstand feed and water

shortages, goat productivity is hampered by GIN infestation. Nematode burdens are worsened by

the poor veterinary services among the poor (Mdletshe et al., 2018). Control programs rely mostly

on commercial anthelmintics, but they are inconsistently available due to high costs, scarcity and

inaccessibility. Underdosing and repeated use of the same anthelmintic drug have led to nematode

resistance towards anthelmintic drugs (Mphahlele et al., 2019). This has led to the need to find

alternative methods for goat GIN control.

Exploring ethnoveterinary medicines could be one of the practical ways of developing cheaper,

effective and sustainable anthelmintics to mitigate the challenges of synthetic anthelmintic drugs

in controlling GIN (Mazhangara et al., 2020). Jaiswal et al. (2013) argued that GIN does not

develop resistance towards ethnoveterinary medicines. Plants with anthelmintic activities have

potential as they are readily available, easier to use, environmentally safer, biodegradable, and

pose less contamination of goat products. Ethnoveterinary plant extracts against GIN are generally

effective (Ferreira et al., 2013; Baba et al., 2014; Ahmed et al., 2017; Zenebe et al., 2017; De

Jesús-Martinez et al., 2018; Muthee, 2018). Phytochemicals such as tannins, flavonoids, saponins,

alkaloids and steroids are responsible for the anthelmintic action.

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It was shown in Chapter 4 that farmers use boiled water to prepare plant extracts used to control

nematodes. Other farmers simply soak the plant material in cold water. Some farmers harvest

plants and use them immediately, while some dry the plant material before processing. The

amounts of plant material and water used differs from farmer to farmer, leading to different extract

concentrations. The efficacy of different extract concentrations and plant forms on larval mortality

needs to be assessed to understand the response of each. Based on the farmer’s choice of plant,

plant form and extraction method, farmers could use findings from Chapter 7 where they can relate

symptoms to nematode infestation and treat such goats.

Information on efficacy could be disseminated to communities, schools, and other community

structures. The objective of the study was, therefore, designed to assess how plant forms respond

to different concentrations of plant extracts, using methanol as a standard. It was hypothesized that

the use of medicinal plants has no anthelmintic effects against GIN in vitro.

8.2 Materials and methods

8.2.1 Plant collection and extraction

The laboratory analyses to determine the efficacy of plants were conducted at the Discipline of

Animal & Poultry Science Laboratory, Pietermaritzburg, University of KwaZulu-Natal, South

Africa, located at 30º24’E and 29º37’S. Fresh plants were sourced from Jozini municipality with

assistance from the local herbalists. Plants were identified and specimens were authenticated at the

Bews Herbarium of the University of KwaZulu-Natal. The plant species selected in this study were

those farmers considered the most used and most effective of the 33 anthelmintic plants following

a survey. The plant species included are aerial parts of Cissus quadrangularis Linn., leaves of Aloe

marlothii A. Berger and Cissus rotundifolia (Forssk.) Vahl., and barks of Albizia anthelmintica

195

Brongn., Vachellia xanthophloea (Benth.) P.J.H. Hurter and Sclerocarya birrea (A. Rich.) Hochst.

The Animal Research Ethics Committee of the University of KwaZulu-Natal approved the study

protocol, Reference number: AREC/043/017 (Appendix 6).

Based on the responses from IK custodians in Chapters 4 and 5, ethnoveterinary plants were used

in fresh and dry forms. Plants were washed in running tap water to remove debris and dust, and

excessive water was shaken or blotted. Fresh plants were chopped, and a blender was used for

crushing them into smaller pieces to imitate what farmers use, where a grinding stone is used for

crushing plants at home (Bhat, 2013). The fresh plant material was then ready for extraction. Five

grams of each fresh plant material was used to determine the dry matter (AOAC, 1995). The dry

matter was used to calculate the mass of the fresh plant equivalent to 10 g of the dried material.

Plants to be dried were chopped into smaller pieces and air-dried at room temperature in the

laboratory. Drying was completed in the LABCON oven (Model 5SOEIB, Maraisburg 1700)

between 50 and 60 ℃ to obtain a constant weight and mechanically ground to a fine powder using

a Retsch GmbH mill (Model ZM200, Haan, Germany). Powdered plant materials were stored in

sealed plastic containers in a moisture-free environment, away from light until use.

8.2.2 Plant extraction

Each plant form was extracted using three methods: cold water (infusion), boiled water (decoction)

and methanol (soxhlet extraction). In an infusion method, 10 g of the plant dry matter was soaked

in 100 ml of cold distilled water for 24 h and shaken vigorously at least three times (Muthee, 2018).

Ten grams of the plant dry matter was boiled in 100 ml of distilled water for an hour in a decoction

method. Plant extracts were filtered using a muslin cloth at the end of extraction in infusion and

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decoction methods. For soxhlet extraction, 10 g of the plant dry matter was extracted with 100 ml

of methanol using a soxhlet apparatus until no further colouration came from the plant. Extracts

were concentrated in a BÜCHI Rotavapor (R-114, Flawll, Switzerland), frozen and freeze-dried

in a MODULYO freeze drier (EDWARDS, Britain, Part of BOC Ltd Crawley Sussex England).

Total extract yields were measured from all extracts and then reconstituted with distilled water to

100 ml stock solutions before use (Mphahlele et al., 2016). The percentage yield of each extract

was calculated using a formula: Yield (%) = (Final weight/Initial weight) *100 (Mazhangara et

al., 2020). Extracts were assayed for the presence of tannins, alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins and

steroids. Concentrations of 8, 16, 24, 32 and 40 % (v/v water) of these extracts were tested for

anthelmintic activity against L3 larvae of nematodes.

8.2.3 Phytochemical screening of plant extracts

Biochemical tests were conducted to determine the presence of phytochemicals: tannins, alkaloids,

saponins, flavonoids and steroids (Dhawan and Gupta, 2017). Phytochemical results were

measured using colour intensity and expressed as either present or absent, which is represented by

(+) weakly present, (++) moderately present, (+++) strongly present, and (-) absent or undetected.

8.2.3.1 Testing for tannins

About 10 mg of each extract was dissolved in 45 % of ethanol in test tubes. Test tubes were then

boiled for 5 minutes, and 1 ml of ferric chloride solution was added to each. The appearance of

greenish to black colour indicated the presence of tannins in plant extracts.

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8.2.3.2 Testing for alkaloids

Ten milligrams of extracts were dissolved in 2 ml of Wagner’s reagent in test tubes. The

appearance of reddish-brown coloured precipitates showed the presence of alkaloids in the plant

extract.

8.2.3.3 Testing for saponins

Ten milligrams of an extract were diluted with 20 ml of distilled water in test tubes. The test tube

was hand-shaken for 15 minutes. The formation of a form on the top part of a test tube indicated

the presence of saponins in an extract.

8.2.3.4 Testing for flavonoids

About 10 mg of an extract was added to test tubes, and a few NaOH drops were added on each.

The appearance of a yellowish colour showed the presence of flavonoids. Few drops of diluted

H2SO4 were added. The disappearance of the yellowish colour or appearance of colourless

confirms the presence of flavonoids in the plant extract.

8.2.3.5 Testing for steroids

Ten milligrams of each extract were added in test tubes, and 1 ml of concentrated H2SO4 was

added by the sidewall of the test tube. The appearance of dark-reddish green colour indicated the

presence of steroids in the plant extract.

8.2.4 In vitro anthelmintic assessment of plant extracts of L3 nematode larvae of goats

Faeces were collected from the recta of Nguni goats that grazed on contaminated mixed pastures

at Ukulinga Research Farm, University of KwaZulu-Natal. Faecal samples were pooled and hand-

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mixed thoroughly. Faecal egg count (FEC) was performed on the pooled sample to determine the

egg load using a McMaster Technique (Reinecke, 1973). The sample was cultured when the FEC

was greater than 2000 eggs per gram of faeces (epg). The following genera of GIN eggs were

identified from the pooled sample; Haemonchus (64 %), Oesophagostomum (23 %) and

Trichostrongylus (13 %).

Five grams of the sub-samples were placed in petri dishes and mixed with an equal quantity of

vermiculite. The mixture was slightly moistened and cultured by incubation at 27 ℃ for 12 days

in a MEMMERT incubator (854 Schwabach, West-Germany). Cultures were watered once daily

during the incubation to keep them moist but not drown the developing larvae. After 12 days, plant

extract treatments were applied on cultures in quadruplicates. Four cultures were watered and used

as a control. All cultures were then incubated further for 24 hours.

Larvae were then harvested for 24 hours using the Baermann technique (Hansen & Perry, 1994).

Each sample culture was placed in a double cheesecloth, tied with a rubber band, and put into

respective funnels. Lukewarm water was added to fill the funnel, ensuring that the culture was

fully immersed and allowing L3 larvae to migrate freely to the stem of the funnel. About 15 ml of

fluid was drawn from each funnel stem into a test tube and left to stand for 30 minutes. The

McMaster slide was filled with the supernatant using a Pasteur pipette and examined on a 10X

magnification, where larvae were counted. Each test tube was sampled in triplicate. The

experiment was re-run three times.

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8.2.5 Statistical analyses

The experiment had two forms, three extraction solvents and five extract concentrations, which is

a 2 × 3 × 5 factorial arrangement for each plant. The nematode mortality rate was calculated using

Abbott’s equation (Abbott, 1925):

Mortality percentage = (1 – T/C) × 100

Where: T = number of nematode larvae remaining alive after treatment, C = number of nematode

larvae remaining alive in the control group.

Regression analysis was used to determine the relationship between larval mortality and the

concentration of extracts for each plant species, where RSREG was used (SAS, 2012).

8.3 Results

8.3.1 Phytochemical screening of plant extracts

Results on plant species extracted and extract yields are reported in Table 8.1. After extraction

with different solvents, yields were expressed in percentage (i.e., mg extracted from 10 g of dry

material). The highest yield recorded for C. quadrangularis (49 %) was for the cold-water extract

of the fresh plant form, A. marlothii (15 %) cold-water extract of the fresh plant form, A.

anthelmintica (12 %) boiled water extract of the fresh plant form, V. xanthophloea (25 %)

methanolic extract of the dry plant form, S. birrea (20 %) cold-water extract of the dry plant form

and C. rotundifolia (17 %) cold-water extract of the fresh plant form. Results for phytochemical

screening are presented in Table 8.2. The strong presence of secondary metabolites detected in C.

rotundifolia were alkaloids and tannins, saponins and steroids in A. anthelmintica, alkaloids in C.

quadrangularis, tannins and steroids in S. birrea, tannins and steroids in V. xanthophloea, and

flavonoids, steroids, tannins and saponins in A. marlothii.

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Table 8.1: Ethnoveterinary plants used to control gastrointestinal nematodes in goats

Plant species Family name Part of plant

collected

Voucher

number

Plant

form

The percentage yield of crude

extract

BW CW METH

Cissus quadrangularis Linn. Vitaceae Leaves

(aerial part)

NU0068142 Fresh 32 49 24

Dry 24 32 40

Aloe marlothii A. Berger Asphodelaceae Leaves NU0068166 Fresh 15 15 8

Dry 15 14 15

Albizia anthelmintica Brongn. Fabaceae Bark NU0068151 Fresh 12 9 8

Dry 7 9 7

Vachellia xanthophloea

(Benth.) P.J.H. Hurter

Fabaceae Bark NU0068155 Fresh 18 17 15

Dry 19 21 25

Sclerocarya birrea (A. Rich.)

Hochst

Anacardiaceae Bark NU0068149 Fresh 14 15 14

Dry 13 20 11

Cissus rotundifolia (Forssk.)

Vahl.

Vitaceae Leaves NU0068158 Fresh 14 17 9

Dry 12 12 15

BW: Boiled water, CW: Cold water, METH: Methanol

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Table 8.2: Qualitative phytochemical screening of plant extracts

Plant species Plant form Extract

solvent

Alkaloids Tannins Saponins Flavonoids Steroids

C. rotundifolia Dry CW ++ - - + -

BW - ++ - ++ -

METH ++ + + - -

Fresh CW +++ ++ + - -

BW +++ ++ + - -

METH - +++ + ++ -

A. anthelmintica Dry CW - - +++ + ++

BW - - +++ - -

METH - - +++ + +

Fresh CW - - +++ + ++

BW - - +++ + +

METH - - +++ + ++

A. marlothii Dry CW + ++ ++ ++ +

BW + ++ ++ +++ +++

METH ++ ++ + +++ ++

Fresh CW + ++ ++ +++ +

BW + + + ++ ++

METH + ++ ++ +++ ++

C. quadrangularis Dry CW +++ - + - -

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BW +++ - - + ++

METH + - - + -

Fresh CW ++ - + - -

BW ++ - + - -

METH - - ++ + +

S. birrea Dry CW - +++ - - +++

BW - +++ - - ++

METH - +++ - - +++

Fresh CW - +++ - - +

BW - ++ - - +

METH - +++ + - +++

V. xanthophloea Dry CW + +++ + - +++

BW ++ +++ + - ++

METH - +++ - - ++

Fresh CW + +++ + - ++

BW - +++ + - ++

METH ++ +++ - - +++

BW: Boiled water, CW: Cold water, METH: Methanol

Presence of component tested: (+) weakly present, (++) moderately present, (+++) strongly present, (-) absent or undetected

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8.3.2 In vitro anthelmintic screening of plant extracts

Table 8.3 shows the efficacy of fresh plant species on larvae mortality, while the efficacy of dried

plant species is given in Table 8.4. A linear relationship was observed between larvae mortality

and extract concentration of the boiled fresh form of C. rotundifolia (P < 0.01). There was a

quadratic relationship between larvae mortality and methanolic extract concentration of C.

rotundifolia (P < 0.05). A quadratic relationship was observed between larvae mortality and the

concentration of the methanolic extract of the fresh form A. anthelmintica (P < 0.05).

