Metaphors on Suffering in Thai Language

Metaphors on Suffering in Thai Language

Thanapon EakapontMA student in Thai, Faculty of Humanities and Social Science,

Khon Kaen University, ThailandE - mail: [email protected]

Assistant Professor Dr. Wirat WongpinunwatanaThesis supervisor, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences,

Khon Kaen University, ThailandE - mail: [email protected]

Abstract

The objectives of this research were to study metaphorical expressions and conceptual metaphors of the word “suffering” in Thai language. Data were collected from academic writing, non - academic writing, fiction, newspaper, and miscellany of Thai National Corpus, Department of Linguistics, Faculty of Arts, Chulalongkorn University. Also, the data were collected from six different Thai weblogs publicized from 2007 to 2013, such as Bloggang, BlogKapook, OknationBlog, GotoKnow, Dek - D Blog, and EduzonesBlog. The results of the study found 616 metaphorical expressions of suffering metaphors. Moreover, there were 13 word forms of suffering conceptual metaphors found in this study, such as Suffering Is Human Beings, Suffering Is Battle, Suffering Is Objects, Suffering Is Nature, Suffering Is Illnesses, Suffering Is Plants, Suffering Is Matter Or Measurable Matter, Suffering Is Fire, Suffering Is Sewage, Suffering Is Fierce Animals, Suffering Is Foods, Suffering Is Journey And Suffering Is Places Or Constructions. Furthermore, all these conceptual metaphors also reveal that suffering is bad thing that human should avoid.

Keywords Suffering, Metaphors, Conceptual metaphors

Introduction

Communication likely has a problem in cognition between a sender and a receiver. Some messages are possibly complex and difficult to understand, so the sender describes them in comparison method or “Metaphor” so that it not also makes the receiver more easily understand and perceive, but it is also language strategies making a diversity of language usage.

Metaphor mean language form originated by comparing one meaning to become another meaning (Chatchawadee, 2005: Supachai, 2006). This comparison brings concrete things that humans know fine to compare with complex things in order to understand them easily. Moreover, metaphor also concerns with thinking system of humans because language usage in daily life compared as metaphors (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980 cited in Supachai, 2006).

The concept of metaphor relating to this thinking system was affected by metaphor study theories according to cognitive semantics theories presented by Lakoff and Johnson (1980). The study of this concept emphasizes the definition of language form relating to thinking system and reasoning process of humans (Chatchawadee, 2005).

It considers not only language form and apparent meaning, but also the level of concept or thinking of language users. Also, it focuses on studying comparative thinking or several metaphors in thinking system of humans that is “Conceptual Metaphors” considering from “Metaphorical Expressions” because metaphors at the level of thinking are the origin of comparative language form communicated by humans.

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Conceptual Metaphor is the heart of metaphor study according to the cognitive semantics theories emphasizing the study of mappings from concrete things toward abstract things (Kövecses, 2010). This is the process of trying to understand the abstract things by using the concrete things through the use of comparative language or metaphor. In academic circles of Thailand, there are several people interested in studying on metaphors according to cognitive semantics theories, and the results of this study mostly found both differences and similarities. The results found the differences of concept in the study; however, the issues of analysis are mostly similar in semantics study focusing on comparative language form analysis to bring about to conceptual metaphor analysis, such as the studies of Usa (2001), Mirinda (2005), Supachai (2006), Worawanna (2008), Nuntana (2012), Ratchaneeya (2012), Wuttinun (2012), and Cherdchai (2013). Anyhow, some studies considered the functions of metaphors as the concept on pragmatics according to the studies of Ratchaneeya (2008) and Piyaporn (2009). Furthermore, there is a study on metaphor considering the critical discourse analysis called “Critical Metaphor Analysis”, such as the study of Surachet (2010); moreover, there is a study on comparative concept between social and culture according to the study of Dale (2543). Therefore, these studies focus on studying the metaphors which reflects the concept in different issues for considering how people think about one thing, so in this study, the researchers want to know how Thai people think about suffering.

Suffering is a concrete complex concept. Why do Thai people understand the suffering even though it is a thing that Thai people have not known and never seen its appearance including it is difficult to understand? The researchers realize that the thing that helps enlighten on suffering is Thai people have comparative thinking system (metaphor) in simplifying of suffering description by comparing the cognitive system. Additionally, the suffering is mentioned for many features in Thai language, such as

(1) You should extinguish the suffering in your heart completely before. (ดับ, มอด)(2) Suffering was deep - rooted in our heart. (หยั่งรากลึก)(3) We have to be vaccinated against suffering virus. (ฉีดวัคซีนป้องกันไวรัสทุกข)์

According to the examples above mentioned, the apparent metaphorical expressions reflect the comparative concept in the views of Thai people

toward the suffering in many features. In the first example, the term about feature of fire was compared with the suffering; it reflects conceptual metaphor Suffering Is Fire. For the second example, the verb relating to a plant was used to compare with the suffering; it reflects conceptual metaphor Suffering Is Plants. Lastly, the third example found the use of the word meaning disease or cure referred to the suffering; it reflects conceptual metaphor Suffering Is Illnesses.

