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Citation: Prajapati, C.; Ankola, M.;
Upadhyay, T.K.; Sharangi, A.B.;
Alabdallah, N.M.; Al-Saeed, F.A.;
Muzammil, K.; Saeed, M. Moringa
oleifera: Miracle Plant with a Plethora of
Medicinal, Therapeutic, and Economic
Importance. Horticulturae 2022, 8, 492.
https://doi.org/10.3390/
horticulturae8060492
Academic Editors:
Jelena Popovic-Djordjevic and Luiz
Fernando Cappa de Oliveira
Received: 12 April 2022
Accepted: 25 May 2022
Published: 2 June 2022
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horticulturae
Review
Moringa oleifera: Miracle Plant with a Plethora of Medicinal,Therapeutic, and Economic ImportanceChirag Prajapati 1, Meera Ankola 1 , Tarun Kumar Upadhyay 2,* , Amit Baran Sharangi 3,* ,Nadiyah M. Alabdallah 4, Fatimah A. Al-Saeed 5, Khursheed Muzammil 6 and Mohd Saeed 7,*
1 Department of Life Sciences, Parul Institute of Applied Sciences, Parul University,Vadodara 391760, Gujarat, India; [email protected] (C.P.); [email protected] (M.A.)
2 Department of Biotechnology, Parul Institute of Applied Sciences and Animal Cell Culture andImmunobiochemistry Lab, Centre of Research for Development, Parul University,Vadodara 391760, Gujarat, India
3 Department of Plantation Spices Medicinal and Aromatic Crops, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya,Mohanpur, Nadia 741252, West Bengal, India
4 Department of Biology, College of Science, Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University,P.O. Box 1982, Dammam 31441, Saudi Arabia; [email protected]
5 Department of Biology, College of Science, King Khalid University, Abha 62559, Saudi Arabia;[email protected]
6 Department of Public Health, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Khamis Mushait Campus, King KhalidUniversity, Abha 62559, Saudi Arabia; [email protected]
7 Department of Biology, College of Sciences, University of Hail, Hail 4464, Saudi Arabia* Correspondence: [email protected] (T.K.U.); [email protected] (A.B.S.);
[email protected] (M.S.)
Abstract: Moringa oleifera Lam. (Moringaceae) is one of the most essential medicinal plants primarilyfound in the rainforest area and forest ecosystem, but is now well-adapted in an organized cultivationsystem. Moringa oleifera (M. oleifera) is well-known as Drumstick tree, Moringa kai, color, Marengo,Moringe, mulangay, Sahjan, and Sajna, which are its native names commonly used. It has nourishing,beneficial, and preventive effects when taken as food and has an extensive scope of high restorativeproperties with huge dietary benefits. Different parts of the M. oleifera plants, such as leaves, flowers,fruits, seeds, and roots, contain a significant amount of protein, ß-carotene, amino acids, importantminerals, and various phenolic compounds. Because of its multifarious health benefits for itstherapeutic value, it is considered an essential plant. The plant is found to be blessed with severalmedicinal characteristics such as antitumor, anti-inflammatory, antiulcer, antipyretic, antiepileptic,antispasmodic, diuretic, antihypertensive, antidiabetic, cholesterol-level down, cell reinforcement,and hepatoprotective. Moreover, it is used traditionally in the local curative system against cardiacproblems, and the antifungal properties are efficiently utilized for the treatment of a wide range ofailments. The present review article was designed to explore the nutritional and economic benefits,medicinal and therapeutic applications, and the future biomedical prospects of Moringa with a viewtowards human wellbeing.
Keywords: Moringa oleifera; medicinal and pharmaceuticals; nutritional; economic importance;therapeutics; horticultural crops
1. Introduction
The drumstick plant is a nutrient-rich green tree of the Moringaceae family with manyapplications and is grown around many parts of the world including the United States [1,2].In English, this plant is known as Moringa oleifera (M. oleifera), horseradish tree, or drumsticktree. It is not only used by humans and animals, but it also has many industrial uses [3].The leaves, fruit, flowers and youthful branches of this tree are utilized as a profoundlynourishing vegetable in various nations including India, the Philippines, Hawaii, Pakistan,
Horticulturae 2022, 8, 492. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae8060492 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/horticulturae
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and many African countries. In particular, individuals in India have been utilizing it fortheir day-to-day nourishment for almost 5000 years [4–6]. Starting its journey from thenorthern parts of India, it quickly spread to the southern portions, where ‘Murungai keerai’(Moringa leaves) and ‘Murungaikaai’ (drumsticks) are among the most popular sources ofvegetables. The moringa tree has essentially been colonized throughout the entire Asia,nearly all of Africa, South America, a tiny section of North America, and a few scars inEurope [7,8]. They essentially have versatile roles as nutritional supplement, soil quality en-hancement, and use in the water purification system. Moringa plants are also a good sourceof oil, which is, therefore, the most popular and significant sources of revenue. The majorityof the available bioactive phenolic compounds belong to flavonoid groups such as quercetinand kaempferol. Based on the reported results in several literatures, moringa leaves havea potential source of natural antioxidants due to their discernible qualities of protectingcells against free radicals [9]. Furthermore, water coagulation, proteins, and fatty acidmethyl esters (FAME) from the M. oleifera seeds are reviewed, to explore their possibleindustrial applications, in biodiesel production and in the water purification system [10].The leaves are abundant in nutrition with vitamins C and A, β-carotene, calcium, iron,potassium, and phosphorus including a protein level of 27 percent [8]. Moringa leaves havethe same calcium content as four glasses of milk, the same amount of vitamin C as foundin seven oranges, and three times the potassium found in bananas [11,12]. They furthercontain three times as much iron as spinach, four times as much vitamin A as in carrots,and half the protein of milk, according to research reported [13,14].
2. Methodology: Literature Search
Several electronic databases such as Pubmed, Medline, Embase, and Google Scholarwere accessed for retrieving the available relevant literatures. We thoroughly searchedto identify articles published till 2021, on different aspects of antidiabetic, anticancer-ous, phytochemical properties and their mode of action against several cancer cell lines.The keywords and terms used for the search included single and various combinations ofthe following: “Moringa oleifera”, “medicinal” “pharmaceuticals”, “nutritional”, “economicimportance” “therapeutics” and “horticultural crops”. Under each of the searches, the ab-stracts and titles were screened and the full text versions of articles that met the criteriawere downloaded.