There was a linear relationship between larvae mortality and the concentration of the cold-water

extract of the fresh form of A. marlothii (P < 0.05). A quadratic relationship between larvae

mortality and methanolic extract of the fresh plant form of A. marlothii was observed (P < 0.01).

There was a quadratic relationship between larvae mortality and extract concentration of the boiled

dry form of A. marlothii (P < 0.01). There was a linear relationship between larvae mortality and

concentration of cold-water extract of the fresh form of C. quadrangularis (P < 0.01). A quadratic

relationship was observed between larvae mortality and the methanolic extract of the fresh form

of C. quadrangularis (P < 0.05).

There was a quadratic relationship between larvae mortality and methanolic extract of the fresh

form of S. birrea (P < 0.05). A linear relationship was observed between larvae mortality and the

concentration of the cold-water extract of the dry form of S. birrea (P < 0.0001). There was a

quadratic relationship between larvae mortality and the concentration of the boiled water extract

of S. birrea (P < 0.01). A methanolic extract of the dry form of S. birrea had a linear relationship

between larvae mortality and the extract concentration (P < 0.0001). A quadratic relationship was

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Table 8.3: Anthelmintic efficacy of fresh plant extracts on larval mortality

Plant species Extract Regression equations R2 Significance

C. rotundifolia Boiled water y = 7.899x + 53.385 0.92 **

Methanol y = 4.2457x2 - 17.226x + 30.394 0.70 *

A. anthelmintica Methanol y = 2.2614x2 - 8.5186x + 21.188 0.76 *

A. marlothii Cold water y = 6.012x + 49.058 0.75 *

Methanol y = 0.7136x2 + 2.6136x + 5.36 0.97 ***

C. quadrangularis Cold water y = 5.586x + 72.506 0.91 **

Methanol y = 7.645x + 1.977 0.96 **

S. birrea Methanol y = 2.2614x2 - 8.5186x + 21.188 0.98 *

V. xanthophloea Boiled water y = -0.7729x2 + 12.847x - 2.138 0.95 ***

Cold water y = -1.3579x2 + 23.768x + 10.388 0.90 ***

Methanol y = 8.085x - 5.253 0.83 *

*P < 0.05, **P < 0.01, ***P < 0.0001

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Table 8.4: Anthelmintic efficacy of dry plant extracts on larval mortality

Plant species Extract Regression equations R2 Significance

A. marlothii Boiled water y = 1.1136x2 + 2.3196x + 25.412 0.95 **

S. birrea Boiled water y = -1.1807x2 + 18.151x - 2.16 0.97 **

Cold water y = 14.611x + 1.975 0.97 ***

Methanol y = 14.224x + 23.428 0.97 ***

V. xanthophloea Boiled water y = 0.5164x2 - 0.0716x + 39.036 0.83 *

Cold water y = 4.519x +28.331 0.95 *

Methanol y = 0.1814x2 + 11.877x + 34.572 0.98 *

*P < 0.05, **P < 0.01, ***P < 0.0001

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observed between larvae mortality and concentration of the fresh forms of cold-water and

boiled water extracts of V. xanthophloea (P < 0.0001). There was a linear relationship between

larvae mortality and concentration of the fresh form of methanolic extract and the dry form of

the cold-water extract of V. xanthophloea (P < 0.05). A quadratic relationship was observed

between larvae mortality and concentration of dry forms of boiled water and methanolic

extracts of V. xanthophloea (P < 0.05).

8.4 Discussion

The challenge of anthelmintic resistance, environmental toxicity, and drug residues in goat

products prompted the renewal of interest in using ethnoveterinary plants. Indigenous

knowledge users in chapter 4 identified the plant extracts evaluated in the current study as

having anthelmintic properties. Phytochemicals like tannins, flavonoids, saponins, alkaloids

and steroids have been reputed to be responsible for anthelmintic action. Mali and Mehta

(2008) argued that conventional anthelmintics utilize specific pathways to kill GIN, whereas

natural anthelmintics likely use non-specific mechanisms. Hence, the potential of natural

anthelmintics to decrease nematode resistance towards anthelmintics and due to their natural

occurrence in the environment makes them environmentally friendly. This could also reduce

drug residues in livestock products, particularly because natural products are known to have no

toxic effects on animals compared to synthetic drugs; therefore, they should be promoted.

The extract concentrations used were estimated based on what farmers described in chapter 4.

The observation that no relationships existed between larvae mortality and concentration of

some plant extracts does not indicate that they are ineffective but are not concentration

dependent. Thus, further research is required to assess other factors affecting the efficacy of

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plant extracts other than concentrations. The observed linear relationship between larvae

mortality and extract concentration that some plant extracts of C. rotundifolia, A. marlothii, C.

quadrangularis, S. birrea, and V. xanthophloea exhibited could indicate that the lowest extract

concentrations are as effective as the highest concentrations. This could be the reason why

farmers use different weights of the same plant materials during extract preparations.

Considering that the low and high extract concentrations have the same effect on larval

mortality, high extract concentrations are the wastage of plant material. The quadratic

relationships observed in some plant extracts indicated that a maximum mortality rate was

achieved at a specific extract concentration, indicating that using a higher concentration is a

waste of plant material and could lead to toxicity in treated animals.

The linear relationship between larvae mortality and the boiled extract of the fresh form of C.

rotundifolia could be influenced by the presence of alkaloids and tannins, which concurs with

Wanjohi et al. (2020). Such a relationship indicates that to achieve a high mortality rate of

larvae, plant extract concentration should be increased linearly, which could lead to toxicity in

animals. This agrees with Dubois et al. (2019), who reported that higher dosages of alkaloid-

rich plants could lead to acute cholinergic toxicity and abnormal development in an animal.

The quadratic relationship between larvae mortality and methanolic extract concentration of

the fresh form of C. rotundifolia could be because methanol was efficient in extracting active

ingredients from the plant, increasing potency and efficacy of the remedy indicating the

concentration responsible for maximum larvae mortality.

The observed quadratic relationship between larvae mortality and the methanolic extract of the

fresh form of A. anthelmintica could be associated with that saponin molecules bind with a

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complex of cholesterol; therefore, methanol could have been able to break those bonds and

increased the solubility of compounds leading to cellular toxicity causing nematode ecdysial

failure (Qasim et al., 2020). As a control, methanol demonstrated the concentration dependence

of larvae mortality, which is not surprising. Githiori et al. (2003) associated high larvae

mortality in vivo with higher crude protein levels in A. anthelmintica. Therefore, using A.

anthelmintica could be beneficial due to its multi-functionality.

The quadratic relationship between larvae mortality and extract concentration of the boiled dry

form of A. marlothii could likely be because a higher temperature applied in lowered particle

sizes increased the solubility of compounds (Azwanida, 2015). Ahmed et al. (2017) argued that

the aloe gel of A. ferox contained a low percentage of secondary metabolites than the sap and

outer leaves, which could explain the concentration dependence of the boiled water extract. It

was interesting to observe that A. marlothii contained a variety of secondary metabolites. The

linear relationship observed in the cold-water extract of the fresh form of A. marlothii concurs

with Ahmed et al. (2017), who indicated that the polysaccharide gel components are more

water-soluble than other parts of the aloe leaf.

The finding that a linear relationship was observed between larvae mortality and the

concentration of the cold-water and methanolic extracts of C. quadrangularis was not expected

since farmers claimed it was the most effective plant compared to others they use. Therefore,

there was hope that it would be concentration-dependent, particularly because a high

percentage yield of crude extract was observed, making up almost fifty percent of the plant

fraction. The observed linear relationship does not disagree with the claim from farmers but

warrants further research to identify other factors contributing to its concentration-

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independency. Notably, because farmers mentioned in Chapter 4 that it is widely used, its

population is reduced within communal areas.

The finding that S. birrea contained high amounts of tannins and steroids concurs with Baba et

al. (2014). The quadratic relationship between the larvae mortality and concentration of the

cold-water extract of the dry form of S. birrea could be linked to the yield percentage of its

crude extract containing alkaloids and tannins. The higher larval mortality exhibited by the

cold and boiled water extracts of the fresh plant form could be associated with the higher yield

percentage of alkaloids and tannins (Baba et al., 2014).

The quadratic relationships observed between larvae mortality and extract concentrations of V.

xanthophloea indicated the concentration-dependence of fresh and dry forms of the plant,

suggesting that farmers' preparation methods give the same results. Min et al. (2003) reported

that tannin-rich plants possess an anthelmintic property to control nematodes in sheep.

According to Zenebe et al. (2017), tannins interfere with coupled oxidative phosphorylation,

thereby blocking the ATP synthesis in nematodes. Such concentration-dependent efficacy of

V. xanthophloea concurs with Lalchhandama et al. (2009), where the same trend was observed

in V. oxyphylla against Ascaridia galli. In a study conducted by Mohammed et al. (2013), V.

tortilis demonstrated promising anthelmintic results against adult Haemonchus contortus. The

larvicidal activity against GIN revealed in this study provides evidence that the six plants

studied possess anthelmintic activity, thus justifying why farmers use them to treat GIN in

goats. There is, however, a need to assess their safety and toxicity.

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8.5 Conclusions

The linear and quadratic relationships between larvae mortality and concentration that plants

exhibit indicates their anthelmintic effects. This study, therefore, supports the use of these plant

species in the control of gastrointestinal nematodes, particularly because most of the

anthelmintic validation results of ethnoveterinary plants obtained using organic solvents might

be of less relevance to farmers since water is a traditionally used solvent in most preparations

of traditional medicine. Despite their anthelmintic activity, toxicological evaluation and in vivo

anthelmintic activities should be conducted to determine the minimum non-lethal

concentrations needed to treat nematode infections.

8.6 References

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Aloe ferox extracts on gastrointestinal nematodes control and live weight gain on young

sheep. Journal of Animal Research and Veterinary Science 1,003.

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and 4.1.05 (920.36). Moisture/dry matter. 16th edition. Maryland, USA: AOAC

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Azwanida, N.N. (2015). A Review on the extraction methods use in medicinal plants, principle,

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Baba, G., Adewumi, A.A.J., Ahmed Jere, S. (2014). Toxicity Study, Phytochemical

characterization and anti-parasitic efficacy of aqueous and ethanolic extracts of

Sclerocarya birrea against Plasmodium berghei and Salmonella typhi. British Journal

of Pharmacology and Toxicology 5(2): 67-75.

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De Jesús-Martinez, X., Olmedo-Juárez, A., Olivares-Pérez, J., Zamilpa, A., Mendoza de Gives,

P., López-Arellano, M.E., Rojas-Hernández, S., Villa-Mancera, A., Camacho-D-az,

L.M., Cipriano-Salazar, M. (2018). In vitro anthelmintic activity of methanolic extract

from Caesalpinia coriaria J. willd fruits against Haemonchus contortus eggs and

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potential from Datura metel plant leaves. International Journal of Biological Chemistry

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Koch, C., Bouvier, F., Fassier, T., Marcon, D., Magnin-Robert, J.B., Peineau, N.,

Courtot, E., Huau, C., Meynadier, A., Enguehard-Gueiffier, C., Neveu, C.,

Boudesocque-Delaye, L., Sallé, G. (2019). Lupin (Lupinus spp.) seeds exert

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anthelmintic activity of aqueous leaf extract of Annona muricata L. (Annonacea)

against Haemonchus contortus from sheep. Experimental Parasitology 134: 327-332.

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plant, Albizia anthelmintica, against the nematode parasites Haemonchus contortus of

sheep and Heligmosomoides polygyrus of mice. Veterinary Parasitology 116: 23–34.

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Hansen, J., Perry, B. (1994). The epidemiology, diagnosis and control of helminth parasites of

ruminants. International Laboratory for Research on Animal Diseases Press, Nairobi,

Kenya.

Jaiswal, A.K., Sudan, V., Shanker, D., Kumar, P. (2013). Emergence of ivermectin resistance

in gastrointestinal nematodes of goats in a semi-organized farm of Mathura District-

India. Veterinarski Arhiv 83(3): 275-280.

Lalchhandama, K., Roy, B., Dutta, B.K. (2009). Anthelmintic activity of Acacia oxyphylla

stem bark against Ascaridia galli. Pharmaceutical Biology 47(7): 578–583.

Mali, R.G., Mehta, A.A. (2008). A review on anthelmintic plants. Natural Product Radiance

7(5): 466-475.

Mazhangara, I.R., Masika, P.J., Mupangwa, J.F., Chivandi, E., Jaja, I.F, Muchenje, V. (2020).

In vitro efficacy of Elephantorrhiza elephantina root extracts against adult

Paramphistomum cervi in goats. Parasite Epidemiology and Control 10 e00157.

Mdletshe, Z. M., Ndlela, S. Z., Nsahlai, I. V., Chimonyo, M. (2018). Farmer perceptions on

factors influencing water scarcity for goats in resource-limited communal farming

environments. Tropical Animal Health and Production 50(7): 1617-1623.