Nevertheless, metaphors mentioned above show the understanding of Thai people toward the suffering depending on different experiences preached to become the concept, so some people view the suffering differently according to their experiences. The examples above are some part of language evidences showing the comparison of suffering with several things. From the search found that the suffering was mentioned in many features in Thai language which the researchers believe that if we study suffering metaphors in Thai language seriously, we will understand the conceptual system or the thinking of Thai people toward the suffering in many viewpoints.

Consequently, to extend the scope of knowledge on metaphor study according to cognitive semantics method, and to understand the thinking system of Thai people on suffering clearly, the researchers studied metaphorical expressions and conceptual metaphors of the word “suffering” in Thai language.

Research Method1. Study documents and research relating to metaphors according to cognitive semantics theories.

2. Collect Data of word forms that show the comparison with the word “suffering” from academic writing, non - academic writing, fiction, newspaper, and miscellany of Thai National Corpus, Department of Linguistics, Faculty of Arts, Chulalongkorn University. And collect data from six different Thai weblogs publicized from 2007 to 2013, such as Bloggang, BlogKapook, OknationBlog, GotoKnow, Dek - D Blog, and EduzonesBlog.

3. Select metaphorical expressions consider - ing from the elements of metaphor i.e. it must have source domain and target domain. Source domain is the concept perceived and understood in a society, and it consists of objectiveness for describing complex concept of target domain or suffering to be easier to understand. For instance, suffering is fire burning the heart; “fire” (ไฟ) is source domain, and “suffering” is target domain. Moreover, metaphor conjunctions were

353The Asian Conference on Arts and Cultures 2014Srinakharinwirot University, Bangkok , Thailand

considered, such as “be” including invisible language form disappearing metaphor conjunctions but appearing comparative words. For example, “Suffering was deep - rooted in the heart” (หยั่งรากลึก); from the example, verb form in terms of plant was compared with the suffering.

4. Bring the metaphorical expressions in terms of suffering to classify the meaning according to the concept, such as dig suffering out (ก่นทุกข)์, bloom (เบ่งบาน), and ripe (สุกงอม). These terms were classified in the meaning of plants reflecting the conceptual metaphor Suffering Is Plants. Additionally, classification of one concept must have metaphorical expressions not less than 10 words. The researchers counted metaphorical expressions apparent 1 time as 1 word not repeatedly.

5. Analyze the processes of meaning transfer between source domain and target domain in order to show the comparison system in the concept of Thai people toward the suffering.

6. Conclude and discuss the results of study

FindingsMetaphorical Expressions and Conceptual Metaphors of “Suffering” in Thai language

Thai people compared concrete and comprehensible things with the suffering which was complex in order to make it easier to understand. This comparison process occurred in conceptual system before transferring to language usage in daily life. There were a lot of appearances of metaphorical expressions from this study finding 616 metaphorical expressions of suffering in Thai language. These metaphorical expressions were compared suffering with different things reflecting comparative concept of “suffering” in 13 types as following table.

No. Conceptual Metaphors of “Suffering”

Metaphorical Expressions

1 SUFFERING IS HUMAN BEINGS 160

2 SUFFERING IS BATTLE 84

3 SUFFERING IS OBJECTS 69

4 SUFFERING IS NATURE 68

5 SUFFERING IS ILLNESSES 47

6 SUFFERING IS PLANTS 39

7 SUFFERING IS MATTER OR MEASURABLE MATTER 34

8 SUFFERING IS FIRE 28

9 SUFFERING IS SEWAGE 23

No. Conceptual Metaphors of “Suffering”

Metaphorical Expressions

10 SUFFERING IS FIERCE ANIMALS 19

11 SUFFERING IS FOODS 19

12 SUFFERING IS JOURNEY 14

13 SUFFERING IS PLACES OR CONSTRUCTIONS 12

Total 616

From the table above, Thai people thought that suffering is human beings the most. Second, they thought that suffering is battle, and Thai people thought that suffering is places or constructions least of all. However, some metaphorical expressions were equal i.e. suffering is fierce animals and suffering is foods. According to the apparent metaphorical expressions, they can be indicated the suffering concept of Thai people differently in 13 concepts as follows:

1. Conceptual Metaphor

Suffering Is Human BeingsThere were 160 metaphorical expressions compared suffering with human beings found in the study, such as obsequious (ขี้ประจบ), step (ย่างกราย), short - lived suffering (ความทุกข์อายุสั้น), valued friend (เพื่อนรัก), etc.