3. Traditional and Other Uses of Moringa oleifera
The M. oleifera tree has a wide range of therapeutic applications, including bothprevention and therapy. Its bark, seeds, oil, sap, leaves, roots, and flowers are used inconventional medicine. It provides an immediate remedy for stomach, catarrh, malignancy,cancer, ulcer, blood sugar, nerve, cramps, hemorrhoids, cerebral aches, sore gums, stomach-related diseases, respiratory, gastric, and resistant frameworks [15,16]. It also boostsbone density by increasing calcium levels. Flowers act as cholagogue, stimulant, tonic,and diuretic that can help to enhance bile flow. The plant is antibacterial as well and aidsin the preparation of heart circulatory tonic [17]. It strengthens the eyes, skin, cerebrum,liver, and also acts as a blood erythropoietin-stimulating agent. The leaves are used asa poultice for mid-region wounds to eradicate intestinal heat in a traditional therapy.The Indian Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia recommended the uses of dried root bark for goitre,glycosuria, and lipid problems (together with dried seeds), and leaf, seed, root bark,and stem bark for internal abscess and piles [1]. To cure conjunctivitis, the leaves are usedas eyewash while a drink made from the leaves of a drumstick tree is good for peoplewith asthma and bronchitis when consumed regularly. A dish of soup is made from thedecoction of drumstick leaves. Decoction produced with young drumstick flowers and cowmilk is a fantastic tonic for male and female sexual infertility and practical failure [12,18].Humans have long history of consuming this highly valued tree for a variety of domesticuses [19]. The powdered form of the bark works on the activity of sperm and correctsabnormalities like early discharge in males. An effective home-grown cure for cholera
Horticulturae 2022, 8, 492 3 of 26
is the integration of new leaf extract of moringa, one spoon of honey, and one glassdrink of exquisite coconut water [20]. It is beneficial against diarrhea, jaundice, and alsocolitis. A typical remedy for dysuria and a high acidic rate in urine is a new leaf extractof moringa combined with carrot or cucumber juice to cure pimples and clogged pores.Aging spots can efficiently be treated with drumstick leaf extract treated with lime juicewhich enhances the normal brilliance of the complexion [21]. Many medicinal propertiessuch as antitumor, anti-inflammatory, antiulcer, antipyretic, antiepileptic, antispasmodic,diuretic, antihypertensive, and antidiabetic are mentioned in Table 1. Various M. oleiferaplant-derived bioactive compounds are shown in Figure 1.
Horticulturae 2022, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 26
uses [19]. The powdered form of the bark works on the activity of sperm and corrects abnormalities like early discharge in males. An effective home-grown cure for cholera is the integration of new leaf extract of moringa, one spoon of honey, and one glass drink of exquisite coconut water [20]. It is beneficial against diarrhea, jaundice, and also colitis. A typical remedy for dysuria and a high acidic rate in urine is a new leaf extract of moringa combined with carrot or cucumber juice to cure pimples and clogged pores. Aging spots can efficiently be treated with drumstick leaf extract treated with lime juice which en-hances the normal brilliance of the complexion [21]. Many medicinal properties such as antitumor, anti-inflammatory, antiulcer, antipyretic, antiepileptic, antispasmodic, diu-retic, antihypertensive, and antidiabetic are mentioned in Table 1. Various M. oleifera plant-derived bioactive compounds are shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Selected bioactive compounds from Moringa oleifera: (a) 4-(-L-rhamnopyranosyloxy) benzlisothiocyanate, (b) Quercetin, (c) Niazirin, (d) Kaempferol, (e) Benzyl isothiocyanate, (f) Nia-zimisin, (g) β-sitosterol, (h) 4-(4-O-acetyl-a-L-rhamnosyloxy) benzyl isothiocyanate, (i) 4-(α-l-rhamnopyranosyloxy) benzyl isothiocyanate, (j) Moringine.
Figure 1. Selected bioactive compounds from Moringa oleifera: (a) 4-(-L-rhamnopyranosyloxy) benzlisothio-cyanate, (b) Quercetin, (c) Niazirin, (d) Kaempferol, (e) Benzyl isothiocyanate, (f) Niazimisin, (g) β-sitosterol,(h) 4-(4-O-acetyl-a-L-rhamnosyloxy) benzyl isothiocyanate, (i) 4-(α-l-rhamnopyranosyloxy) benzyl isothio-cyanate, (j) Moringine.
Horticulturae 2022, 8, 492 4 of 26
Table 1. Various beneficial phytochemicals of M. oleifera and their medicinal effect.
Phytochemicals Medicinal Effects References
Tannins Bactericidal, anti-inflammatory, and anti-parasitic. [22]
Saponins reduction and immune support. Antioxidant, anticancer, cholesterol. [23]
Alkaloid’s cancer, cardiac dysfunction, and pain. Treatment of malaria, diabetes. [23]
Glycoside’s failure and cardiac arrhythmia. Anti-tumoral, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial,and antioxidants. [10]
Reducing sugar’s function. Treatment of congestive heart. [24]
Glucosinolate4-O-(a-L-rhamnopyranosyloxy)-benzyl glucosinolate
(glucomoringin)Provides energy for proper body. [25]
Several parts of the M. oleifera tree served as great reservoir of extraordinary glucosi-nolates, flavonoids and phenolic compounds [26,27], carotenoids, tocopherols, polyunsat-urated fats (PUFAs), profoundly bioavailable minerals, and folate [28]. Among glucosi-nolates, 4-O-(a-L-rhamnopyranosyloxy)-benzyl glucosinolate (glucomoringin) is the mosttranscendent in the stem, leaves, flowers, fruits, and seeds of M. oleifera [26]. In the roots,benzyl glucosinolate (glucotropaeolin) is the most prominent bioactive compound present.The most elevated substance of glucosinolate belonging to a group of sulphur-containingglycosides is found in the leaves and seeds. Among the flavonoids group, flavonol gly-cosides (glucosides, rutinosides, and malonyl glucosides) of quercetin > kaempferol >isorhamnetin are mostly found in different parts of the tree, along with the roots and seeds.In the roots, benzyl glucosinolate (glucotropaeolin) is the most prominent. The highestlevel of glucosinolate is found in the leaves and seeds. Almost all the parts of M. oleifera arebeneficial for human wellness as well as having economic importance as shown in Table 2and Figure 2.
Table 2. Various extracts of Moringa oleifera and their biological activities.
Extract Type Medicinal Effects Reference
M. oleifera leaf extractHave antioxidant potential, increase the cytotoxicity inapoptosis based chemotherapy by downregulation of
(nuclear factor-kappa B; NF-kB)[29,30]
Flower, seed, leaf, root and bark extract of M. oleifera Increase urine production in rats. [31]
Ethanolic extracts of the seeds of M. oleifera in vitro antifungal activity [32]
Hydroalcoholic extracts of the M. oleifera leaves Hypolipidemic and antioxidant activities. [33]
M. oleifera aqueous extract of foliage Increase antiproliferative potential and leads toapoptosis of cancer cells [34]
M. oleifera aqueous extract of root have anti-inflammatory efficacy in rats, reducecarrageenan-induced edoema [35]
Hydro-alcoholic extracts of M. oleifera seed Reduce inflammation and help in effective treatment ofexperimental colitis [36]
M. oleifera acetone leaf extracts Antimicrobial activity [37]
M. oleifera seeds extract Show anti-diabetic activity [38]
Horticulturae 2022, 8, 492 5 of 26Horticulturae 2022, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 26
Figure 2. (a–f). Different economic plant parts of Moringa.
3.1. Leaves M. oleifera leaves (Figure 2b) are a good source of beta-carotene, iron, protein, vitamin
C, and potassium. Cooked leaves are used in a similar way as spinach is used. Its leaves are dried and converted into powder form; sulfur-bearing methionine and cysteine are two major amino acids present in moringa leaves [39]. They are also found in lesser amounts in several green leafy vegetables.
3.2. Flowers When cooked, the flowers are edible and have a mushroom flavor. Cough medicine
is prepared from flowers soaked with honey. The picture of moringa flower is shown in Figure 2c,d.
3.3. Ben Oil M. oleifera seeds provide around 38–40% oil which is transparent, odorless, and poses
the concerns of rancidity similar to other plant oils. The seed cake that remains as residue after the oil has been further extracted can be used as manure or as medium to purify the contaminated water. Oil derived from the moringa seed is beneficial to treat ear infections and skin ailments in salves. Mosquitoes are supposed to be deterred by applying oil to the skin and in this way it can be used as repellant.
Figure 2. (a–f). Different economic plant parts of Moringa.