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Feed Science and Technology 106, 3–19.

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Mohammed, A., Wossene, A., Giday, M., Tilahun, G., Kebede, N. (2013). In vitro

anthelminthic activities of four medicinal plants against Haemonchus contortus.

African Journal of Plant Science 7(8): 369-373.

Mphahlele, M., Tsotetsi-Khambule, A.M., Shai, L.J., Luseba, D. (2016). In vitro anthelmintic

activity of aqueous extracts of five medicinal plant against eggs and the infective stage

of Haemonchus contortus. Livestock Research for Rural Development 28, Article #225.

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in Livestock, Helminthiasis, Omolade Olayinka Okwa, IntechOpen, DOI:

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helminthiasis/anthelmintic-resistance-in-livestock-3.

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mixed gastrointestinal nematodes in artificially infected sheep. The Journal of

Phytopharmacology 7(4): 360-365.

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Control. In book: Co-Evolution of Secondary Metabolites (pp.897-924). Chapter: 35

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6_39.

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Evaluation of Cissus Rotundifolia Plant from Tana River County Kenya. Discovery

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in rural Maputaland, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Journal of Ethnopharmacology

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Chapter 9: General discussion, Conclusions and Recommendations

9.1 General Discussions

The study was designed to investigate indigenous knowledge methods and practices used to

control gastrointestinal parasites of goats in communal production systems. It is reflected in

the conceptual framework that goat health enhances productivity. Thus, important to identify

and control diseases and parasites that hamper goat health. Control methods such as IK and CK

are used to achieve this. However, CK is expensive and scarcely available in resource-limited

farms and is accompanied by challenges such as nematode resistance, environmental toxicity,

and meat contamination by drug residues. Indigenous knowledge plays a fundamental role as

it is easily available and affordable to farmers, hence, undocumented and not scientifically

affirmed.

Firstly, participatory approaches such as face-to-face interviews and a survey were conducted

to understand IK that resource-limited farmers use to control GIN in goats. An efficient therapy

of GIN infestation remains a challenge in goat productivity. Besides the presence of

conventional anthelmintics to control worm infestations in goats, their effectiveness has been

reduced due to the resistance of nematodes to drugs. Additionally, the use of drugs in large

amounts could result in the deposition of residues in meat and other goat products.

Anthelmintic drugs are costly, scarce, and inaccessible to resource-limited farmers. Therefore,

farmers have relied on IK to control nematodes because they know a great deal about

ethnoveterinary medicine (EVM). Farmers used indigenous methods to identify symptoms and

disease conditions in goats infested with gastrointestinal parasites.

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In Chapter 4, face-to-face interviews were conducted to understand IK that farmers use to

control GIN in goats. Indigenous knowledge experts identified nematodes as common

gastrointestinal parasites infesting goats. They used size, shape, and colour to identify

nematodes that are excreted with faeces. Among symptoms and disease conditions identified

using IK were anaemia and body weight loss. It was interesting that farmers identified signs

such as foaming at the mouth, gnashing of teeth, and that goat kids bend tails when highly

infested with GIN. This indicated the advancement of IK in monitoring the health status of

goats, detecting even neurological and mineral deficiency signs. It was also interesting that

farmers could associate some symptoms with certain gastrointestinal parasites, such as black

diarrhoea caused by nematodes. It was indicated that the prevalence of nematodes is

intensifying with years due to climate change, consequently reducing kidding and conception

rates while increasing mortality rates. Farmers identified 33 plant species that they use to

control GIN in goats. None of these plants were used for prevention but were utilized for the

treatment of worm infestation. Different plant extraction methods were used, including

decoction and infusion of either fresh or dried plant materials diluted to different extract

concentrations and administered in various dosages among classes of goats. Even though it was

found that resource-limited farmers use adequate IK to control GIN in goats, some knowledge

gaps were identified, so further investigation using close-ended questions was required.

A survey was administered to farmers to quantify individual farmer perspectives on the extent

of the use of IK to control GIN (Chapter 5). Gastrointestinal parasites were identified as a

challenge in goat productivity, with GIN as the most common parasites, in agreement with IK

experts in Chapter 4. Of the plant species identified during interviews, 12 were commonly used

by individual farmers due to reduced plant populations within communities and migration of

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some to higher altitudes. Men were likely to possess more IK than females, with older

generations as main users. Farmers residing on-farm were likely to influence the use of IK than

those staying away from the farm. The probability of farmers using IK was higher in the dry

environment than in the wet environment. The difference in the IK use based on the type of

environment warranted further investigation to determine differences in the extent of use of IK

to control GIN in goats between the dry and wet environments.

Among factors that had higher odds of influencing the extent of use of IK to control GIN in

goats were gender, age, employment status, religion, livestock training, and presence of

herbalists in the area (Chapter 6). The likelihood of males influencing the use of IK was higher

than females in both environments. Adults were more likely to influence the use of IK in the

dry environment, while it was youths in the wet environment. The probability of unemployed

farmers to influence the use of IK was more likely than employed farmers in both

environments. The likelihood of farmers that received training on livestock was higher in the

wet environment than untrained farmers. It was expected that the probability of farmers whose

belief is traditional and where there was a herbalist in the area to likely influence the use of IK

in both environment types. This is mainly because IK is part of traditionalists' and herbalists’

lives. Factors influencing IK use were the same in both environments, although probabilities

were different with higher likelihoods in the dry environment. These factors should be

considered when intervention strategies to advance IK are devised, particularly because they

contribute to the use of IK to identify health problems associated with nematode infestations.

Considering that farmers indicated the use of IK to identify signs and symptoms of diseases

caused by GIN infestation in Chapter 4, relationships between nematode faecal egg count and

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the health status of goats had to be determined to predict nematode infestation using symptoms

(Chapter 7). The observed GIN prevalence in all goat classes confirms that they are a major

health problem, as farmers indicated in Chapters 4 and 5. The sex of goats did not affect the

body condition score (BCS), FAMACHA score, packed cell volume (PCV) and faecal egg

count (FEC). Season and age had effects on BCS, FAMACHA, PCV and FEC. Weaners had

lower BCS and PCV in the cool-dry season, while FAMACHA and FEC were higher than in

older goats. Weaners had a higher rate of change of FAMACHA scores when FEC increased.

This is owed to weaners' weaker immune systems than older goats because of less exposure to

GIN infection. This finding agrees with what farmers reported in Chapters 4 and 5. It was

interesting to observe a linear relationship between FAMACHA and FEC because it suggests

that FAMACHA serves as the best indicator of nematode heavy burdens in goats. The

application of the FAMACHA system is practical in the field, including resource-limited farms.

Therefore, the IK methods that farmers use to detect anaemia in goats could be coupled with

FAMACHA, where extension services can easily provide training and dispatch FAMACHA

charts to all farmers during gatherings, such as in dip tanks.

From a list of plants used to control GIN that farmers listed in Chapters 4 and 5, in vitro

anthelmintic activity against nematodes was conducted to determine the relationship between

larvae mortality and extract concentration. Anthelmintic activity was conducted on Cissus

quadrangularis Linn., Aloe marlothii A. Berger, Albizia anthelmintica Brongn., Cissus

rotundifolia (Forssk.) Vahl., Sclerocarya birrea (A. Rich.) Hochst and Vachellia xanthophloea

(Benth.) P.J.H. Hurter plants. Farmers indicated that they use water to extract plant materials,

either in a fresh or dry form, in Chapter 3. Some farmers prepared extracts using a decoction

method, while others used an infusion. Therefore, in Chapter 8, these plant forms and extraction

219

methods were applied in in vitro anthelmintic activity trials, where methanol extracts were used

as a positive control. Extraction concentrations of 8, 16, 24, 32 and 40 % (v/v) were employed

based on farmers' descriptions in Chapter 4. Farmers used different weights of plant material

and volumes of water during extract preparations. The linear relationships observed between

larvae mortality and plant extract concentrations could explain why farmers use different

extract concentrations. They have probably established through experience that those plant

extracts are effective at any concentration. This could lead to wastage of plant material during

extract preparations and may cause a build-up of toxins in the animal’s body. Quadratic

relationships between larvae mortality and extract concentrations showed high mortality rates

at certain concentrations, such as the dry and fresh form of boiled V. xanthophloea plant. So, it

can be deduced from these observations that farmers could adopt extract concentrations with

high larvae mortality to conserve plants and reduce toxins in treated goats.

9.2 Conclusions

Gastrointestinal parasites were a major challenge in goats in resource-limited communities,

where Strongyles, Haemonchus and Trichostrongyles were predominant. Farmers have

massive IK that they use to control GIN in goats. Farmer’s perceptions indicated that the

probability of factors influencing IK use varies within environments. Such factors were gender,

age, employment status, religion, livestock training, and the presence of herbalists in the area.

Weaners were highly infested with GIN than does and bucks. Higher infestations were

prevalent in the hot-wet season and lower in the post-rainy season; however, GIN effects were

more prominent in the cool-dry season. Interactions between age and season influenced

FAMACHA scores, BCS, PCV and FEC. A linear relationship between FAMACHA and FEC

is a good indicator of heavy infestation of GIN. Quadratic and linear relationships established

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between larvae mortality and plant extract concentrations indicated the anthelmintic activity of

plants. In some plant extracts, concentrations did not affect larvae mortality, suggesting that

their lower concentrations are sufficient for effective control of GIN in goats. Farmers could

adopt certain concentrations with high larval mortality in other plant extracts. Therefore, using

these plant species to control GIN in goats is supported in this study, as it is relevant and

practical to what farmers use.

9.3 Recommendations

Given that goat farmers use IK to control GIN in goats, involving them in understanding IK

was beneficial as the information provided was used as a baseline for this study. It is envisaged

that this collaboration will enable IK experts and other stakeholders to easily endorse and adopt

the scientific research outcome of this study. Understanding the factors influencing the use of

IK was necessary so that they are considered when designing sustainable goat intervention

strategies.

Because GIN infestation was higher in weaners than does and bucks, this should be considered

when designing suitable nematode control strategies, taking nematode seasonal prevalence into

account. Prevention of nematode infestation could be imperative for weaners, particularly in

the hot-wet season when GIN counts are high and cool-dry seasons when infestation effects

are prominent, as exacerbated by feed shortages in communal rangelands. This should improve

FAMACHA score, BCS, PCV and FEC in weaners and adult goats.

The study recommends that farmers can use any of these studied plants; Cissus quadrangularis

Linn., Aloe marlothii A. Berger, Albizia anthelmintica Brongn., Cissus rotundifolia (Forssk.)

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Vahl., Sclerocarya birrea (A. Rich.) Hochst and Vachellia xanthophloea (Benth.) P.J.H. Hurter

available to them to control worm burdens in goats. Despite their anthelmintic activity,

toxicological evaluations should be conducted to ensure the safety and quality of EVM. There

are a number of practical recommendations that can be made.

9.3.1 Practical recommendations

9.3.1.1 Plant preparation and extraction

Pre-preparation of plant material, including storage, drying, and grinding after collection,

influences the preservation of phytochemicals in the final extract. Studies (Gakuubi and

Wanzala, 2012; Kuma et al., 2015; Mphahlele et al., 2016) have shown that IK experts use

various ways to process ethnoveterinary plants, including the use of different plant forms, plant

parts, solvents, and extraction methods. There is, therefore, a need to educate IK users on

sustainable methods of preserving biomolecules before extraction and harvesting active

ingredients from plants, as it impacts on changes in biological activity.

9.3.1.2 Concentrations of plant extracts

From this study, farmers could adopt extract concentrations that resulted in high larvae

mortality. These were observed in plant extracts that showed quadratic relationships. When

using plants that showed a linear relationship, smaller weights of plant material could be used

to avoid wasting the material and limit toxicity in animals.

9.3.2 Further studies

9.3.2.1 Conservation of ethnoveterinary plants

The overexploitation of plants from the biodiversity is of concern as it destroys the habitat and

drives some plants to extinction. Poverty has played a massive role in plant extinction, among

222

other reasons. Vendors even travel from urban areas to harvest plants in rural areas to sell in

herbal markets. Given that vendors do it for monetary gain, they do not worry about employing

good harvesting procedures that will not destroy plants. Stakeholders such as environmental or

forestry protection officers, agricultural departments, and others should give attention to

protecting plants from destruction in local areas. They could force vendors and other harvesters

to acquire harvesting permits from an authorized body and implement a policy preventing non-

permit holders’ access to forests and the wild. Permit holders can then be trained on sustainable

practices, including planting and transplanting procedures. This will promote home or

community gardens and nurseries, reducing pressure on natural habitats, thereby preserving

plants. Such developments can reduce poverty since planters can sell plants from their gardens

to vendors and IK users.

9.3.2.2 Use of plant combinations and non-plant material

Farmers combine plants with other plants for synergy reasons (Gakuubi and Wanzala, 2012).

Few studies, if any, have been conducted to establish scientific meanings around such

synergies. It is of paramount importance that the biological activities of these plant

combinations be studied to eliminate plant material wastage and address toxicity issues. Most

in vitro plant screenings have evaluated the efficacy of single-plant extracts (Table 3.4); hence

combinations of plants and non-plant materials are widely practiced in communities.

The use of non-plant materials such as rock salt, Epsom salt, or other magnesium sulphate

compounds, and oil cake could be due to the easy access and healing properties that they

possess. The combination of plants with additives should be researched to evaluate their ability

to enhance efficacy. Understanding such a link between IK and CK will assist stakeholders and

223

policymakers in stimulating and strengthening the contribution of IK to social and economic

development while ensuring its integration into animal health programmes.

