Palaeoecology 253 (2007) 1–7www.elsevier.com/locate/palaeo

Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology,

Miocene climate in Europe — Patterns and evolutionA first synthesis of NECLIME

Angela A. Bruch a,⁎, Dieter Uhl b,1, Volker Mosbrugger a

a Senckenberg Research Institute and Natural Museum, Senckenberganlage 25, D-60325 Frankfurt am Main, Germanyb Palaeoecology, Institute of Environmental Biology, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University,

Laboratory of Palaeobotany and Palynology, Budapestlaan 4, 3584 CD Utrecht, The Netherlands

Received in revised form 23 February 2007; accepted 5 March 2007

Abstract

To improve our understanding of long-term climate changes during the Neogene in Eurasia, the international research networkNECLIME — Neogene Climate Evolution in Eurasia was established in the year 2000. In this first synthesis, results of NECLIMEactivities focussing on the Miocene of Europe as one key area are combined to present a summary of the climate evolution in timeand space. More than 300 Miocene fossil floras have been compiled and quantitatively analysed in terms of several climaticparameters during the last few years. In this volume alone, about 75 new data sets are available. To synthesize the results of thisvolume, quantitative climate maps for Europe are generated on palaeogeographic maps for Langhian and early Tortonian for thefirst time. Characteristic climate patterns appear for each time interval and can be related to both global climate change and Alpinetectonics. Generally, the climate maps combine and support the individual results discussed in this volume for the individualregions.© 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Miocene; Vegetation; Climate; Quantification; Spatial pattern; Europe

1. Introduction

The Neogene climate system represents the transitionfrom the greenhouse climate of the Paleogene to the ice-house climate of the Quaternary. Within the Neogene theMiocene is considered the most critical interval in thebuild-up of ice masses on land. In the early Miocene auni-polar glaciation existed with an ice volume onAntarctica comparable to today and a largely ice-free

⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +49 69 97075 1604.E-mail address: angela.bruch@senckenberg.de (A.A. Bruch).

1 Present address: Villenstraße 13, 67433 Neustadt an derWeinstraße, Germany.

0031-0182/$ - see front matter © 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2007.03.030

Northern hemisphere. Still within the Miocene, how-ever, the first indications of the onset of the Northernhemisphere glaciation appeared leading to the formationof the Greenland ice shield in the Pliocene (Moran et al.,2006). Although the general global climate evolution ofthe Neogene is relatively well understood for the marinerealm, little information on the Neogene evolution ofspatial climate patterns on the continents is yet available.Moreover, it is well known that severe environmentalchanges occurred both on the continents and in theoceans especially during the Late Miocene. First of all, aglobal intensification of orogenic movements consider-ably influenced the climate system; especially the rapiduplift of the Tibetan Plateau seems to have caused a

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stronger East Asian monsoon which triggered theupwelling systems of the Indian Ocean (An et al.,2001). Moreover, the Late Miocene witnessed thedevelopment and spread of C4-grasses, the aridificationof the interiors of continents and the expansion of openlandscapes. Although all these events are considered tobe connected, no causal dependence has really beenproven yet (cf. Molnar, 2005).

In order to better understand long-term climatechanges in the Neogene of Eurasia, the internationalresearch network NECLIME – Neogene ClimateEvolution in Eurasia– was established in the year2000. The main objectives of NECLIME are: (1) thequantitative reconstruction of the Neogene climateevolution in Eurasia and its patterns in time and spacebased on proxy-data and their quantitative climaticinterpretation by means of standardised techniques, (2)the reconstruction of Neogene regional and globalatmospheric circulation patterns via climate modelling,(3) the analysis of the interaction between palaeogeo-graphy, vegetation and climate. More details about theconcept, structure and members of NECLIME can befound on the NECLIME homepage (www.neclime.de).In this first synthesis volume we present results ofNECLIME activities focussing on the Miocene ofEurope as a crucial key area of Eurasia.