3.1. Leaves
M. oleifera leaves (Figure 2b) are a good source of beta-carotene, iron, protein, vitaminC, and potassium. Cooked leaves are used in a similar way as spinach is used. Its leavesare dried and converted into powder form; sulfur-bearing methionine and cysteine aretwo major amino acids present in moringa leaves [39]. They are also found in lesseramounts in several green leafy vegetables.
3.2. Flowers
When cooked, the flowers are edible and have a mushroom flavor. Cough medicineis prepared from flowers soaked with honey. The picture of moringa flower is shown inFigure 2c,d.
3.3. Ben Oil
M. oleifera seeds provide around 38–40% oil which is transparent, odorless, and posesthe concerns of rancidity similar to other plant oils. The seed cake that remains as residueafter the oil has been further extracted can be used as manure or as medium to purify thecontaminated water. Oil derived from the moringa seed is beneficial to treat ear infectionsand skin ailments in salves. Mosquitoes are supposed to be deterred by applying oil to theskin and in this way it can be used as repellant.
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4. Morphology of Moringa oleifera
M. oleifera is a long-lived, evergreen tree with a straight trunk and corky, whitish barkthat grows up to 6 m in height. The tree has a tuberous tap root and a weak stem. The leavesare bright green, compound, tripinnate and 30–60 cm long. The horizontal pamphlets areelliptic fit, while the terminal one is obovate. The natural product units are pendulous,green, turning to greenish-brown, three-sided, and split longwise into three sections whendry. The units are 30–120 cm long 1.8 cm wide and tightening at the two closures. The casescontain around 10 to 20 seeds inserted in the plump essence (Figure 2a–f).
5. Cultivation
Trees developed from seeds have longer roots (which helps with stability and avail-ability to water) than those grown from cuttings, which have much shorter roots [40,41].It grows nicely in semi-bone-dry, hot, and moist or sandy loam soils. The range of seedsis 3000 to 9000. Seeds germinate in two weeks at a maximum depth of two centimeters.Seedlings can be transferred when they reach 30 cm (3–6 weeks after germination) whenplanting is scheduled in a nursery [22]. When seedlings reach 30 cm (3–6 weeks followinggermination), they can be transported to a nursery for planting [42]. When seeds are fewand/or labor is not a constraint, cutting is the recommended method [43] by ensuringthat moringa production and growing practices are significantly improved. Plants grownfrom seeds generate lower-quality fruits, according to research [24]. When hard woodcuttings (1–2 m long, 4–16 cm diameter) [24,25,28,29] from mature trees are planted duringthe rainy season, burying one-third of them in the soil, they lead to the establishment ofroots quickly and attain a significant size in a few months [26]. From June to August, it ispropagated by planting 1–2 m long limb cuttings and after 6–8 months of planting, it beginsto yield pods, but does not bear after the second year. Cultivation is primarily dependenton creating the correct environment for the plant. In well-draining soil, a seed is sown aninch below the surface which germinates with specified ambient parameters as mentionedin Table 3. Plant production is between 1.1 and 1.3 million tonnes per year, with a totalarea of 380 km2 [27]. Hot temperatures are significant for germination. Seeds after sowingshould be protected from mice and wooded reptiles, as the seed is nutty and considereda delicious piece by those small animals. Stem cuttings, 10–60cm long, can likewise beplanted in summer and spring.
Table 3. Different parameters for cultivation of M. oleifera.
Parameter Requirement References
Elevation 0–2000 m [28,44]
Rain 250–3000 mm [44]
250–3000 mm per year, if rainfall is less than 800 mm, irrigation isrequired for leaf formation. [17]
Type of soil Sandy, or sandy-loam, Loamy [45]
pH of soil In the rage of 5–9 [46]
Fruiting periodIn South India during the summer flowers and fruit appear,
and While in North India July to Septemberand March to April fruits ripen
[47]
Irrigation It should be administered every 2–3 days for the first few days,then once every 10–15 days after that. [48]
Temperature At the temperature range of 25–35 ◦C and even sometimes itwithstands up to 48 ◦C for a limited time period. [49]
Harvesting periodIn Spain, between the months of August and September for pods and
for leaves, due to high production yield, three to five cuts may bemade per season for better productivity.
[15]
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6. Industrial Applications6.1. Treatment of Water
Seeds of the M. oleifera are subjected to a fine powder for treating the muddy, uncleanwater [1,17]. A series of electrical charges is used to purify the water. In between thesloppy particles suspended in the water and the slick particles hanging in the smashedseeds, the small particles are continuously pushed to the pond’s bottom by gravity afterapproximately 60 min. Examination revealed that the seed settles in the dirt and carriesmore than 90% of tiny organisms and illnesses with it. Moringa seeds can also be appliedto a cleaning agent in the water treatment process [1]. The sloppy particles are continuallydrawn by gravity as the water sinks to the bottom, after around 60 min. It also carries morethan 90% of germs and diseases with it and moringa seeds can also be utilized further asa source of disinfectant. This kind of drinking water treatment has also been reported byother groups of researchers [19,50,51].
6.2. Great Fodder for Cattle
Moringa served as a great feed for cows which may lead to a significantly increase inthe weight of domesticated animals by 32 percent and increased the milk output of cowsby 43 percent. In addition to hay, one farmer fed his cows only 2 kg of moringa dry matterper day to their regular feed with a 58 percent increase in milk production. It can further beexpanded up to 3 kg each day, and milk production by 65% [21,46].
6.3. Bio-Gas
Methane could also be produced from the leaves of Moringa. Various reports showedthat each hectare may create 4400 cubic meters of biogas per year. When bacteria decomposeorganic matter (biomass) in the absence of oxygen, biogas is produced [39]. Moringa plantswere mashed together with water when they were around 30 days old. Filtration of thefiber via a mesh with 5 mm holes separated the liquid fraction, which was then put intoa biogas reactor with an average volatile solids feed of 5.7 g and 580 L of gas was producedper kg of volatile solids. The gas had an average methane concentration of 81% [50,51].
6.4. Standard Plate Count (SPC) Method
Because of the high microbial load, drinking water can be dangerous to consume.The SPC method involves a complete bacterial count of this water determined quanti-tatively. It was also reported that the M. oleifera seed powder works as an antibacterialagent against microorganisms [52] through the process of coagulation or flocculation ofproduced water [53]. The M. oleifera seed powder treatment had the added benefit oflowering the microbial load. After treatment, the quantities of bacterial colonies signifi-cantly reduced and the SPC was found in the medium range within the permissible limit(102–105) in case of groundwater. The addition of 100 mg/L and 150 mg/L of M. oleiferaseeds significantly reduces the colonies in the plaque. It was seen that the M. oleiferaseed moves as an antimicrobial specialist against microorganisms [54]. The presence ofactive antimicrobial properties in the M. oleifera such as O-ethyl-4-(α-l-rhamnosylox) benzylcarbamate) oxy benzyl isothiocyanate, proved to disengage any strong matter with theelimination of a large portion of the suspended microorganisms in water. In undergroundand surface water samples, a pure distilled water and extract of M. oleifera seed powderresulted in 90 to 95 percent sedimentation of suspended particles. Duckweed-based wastewater stabilization ponds for waste water treatment are a low-cost technique for smallurban areas in Zimbabwe [9]. In underground and surface water samples, a pure distilledwater and extract of M. oleifera seed powder resulted in 90 to 95 percent sedimentation ofsuspended particles.