9.3.2.3 Prevalence of gastrointestinal nematodes

Goats are infested by a wide variety of GI parasites, including nematodes, cestodes and

protozoa. Variations in GIN prevalence depend upon differences in agro-climatic conditions

and availability of the susceptible host, which affects the survival and development of larvae

causing differences in prevalence and egg loads of worms (Mpofu et al., 2020). Gastrointestinal

nematodes have different pathogenic effects; therefore, important to establish groups that are

present in goat flocks, area, country and region. Furthermore, parasites have different

development times and stages outside and inside the goat as a host, vital for effective

management and control measures.

Identifying prevalent GIN and estimating the variation in parasitic infection will help design

effective control measures against parasitic diseases and shrink economic losses. For example,

a narrow-spectrum anthelmintic effective against those species could be used, avoiding the

unnecessary use of broad-spectrum anthelmintics that could give rise to parasite resistance

against a variety of antiparasitic compounds. Therefore, a comprehensive investigation on the

intensity, patterns and other epidemiological factors of GIN infestation should be carried out

to produce a profile of parasites in South African goats.

9.3.2.4 Mode of action studies of ethnoveterinary plants

Examination of the mode of action of ethnoveterinary plants has generally been neglected.

More studies have focussed on plant phytochemistry and their anthelmintic activity, which is

useful for validating efficacy and identifying species to be prioritized for further research.

224

However, for the potential usage of EVM, an examination of their mode of action is imperative.

The mode of action on every stage within the parasite life cycle needs to be studied since each

worm has a complex life cycle.

9.3.2.5 Phytochemical screening and efficacy of ethnoveterinary plants

Phytochemical screening of different parts of ethnoveterinary plants should be conducted to

fully utilize their medicinal potential. Although farmers have ways of dealing with plant

toxicity during extract preparations, it will help to identify toxic compounds and possible side

effects and mechanisms to manage them, especially in in-vivo studies. Exploring different

forms of a plant, i.e., fresh and dried form, and various extraction methods is imperative to

establish a percentage yield and quantification of phytochemicals from each form, which will

impact on efficacy against GIN.

9.3.2.6 Exploring the use of aqueous solvents in plant extraction

Plant extractions in most research studies have used various organic solvents, yet farmers and

herbalists mostly used water. The shortfall is that there is no precise amount of plant material

per water volume, as Luseba and Van der Merwe (2006) suggested. Comparative studies using

water extractions may help elucidate the science underlying the efficacy of ethnoveterinary

plants, which will be relevant to farmers and could lead to better adoption. Such initiative will

expose IK experts to conventional veterinary medicine training, which will reduce the bias

between the two approaches, leading to better integration. Besides validating EVM for

homecare herbal remedies, it could also serve as a primary phase in discovering new

anthelmintic drugs. The discovered pharmaceutical agents may be integrated into livestock

health management programmes to improve the wellbeing of the livestock industry, especially

in Africa.

225

9.3.2.7 Efficacy in different parasitic life phases

Most research conducted on EVM efficacy has been tested against a single phase of the GIN

life cycle. However, most plant screenings for anthelmintic activity are against the larval stage,

which could result in overlooking promising therapies. Thus, it is recommended that extracts

be screened against several parasitic life phases, including egg hatching inhibition and

larvicidal effects. In vitro bioassays are mainly used in preliminary screenings of

ethnoveterinary plants for anthelmintic activity due to reduced costs and quantity of plant

material required, and the ability to screen a large scale of plants. Due to this, most scientists

opt for in vitro assays. However, a translation of these in vitro results into clinical practice is a

neglected field.

9.3.2.8 In vivo studies

Ideally, preliminary assays are to be followed by in vivo studies for confirmatory results, which

consider absorption and bioavailability that practically occur in the animal’s body. This is more

important because farmers are already practicing in vivo anthelmintic treatments. The challenge

is that it is expensive to screen plants at a large scale in vivo. Feasibly, it will be imperative for

the government and other organizations to provide financial support to scale up clinical trials

on many plants that have been tested in vitro. This will contribute to the expanding

ethnopharmacological field to curb animal diseases, especially in resource-limited

communities. It will also be considered when national drug policies are formulated and

legislative protocols are developed to facilitate the use of EVM.

226

9.4 References

Gakuubi, M.M., Wanzala, W. (2012). A survey of plants and plant products traditionally used

in livestock health management in Buuri District, Meru Country, Kenya. Journal of

Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 8: 9-19.

Kuma, S., Jakhar, K.K., Singh, S., Potliya, S., Kuma, K., Pal, M. (2015). Clinicopathological

studies of gastrointestinal tract disorders in sheep with parasitic infection. Veterinary

World 8(1): 29-32.

Luseba, D., Van der Merwe, D., 2006. Ethnoveterinary medicine practices among Tsonga

speaking people of South Africa. Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Research 73(2):

115-122.

Mphahlele, M., Tsotetsi-Khambule, A.M., Shai, L.J., Luseba, D. (2016). In vitro anthelmintic

activity of aqueous extracts of five medicinal plant against eggs and the infective stage

of Haemonchus contortus. Livestock Research for Rural Development 28, Article #225.

Retrieved July 23, 2020, http://www.lrrd.org/lrrd28/12/luse28225.html.

Mpofu, T.J., Nephawe, K.A., Mtilen, B. (2020). Prevalence of gastrointestinal parasites in

communal goats from different agro-ecological zones of South Africa. Veterinary

World 13(1): 26-32.

227

Appendix 1: Quality assessment of included articles

Author, year Method Q 1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Rank

2020

Mpofu et al. (2020) Participatory rural appraisal Y Y Y Y Y Y Y H

Qokweni et al. (2020) Structured questionnaire Y Y Y Y Y Y Y H

Mazhangara et al. (2020) Experimental Y Y Y Y Y Y Y H

Mkwanazi et al. (2020) Structured questionnaire Y Y Y Y Y Y Y H

Mseleku et al. (2020) Participatory rural appraisal Y Y Y Y Y Y Y H

2019

Hassan et al. (2019) Participatory rural appraisal Y Y Y Y Y Y Y H

Falowo and Akimoladun (2019) Book chapter Y Y Y Y Y Y Y H

Mphahlele et al. (2019) Book chapter Y Y Y Y Y Y Y H

2018

Mdletshe et al. (2018) Structured questionnaire Y Y Y Y Y Y Y H

Vilakazi et al. (2018) Structured questionnaire Y Y Y Y Y Y Y H

Mthi et al. (2018) Structured questionnaire Y Y CT CT Y Y Y M

Muthee et al. (2018) Experimental Y Y Y Y Y Y Y H

Ahmed et al. (2018) Experimental Y Y Y Y Y Y Y H

2017

Oyda (2017) Review Y Y Y CT CT Y Y M

Madibela (2017) Review Y Y Y CT Y Y Y H

Zenebe et al. (2017) Experimental Y Y Y Y Y Y Y H

Fomum and Nsahlai (2017) Experimental Y Y Y Y Y Y Y H

228

Maroyi (2017) Review Y Y Y Y Y Y Y H

Manning et al. (2017) Experimental Y Y Y CT Y Y Y H

Suarez et al. (2017) Experimental Y Y Y Y Y Y Y H

2016

Dzama et al. (2016) Policy briefing Y Y Y Y Y Y Y H

Zvinorova et al. (2016) Participatory rural appraisal Y Y Y Y Y Y Y H

Sanhokwe et al. (2016) Structured questionnaire Y Y Y Y Y Y Y H

Mphahlele et al. (2016) Experimental Y Y Y CT Y Y Y H

Eichberg et al. (2016) Experiment Y Y Y CT Y Y Y H

Vishnuraj et al. (2016) Review Y Y CT CT Y Y Y M

Scarfe (2016) Report Y CT CT CT Y Y Y M

2015

Tyasi and Tyasi et al. (2015) Review Y Y CT CT Y Y Y M

Abdulkadir et al. (2015) Experimental Y Y CT CT Y Y Y M

Kuma et al. (2015) Report and opinion Y Y Y Y Y Y Y H

Jacobs and Scholtz (2015) Review Y Y Y Y Y Y Y H

Wagil et al. (2015) Experimental Y Y Y CT CT Y Y M

2014

Bhat (2014) Structured questionnaire Y Y CT Y Y Y Y M

2013

Emiru et al. (2013) Experimental Y Y Y Y Y Y Y H

Ntonifor et al. (2013) Experimental Y Y Y Y Y Y Y H

Tsotetsi et al. (2013) Experimental Y Y Y Y Y Y Y H

Tamiru et al. (2013) Structured questionnaire Y Y Y Y Y Y Y H

229

Gabalebatse et al. (2013) Structured questionnaire Y Y Y Y Y Y Y H

Setlalekgomo and Setlalekgomo (2013) Structured questionnaire Y Y Y Y Y Y Y H

2012

Alberti et al. (2012) Experiment Y Y Y Y Y Y Y H

Gakuubi and Wanzala (2012) Participatory rural appraisal Y Y Y Y Y Y Y H

Maroyi (2012) Participatory rural appraisal Y Y Y Y Y Y Y H

Molefe et al. (2012) Experimental Y Y Y Y Y Y Y H

Beynon (2012) Review Y Y Y Y Y Y Y H

WHO Review Y Y Y CT Y Y Y H

2011

Djoueche et al. (2011) Structured questionnaire Y Y Y Y Y Y Y H

2010

Maphosa and Masika (2010) Participatory rural appraisal Y Y Y Y Y Y Y H

Blagburn et al. (2010) Experimental Y Y CT CT Y Y Y M

Liebig et al. (2010) Participatory rural appraisal Y Y Y CT Y Y Y H

2008

McGaw and Eloff (2008) Structured questionnaire Y Y Y Y Y Y Y H

Gradé et al. (2008) Experimental Y Y Y Y Y Y Y H

Kolar et al. (2008) Experimental Y Y Y Y Y Y Y H

Iwasa et al. (2008) Experimental Y Y Y CT Y Y Y H

2007

Garric et al. (2007) Experimental Y CT Y CT Y Y Y M

2006

Luseba and Van der Merwe (2006) Participatory rural appraisal Y Y Y Y Y Y Y H

230

2003

Willis and Ling (2003) Experimental Y Y CT CT Y Y Y M

2001

Van der Merwe et al. (2001) Participatory rural appraisal Y Y Y Y Y Y Y H

Wardhaugh et al. (2001) Experimental Y Y Y Y Y Y Y H

1999

Van Wyk et al. (1999) Structured questionnaire Y Y Y Y Y Y Y H

1997

Van Wyk et al. (1997) Experimental Y Y Y Y Y Y Y H

McKellar (1997) Review Y Y Y Y Y Y Y H

Note:

Q1 = Did the study address the clear focused issue?

Q2 =Did the authors use appropriate method to answer their questions?

Q3 = Was the data sufficient to warrant reporting?

Q4 = Did the study have enough experimental units to reduce biasness?

Q5 = Is there a clear statement of findings?

Q6 = Can the results be applied to a local population?

Q7 = How valuable is the research?

Y – Yes (Clearly described)

N – No (Not described)

CT – Cannot tell (described but with limited details)

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Appendix 2: Humanities and Social Sciences Research Ethics Committee

Approval (Reference number: HSS/0852/017)

232

Appendix 3: Interview Questions

Gastrointestinal parasites in goats

1. What do you understand about gastrointestinal parasites in goats/ Uqondani

ngenkinga yezikelemu ezimbuzini?

2. What are different types of gastrointestinal parasites affecting goats/ Iziphi izinhlobo

zezikelemu ezihlupha izimbuzi zakho?

3. How do gastrointestinal parasites load differ with/ Engabe inani lezikelemu liyahluka

yini:

• Age/ Umnyaka

• Sex/ Ubulili

• Environment/ Indawo

• Body condition score/ Isisindo somzimbo

• Nutrition/ Ngokuba khona kokudla

• Flock size (stocking density)/ Umhlambi wezimbuzi

4. What are diseases caused by gastrointestinal parasites (symptoms)/ Izimbuzi

zikhombisa ziphi izimpawu uma zinezikelemu?

5. What are the adverse effects of gastrointestinal parasites in goats/ Uyini umthelela

wezikelemu ezimbuzini:

(a) Conception rate/ Ukumitha

(b) Kidding rate/ Izinga lokuzala

(c) Mortality/ Izinga lokufa lezimbuzi

(d) Growth/ Ukukhula kwezimbuzi

(e) Feed and water intake/ Indlela ezidla ngayo noma eziphuza ngayo amanzi

6. How do gastrointestinal parasites vary with seasons (prevalence and type of

gastrointestinal parasites)/ Zihluka kanjani izikelemu ezihlupha izimbuzi ngezikhathi

zonyaka?

• Why/ Kungani kunjalo?

233

7. Have gastrointestinal parasite loads changed over time (climate change)/ Zihlukile

yini izikelemu ezitholakala manje kunalezo zakudala?

8. How do you prevent diseases caused by gastrointestinal parasites/ Uzivikela kanjani

izikelemu?

9. How do you treat diseases caused by gastrointestinal parasites/ Uzilapha kanjani

izikelemu?