• Happiness and suffering are valued friends. (เพื่อนรัก)• True suffering is short - lived, but we often extend its life by repetitious thought. (อายุสั้น, ต่ออาย)ุ

This concept reflected the thinking of Thai people that suffering was a living thing with generation and expiration including manner, feeling, and social status like human beings. The understanding in suffering through the concept of human beings can be expressed the processes of meaning transfer by human beings as follows:

Source Domain Target Domain

HUMAN BEINGS SUFFERING

A living thing with feeling and social status like

human beingsSuffering

Being originated by human beings

Suffering derives from human beings

Need food for living

Sadness without happiness of human

beings for counting on of suffering

Growth of both body and intelligence

Suffering extends and has power over humans

Expiration Suffering is dissolved by calm mind

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Suffering Is BattleThere were 84 metaphorical expressions compared suffering with battle found in the study, such as battle with suffering (สู้ความทุกข)์, suffering against suffering (ปะทะความทุกข)์, attack (จู่โจม), stab (ทิ่มแทง), etc.

• Suffering stabbing the heart. (ทิ่มแทง)• This way will be able to battle with the suffering of being layperson. (สู้ความทุกข)์

This concept reflected that suffering was an enemy watching attentively for doing harm to humans, so humans had to rise up and eliminate the suffering from their mind. The understanding of suffering through the concept of battle can be expressed the processes of meaning transfer as follows:


BATTLE SUFFERING

Rival or enemy Suffering

Battlefield Human mind gets suffering

Hurting or attack the enemy

Humans compose themselves to calm their mind for eliminating the

suffering dominating their mind

Weapon Consciousness

Battle results Suffering is died out and mind is happy


Suffering Is ObjectsThere were 69 metaphorical expressions compared suffering with objects found in the study, such as throw (suffering) (โยนทุกข)์, cast off (suffering) (ทิ้งขว้างความทุกข์), suffering... is a free gift (ความทุกข.์.. เป็นของแถม), drop (ทิ้ง), shoulder (แบก), share (แบ่งปัน), etc.

• Let share suffering, I will drop it on the sea for you, Poom. (แบ่งปัน, ทิ้ง)• Shoulder the suffering of people around, community, social, and environment heavily. (แบกทุกข)์

This concept reflected that suffering was visible and palpable objects or things; however, suffering was a worthless thing for humans, so they had to throw the suffering away. The understanding in suffering through the concept of the objects can be expressed the processes of meaning transfer as follows:


OBJECTS SUFFERING

Utensils/worth and worthless objects Suffering

Collecting objects Allowing heart to get suffering

Dropping, Throwing, or destroying objects

Concentration, and stop the suffering


Suffering Is NatureThere were 68 metaphorical expressions compared suffering with nature fond in the study, such as stream of suffering (กระแสแห่งความทุกข)์, suffering floods (ความทุกข์โศกไหลบ่า), river source of suffering (ต้นธารความทุกข์), storm (พาย)ุ, swash (โหมซัดสาด), suffering looks like rain (ความทุกข์ตั้งเค้า), suffering sea (ทะเลทุกข)์, etc.

• Suffering and happiness will also swash. (โหมซัดสาด)• Suffering floods the heart. (ความทุกข์โศกไหลบ่า)

This concept reflected that suffering occurred naturally, and humans were unavoidable. Mostly, suffering was disasters or natural phenomena which were more damaging than advantaging to humans. The understanding in suffering through the concept of nature can be expressed the processes of meaning transfer as follows:


NATURE SUFFERING

Things occurring naturally (natural phenomena,

scenery, weather, etc.) Suffering

Natural disasters (flood, tsunami, storm, etc.)

Humans are unhappy and nervous due to suffering

Disasters are passing Humans relieve suffering, and mind starts to calm.


Suffering Is IllnessesThere were 47 metaphorical expressions compared suffering with illnesses found in the study, such as suffering virus (ไวรัสทุกข)์, cure (เยียวยา), besetting (suffering) (ทุกข์รุมเร้า), chronic (suffering) (ทุกข์เรื้อรัง), vaccine (วัคซีน), relievable suffering (ความทุกข์ทุเลา), cure suffering (บ�าบัดความทุกข)์, suffering causes health destruction (ทุกข์จนท�าลายสุขภาพ), immunity (ภูมิคุ้มกัน), etc.