Horticulturae 2022, 8, 492 8 of 26
6.5. Most Probable Number (MPN)
MPN method is used for counting total coliforms, which are quantifiable. The presenceof coliforms indicates that the water has been gravely contaminated and is unfit for humanconsumption. Hence the MPN for drinking water should be zero. The value representedthe coliform MPN per 100 mL of water sample [55]. MPN was found to be over the WHOgroundwater standards and MPN/100 mL coliform was reduced after treatment. After treat-ment, MPN levels in all samples ranged from 500 to 1200 coliforms/mL, indicating that theyexceeded the limit as set by WHO standards. The presence of coliforms/mL by the MPNmethod confirms the presence of hazardous pollutants in water, demonstrating that treatedsamples are bacteriologically unfit for drinking. Using chlorine with seed powder can resultin a negative MPN test. The fraction of M. oleifera seed powder was 50 and 100 mg/L forreducing pH, TS, TDS, hardness, chloride, turbidity, causticity, and alkalinity, respectively150 mg/L for SPC and MPN [56].
6.6. Other Industrial Uses
The oil is used for the modification of perfumes and hair dressings. Due to its littletendency to deteriorate and become rancid and sticky, it is also utilized as lubricatingmaterials for watches as well as in other delicate hardwares [17]. It is a polyuronidemade up of arabinose, galactose and glucoronic acid in a 10:7:2 molar ratios; rhamnoseis present in trace amounts [57]. Dehulled seed (kernel) contains about 42% oil which isresponsible for the yellowish color of the seed. It is utilized as a lubricant for fine machinerysuch as watches. After extraction of oil, it is further pressed to make a cake which canbe utilized as manure. Moringa seed oil has 13 percent saturated fatty acid content and82 percent unsaturated fatty acid content [58]. The wood of the drumstick tree is used tomake paper and materials, the bark is used to make tanning, and the seeds are employed inthe purification of water. Gum of the tree M. oleifera has been reported to have gel-formingpotential for topical application [59].
7. Economic Potential
India is the world’s greatest producer of Moringa, with a 380 km2 region producing 1.1to 1.3 million tonnes of delicate natural products each year. Andhra Pradesh (156.65 km2)is the largest state in terms of both area and population, followed by Karnataka (102.8 km2)and Tamil Nadu (103.8 km2) which come in second and third, respectively. Its productionand management are made simple by the relative simplicity with which it propagatesboth sexually and asexually, along with its low demand for soil nutrients and water afterplanting. The introduction of this plant to a farm with a biodiverse setting may benefitboth the farm owner and the surrounding ecosystem [60]. Drumstick trees could be usedto extract oil without hindering their water purification capabilities. Drumstick oil isa premium product with a high market worth which could be of use for cooking oil and asa fundamental ingredient in creating a cleaner one [61].
8. Toxicity Levels
Two alkaloids found in root/bark extract are related to lethal hypotensive M. oleifera.In the animal trial of alkaloids obtained from M. oleifera, nazanin A and niaziminin B isolatedfrom the ethanol extract caused hypotension, and bradycardia. Consistent consumption oflarge amounts of alcohol may result in liver and kidney damage; whereas, excess and/orrepeated consumption of the alkaloid spirochin leads to toxic nerve loss and morbidity.
9. Medicinal Properties and Biomedical Applications
M. oleifera has a variety of activities, including the ones to be used as a galactagogue,rubefacient, antiscorbutic, diuretic, stimulant, purgative, antimicrobial, antibacterial [62],anti-inflammatory, antitumor, antioxidant, anti-aging agent, hypoglycaemic, antipoet-ryroidism, anti-cellular [63], hypocholesterolemic, antispasmodic. Moreover, it lowers,circulatory strain, reduces cerebral pains, and lessens headaches. Various therapeutic prop-
Horticulturae 2022, 8, 492 9 of 26
erties have been credited to different portions of this profoundly regarded tree as shownin Figure 3. Practically each and every part of this plant such as bark, gum, root, naturalproduct (cases), flowers, leaf, seed, and seed oil has their own significance. They havebeen used to control a broad range of illnesses in the form of traditional folk medicineailments [64]. Several phytochemicals available in M. oleifera and their medicinal uses areshown in Table 4.
Table 4. M. oleifera phytochemicals and their medical uses.
Plant Parts Phytochemicals Present Medicinal Uses References
Root4-(a-L-rhamnopyranosyloxy)-benzyl
glucosinolateand benzyl glucosinolate
Act as anti-inflammatory; stimulant inparalytic afflictions; act as a cardiac; fortreatment of rheumatism, lower back or
kidney pain.
[1,50]
Flower D-glucose, D-mannose, protein, polysaccharide,ascorbic acid,
A stimulant; used as a cure for tumors,hysteria, muscle diseases, inflammation,
and lower serum cholesterol[65–68]
GumL-arabinose, D-galactose, D-glucuronic acid,
Exudates L-rhamnose, D-mannose, D-xylose andleucoanthocyanin
Used as an abortifacient and in treatmentof syphilis as well as rheumatism;
overcome dental caries; gum mixed withsesame oil helped to relieve pain from
headache, dysentery, asthma,and intestinal problems
[51]
Leave
Glycoside niazirin, niazirinin, and three mustardoil glycosides, 4-[4′-O-acetyl-a-L-rhamnosyloxy)
benzyl] isothiocyanate, niaziminin A and B,vitamin A (Beta-carotene), vitamin B (choline),
riboflavin, sterols, saponins, phenolics, quercetin,flavonoids, nicotinic acid, and ascorbic acid are
present various amino acids like Histidine,Lysine, Tryptophan, Phenylalanine, Leucine,
Methionine, Isoleucine, Valine, etc.
Used for eye and ear infections, piles,headache, sore throat, fever; leaf juice is
used to control glucose level; treatasthma, hyperglycemiaurn, syphilis,
malaria, pneumonia, scurvy,skin diseases, reduces blood pressure and
cholesterol, and act as anticancer;anti-atherosclerotic agent, antioxidant,
neuroprotectant, antidiabetic
[69–71]
Seed
Crude protein, Crude fat, carbohydrate,Methionine, cysteine,
4-(a-L-rhamnopyranosyloxy) benzylglucosinolate, benzyl glucosinolate, moringine,
mono-palmitic and di-oleic triglyceride,oleic acid, antibiotic called pterygospermin,fatty acids like behenic acid, linolenic acid,linoleic acid; Phytochemicals like tannins,
saponin, phytate, lectin, flavanoids. Apart fromthese fats, fibers, proteins, minerals, vitamins
like A, B, C, and amino acids
The antihypertensive chemicalsthiocarbamate and isothiocyanate
glycosides have been identified from theacetate phase of the ethanolic extract of
Moringa pods, and seed extract exerts itsprotective action by lowering
liver lipid peroxides
[72,73]
Stem bark 4-hydroxymellein, vanillin, β-testosterone,octacosanol acid and β-sitosterol
The roots are used as a cure for earacheand tooth cavity; antitubercular activity;
prevent enlargement of spleen andformation of tuberculous glands; in ulcer
treatment and also used tocure eye diseases
[74]
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Table 4. Cont.
Plant Parts Phytochemicals Present Medicinal Uses References
Seed Ben oil, Thiocarbamate andisothiocyanate
Ben oil has the ability to show resistance againstoxidative degradation. Seed powder of M.
oleifera Ben oil can also provide a defense to theoxidative stress induced by the arsenic and
prevent the accumulation of arsenic in the tissuesand blood.
Various compounds related to thiocarbamateand isothiocynate exhibit antitumor potential by
inhibiting the tumor promoter teleocidinB-4-induced Epstein–barr virus.