10. State the indigenous method/s you use to control gastrointestinal parasites/ Yisho

indlela yesintu oyisebenzisayo ukuvikela noma ukulapha izifo ezibangwa izikelemu.

a) Local name of plant/ Igama lomuthi lesizulu

b) Part of plant/ Ingxenye yomuthi

c) Condition of plant (dry/fresh)/ Isimo somuthi (owomile/omanzi)

d) Method of preparation/ Indlela owuxuba ngayo

e) Route or mode of application/ Uzipha kanjani izimbuzi ingxube le engenhla

(uyaziphuzisa noma uzipha ngenye indlela?)

f) Dosage/ Uziphuzisa ingxube noma umuthi ongakanani?

g) How do you deal with plant toxicity/ Umelana kanjani no phoyizeni womuthi?

h) How long do goats take to recover/ Izimbuzi zithatha isikhathi esingakanani

ukululama?

11. Another method … (Back to the list on no. 12)/ Enye indlela… (buyela

kwizingxenyana zika no.12)

Indigenous knowledge used to control gastrointestinal parasites in goats

1. What do you understand about indigenous knowledge/ Yini oyaziyo ngolwazi

lwezomdabu lokwulapha izimbuzi?

2. What is the source of your knowledge/ Ulincelaphi lolu lwazi?

3. How is knowledge transferred to other people/ Ulidlulisa kanjani lolulwazi kwabanye

abantu?

4. Does everyone in the household know about this knowledge/ Engabe wonke umuntu

ekhaya unalo lolu lwazi?

5. Why are you using indigenous methods to treat animals/ Kungani usebenzisa ulwazi

lwesintu ukwelapha izifo zezilwane?

234

6. How has climate variability affected these methods or practices/ Ingabe ukushitsha

kwesimo sezulu kukuthikameza kanjani ukusetshenziswa kwalezi zindlela zesintu?

a. How does it affect the availability of plants/ Kunamthelela muni ebukhoneni

bemithi yokulapha?

b. How has the increase in the number of herbalists contributed to the availability

of medicinal plants/ Inani labantu abasebenzisa imithi linamthelela muni

ebukhoneni bemithi yokwelapha?

7. What should be done to conserve indigenous knowledge and natural resources?

Ikuphi ocabanga ukuthi mele kwenziwe ukonga ulwazi lweSintu?

235

Appendix 4: Questionnaire

Objective: Farmer perceptions on the extent of use of indigenous knowledge to control nematodes in goats

Questionnaire Number……Village name………………………Numerator name………………..Ward

Number……

SECTION A: Household demography

A1. Gender: 1. M □ 2. F □

A2. Marital status: 1. Married □ 2. Single □ 3. Divorced □ 4. Widowed □

A3. Age: 1. 18-30 □ 2. 31-50 □ 3. >50 □

A4. Are you residing on the farm? 1. Yes □ 2. No □

A5. Highest education level: 1. No formal education □ 2. Grade 1-7 □ 3. Grade 8-12 □ 4. Tertiary □

A6. What is your belief? 1. Traditional □ 2. Christian □ 3. Both □

A7. What is your employment status? 1. Employed □ 2. Unemployed □ 3. Self-employed □

A8. What are major sources of income? 1. Crops □ 2. Livestock sales □ 3. Livestock products □ 4. Salary □

5. Government grant □ 6. Other □, specify ……….

A9. What is your household income? 1. 0-R1000 □ 2. R1001=R3500 □ 3. Greater than R3500 □

A10. Have you ever received any training on livestock production? 1. Yes □ 2. No □

A11. Types of livestock species kept (The last column is for rank levels of the livestock species kept – 1 is for the

highest priority)

Livestock species Number of animals Rank

Cattle

Goats

Sheep

Chickens

Pigs

Other (specify) …..

SECTION B: Goat production

B1. Why do you keep goats? (Please tick the second column for the purpose and the last column for ranking -1 is

for the highest priority)

Purpose Tick Rank

Meat

Milk

Manure

Skin

Sales

Investment

Traditional ceremonies

Gifts

Other (specify)……….

B2. Are you part of any farmer’s association? 1. Yes □ 2. No □

B3. Who takes care of goats?

1. Father □ 2. Mother □ 3. Children □ 4. Shepherd □ 5. Other □, specify ……….

B4. Who makes decisions about goat management?

1. Owner □ 2. Shepherd □ 3. Children □ 4. Other □, specify ……….

B5. What goat production system do you use?

1. Extensive □ 2. Semi-intensive □ 3. Intensive □ 4. Tethering □ 5. Integrated livestock/crop

system □ 6. Other □, specify ……….

B6. Do goats and cattle herds from different households graze together in communal pastures? 1. Yes □ 2. No □

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B7. Type of vegetation where goats browse?

1. Shrubs □ 2. Grass □ 3. Tree leaves □ 4. Other □, specify ………. B8. How has climate

change affected the quality of vegetation?

1. Dry □ 2. Moist/green □ 3. No change □

B8. When do you experience feed shortages for goats?

1. Rainy season □ 2. Hot-dry season □ 3. Cool-dry season □ 4. Post-rainy season □ 5. All year round

□

B9. Do you practice supplementary feeding during periods of feed shortage?

1. Yes □ 2. No □

B10. What supplementary feed do you give to your goats?

1. Purchased feed □ 2. Feed residues □ 3. Maize mixed with salt □ 4. Mineral licks □ 5. Other □,

specify ……….

B11. What form of housing do you have for your goats?

1. Kraal □ 2. Stall/Shed □ 3. Yard □ 4. None □

B12. What form of housing do you have for your goats?

1. Kraal □ 2. Stall/Shed □ 3. Yard □ 4. None □

B13. What are the challenges facing goat production? Please tick the second column for the challenges, and the

last column for ranking -1 is for the highest priority)

Challenge Tick Rank

Feed shortage

Diseases

Ecto-parasites

Internal parasites

Inbreeding

Theft

Water scarcity

Other (specify)……….

B14. What is the composition of your goat flock?

Goat flock Male Female

Kids

Weaners

Does

Bucks

B15. How do you breed goats?

1. Select bucks □ 2. Select does □ 3. Freely uncontrolled □ 4. Tolerance to diseases □

B16. When is the breeding season for goats?

1. Rainy season □ 2. Hot-dry season □ 3. Cool-dry season □ 4. Post-rainy season □ 5. All year round

□

B17. What do you look for when selecting bucks? (Please tick the second column for the condition, and the last

column for ranking -1 is for the highest priority)

Condition Tick Rank

Scrotal circumference

Libido

Body conformation

Health status

Scrotal palpation

Body condition

Physical injuries

Other (specify)……….

237

B18. How do you select does? Please tick the second column for the condition, and the last column for ranking -

1 is for the highest priority)

Condition Tick Rank

Body condition

Health status

Mothering ability

Ability to produce 3 times in two years

Other (specify)……….

B19. How do you manage kids before weaning?

1. Let them go with mothers to the field □ 2. Leave them in the goat house □ 3. Leave them in

the yard □ 4. Other □, specify ……….

B20. When do you wean kids?

1. Rainy season □ 2. Hot-dry season □ 3. Cool-dry season □ 4. Post-rainy season □

B21. What is your method of weaning?

1. Minimum weight □ 2. Age □ 3. Feed availability □ 4. Health status of doe □ 5. Other □,

specify……….

B22. Are housed kids provided with water when mothers are being herded?

1. Yes □ 2. No □

B23. How does drying out of water sources affect goat production?

1. Increased 2. Decreased

B24. How does productivity differ between past years and now?

Production parameters Increased Decreased No change

Conception rate

Age at first kidding

Kidding rate

Kidding interval

Kid mortality rate

Goat mortality rate

SECTION C: Goat health

C1. What are common disease challenges that you encounter in your flock?

1. Diarrhoea □ 2. Coccidiosis □ 3. Heartwater □ 4. Orf □ 5. Mastitis □ 6. Pneumonia □ 7. Rift

valley □ 8. Pulpy kidney □ 9. Abortion □ 10. Foot abscesses/rot □ 11. Anaplasmosis □ 12. Lumpy

skin □ 13. Tick-borne fever □ 14. Babesiosis □ 15. Anaemia □ 16. Bottle jaw □ 17. Other □, specify

……….

C2. What causes kid mortality?

1. Lack of colostrum □ 2. No milk produced by lactating does □ 3. Predators (Jackals) □ 4. Feed

shortage □ 5. Diseases □ 6. Other □ (specify) ……….

C3. How do you assess health challenges in goats?

1. Loss of body weight □ 2. Breathing difficulties □ 3. Not standing/playing □ 4. Not eating □

5. Scratching □ 6. Diarrhoea □ 7. Tearing eyes □ 8. Limping □ 9. Abdominal swelling □ 10. Rash

□ 11. Coughing/sneezing □ 12. Circling □ 14. Skin coat rises □ Other □, specify ……….

C4. What types of parasites are prevalent on this farm? (Please tick the second column for the type of parasites

and the last column for ranking -1 is for the highest priority)

Type of parasite Tick Rank

Ticks

Lice

Flies

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Mites

Tapeworm

Roundworm

Liver fluke

Other, specify…

C5. Who identifies parasites?

1. Household head □ 2. Shepherd □ 3. Other □, specify ……….

C6. What are the different types of gastrointestinal parasites affecting your goats?

1. Roundworms □ 2. Tapeworms □ 3. Coccidia □ 4. Other □, specify ……….

C7. How do you identify a goat that has a problem with gastrointestinal parasites? (The last column for ranking

-1 is for the highest priority)

Symptoms Rainy

season

Hot-dry

season

Cool-dry

season

Post-rainy

season

Rank

Loss of body weight

Parasites in faeces

Bottle jaw

Anaemia

Post-mortem

Scours/Diarrhoea

Stunted growth

Enlarged abdomen

Lethargy

Rough hair coat

Dry faeces

Coughing/sneezing

Fast breathing

Poor/no appetite

Other (specify)

C8. How has the change in rainfall patterns affected the prevalence of gastrointestinal parasites?

1. Increase □ 2. Decrease □ 3. No change □

C9. How has the change in temperature patterns affected the prevalence of gastrointestinal parasites?

1. Increase □ 2. Decrease □ 3. No change □

C10. Do you deworm goats?

1. Yes □ 2. No □

C11. What do you use to deworm goats?

1. Anthelmintics □ 2. Traditional medicine □ 3. Both □

C12. Which method do you use to control gastrointestinal nematodes?

1. Dewormers □ 2. Vaccines □ 3. Ethnoveterinary plants □ 4. Non-plant-based material □ 5.

Occasional pasture burning □ 6. Injections □

C13. What are the challenges you have experienced with anthelmintics?

1. Resistance of gastrointestinal parasites □ 2. Expensive □ 3. Unavailability □ 4. Other □,

specify……….

C14. Do you follow the instructions when using anthelmintics?

1. Yes □ 2. No □

C15. What is the reason of using indigenous knowledge? (Please tick the second column for the reason and the

last column for ranking -1 is for the highest priority)

Reason Tick Rank

Availability

Affordability

Quick solution

Similar to conventional

knowledge

Other, specify…

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C16. What are traditional medicines that you use to control gastrointestinal parasites

Herb Plant part

used

Conditions

controlled

Method of

preparation

Dosage Recovery

period

Cissus quandrangularis L.

Vernonia neocorymbosa

Gomphorcapus

physocarpus E.Mey

Albizia anthelmintica

Sclerocarya birrea

Aloe marlothii

Callilepis laureola

Aloe maculata

Clausena anisata

Clematis brachiata

Schotia brachypetala

Agave Americana L.

Schkuhria pinnata

Plectranthus

madagascariensis

Othonna natalensis

Clerodendrum glabrum

Pittosporum viridiflorum

Croton pseudopulchellus

Drimia altissima

Drimia elata

Ornithogalum

longibracteatum

Aloe ferox

Stychnos henningsii

Pittosporum viridiflorum

Ipomoea sp.

Elephantorrhiza

elephantina

Vachellia xanthophloea

Trichilia emetica

Euphobia ingens

Cissus Rotundifolia

(Forssk.) Vahl

Kigelia Africana

Other (specify)….

C17. What is the source of indigenous knowledge?

1. Oral tradition from parents □ 2. Other farmers □ 3. Local elders □ 4. Herbalists □ 5.

Culturalists □ 6. Extension services □ 7. Other □, specify ………………

C18. Do agricultural institutions promote and support the use of indigenous knowledge to treat animal diseases?

1. Yes □ 2. No □

C19. How do you transfer indigenous knowledge to other people?

1. Consultation □ 2. Selling □ 3. Group discussions 4. Children participation □ 5. Other□, specify

…..

C20. Which groups within the community use traditional knowledge more?

1. Males □ 2. Females □ 3. Wealthy □ 4. Poor □ 5. Young □ 6. Educated □ 7. Non-educated □

8. Other □, specify ……….

C21. Do you see yourself using indigenous knowledge in future?

1. Yes □ 2. No □

240

C22. Which method would you recommend for the preservation of indigenous knowledge?

1. Workshop □ 2. Educate young generation □ 3. Include in the syllabus at school □ 4. Other □,

specify ……………..

Agriculture 2021, 11, 160 242 of 287

242

of sustainable, affordable,

integrated, novel, and

non-chemical approaches

to treat GI nematodes are

required. One such

strategy is to promote the

use of indigenous

knowledge (IK). Utilisation

of IK may depend on

socio-economic and

demographic status [9],

cultural and religious

beliefs, gender, age,

ethnicity, and

environmental conditions

[10–13].