2. Themes addressed in this volume

To allow for a correct interpretation of climate andvegetation data reconstructed from fossil sites in theterrestrial realm of Europe, a proper knowledge of thestratigraphic correlation of localities from the Mediter-ranean, and the Central and Eastern Paratethys is a majorprerequisite. Harzhauser and Piller (2007-this volume)provide a new standard correlation chart for the Miocenethat is the base for stratigraphic classifications in allmanuscripts within this volume, and permits thecomparison of data from different areas of Europe.Furthermore, these authors compile the state-of-the-artknowledge of the palaeogeographic development inEurope during the Miocene and provide palaeogeo-graphic maps which are used in spatial data analyses ofsome other contributions in this volume and in the dataintegration presented below.

This palaeogeographic information is essential sinceMiocene evolution and retreat of a large water body likethe Paratethys caused a differentiation of climate intomarine conditions in the west and more continentalconditions in the east that strongly influenced thevegetation development in Europe (Bruch et al., 2004,2006; Utescher et al., 2007-this volume-b). Climatic

signals of Neogene fossil floras may also indicateorographic changes, i.e. the uplift of the Alpine chain, asdocumented in the contribution of Syabryaj et al. (2007-this volume), or fast latitudinal movements of micro-plates (Erdei et al., 2007-this volume; Utescher et al.,2007-this volume-a).

All climate quantifications in this volume are basedon the Coexistence Approach (Mosbrugger andUtescher, 1997), a method based on the nearest livingrelative philosophy, except for some data provided byMartinetto et al. (2007-this volume) and Kvaček (2007-this volume), who are using leaf physiognomicapproaches. The advantages, disadvantages and differ-ences of the various methods are critically discussed byKvaček (2007-this volume). Moreover, Martinetto et al.(2007-this volume) examine the influence of differenttaxonomic concepts on the climate estimations forspecific fossil floras.

Most of the contributions in this volume providequantitative terrestrial climate data for several areas ofEurope and discuss for each case the specific influence oftectonics, orography, and global climate change. The studyareas include Turkey (Akgün et al., 2007-this volume),Serbia (Utescher et al., 2007-this volume-a), Ukraine(Syabryaj et al., 2007-this volume), Hungary (Erdei et al.,2007-this volume), Germany (Böhme et al., 2007-thisvolume), and Italy (Martinetto et al., 2007-this volume).By comparing these studies regional differences becomeevident. Some areas like Ukraine and Turkey are mainlyinfluenced by tectonic uplift and related changes of theland–sea distribution. Data from other areas, especially inwestern and northern parts of Central Europe, largelyreflect general global climatic trends. Other data giveevidence of microplate movements as it is the case withinthe Pannonian domain in Serbia and Hungary (Utescheret al., 2007-this volume-a; Erdei et al., 2007-this volume).

A first approach to the integration of palaeoclimaticinformation based on palaeobotanical data within Europeis given by Jiménez-Moreno and Suc (2007-this volume),who discuss a latitudinal precipitation gradient in theMiddle Miocene from Spain to Central Europe in aqualitative way. On an even larger scale, Utescher et al.(2007-this volume-b) reconstruct the vegetation ofCentral Europe based on plant functional types. Thisnew approach provides quantitative data for assessingvegetation patterns. In comparison with the climate datadiscussed in this volume, the results for Middle to LateMiocene time intervals document the interaction betweenclimate and vegetation. This approach may serve as asound basis for the quantification of the climatic influenceon vegetation patterns and allow for the validation ofvegetation modelling results.

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To complete the continental data, the contribution ofKroh (2007-this volume) deals with the marine environ-ment of the Central Paratethys providing quantitativedata on water temperature for the Middle and LateMiocene that fit pretty well the terrestrial data set.

Last but not least, the climate modelling of Micheelset al. (2007-this volume) puts the results of this volumeinto a global perspective and confirms the stronginfluence of vegetation cover on global climate. More-over, by comparing quantitative proxy-data and modelresults, some inherent problems of climate models, whichare also used for the prediction of future anthropogeni-cally influenced climate, become obvious. This under-lines the importance of quantitative proxy data for thevalidation and improvement of climate models.