[75,76]
Flower Flavanoid-quercetin
M. oleifera flowers possess a flavanoid known asquercetin which have a significant impact on
regulation of liver function due to itsheatoprotective effects.
[77,78]
Gum Gum exudates
These gum exudates are non-toxic compoundsthat improve stability of therapeutics thereby
overall efficiency of the therapeutics. These arealso used to treat various chronic disorders.
[79]
Leave Flavanoids, Carotenoids, phenols,vitamin A
Antioxidant activity of M. oleifera leaves ismostly due to the presence of flavanoids.
Carotenoids are naturally occurring pigments ofplant that help in the prevention of damage to
photosynthetic apparatus by excessive lightintensity. Carotenoids also function as
antioxidants along with working as protectingagent for aging, cellular damage and providemany health benefits. Higher concentration of
phenols in leaf extract can induce caspasesthereby resulting in cellular apoptosis.
Vitamin A present in M. oleifera leaves regulatesvarious functions such as vision, growth and
reproduction, immune system cellular growthand apoptosis and brain activities.
[80–82]
Pod Methyl phydroxybenzoate andβ-sitosterol
M. oleifera pod contains Methylphydroxybenzoate and β-sitosterol that play
a very efficient role in the lowering ofblood pressure.
[4]
Root bark N-benzyl, S-ethyl thioformateN-benzyl, S-ethyl thioformate isolated from bark
of M. oleifera root. This compound showedantimicrobial activity.
[83]
Root Pterygospermin, 4-α-L-rhamnosyloxybenzyl isothiocyanate
M. oleifera roots contain Pterygospermin,and 4-α-L-rhamnosyloxy benzyl isothiocyanate
components that show a very significantantimicrobial activities. These components play
a very important role in antifungal andantimicrobial activities of M. oleifera roots.
[51,72,73]
Horticulturae 2022, 8, 492 11 of 26Horticulturae 2022, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 26
Figure 3. Various medicinal properties of M. oleifera.
9.1. Analgesic, Anti-Inflammatory, and Antipyretic Activities All aspects of this marvel tree have been found to show pain-relieving mechanisms
like that of indomethacin in various animal models. Extracts from leaves, seeds, and bark showed significant pain-relieving action in both focal (hot plate technique) and fringe models (acid-induced squirming strategy), in a dose-dependent manner [84,85]. The prac-tical application demonstrated viability against neuropathic pain caused by multiple scle-rosis [17]. In a carrageenan-induced paw edema model, reducing leaf removal movement was observed [86]. Extracts of bark showed calming action comparable to diclofenac in a similar model. Root has also been found to have calming qualities [86,87]. The neutrophil guideline and the c-Jun N-terminal kinase pathway may be responsible for the moderat-ing effect [66]. Tannins and other active fixes are involved in the mitigating effect. Some other chemical compounds including alkaloids, flavonoids, phenols, carotenoids, sitos-terol, hydroxymellein, vanillin, moringine, sitostenone, moringinine, and 9-octadecenoic acid, to name a few, are reported in this regard [88]. Leaf extract showed critical antipy-retic action in brewer’s yeast-induced pyrexia model [89]. Ethanol and the source of ethyl acetic acid of seeds likewise showed huge antipyretic activity [90].
9.2. Neuropharmacological Activity Aqueous extract of M. oleifera leaves has been seen as assurance against Alzheimer’s
disease in a colchicine-instigated Alzheimer’s disease model utilizing social testing [91]. Protected Alzheimer’s disease can be fought by controlling electrical activity and mono-amine levels in the brain [92]. Another study looked at the toluene-ethyl acetic acid deri-vation component of the methanolic concentrate of leaf and found that it had intense nootropic action [90]. The vitamins C and E found in the extracted leaf of M. oleifera play a crucial part in memory formation in Alzheimer’s disease patients [70,92].
Figure 3. Various medicinal properties of M. oleifera.
9.1. Analgesic, Anti-Inflammatory, and Antipyretic Activities
All aspects of this marvel tree have been found to show pain-relieving mechanismslike that of indomethacin in various animal models. Extracts from leaves, seeds, and barkshowed significant pain-relieving action in both focal (hot plate technique) and fringe mod-els (acid-induced squirming strategy), in a dose-dependent manner [84,85]. The practicalapplication demonstrated viability against neuropathic pain caused by multiple sclero-sis [17]. In a carrageenan-induced paw edema model, reducing leaf removal movementwas observed [86]. Extracts of bark showed calming action comparable to diclofenac ina similar model. Root has also been found to have calming qualities [86,87]. The neutrophilguideline and the c-Jun N-terminal kinase pathway may be responsible for the moderatingeffect [66]. Tannins and other active fixes are involved in the mitigating effect. Some otherchemical compounds including alkaloids, flavonoids, phenols, carotenoids, sitosterol,hydroxymellein, vanillin, moringine, sitostenone, moringinine, and 9-octadecenoic acid,to name a few, are reported in this regard [88]. Leaf extract showed critical antipyreticaction in brewer’s yeast-induced pyrexia model [89]. Ethanol and the source of ethyl aceticacid of seeds likewise showed huge antipyretic activity [90].
Horticulturae 2022, 8, 492 12 of 26
9.2. Neuropharmacological Activity
Aqueous extract of M. oleifera leaves has been seen as assurance against Alzheimer’sdisease in a colchicine-instigated Alzheimer’s disease model utilizing social testing [91]. Pro-tected Alzheimer’s disease can be fought by controlling electrical activity and monoaminelevels in the brain [92]. Another study looked at the toluene-ethyl acetic acid derivationcomponent of the methanolic concentrate of leaf and found that it had intense nootropicaction [90]. The vitamins C and E found in the extracted leaf of M. oleifera play a crucialpart in memory formation in Alzheimer’s disease patients [70,92].
Anticonvulsant action of leaf was demonstrated in male albino mice utilizing pentylenete-trazole and maximal electric shock paradigms [93]. Penicillin-induced epileptic convulsionswere reduced in adult albino rats by aqueous extract of the root [94,95]. In actophotometerand rotarod apparatuses, ethanolic extract of leaves revealed both central nervous systemdepressant and muscle relaxant effects respectively [96–98]. In the staircase test and ele-vated plus maze test, it also showed considerable anxiolytic action that was in accordancewith a dose-dependent manner [99,100].
9.3. Anticancerous Activity
In mouse melanoma tumor model tests, alcoholic and hydromethanolic extractsof leaves and fruits exhibited a considerable growth delay in tumor kinetics [101,102].M. oleifera leaf extract has antiproliferative action against A549 lung cancer cell line, [70,103].The exposure of leaf extract into chick chorioallantoic membrane leads to antiangiogenicaction that was in accordance with dose-dependent manner, demonstrating their stronganticancer potential [102,104–106]. Another study found that pod extract protected maleInstitute of Cancer Research (ICR) mice from azoxymethane and dextran sodium sulfate-induced colon damage [29]. Studies reported that Breast cancer, hepatocarcinoma, and col-orectal cancer cells in vitro, as well as cisplatin-resistant ovarian cancer cells, were allkilled by a root and leaf extract of M. oleifera [34,107–109]. These findings imply thatM. oleifera has regeneration potential in addition to its anti-cancerous potential, since flowerextract promoted cell proliferation in normal cells but not in cancer cells, while leaf extractdemonstrated substantial antitumor and hepatoprotective effects [110]. The anticancerouspotential of this plant is attributed to phytoconstituents such as niazimicin, carbamates,thiocarbamates, nitrile glycosides, and others such as quercetin and kaempferol [111,112].The effect of M. oleifera extract on various cancer cell lines is listed in Table 5.