Urbanisation, accessibility

to resources, and

presence of extension

services actively

contribute to the loss of

IK. Changes in vegetation

structure due to climate

change also

243

Agriculture 2021, 11, 160. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11020160 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/agriculture influence the species of plants available in any given community. The

influence of these factors on IK utilisation needs to be considered

when designing sustainable strategies that promote goat health under

resource-limited environments. The objective of the study was to

determine factors influencing IK use to control GI nematodes in goats.

The hypothesis tested was that the factors influencing IK used are

similar in both wet and dry environments.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Ethical Clearance

The respondents’ rights, religions, culture, and dignity were respected.

The respondents were assured that no confidential information would

be disclosed, and they had a right to stop the interview whenever they

did not feel comfortable. The experimental procedures were

performed according to the ethical guidelines specified by the

Certification of Authorization to Experiment on Living Humans

provided by the Social Sciences— Humanities & Social Sciences

Research Ethics Committee (Reference No: HSS/0852/017).

2.2. Description of Study Site

The study was conducted at Jozini Municipality (Figure 1) of

Umkhanyakude district in the Northern part of KwaZulu-Natal Province

lying at 27◦24006.900 S; 32◦11048.600 E [14]. Jozini experiences a

subtropical climate, with an average annual rainfall of 600 mm. The

average daily maximum and minimum temperatures are 20 ◦C and 10 ◦C. The altitude ranges from 80 m to 1900 m above sea level. The

vegetation at Jozini consists of coastal sand-veld, bushveld, and foothill

wooded grasslands [15]. One of the agricultural practices of people at

Jozini is to raise livestock extensively. KwaZulu-Natal forms one of the

leading provinces in South Africa with the largest number of goats in

communal production systems [16]. The selection of the study site was

based on high dependence on IK by farmers [17] and the high

population of goats in the area. The most common parasites

constraining goat productivity in the study site are helminths, ticks, and

tapeworms. Ticks are more important in the wet environment than the

dry environment.

The environment is categorised as wet and dry environments. The wet

environment is characterised by high rainfall that favours the growth of

many medicinal plants used by farmers to treat their livestock. The dry

environment is a rangeland that is dominated by poor rainfall patterns,

with limited plant availability. The study was conducted in villages that

had high goat populations. The villages were Nyawushane, Biva,

Mkhonjeni, Madonela, Makhonyeni, Mamfene, Mkhayana, and

244

Gedleza. The eight communities were randomly selected from

communities active in goat production. Four communities were from

the dry environment and four from the wet environment.

Figure 1. Location of the study site.

2.3. Data Collection

A total of 294 households were interviewed within their own

homesteads. Data were acquired through interviews using a structured

questionnaire. Questionnaires were administered in the IsiZulu

vernacular by trained enumerators. Enumerators were obtained from

local communities. Meetings with local authorities, such as chiefs and

245

local headmen, were conducted to enable easy access to communities.

Local livestock officers, veterinarians, farmers’ associations, and

extension officers from the Department of Agriculture were

interviewed to help in identifying communities to generate a list of

farmers that kept goats, and to give an overview of the challenges of

controlling GI nematodes in livestock. Households were selected based

on goat ownership and willingness to participate in the study.

Data were collected on household demographics and the socio-

economic status of households. The questionnaire also captured the

extent of use of IK to control GI nematodes reasons for using IK,

measures used to control GI nematodes, and factors influencing the

use of IK (Appendix A).

2.4. Statistical Analyses

All data were analysed using SAS (2013). An ordinal logistic regression

(PROC LOGISTIC) was used to estimate the odds ratio of the factors

influencing the use of indigenous knowledge to control GI nematodes.

The gender of the household farmer, age, education status, residence,

employment status, livestock training, member of farmer association,

type of environment and presence of herbalists in the area were fitted

in the logit model. The following logit model was used:

In [P/1 − P] = β0 + β1 × 1 + β2 × 2 . . . + βt × t + ε

where: P = probability of the group using indigenous knowledge; [P/1 −

P] = odds ratio of the group using indigenous knowledge; β0 =

intercept; β1 × 1... βt × t = regression coefficients of predictors; ε =

random residual error.

3. Results

3.1. Household Demographic Information

Household demographic information of farmers who participated in

the study is shown in Table 1. There was an association between

environment and livestock training in the use of IK (p < 0.01). Farmers

in the wet environment who received livestock training (80%) used IK

more than those in the dry environment. Farmers who attended

tertiary education were less likely to use IK in both environments to

control GI nematodes.

Table 1. Household demographic information of farmers participating in the study.

Characteristics Wet Environment

(158)

Dry Environment

(136) χ2 Significance

Gender

Male 49 59 2.988 *

246

Females 51 41

Age

18–30 6 4.2

31–50 43 40 0.655 NS

>50 52 56

Level of

education

No formal

education 39 38.1

Grade 1–7 35 34 0.377 NS

Grade 8–12 25 27

Tertiary 0.70 1.36

Source of

income

Livestock sales 31 26.3

Crops 16 16.1

Salary 13 17 3.331 NS

Government

grants 36.7 40.2

Other 3.13 0.73

Religion

Christianity 39 45 10.372 **

Traditional 61 55

Livestock

training 80 20 11.433 **

Other—represents other sources, such as money from working sons and daughters,

ploughing for neighbours and taxi driving. * Significant association at p < 0.05, ** p <

0.01, NS not significant (p > 0.05). χ2—represents a Chi-square value. 3.2. Reasons of Using Indigenous Knowledge

Figure 2 shows the ranking of major reasons for using IK. As expected,

farmers ranked the purposes of using IK differently (p < 0.05) in both

environments. Approximately 70% of farmers in the wet environment

ranked effectiveness as their major reason for using IK compared to

those in the dry environment (50%). Farmers ranked availability of

medicinal plants second in the wet environment. The use of IK in the

wet environment was influenced by affordability more than their

counterparts in the dry environment. Most farmers reported that IK

produces similar results as conventional knowledge (CK).

249

5.88 times more likely to influence the use of IK (p < 0.05).

Unemployed farmers were 4.26 times more likely to influence the use

of IK in the dry environment compared to their employed counterparts

(p < 0.01).

Farmers who practised traditional Zulu culture in the dry environment

were 2.05 times more likely to influence the use of IK compared to

those who are Christians (p < 0.05). The probability of receiving

livestock training was 1.74 times more likely to influence the use of IK

in the dry environment. The likelihood of having a herbalist in the dry

environment was 3.63 times more likely to influence the extent of use

of IK (p < 0.01).

4. Discussion

The significant association between environment and gender on IK use

was expected. However, it was also expected that in both

environments, men would use IK similarly because they normally make

decisions about livestock, including goats. Male farmers attend

livestock meetings, which then increase their knowledge of IK. Women

seek education about how to raise goats because they depend on the

goats for income generation and food security. The finding that the

majority of females in the wet environment use IK could be influenced

by the fact that the majority of households are now headed by women

[18]. Farmers whose religious belief is traditional used IK more in both

environments, which was expected. The finding that, in the wet

environment, most livestock-trained farmers used IK could be due to

the influence of plant availability and accessibility compared to those in

the dry environment.

Livestock information is usually shared through livestock organisations

and dip tank committees [19], whose membership is generally limited

to men who are the legal owners of livestock. The association of the

high availability and accessibility of remedies in the wet environment

with farmer support groups can also boost knowledge levels of IK

because they witness other farmers sharing their ideas. The

observation that farmers above 50 years of age in both environments

used IK could presumably be due to the fact that older generations are

sole bearers of IK, and they mostly own livestock, whereas younger

generations are unlikely to own livestock due to career advancement

and migration to urban areas [20]. Members of the younger generation

neglect IK because they associate the knowledge with witchcraft and

backwardness, hence making it difficult for the older generation to

share knowledge with them [10].

Use of IK by farmers with no formal education in both environments is

attributed to a high level of illiteracy, whereby they cannot read

250

instructions written on conventional anthelmintics. Their low-income

status also reduces the affordability of conventional drugs.

The perception that farmers used IK because of its effectiveness more

in the wet than dry environment could be due to the fact that, because

the vegetation grows well in this environment, there is a wide variation

of plants with anthelmintic properties compared to the dry

environment [10]. Culturally linked traditions and trust in IK influences

its effectiveness more than CK, although some participants stipulated

that the efficiency of these methods is the same. This could also

explain the high use of IK due to availability in the wet environment

compared to the dry environment. Mkwanazi et al. [10] agrees with

this finding, however, Gumbochuma et al. [21] reported that people

view the efficacy of indigenous practices to be low. Most farmers in

both dry and wet environments were of the perception that IK

produces similar results as CK, which could mean that farmers deem

the efficacy of these two forms of knowledge to be the same, hence,

the need for knowledge complementarity. The easier use of IK in both

environments could be because practical training is provided by elders

to younger generations.

The observation that farmers in the dry environment depend more on

dewormers to control GI nematodes could be linked to scarcity of

medicinal plants in the area because more plants have been lost due to

climate change. This finding, however, disagrees with that of Masika et

al. [22]. The finding that farmers in both dry and wet environments

vaccinate their goats could be due to the influence of extension

services, which usually offer veterinary precautions to farmers. The use

of vaccination programmes could also be the factor limiting IK

adoption by extension services. Extension services are trained using

Western science, hence, it is hard for them to accept IK because it is

not considered to be scientifically approved. Thus, lessons from

veterinary structures and other veterinary institutions of higher

training should be merged with the knowledge gained by people at the

ground level.

The finding that IK was the most prominent method used to control GI

nematodes agrees with Masika et al. [22], who reported that 75% of

farmers in resource-limited areas use traditional medicine to treat

livestock. Medicinal plants are locally available in natural vegetation,

which makes them easily accessible and affordable [23]. The higher use

in plant remedies in the wet environment could be influenced by the

abundance of vegetation that possesses anthelmintic properties in the

area. There is need to control and develop methods that farmers can

use to grow plants to ensure IK remains sustainable in the future.

Farmers in the dry environment depend on non-plant-based materials

because, due to the absence of medicinal plants possessing

251

anthelmintic properties and their limited diversity, farmers have to

seek possible approaches to deal with GI nematodes. The observation

that the majority of the farmers in the wet environment practice

occasional pasture burning is difficult to explain. A possible explanation

for this result, however, could be that farmers burn pastures to limit

the re-infection of pastures with parasites, even though this approach

is not recommended because it reduces feed availability.

The finding that odds ratio estimates were in favour of males in

both environments to influence the use of IK could be due to the fact

that decision-making processes in resource limited households are

widely influenced by men as household heads, irrespective of whether

they own livestock, stemming from cultural ideologies that dictate the

roles between men and women. Most males grow up herding livestock

as the cultural norm, enabling them to gain knowledge in animal

husbandry. Men are seen as having superior knowledge in terms of

what should not be done [10]. Differences in knowledge and

perception between men and women can also be partly explained by

the consequence of sexual division in traditional societies because

learning is culturally conditioned. For example, kraals are traditionally

considered a sacred space and women are not allowed to enter under

normal circumstances because they are seen to be contaminating it,

which could lead to sickness and death of livestock. The issue of gender

bias that favours men, where kraal access is patriarchal and of a strictly

territorial nature, resonates with Mkwanazi et al. [10]. Such patriarchal

setups need to be considered when designing sustainable goat

management programmes due to increased dominance of women in

goat production.

The observation that age influenced the use of IK was anticipated in

both environments. It was, however, surprising that in the wet

environment the odds were in favour of younger people. This finding

could be influenced by the scarcity of job opportunities for young

people, hence, farming becomes the gateway. The observation that

adults influenced the use of IK in the dry environment could be

because the older generation is usually the sole bearer and recognises

the usefulness of IK more than youth. It is also logical that, with

progressive age, people tend to have more time to accumulate

knowledge and thus become more informed than the younger

generation [9]. Other authors explain the lower level of knowledge in

the younger population in terms of the ongoing socio-economic and

cultural changes. Hence, there is need to close the barriers and age

gaps to ensure that there is smooth transition of IK from elders to

younger generations. The need for government institutions to revive IK

could be useful in creating opportunities for young people. The

observation that the level of education influenced the use of IK with

the odds in favour of farmers who received informal education in both

252

environments agrees with Mkwanazi et al. [10]. The probable

explanation for this finding could be that Western schooling and

institutions of training do not incorporate or recognise African

histories, cultures, and ways of learning and traditional knowledge. As

a result, farmers with informal education have not been taught to

believe that CK is superior to IK, whereas the educated group of

farmers believe IK is toxic and based on mythology.

The finding that employment status influenced the use of IK, with the

odds in favour of unemployed farmers, is in agreement with the fact

that resource-limited farmers in sub-Saharan Africa are characterized

by poverty and high unemployment rates, and survive with less than 1

USD per day [24]. Consequently, they cannot afford to purchase

expensive commercial anthelmintics because the few remittances they

receive from government are used to support children’s education and

food purchases. The finding that religious belief influences the use of IK

with the odds in favour of tradition was expected. Most Christians

associate the use of IK with unclean spirits, hence, they do not rely on

it. This observation represents a challenge to the continued use of IK

because the number of Christians in developing countries is increasing.