3. A first attempt at data integration

All in all, this volume presents some 75 newNeogene climate data sets. In the following we presenta preliminary integration of these data and other alreadypublished data from Utescher et al. (2000), Ivanov et al.(2002), Bruch et al. (2004, 2006), and Mosbrugger et al.(2005).

3.1. Methods and materials

All data related to publications of this volume as wellas any subsequent data used are available to the publicfrom the Open Access library “PANGAEA — Publish-ing Network for Geoscientific & Environmental Data”(www.pangaea.de). Individual data sets are referencedwith their DOI for direct access; data management is byC. Traiser.

To obtain spatial climate patterns of the Miocene, thecompiled data are visualized on the palaeogeographicmaps provided by Harzhauser and Piller (2007-thisvolume). The climate data shown in the maps representthe central values of the resulting coexistence intervalswhich are assumed to encompass the “real climatevalue”. The localities are transformed to their recon-structed palaeolocation. To minimize uncertainties,localities in the Alpine and Pannonian domain aremoved together and maintain their relative position toeach other. Although this procedure may be questionedand incorporate some errors, the general uncertainty isprobably negligible due to the relatively low resolutionof the maps, both in time and space. All data wereprocessed with the GIS program ArcView.

Interpolations between data points were calculatedwith the inverse distance weighted method, whichproduces a relatively smooth gradient between single

data points, giving detailed patterns between closelysituated points and less detail between localities far fromeach other. To avoid over-interpretation of the resultinginterpolation, we present the interpolated data onlywithin a radius of 300 km from each data point.

To illustrate the climate development during theMiocene, we compare maps for the early MiddleMiocene and early Late Miocene. Only floras with asufficient number of climatically relevant taxa and areliable age control are considered. For the early MiddleMiocene 36 localities have been accepted that are datedas Langhian, early Badenian, or equivalents. For theearly Late Miocene 44 localities are included, which aredated as early Tortonian, Vallesian (MN9–10), orPannonian. Therefore, the early Middle Miocene andthe early Late Miocene maps comprise a time span ofaround three million years.

For the maps, four climatic parameters are consid-ered, i.e. mean annual temperature (MAT), meantemperature of the coldest month (CMT), meantemperature of the warmest month (WMT), and meanannual precipitation (MAP).

3.2. Climate patterns for the early Middle Miocene andthe early Late Miocene

The visualisation of climate data on the palaeogeo-graphic maps of Harzhauser and Piller (2007-thisvolume) shows distinct climate patterns for each timeinterval (Figs. 1 and 2).

For the Langhian, themean annual temperature (MAT)(Fig. 1) documents only a very weak latitudinal gradientwith 16 to 17 °C in northernCentral Europe, 17 to 18 °C insouthern Central and Western Europe, and up to 21 °C inTurkey. This general pattern is superimposed by regionaltrends showing cooler values in the eastern part of CentralEurope. The Langhian map of temperatures of thewarmest month (WMT) shows no spatial pattern at all;nearly all values are in the range of 26 to 27 °C. Coldestmonth temperatures are more diverse than the othertemperature parameters but scatter all over Europe thushiding any visible patterns. Only the cluster of coolervalues in eastern Central Europe remains as clear as in theMAT map. Precipitation data vary from 800 to 1500 mmper year showing no distinct geographical trend; most ofthe data remain between 1200 and 1300 mm.

Early Tortonian climate maps also show a weaktemperature gradient for MAT with 14 to 16 °C innorthern and eastern Central Europe, 16 to 17 °C in theeastern Mediterranean, and up to 18 to 19 °C in Turkey.The same trend is documented in CMT values: a generallatitudinal gradient with 1 to 5 °C in northern and

Fig. 1. Climate reconstruction maps for the European early Middle and early Late Miocene: mean annual temperature (MAT) and mean annualprecipitation (MAP) (centres of coexistence intervals, IWS interpolated).