Table 5. Anticancerous activity of M. oleifera plant extract on different cancer cell lines.
Part ofM. oleifera Tree Extract Type Test Cell Line Type Observation Reference
Leaves Aqueous extract XTT assay
Humanpancreatic
cancer cell lines[PANC-1]
The experiment shows that extractreduced more significantly the
presence of all three protproteins inthe NF-kB signaling pathway anddecreased p65 proteins in PANC-1
cells nuclei which suggests thatM. oleifera aqueous extract
attenuated Panic-1 cell’s viability.
[113]
Leaves andcisplantin Aqueous extract XTT assay
Humanpancreatic
cancer cell lines[PANC-1]
Combination of M. oleifera andcisplantin shows inhibitory effect
on proliferation of Panc-1 cells,and inhibitory effect of both
combined is higher than eachagent alone.
[114]
Horticulturae 2022, 8, 492 13 of 26
Table 5. Cont.
Part ofM. oleifera Tree Extract Type Test Cell Line Type Observation Reference
Leaves
Moringa leavesextract loadedPLGA-CS-PEG
nanoparticles andMoringa leaves
extract
MTT assay
Breast cancercell line MCF-7,
Human col-orectal
carcinoma cellline HCT 116,colorectal ade-nocarcinomacells (Caco-2)
M. oleifera leaves extract [ML] andM. oleifera leaves extract loaded
with PLGA-CS-PEG nanoparticles[ML] acts as anti-cancer agent bydecreasing cell proliferation and
exhibiting apoptosis-mediated celldeath in liver HepG2, colon cancer
HCT 116 and Caco-2 and breastcancer MCF-7 cell line.
[114]
Leaves Aqueous extractColorimetric
tetrazolium salt[XTT] assay
Humanpancreatic
cancer cell lines[PANC-1],
Cellosauruscell line p34,
M. oleifera leaf extract inhibits thegrowth of three tested cell lines.
Panc-1 cells were more susceptibleto the treatment (IC50 = 1.1 mg/mL)
compared to COLO357(IC50 = 1.8 mg/mL) and p34 cells(IC50 = 1.5 mg/mL). There was a
significant inhibition of Panc-1 cellsurvival at an extract concentration
of 0.75 mg/mL. There was also asignificant inhibitory effect at a
higher concentration (1.5 mg/mL)in the two other cell lines.
Moreover, treatment with 2 mg/mLM. oleifera extract resulted in a 98%reduction of Panc-1 cell survival.
[115]
Leaves Methanolic extract MTT assay Breast cancercell line MCF-7
Experiment conducted on MCF-7cell lines Average range of growthinhibition has been 80–90% (mean
value 87.13%) with variousconditions and in optimum
extraction condition at temperature50 ◦C and incubation time 45 min
with medium frequency,cell growth inhibition is 88.39%.
[116]
Leaves
Methanolic extract[ME] and
Dichloromethaneextract [DE]
Antiproliferativeassay
Breast cancercell line MCF-7,
Human hep-atoma cell line,colorectal ade-nocarcinomacells Caco-2
Dichloromethane extract was morecytotoxic than ME. It showed an
IC50 of 120.37 ± 2.55, 112.46 ± 3.74,and 133.58 ± 2.47 µg/mL forHepG2, Caco-2, and MCF-7,
respectively, while methanolicextract exhibited less cytotoxicity to
all cancer cell lines(IC50 > 250 µg/mL). M. oleifera
extracts not only exhibitantiproliferative potential againstcancer cells but also showed no
cytotoxicity on normal cells.
[117]
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Table 5. Cont.
Part ofM. oleifera Tree Extract Type Test Cell Line Type Observation Reference
Bark, Leaves,and Seeds Ethanolic extract Clonogenic cell
survival assayMDA-MB-231
and HCT-8
A significant decrease in cellsurvival was observed in
MDA-MB-231 and HCT-8 cell lineswhen treated with leaf extract andbarks extract and did not observe a
significant decrease in cellpopulation when cell lines were
exposed to the seed extract ofM. oleifera. Phenotypic changes in
the cells were observed in cellstreated with leaf extract and
bark extract.
[118]
Leaves Aqueous extract Apoptosisassay
Humanpancreatic
cancer cell lines[PANC-1]
Nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB)pathway is involved in growth and
proliferation of cells by theinhibition of apoptosis.
Treatment of human pancreatic cellswith the aqueous extract of
M. oleifera showed down-regulationof p65, phospho-IκBα and IκBα
proteins levels compared tountreated cells by targeting NF-kB
signaling pathway therebyinhibiting survival of pancreatic
cancer cell by promoting apoptosis
[30,119]
Leaves andcisplantin Aqueous extract Apoptosis
assay
Humanpancreatic
cancer cell lines[PANC-1]
M. oleifera leaf extract incombination with cisplatin showed
strong synergistic effect bytargeting NF-kB signaling pathway.
Cisplatin is a chemotherapeuticagent that is based on platinum and
has fewer efficacies when givenalone in pancreatic cancer while
combination of cisplatin withM. oleifera leaf extract increases itsefficacy due to role of M. oleifera
leaf extract in inhibition ofNF-kB signaling.
[30,120]
Leaves
Moringa leavesextract and poly D-L-lactide-co-glycolide
(PLGA)-chitosan(CS) and
polyethylene glycol(PEG) loadednanoparticles
MTT assay
Breast cancercell line MCF-7,Human colorec-tal carcinomacell line HCT116/(Caco-2)
PLGA is a type of FDA-approvedbiodegradable nanoparticles thathelp in the targeted delivery of
various treatments. Coating withCS and PEG helps in the longevity
of the treatment and improvesbiocompatibility. Treatment ofBreast cancer cell line MCF-7,
Human colorectal carcinoma cellline HCT 116/(Caco-2) with
M. oleifera leaf extract loaded withPLGA-CS-PEG increases the
efficiency of the extract by inducingthe apoptosis of more number of
cancer cells.
[114]
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9.4. Antioxidant Activity
M. oleifera foods offer significant antioxidant properties against a variety of free radi-cals [28]. Prepared leaf extract showed a considerable decrease in malondialdehyde levelsand a significant increase in glutathione levels In vivo studies. Several extracts preparedfrom natural sources showed useful in scavenging of free radicals activity of roots altogetherdecreased iron and FeSO4-activated microsomal lipid peroxidation in a part subordinateway [31,114,118]. Antioxidant activity of pods through the 2-diphenyl-2-picryl hydroxyl(DPPH) method has been reported by researchers [121,122]. In a male BALB/c rat model ofacetaminophen-induced nephrotoxicity, M. oleifera leaf extract demonstrated a nephropro-tective effect in addition to antiproliferative effect [123,124]. Several bioactive compoundsfound in the M. oleifera such as triterpenoids, monopalmitic moringine, di-oleic fatty acids,campesterol, avenasterol, stigmasterol, sterol, β-sitosterol, vitamin A, and its precursorbeta-carotene are only a few of the compounds that have been reported which may serveas cancer prevention agent [29,125–131].
9.5. Hepatoprotective Activity
An extract of the moringa leaves had hepatoprotective effects in Sprague Dawleyrats [132,133]. They had been made aware of carbon tetrachloride or acetaminophen-induced liver toxicity [134–139]. Furthermore, hepatoprotection against antitubercularmedicines and liver damage caused due to alloxan treatment [140]. The M. oleifera plant-based daily therapy for the period of 21 days was demonstrated to have huge potentialin constricting hepatic injury [65,66]. Ascorbic acid, quercetin, kaempferol, and benzylglucosinolate have all been discovered with hepatoprotective properties [141,142].