In resource-limited areas, farmers usually have back-to-back training at

which they share knowledge about livestock. Hence, the finding that

receiving livestock training influenced IK use was expected, because in

the absence of commercial anthelmintics, farmers teach each other

indigenous ways of controlling parasites. It was anticipated that the

availability of herbalists in the study areas would influence the use of

IK. Findings from Mkwanazi et al. [10] agree that herbalists play a huge

role in promoting IK, because they mostly share information with

elders. It is of paramount importance that people such as herbalists are

included in IK development policies. Policymakers should consult

indigenous people to ensure effective and inclusive development

policies of IK.

5. Conclusions

The perceptions of farmers regarding the factors that influence the use

of IK vary based on the environment. Hence, understanding the factors

that influence the use of IK is a critical step in the development of a

robust alternative and an integrated system for sustainable goat

intervention strategies. The extent of use of IK was influenced by

gender, employment status, age, religion, and presence of a herbalist.

These are important factors that should be considered when IK policies

are implemented in the near future. Scientific knowledge should be

integrated with IK methods for sustainable goat veterinary care. The

government should be engaged to explore means of creating an

enabling environment for the formal recognition, development,

promotion, and integration of IK into veterinary extension services.

253

Author Contributions: S.Z.N., M.V.M. and M.C. designed the study; M.V.M., S.Z.N.

collected the data; S.Z.N. interpreted results, and wrote the manuscript. S.Z.N., M.V.M.

and M.C. critically reviewed the manuscript. All authors have read and agreed to the

published version of the manuscript.

Funding: Authors acknowledge the Centre for Indigenous Knowledge System—

National Research Foundation (CIKS-NRF) for funding the research.

Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available on request

from the corresponding author. The data are not publicly available due to ethical

considerations.

Acknowledgments: We acknowledge kind co-operation of farmers from Jozini. The

assistance received from employees of the Department of Agriculture at Makhathini

Research Station and the chairperson of Jozini Livestock Association (Moses Nkosi) is

greatly acknowledged.

Conflicts of Interest: Authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.

Appendix A

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Trop Anim Health Prod (2021) 53:295 Page 257 of 8 295

Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.

Introduction

Gastrointestinal nematodes account for a substantial

loss in goat production. The most problematic

gastrointestinal nematodes (GIN) in goats are

Haemonchus spp., Oesophagostomum spp.,

Strongyloides spp., and

Trichostrongyle spp. (Zvinorova et al. 2016). Goats

provide meat, milk, and income to resource-limited

communities, and they are slaughtered for cultural

and socio-cultural functions (Mkwanazi et al. 2020).

Despite goats’ ability to withstand feed and water

shortages, goat productivity is hampered by GIN

infestation. Nematode burdens are worsened by the

poor

* M. Chimonyo

chimonyo@ukzn.ac.za

1

Animal and Poultry Science, School of Agricultural, Earth and

Environmental Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, P Bag X01

Scottsville, Pietermaritzburg 3209, South Africa

veterinary services among the poor (Mdletshe et al.

2018). Control programs rely mostly on commercial

anthelmintics, but they are inconsistently available

due to high costs, scarcity, and inaccessibility.

Underdosing and repeated use of the same

anthelmintic drug have led to nematode resistance

towards anthelmintic drugs (Mphahlele et al. 2019).

This has led to the need to find alternative methods

for goat GIN control.

Exploring ethnoveterinary medicines could be one

of the practical ways of developing cheaper,

effective, and sustainable anthelmintics to mitigate

the challenges of synthetic anthelmintic drugs in

controlling GIN (Mazhangara et al. 2020). The use of

natural plants reduces the development of resistance

because there is usually a mixture of different active

ingredients with differing mechanisms of action

(Mkwanazi et al. 2020; Ndlela et al. 2021). Plants

with anthelmintic activities have potential as they

are readily available, easier to use, environmentally

safer, biodegradable, and pose less contamination of

goat products. Ethnoveterinary plant extracts against

GIN are generally effective (Ferreira et al. 2013; Baba

et al. 2014; Ahmed et al. 2017; Zenebe et al. 2017;

De Jesús-Martinez et al. 2018; Muthee 2018).

Phytochemicals such as tannins, saponins,

flavonoids, steroids, and alkaloids are responsible for

the anthelmintic action. Some farmers use boiled

water to prepare plants for controlling nematodes,

while others simply soak the plant material in cold

water (Sanhokwe et al. 2016). Some farmers harvest

plants and use them immediately, while some dry

the plant material before it is processed. The

amounts of plant material and water used differ

from farmer to farmer, leading to different extract

concentrations.

The efficacy of varying extract concentrations and

plant forms on larval mortality needs to be assessed

to understand the response of each. The efficacy of

these plants needs to be established to advance

indigenous knowledge by determining an effective

treatment dose. This information could be

disseminated to communities, schools, and other

community structures. It could also form the basis

for formulating novel antiparasitic drugs, creating

possibilities of discovering new medicines for the

markets. Such locally developed drugs may be

cheaper and consistently available. The dependency

on expensive anthelmintics and supplies could be

reduced, leading to savings in foreign valuta of the

imported medication and locally produced

medication. The objective of the study was,

therefore, designed to assess how plant forms

respond to different concentrations of plant extracts,

using methanol as a standard. It was hypothesized

that the use of medicinal plants has no anthelmintic

effects against GIN in vitro.

Materials and methods

Plant collection and extraction

The laboratory analyses to determine the efficacy of

plants were conducted at the Discipline of Animal

and Poultry Science Laboratory, Pietermaritzburg,

University of KwaZulu-Natal, South

Trop Anim Health Prod (2021) 53:295 Page 258 of 8 295

Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.

Africa, located at 30° 24′ E and 29° 37′ S. Fresh plants

were sourced from Jozini municipality with

assistance from the local herbalists. Plants were

identified, and specimens were authenticated at the

Bews Herbarium of the University of KwaZulu-Natal.

The plant species selected in this study were those

farmers considered as the most used and most

effective of the 33 anthelmintic plants following a

survey. The plant species included are aerial parts of

Cissus quadrangularis Linn., leaves of Aloe marlothii

A. Berger, the bark of Albizia anthelmintica Brongn.,

Vachellia xanthophloea (Benth.) P.J.H. Hurter,

Sclerocarya birrea (A. Rich.) Hochst, and Cissus

rotundifolia (Forssk.) Vahl.

Ethnoveterinary plants were used in fresh and dry

forms. Plants were washed in running tap water to

remove debris and dust, and excessive water was

shaken or blotted. Fresh plants were chopped, and a

blender was used for crushing them into smaller

pieces to imitate what farmers use, where a grinding

stone is used for crushing plants at home (Bhat

2013). The fresh plant material was then ready for

extraction. Five grams of each fresh plant material

was used to determine the dry matter (AOAC 1995).

The dry matter was used to calculate the mass of the

fresh plant equivalent to 10 g of the dried material.

Plants that were to be dried were chopped into

smaller pieces and airdried at room temperature in

the laboratory. Drying was completed in the LABCON

oven (Model 5SOEIB, Maraisburg 1700) between 50

and 60 °C to obtain a constant weight and

mechanically ground to a fine powder using a Retsch

GmbH mill (Model ZM200, Haan, Germany).

Powdered plant materials were stored in sealed

plastic containers in a moisture-free environment,

away from light until use.

Plant extraction

Each plant form was extracted using three methods:

cold water (infusion), boiled water (decoction), and

methanol (soxhlet extraction). In an infusion

method, 10 g of the plant dry matter was soaked in

100 ml of cold distilled water for 24 h and shaken

vigorously at least three times (Muthee 2018). Ten

grams of the plant dry matter was boiled in 100 ml of

distilled water for an hour in a decoction method. At

the end of extraction in infusion and decoction

methods, plant extracts were filtered using a muslin

cloth. For soxhlet extraction, 10 g of the plant dry

matter was extracted with 100 ml of methanol using

a soxhlet apparatus until no further colouration

came from the plant. Extracts were concentrated in a

BÜCHI Rotavapor (R-114, Flawll, Switzerland), frozen,

and freeze-dried in a MODULYO freeze drier

(EDWARDS, Britain, Part of BOC Ltd Crawley Sussex

England). Total extract yields were measured from all

extracts and then reconstituted with distilled water

to 100-ml stock solutions before use (Mphahlele et

al. 2016). The percentage yield of each extract was

calculated using a formula: Yield (%) = (Final weight/

Initial weight) ∗100 (Mazhangara et al. 2020).

Extracts were assayed for the presence of tannins,

alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins, and steroids.

Concentrations of 8, 16, 24, 32, and 40% (v/v water)

of these extracts were tested for anthelmintic

activity against L3 larvae of nematodes.

Phytochemical screening of plant extracts

Biochemical tests were conducted to determine the

presence of phytochemicals: tannins, alkaloids,

saponins, flavonoids, and steroids (Dhawan and

Gupta2016). Phytochemical results were measured

using colour intensity and expressed as either

present or absent, which is represented by (+)

weakly present, (++) moderately present, (+++)

strongly present, and (-) absent or undetected.

Testing for tannins

About 10 mg of each extract was dissolved in 45% of

ethanol in test tubes. Test tubes were then boiled for

5 min, and 1 ml of ferric chloride solution added to

each. The appearance of greenish to black colour

indicated the presence of tannins in plant extracts.

Testing for alkaloids

Ten milligrams of extracts were dissolved in 2 ml of

Wagner’s reagent in test tubes. The appearance of

reddish-brown coloured precipitates showed the

presence of alkaloids in the plant extract.

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Testing for saponins

Ten milligrams of an extract were diluted with 20 ml

of distilled water in test tubes. The test tube was

hand-shaken for 15 min. The formation of a form on

the top part of a test tube indicated the presence of

saponins in an extract.

Testing for flavonoids

About 10 mg of an extract was added to test tubes,

and few NaOH drops were added on each. The

appearance of a yellowish colour showed the

presence of flavonoids. Few drops of diluted H2SO4

were added. The disappearance of the yellowish

colour or appearance of colourless confirms the

presence of flavonoids in the plant extract.

Testing for steroids

Ten milligrams of each extract were added in test

tubes, and 1 ml of concentrated H2SO4 was added by

the sidewall of the test tube. The appearance of

dark-reddish green colour indicated the presence of

steroids in the plant extract.

In vitro anthelmintic assessment of plant extracts of

L3 nematode larvae of goats

Faeces were collected from the recta of Nguni goats

that grazed on contaminated mixed pastures at

Ukulinga Research Farm, University of KwaZulu-

Natal. Faecal samples were pooled and hand-mixed

thoroughly. Faecal egg count (FEC) was performed

on the pooled sample to determine the egg load

using a McMaster Technique (Reinecke 1973). The

sample was cultured when the FEC was greater than

2000 epg. The following genera of GIN eggs were

identified from the pooled sample; Haemonchus

(64%), Oesophagostomum (23%), and

Trichostrongylus (13%).

Five grams of the sub-samples were placed in petri

dishes and mixed with an equal quantity of

vermiculite. The mixture was slightly moistened and

cultured by incubation at 27 °C for 12 days in a

MEMMERT incubator (854 Schwabach, West

Germany). Cultures were watered once daily during

the incubation to keep them moist but not drown

the developing larvae. After 12 days, plant extract

treatments were applied on cultures in

quadruplicates. Four cultures were watered and used

as a control. All cultures were then incubated further

for 24 h.

Larvae were then harvested for 24 h using the

Baermann technique (Hansen and Perry 1994). Each

sample culture was placed in a double cheesecloth,

tied with a rubber band, and put into respective

funnels. Lukewarm water was added to fill the

funnel, ensuring that the culture is fully immersed

and allows L3 larvae to migrate freely to the stem of

the funnel. About 15 ml of fluid was drawn from

each funnel stem into a test tube and left to stand

for 30 min. The McMaster slide was filled with the

supernatant using a Pasteur pipette and examined

on a 10× magnification, where larvae were counted.

Each test tube was sampled in triplicate. The

experiment was re-run three times.

Statistical analyses

The experiment had two forms, three extraction

solvents and five extract concentrations, which is a 2

× 3 × 5 factorial arrangement for each plant. The

nematode mortality rate was calculated using

Abbott’s equation (Abbott 1925): Mortality

percentage ¼ ð1–T=CÞ 100

where T is the number of nematode larvae

remaining alive after treatment and C is the number

of nematode larvae remaining alive in the control

group.

Regression analysis was used to determine the

relationship between larval mortality and the

concentration of extracts for each plant species,

where RSREG was used (SAS 2012).

Results

Phytochemical screening of plant extracts

Results on plant species extracted and extract yields

are reported in Table 1. After extraction with

different solvents, yields were expressed in

percentage (i.e., mg extracted from 10 g of dry

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material). The highest yield recorded for C.

quadrangularis (49%) was for the cold-water extract

of the fresh plant form, A. marlothii (15%) cold-

water extract of the fresh plant form, A.

anthelmintica (12%) boiled water extract of the fresh

plant form, V. xanthophloea (25%) methanolic

extract of the dry plant form, S. birrea (20%) cold-

water extract of the dry plant form, and C.

rotundifolia (17%) cold-water extract of the fresh

plant form. Results for

BW boiled water, CW cold water, METH methanol

phytochemical screening is presented in Table 2. The

strong presence of secondary metabolites detected

in C. rotundifolia were alkaloids and tannins,

saponins and steroids in A. anthelmintica, alkaloids

in C. quadrangularis, tannins and steroids in S. birrea,

tannins and steroids in

V. xanthophloea, and flavonoids, steroids, tannins,

and saponins in A. marlothii.