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eastern Central Europe, 7 to 9 °C in the easternMediterranean, and up to 11 °C in Turkey. For WMTa latitudinal differentiation is also visible with 25 to26 °C in northern Central Europe and values above26 °C in Southern Europe. However, the coldest valuesoccur in the Pannonian domain. Mean annual precipita-tion ranges from 700 to 1400 mm with a slightgeographical trend to lower values in southern regions.Still, no evidence for arid conditions is observed.

Comparing these climate patterns, both time intervalsare obviously characterised by very low latitudinalgradients of all climate parameters. All localities showsubtropical to warm-temperate and humid conditionswithin the climatic limits of a Cfa climate afterKöppen's classification. However, the general coolingtrend from Middle to Late Miocene is also visible in thedata set and is most pronounced in higher latitudes.Thus, spatial differentiation generally increases in theLate Miocene. Or, to be more precise, the latitudinalgradient increased through time. Moreover, a strongercooling in winter temperatures as compared to summertemperatures, especially in the Alpine area, caused an

increase in seasonality. In both time intervals, coolertemperatures prevail in the Pannonian area as comparedto the other areas.

3.3. The influence of palaeogeography on climatepatterns

The patterns observed can be explained by globalclimate change and the influence of palaeogeography.On the one hand, the global climate cooling fromMiddle to Late Miocene, i.e. the decrease in temperatureand precipitation, is well recognizable in the maps. Theclimate development tends to cause an increase in bothlatitudinal and seasonal differentiation, especially fortemperature parameters. On the other hand, the Miocenepalaeogeographic evolution obviously also stronglyinfluenced the climatic patterns. The cooler values inthe eastern part of Central Europe in Langhian times canbe explained by tectonic reorganisation of the CentralParatethys and related extensive volcanism that causedhigh stratovolcanoes in the western Carpathians (cf.Kovác et al., 2000; Böhme, 2003). The cool winter

Fig. 2. Climate reconstruction maps for the European early Middle and early Late Miocene: mean temperature of the coldest month (CMT) and meantemperature of the warmest month (WMT) (centres of coexistence intervals, IWS interpolated).

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temperatures in the Alpine area during early Tortonianmay be related to the same effect of higher elevation, butconnected to orogenic uplift. However, palaeogeo-graphic changes during the Miocene are not restrictedto mountain building and elevation. The retreat of theParatethys also caused a reduction of the marineinfluence in the Pannonian domain which is documen-ted in decreasing winter temperatures and increasingseasonality in the Late Miocene.

4. Conclusion

This volume presents a wealth of new dataconcerning climatic and palaeogeographic changes inthe European Miocene. Our first integration of thesedata and the visualisation of quantitative climate dataon palaeogeographic maps document spatial climatepatterns that are influenced not only by the generalclimatic deterioration but also by the palaeogeographicevolution during the Miocene. The decrease in

temperature causes a steepening of the latitudinaltemperature gradient, and to a very low degree also inprecipitation. The effects of the cooling during the LateMiocene interfere with local geographic changes in theAlpine and Pannonian realm. It will be a challenge forthe future to analyse and quantify the underlyingprocesses using regional scale climate and vegetationmodelling.

Acknowledgements

We are very grateful to all NECLIME members whosupport this project with data, ideas and their energy.Our thanks go especially to Christopher Traiser(Tübingen), who spent much energy and time in makingthe data available in PANGAEA. We also acknowledgethe technical assistance of Dorothee Bauer (Frankfurt).Moreover, we gratefully acknowledge the effort of thenumerous reviewers for their valuable comments thatimproved the quality of the submitted papers and the

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volume as a whole. Additionally, we thank our editor-in-chief Peter Kershaw, as well as Femke Wallien andTonny Smit of Elsevier Science Editorial Office for theirvaluable advices and patient support.

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