9.6. Anti-Ulcer and Gastroprotective Properties
The extract of leaves significantly reduced ulcer biomass in a gastric ulcer modelcaused by ibuprofen and a pyloric ligation test [143] and in addition to a considerabledecrease in duodenal ulcers and stress ulcers caused by cysteamine [144]. This propertycould be enhanced by flavonoids and biphenyls [145].
9.7. Cardiovascular Activity
In male Wistar rats, an extract of M. oleifera leaf reduced cholesterol levels and acted asa defense against hyperlipidemia caused by iron deficiency [146]. In lower chronotropicand inotropic effects in damaged frog hearts, leaf extract had an antihypertensive effecton diseased hypertensive rodents [146,147]. Nazanin B, niazinin A, and miasmic areactive ingredients for hypotensive activity [148]. In Male Wistar rats model, Isoproterenol-induced myocardial infarction was also inhibited by a leaf extract. The component respon-sible for this cardioprotective action was cell proliferation, lipid peroxidation prevention,and protection against isoproterenol-induced ultrastructure and histopathology unsettlingeffects [149]. M. oleifera lam function in irritation and lipid build-up in several tissueframeworks [150].
9.8. Antiobesity Activity
There was a considerable weight loss as compared to the fat control grouped by usingoral therapy with leaf powder extract of M. oleifera [151]. Treatment of hypercholesterolemiaanimals with methanolic M. oleifera leaf extract for 49 days resulted in a major reduction incholesterol level, body weight, fatty acids, as well as blood glucose level, liver indicators,and organ weight levels [152,153]. In heavy rats, downregulation of leptin and resistantmRNA articulation and overexpression of adiponectin quality articulation are among themechanisms [154].
Horticulturae 2022, 8, 492 16 of 26
9.9. Antiasthmatic Activity
Extract of seeds showed assurance significant efficacy against asthma as researchedin different models; an immediate bronchodilator effect was hypothesized for this effect,together with moderating and antibacterial actions [155] and prudence of prompt, easilyaffected reaction [156]. In bronchoalveolar lavage, an ethanolic extract of seeds showedpotent efficacy against ovalbumin-induced bronchoalveolar lavage, guinea pigs showed asignificant expansion of respiratory boundaries and a decrease in interleukin release. [157].
9.10. Hematological Activity
A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial was conducted on ladies whowere pallid with hemoglobin levels somewhere in the mean hemoglobin, and mean cor-puscular hemoglobin concentrations increased after being treated with an aqueous extractof moringa leaf in the 8–12 g/dL range [158]. Another review uncovered the potentialof moringa for healthy human volunteers for 14 days aiding in a significant increase inplatelet count [159,160].
9.11. Antidiabetic Activity
In normal and abnormal circumstances alloxan-induced or cysteamine-induced duode-nal and peptic ulcers, the leaf extract had a significant antihyperglycemic and hypoglycemiceffect [31,161–163]. With type 1 diabetic mouse models, an extensive review was conductedto determine the impact of the elimination of lipid profile, glucose, oral glucose resilience,body weight, and plasma insulin. The homeostatic model evaluation by different experi-ments on mice showing antidiabetic activity is described in Table 6.
Table 6. Antidiabetic activity of M. oleifera plant extracts.
Tree Part[Extract] Model Animal Treatment and
Time Duration
ResultsReferences
Blood Glucose Insulin Level andOther Effect
Leaf powderAlloxan-induced
diabeticSprague-Dawley rats
Time: 8 hConc.: 50 mg/kg
At the second week,a significant reduction wasobserved in BG in diabeticrats treated with M. oleifera,
from 300 mg/dL to100 mg/dL as compared
with controls.
Insulin level notmeasured No
change in numbersof lactic acid
bacteria
[164]
Leaf powder Alloxan-induceddiabetic mice
Treatment time: 1,3 and 5 h Diabetic
Con: UntreatedDiabetic positive
Con: Insulin0.7 IU/kg DiabeticMO: 100, 300, and
500 mg/kg MO
Reduction in diabetic rats at5 h with 300 and 500 mg/kg
M. oleifera (p < 0.01);500 mg/kg dose dependent
significant reductions inBlood glucose level by
34.3%, 60.9%, and 66.4%after 1, 3, and 5 h,
time points respectively.
No changes indiabetic mice
Significant increasein catalase,
no changes insuperoxidedismutase,
and significantreduction in MDA
[159]
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Table 6. Cont.
Tree Part[Extract] Model Animal Treatment and
Time Duration
ResultsReferences
Blood Glucose Insulin Level andOther Effect
Aqueous leafextract
STZ-induceddiabetic Wistar rats
Treatment time:3 weeks Con:
Untreated ConM. oleifera: 100,
200, and300 mg/kg
M. oleifera DiabeticM. oleifera: 100,
200, and300 mg/kg
M. oleifera Diabeticpositive Con:
Glipizide2.5 mg/kg
Significant reduction infasting BG of diabetic rats
treated with MO. Reductionafter 1, 2, and 3 weeks with200 mg was 25.9%, 53.5%,and 69.2%, respectively.
Insulin level notmeasured Increase
in Hb and totalprotein levels.
[137]
Methanolic leafextract
STZ-induceddiabetic Wistar rats
Treatment time:6 weeks Con:
Untreated ConM. oleifera:250 mg/kg
M. oleifera DiabeticCon: Untreated
Diabetic M. oleifera:250 mg/kgM. oleifera
Reduction in diabetic ratsfrom 30.96 to 27.6 mmol/L,
p < 0.05.
Insulin level notmeasured,
Reduction in theactivities of hepatic
enzymes.Significant
reduction ofcholesterol, LDL,IL-6, TNF-α and
MCP-1. Significantincrease in HDL
[165]
Methanolic leafextract
STZ-induceddiabetic Wistar rats
Treatment time:3 weeks Con:
Untreated DiabeticCon: Untreated
Diabetic M. oleifera:200 mg/kg/day
M. oleifera
Reduction in BG levels indiabetic rats from
229 ± 9.05 mg/dL to86 ± 4.2 mg/dL, p < 0.05
Oxidative stressattenuation andnormalization of
mitochondrialfunction in liver.
[166]
Methanolic leafextract
Alloxan-induceddiabetic Wistar rats
Treatment time:6 weeks Con:
Untreated DiabeticCon: Untreated
Diabetic M. oleifera:300 or 600 mg/kgDiabetic positiveCon: metformin
100 mg/kg
Reduction in diabetic rats.Blood glucose was reducedby 76% at 300 mg/kg and
84% at 600 mg/kg, p < 0.001.In addition, glucose
tolerance was improved by56% and 57% with 300 or600 mg/kg of M. oleifera,respectively, p < 0.001.
Significant increasein diabetic rats.Serum insulin
levels increased1.3–1.7-fold,
p < 0.01.Significant
reductions intriglycerides,
total cholesteroland LDL.
Significant increasein HDL.
[167]
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Table 6. Cont.
Tree Part[Extract] Model Animal Treatment and
Time Duration
ResultsReferences
Blood Glucose Insulin Level andOther Effect
Separateethanolic extracts
from leaves,seeds, and stem
C57BLKS/J Iar- +Leprdb/+ Ledprdb
and C57BLKS/JIar-m +/Leprdb
mice
Treatment time:5 weeks Con:
UntreatedM. oleifera:150 mg/kgM. oleifera
Metformin:150 mg/kg
Reduction in diabetic mice(only studied in leavesextract). Reduction in
fasting blood glucose from483 to 312 mg/dL, p < 0.05.