In vitro anthelmintic screening of plant extracts

Table 3 shows the efficacy of fresh plant species on

larvae mortality, while the efficacy of dried plant

species is given in Table 4. A linear relationship was

observed between larvae mortality and extract

concentration of the boiled fresh form of C.

rotundifolia (P < 0.01). There was a quadratic

relationship between larvae mortality and

methanolic extract concentration of C. rotundifolia

(P < 0.05). A quadratic relationship was observed

between larvae mortality and the concentration of

the methanolic extract of the fresh form A.

anthelmintica (P < 0.05).

There was a linear relationship between larvae

mortality and the concentration of the cold-water

Table 1 Ethnoveterinary plants used to control gastrointestinal nematodes in goats

Plant species Family name Part of the plant collected Voucher number Plant form The percentage yield of

crude

extract

BW CW METH

Cissus quadrangularis Linn. Vitaceae Leaves (aerial part) NU0068142 Fresh 32 49 24

Dry 24 32 40

Aloe marlothii A. Berger Asphodelaceae Leaves NU0068166 Fresh 15 15 8

Dry 15 14 15

Albizia anthelmintica Brongn. Fabaceae Bark NU0068151 Fresh 12 9 8

Dry 7 9 7

Vachellia xanthophloea (Benth.) P.J.H. Hurter Fabaceae Bark NU0068155 Fresh 18 17 15

Dry 19 21 25

Sclerocarya birrea (A. Rich.) Hochst Anacardiaceae Bark NU0068149 Fresh 14 15 14

Dry 13 20 11

Cissus rotundifolia (Forssk.) Vahl. Vitaceae Leaves NU0068158 Fresh 14 17 9

Dry 12 12 15

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extract of the fresh form of A. marlothii (P < 0.05). A

quadratic relationship between larvae mortality and

methanolic extract of the fresh plant form of A.

marlothii was observed (P < 0.01). There was a

quadratic relationship between larvae mortality and

extract concentration of the boiled dry form of A.

marlothii (P < 0.01). There was a linear relationship

between larvae mortality and concentration of cold-

water extract of the fresh form of C. quadrangularis

(P < 0.01). A quadratic relationship was observed

between larvae mortality and the methanolic extract

of the fresh form of C. quadrangularis (P < 0.05).

There was a quadratic relationship between larvae

mortality and methanolic extract of the fresh form of

S. birrea (P < 0.05). A linear relationship was

observed between larvae mortality and the

concentration of the cold-water extract of the dry

form of S. birrea (P < 0.0001). There was a quadratic

relationship between larvae mortality and the

concentration of the boiled water extract of S. birrea

(P < 0.01). A methanolic extract of the dry form of S.

birrea had a linear relationship between larvae

mortality and the extract concentration (P < 0.0001).

A quadratic relationship was observed between

larvae mortality and concentration of the fresh forms

of cold water and boiled water extracts of V.

xanthophloea (P < 0.0001). There was a linear

relationship between larvae mortality and

concentration of the fresh form of methanolic

extract and the dry form of the cold-water extract of

V. xanthophloea (P < 0.05). A quadratic relationship

was observed between larvae mortality and

concentration of dry forms of boiled water and

methanolic extracts of V. xanthophloea (P < 0.05).

Discussion

The challenge of anthelmintic resistance,

environmental toxicity, and drug residues in goat

products had prompted the renewal of interest in

the use of ethnoveterinary plants. Plants contain

phytochemicals such as tannins, saponins,

flavonoids, steroids, and alkaloids, which are reputed

to be responsible for anthelmintic action. Mali and

Mehta (2008) argued that conventional

anthelmintics utilize specific pathways to kill GIN,

whereas natural anthelmintic likely uses non-specific

mechanisms. Hence, the potential of natural

anthelmintics to decrease nematode resistance

towards

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Plant species Plant

form Extraction

solvent Alkaloids Tannins Saponins Flavonoids Steroids

C. rotundifolia Dry CW ++ - - + -

BW - ++ - ++ -

METH ++ + + - -

Fresh CW +++ ++ + - -

BW +++ ++ + - -

METH - +++ + ++ -

A. anthelmintica Dry CW - - +++ + ++

BW - - +++ - -

METH - - +++ + +

Fresh CW - - +++ + ++

BW - - +++ + +

METH - - +++ + ++

A. marlothii Dry CW + ++ ++ ++ +

BW + ++ ++ +++ +++

METH ++ ++ + +++ ++

Fresh CW + ++ ++ +++ +

BW + + + ++ ++

METH + ++ ++ +++ ++

C.

quadrangularis Dry CW +++ - + - -

BW +++ - - + ++

METH + - - + -

Fresh CW ++ - + - -

BW ++ - + - -

METH - - ++ + +

S. birrea Dry CW - +++ - - +++

BW - +++ - - ++

METH - +++ - - +++

Fresh CW - +++ - - +

BW - ++ - - +

METH - +++ + - +++

V. xanthophloea Dry CW + +++ + - +++

Table 2 Qualitative phytochemical

screening of plant extracts

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anthelmintics, and due to their natural occurrence in

the environment, make them environmentally

friendly. This could also lead to the reduction of drug

residues in livestock products, particularly because

natural products are known to have no toxic effects

on animals compared to synthetic drugs; therefore,

they should be promoted.

The observation that no relationships existed

between larvae mortality and concentration of some

plant extracts does not indicate that they are

ineffective but are not concentration-dependent.

Thus, further research is required to assess other

factors affecting the efficacy of plant extracts other

than concentrations. The observed linear

relationship between larvae mortality and extract

concentration that some plant extracts of C.

rotundifolia, A. marlothii, C. quadrangularis, S.

birrea, and V. xanthophloea exhibited could indicate

that the lowest extract concentrations are as

effective as the highest

concentrations. This could be the reason why

farmers use different weights of the same plant

materials during extract preparations. Considering

that the low and high extract concentrations have

the same effect on larval mortality, high extract

concentrations are the wastage of plant material.

The quadratic relationships observed in some plant

extracts indicated that a maximum mortality rate

was achieved at a specific extract concentration,

indicating that using a higher concentration is a

waste of plant material and could lead to toxicity in

treated animals.

The linear relationship between larvae mortality

and the boiled extract of the fresh form of C.

rotundifolia could be influenced by the presence of

alkaloids and tannins, which concurs with Wanjohi et

al. (2020). Such a relationship indicates that to

achieve a high mortality rate of larvae, plant extract

concentration should be increased linearly, which

could lead to toxicity in animals. This agrees with

Dubois et al. (2019), who reported that higher

dosages of alkaloid-rich plants could lead to acute

cholinergic toxicity and abnormal development in an

animal. The quadratic relationship between larvae

mortality and methanolic extract concentration of

the fresh form of C. rotundifolia could be because

methanol was efficient in extracting active

ingredients from the plant, increasing potency and

efficacy of the remedy indicating the concentration

responsible for maximum larvae mortality.

Plant species Extract Regression equations R2 Significance

C. rotundifolia Boiled water y = 7.899x + 53.385 0.92 **

Methanol y = 4.2457x2 − 17.226x + 30.394 0.70 *

A. anthelmintica Methanol y = 2.2614x2 − 8.5186x + 21.188 0.76 *

A. marlothii Cold water y = 6.012x + 49.058 0.75 *

Methanol y = 0.7136x2 + 2.6136x + 5.36 0.97 ***

C. quadrangularis Cold water y = 5.586x + 72.506 0.91 **

Methanol y = 7.645x + 1.977 0.96 **

S. birrea Methanol y = 2.2614x2 − 8.5186x + 21.188 0.98 *

V. xanthophloea Boiled water y = −0.7729x2 + 12.847x − 2.138 0.95 ***

Cold water y = −1.3579x2 + 23.768x + 10.388 0.90 ***

Methanol y = 8.085x − 5.253 0.83 *

Table 3 Anthelmintic efficacy of

fresh plant extracts on larval

mortality

*P < 0.05, **P < 0.01, ***P <

0.0001

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The observed quadratic relationship between

larvae mortality and the methanolic extract of the

fresh form of A. anthelmintica could be associated

with that saponin molecules bind with a complex of

cholesterol; therefore, methanol could have been

able to break those bonds and increased the

solubility of compounds leading to cellular toxicity

causing nematode ecdysial failure (Qasim et al.

2020). As a control, methanol demonstrated the

concentration dependence of larvae mortality, which

is not surprising. Githiori et al. (2003) associated high

larvae mortality in vivo with higher crude protein

levels in A. anthelmintica. Therefore, using A.

anthelmintica could be beneficial due to its

multifunctionality.

The quadratic relationship between larvae

mortality and extract concentration of the boiled dry

form of A. marlothii could likely be because a higher

temperature applied in lowered particle sizes

increased the solubility of compounds (Azwanida

2015). Ahmed et al. (2017) argued that the aloe gel

of A. ferox contained a low percentage of secondary

metabolites than the sap and outer leaves, which

could explain the concentration dependence of the

boiled water extract. It was interesting to observe

that A. marlothi contained a variety of secondary

metabolites. The linear relationship observed in the

cold-water extract of the fresh form of A. marlothi

concurs with Ahmed et al. (2017), who indicated that

the polysaccharide gel components are more water-

soluble than other parts of the aloe leaf.

The finding indicates that a linear relationship was

observed between larvae mortality and the

concentration of the cold-water and methanolic

extracts of C. quadrangularis was not expected. This

is because C. quadrangularis is used for various

therapies, including fracture healing properties and

antimicrobial, antioxidative, antiulcer,

antiosteoporotic, cholinergic activity (Mishra et al.

2010), and treatment of indigestion, anorexia, piles,

otorrhoea, asthma, and wounds (Yadav 2016).

Therefore, there was hope that it will be

concentration-dependent, particularly because a

high percentage yield of crude extract was observed,

making up almost 50% of the plant fraction. The

observed linear relationship warrants further

research to identify other factors contributing to its

concentration-independency.

The finding that S. birrea contained high amounts

of tannins and steroids concurs with Baba et al.

(2014). The quadratic relationship between the

larvae mortality and concentration of the cold-water

extract of the dry form of S. birrea could be linked to

the yield percentage of its crude extract containing

alkaloids and tannins. The higher larval mortality

exhibited by the cold and boiled water extracts of

the fresh plant form could be associated with the

higher yield percentage of alkaloids and tannins

(Baba et al. 2014).

The quadratic relationships observed between

larvae mortality and extract concentrations of V.

xanthophloea indicated the concentration-

dependence of fresh and dry forms of the

Plant species Extract Regression equations R2 Significance

A. marlothii Boiled water y = 1.1136x2 + 2.3196x + 25.412 0.95 **

S. birrea Boiled water y = −1.1807x2 + 18.151x − 2.16 0.97 **

Cold water y = 14.611x + 1.975 0.97 ***

Methanol y = 14.224x + 23.428 0.97 ***

V. xanthophloea Boiled water y = 0.5164x2 − 0.0716x + 39.036 0.83 *

Cold water y = 4.519x +28.331 0.95 *

Methanol y = 0.1814x2 + 11.877x + 34.572 0.98 *

Table 4 Anthelmintic efficacy of dry plant extracts on larval

mortality

*P < 0.05, **P < 0.01, ***P <

0.0001

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plant, suggesting that farmers’ preparation methods

give the same results. Min et al. (2003) reported that

tannin-rich plants possess an anthelmintic property

to control nematodes in sheep. According to Zenebe

et al. (2017), tannins interfere with coupled oxidative

phosphorylation, thereby blocking the ATP synthesis

in nematodes. Such concentration-dependent

efficacy of V. xanthophloea concurs with

Lalchhandama et al. (2009), where the same trend

was observed in V. oxyphylla against Ascaridia galli.

In a study conducted by Mohammed et al. (2013), V.

tortilis also demonstrated promising anthelmintic

results against adult Haemonchus contortus. The

larvicidal activity against GIN revealed in this study

provides evidence that the six plants studied possess

anthelmintic activity, thus justifying why farmers use

them to treat GIN in goats. There is, however, a need

to assess their safety and toxicity.

Conclusions

The linear and quadratic relationships between

larvae mortality and the concentration that plants

exhibit indicate their anthelmintic effects. This study,

therefore, supports the use of these plant species in

the control of gastrointestinal nematodes,

particularly because most of the anthelmintic

validation results of ethnoveterinary plants obtained

using organic solvents might be of less relevance to

farmers since water is a traditionally used solvent in

most preparations of traditional medicine. Despite

their anthelmintic activity, toxicological evaluation

should be conducted, and in vivo anthelmintic

activities to determine the minimum non-lethal

concentrations needed to treat nematode infections.

Acknowledgments We are grateful for the co-operation of goat

farmers to allow us to use their goats for free for a year. Authors

acknowledge the Bews Herbarium at the University of KwaZulu-Natal

for identification of plant specimens and the Animal Science

laboratory for all sample preparations and analyses.

Author contribution SZN, MVM, and MC designed the study; SZN and

MVM collected the data; SZN interpreted results and wrote the

manuscript. The final manuscript was read and approved by all

authors.

Funding The authors received financial support from the Centre for

Indigenous Knowledge Systems (CIKS) at the University of KwaZulu-

Natal under the Productivity Research Grant number P530.

Data availability The datasets from the current study are not publicly

available due to cooperating producer privacy and confidentiality but

are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate The University of

KwaZulu-Natal granted ethical clearances (Reference number:

AREC/043/017).

Consent for publication Not applicable.

Competing interest:The authors declare no competing interests.

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