Significant increasein diabetic mice(only studied inleaves extract).
Increased insulinlevels from946 ± 92 to
1678 ± 268 pg/mL,p < 0.05.
Significantdecrease in
triglycerides andLDL.
Decreasedexpression ofinflammatorymarkers in the
kidneys.
[168]
Compoundsextracted from
seeds
STZ-induceddiabetic ICR mice
Treatment time2 weeks Con:
Untreated DiabeticCon: Untreated
Diabetic M. oleifera:20 mg/kg per
M. oleiferacompound
Reduction in diabetic mice(p < 0.05).
Insulin level notmeasured and no
other effect[169]
Seed powder STZ-induceddiabetic Albino rats
Treatment time:4 weeks Con:
Untreated DiabeticCon: Untreated
Diabetic M. oleifera:50 or 100 mg/kg
M. oleifera for4 weeks
Reduction in diabetic ratsfrom 266 to 148 mg/dL,
p < 0.05.
Insulin level notmeasured,Significantdecrease in
HbA1C. Significantreduction in lipid
peroxide.Significant increase
in antioxidantenzymes.
Significantdecrease in IL-6.Improvement of
urinary and kidneyfunctions.
[170]
Leaf powder Male SpragueDawley rats
Treatment time:Hyperglycemiawas induced by
applying150 mg/kg alloxan
monohydrate50 mg/mL for
8 weeks
In second week, glucoselevels in the diabetic group
treated with M. oleiferadiminished in comparisonto the untreated diabetic
group. The healthy grouptreated with M. oleiferashowed lower values
(24 mg/dL) in comparisonto the control group
(53 mg/dL).
Increase in bodyweight The doses
of M. oleiferapowder leaf tested
revealed noadverse effects in
experimentalanimals.
[163]
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9.12. Anti-Urolithic Activity
In a hyperoxaluria-induced mouse model [171,172] and ethylene glycol-inducedurolithiasis model, aqueous and ethanolic extract of this plant showed anti-urolithiaticactivity [173].
9.13. Diuretic Activity
Seeds, roots, leaves, flowers, and bark extract expanded urine yield in rodents; extractof leaf showed a portion subordinate diuretic activity more prominent than control yetnot as much as hydrochlorothiazide. This activity was attributed due to the presence ofcampesterol, stigmasterol, β-sitosterol, and avenasterol [174].
9.14. Anti-Allergic Activity
Ethanolic extract of seeds hindered latent cutaneous hypersensitivity incited by hostileto Immunoglobulin G (IgG) and histamine release from pole cells; the mechanism is hidden,yet its activity could be harmful in layer settling action [175] and more decreased scratchingrecurrence in an ovalbumin refinement model [176].
9.15. Anthelmintic Activity
It took a very less effort to incapacitate Indians because the plant had great anthelminticactivity [177]. Ethanolic extract and aqueous extract, separately and in larvicidal measure,showed 95.89 percent and 81.72 percent egg incubates hindrance, respectively, in ovicidalexamination. They were deemed adequate for 56.94 percent of the time and 92.50 percentof the time [178].
9.16. Antidiarrheal Activity
In male Wister rats, extract of moringa seeds demonstrated a considerable decreasein gastrointestinal motility and were considered viable in castor oil mediated loose bow-els [179–181]. Tannins, saponins, and flavonoids are phytochemical compounds that haveantidiarrheal properties [168].
9.17. Diabetes and Diverse Effects
Leaf extract shows a decrease in undesirable sebum secretion from sebaceous organsduring winter in humans [158]. This herb has unambiguously been identified as a sourceof “galactagogue” derived from the Greek word “galacta” which means milk—is a kindof herb and drug or food, which enhances the production of breast milk [159]. Diabetesis defined by metabolic dysregulation, especially of carbohydrate metabolism, as seen byhyperglycemia due to insulin secretion and action due to abnormal Insulin levels were notanalyzed [166–168]. There was no change in the number of lactic acid bacteria countedas described in Table 5. In frog models, methanolic root concentrate demonstrated localsedative action; whereas, in guinea pig model [160], M. oleifera leaf extract has a significantinhibitory effect on CYP3A4 [161]. Thus, M. oleifera has an extraordinary potential forherb-drug formulations.
10. Summary and Future Research
Drumstick plant is a tropical tree with a diverse range of applications and is attractingincreasing international attention for exploring more therapeutic interventions. It shouldbe broadly developed in the great majority of places where climatic conditions are difficultto predict for its ideal development. Various studies on M. oleifera have been conductedso far. The primary goal of this research was to uncover and analyze the pharmacologicaland healing benefits of M. oleifera. This plant has been shown to be effective in preclinicalstudies and found to have pain-relieving, calming, anthelmintic, anticancer, local seda-tive, nootropic, hepatoprotective, gastroprotective, anti-hypersensitivity, anti-ulcer, cancerpreventive, asthmatic, diuretic, cardiovascular, anti-stoutness, antidiabetic, antiepileptic,anti-urolithiasis, injury-repairing potentialities.
Horticulturae 2022, 8, 492 20 of 26
Moringa plant being a rich source of phytoconstituents, have the prospects to developfunctional food and nutraceuticals. However, detailed in vitro and in vivo evaluationsof bioavailability and biological activities are compulsory to permit reasonable and ap-propriate recommendations of phytoconstituents for future drug development. Properattention is required to be devoted to developing cultivars with higher foliage yield bymeans of specific breeding works, as the foliage is the richest source of carotenoids, ascorbicacids, glucosinolate, and other bioactives, compared to other edible parts. Elicitors (abioticand biotic) and signaling molecules, such as, methyl jasmonate and salicylic acid werestudied for the augmentation of carotenoids and tocopherols in the foliage of M. oleifera.Overall, M. oleifera is emerging as one of the prospective industrial crops in tropical andsubtropical countries.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, C.P. and T.K.U.; methodology, M.A. and A.B.S.; software,N.M.A. and K.M.; validation, F.A.A.-S., M.S., K.M. and N.M.A.; formal analysis, T.K.U. and A.B.S.;investigation, T.K.U. and M.S.; resources, M.S.; data curation, N.M.A., K.M., F.A.A.-S. and M.S.;writing—original draft preparation, C.P., T.K.U. and A.B.S.; writing—review and editing, M.S.,A.B.S., T.K.U., K.M. and N.M.A.; visualization, K.M., N.M.A. and F.A.A.-S.; supervision, T.K.U.;project administration, T.K.U., A.B.S. and M.S.; funding acquisition, M.S., K.M., N.M.A. and F.A.A.-S.All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: The authors extend their appreciation to the Deanship of Scientific Research at King KhalidUniversity, KSA, for funding this work through a large research group program under grant numberRGP. 2/233/43.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: The authors extend their appreciation to the Deanship of Scientific Research atKing Khalid University, KSA, for funding this work through a large research group program undergrant number RGP. 2/233/43. Also, the authors are very grateful to Geetika Madan Patel, MedicalDirector and Chairperson, Centre of Research for Development (CR4D), Parul University, Vadodara,Gujarat, India for providing the facility during the compilation of ideas in the form of the manuscript.
Conflicts of Interest: No affiliations or financial involvements by the authors are related to anyorganization or entity with a financial interest in or financial conflict with the subject matter ormaterials in the manuscript, other than those disclosed. The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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