• We have to be vaccinated against suffering virus. (ฉีดวัคซีนป้องกันไวรัสทุกข)์


• Don’t allow suffering to extend and become chronic. (เรื้อรัง)

This concept reflected that suffering was the illnesses exploiting humans and causing weakness of human body and mind. Suffering illness was a complex abstract illness inside human mind, so there were not any concrete treatments. Thing that can treat or conjure this suffering illness away was consciousness because if humans had been conscious, they would have had the immunity and have not been sick due to the suffering. The understanding in suffering through the concept of illnesses can be expressed the processes of meaning transfer as follows:


ILLNESSES SUFFERING

Disease Suffering

Disease Transmission Suffering dominates mind

Illness or abnormality in the body Results from suffering

Curative care suffering Elimination or stop

Strong and immune body Lack of suffering


Suffering is PlantsThere were 39 metaphorical expressions compared suffering with plants found in the study, such as dig suffering out (ก่นทุกข)์, cut root (ตัดราก), cut trunk (ตัดโคน), ripe and blooming suffering (ความทุกข์สุกงอม, เบ่งบาน), harvest suffering (เก็บเกี่ยวผลจากความทุกข)์, etc.

• Cut root, cut trunk, and cut fiber of suffering. (ตัดรากตัดโคน ตัดเยื่อตัดใย)• Suffering... blooms and grows in mind. (เบ่งบานเติบโต)

This concept reflected that suffering was a plant rooting in human body and mind like a plant growing on the ground. However, the suffering plant was actually weeds absorbing water and mineral from human mind causing gloomy, frustrated, and unhappy mind. Therefore, humans had to handle with suffering weeds by cutting the root, eradicating the trunk in order to stop the growth of this plant in order that it cannot make the paleness for humans anymore. The understanding in suffering through the concept of plants can be expressed the processes of meaning transfer as follows:


PLANTS SUFFERING

A plant Suffering

Planting and plant propagation

Humans start to feel sick and uncomfortable

mentally

The growth of plants Suffering expands and dominates humans

Produces from plants Physical and mental suffering

Grub up and uproot Concentration and practice how to calm mind

Benefits of uprooted plant Strong, calm, and happy mind


Suffering is Matter or Measurable MatterThere were 34 metaphorical expressions compared suffering with matter or measurable matter found in the study, such as increasing suffering (ความทุกข์เพิ่มปริมาณ), weigh (ชั่งน�้าหนัก), chemicals (suffering) (สารเคม ี (ทุกข)์, miniature suffering (ความทุกข์จิ๊บ จิ๊บ), suffering has many sizes (ทุกข์มีหลายขนาด), decrease suffering (ลดความทุกข)์, etc.

• Suffering in the world has many sizes. (ขนาด)• Decrease suffering twice. (ลดความทุกข)์

This concept reflected that suffering was the matter comprising of quantity, weight, size which humans can touch and see. For this understanding, Thai people linked the concept of solid matter to liquid matter including chemical compounds to clarify for describing abstract concept like suffering. The understanding in suffering through the concept of matter or measurable matter can be expressed the processes of meaning transfer as follows:


MATTER OR MEASURABLE SUFFERING MATTER

Liquid and solid matter Suffering

Quantity/size/weight of matter Suffering levels of humans

Increase of matter Increasing suffering

Decrease of matter

Concentration and keeping calm can

decrease and deplete the suffering


Suffering is FireThere were 28 metaphorical expressions compared suffering with fire found in the study, such as extinguish

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(ดับ), burn out (มอด), burn (แผดเผา), suffering fire (เพลิงทุกข์), burn down (เผาผลาญ), smolder (คุกรุ่น), blaze (ลุกโพลง), spread (ลุกลาม), etc.

• Suffering arises inside and burns inside. (แผดเผา)• You should extinguish the suffering in your heart completely before. (ดับทุกข์, มอด)

This concept reflected that suffering was thermal energy burning everything. Thai people linked the experiences of fire, such as fire damage, and impatience from fire burning to the effects of suffering. Therefore, humans had to extinguish the suffering before the fire burnt body and mind that was to say humans had to be conscious; in other words, water extinguished fire. The understanding in suffering through the concept of fire can be expressed the processes of meaning transfer as follows:


FIRE SUFFERING

Heat things or fire Suffering

Condition of fire (flame, burn, spread, etc)

Fidgety and flustered symptom of humans due

to the domination of suffering

Extinguishment of fire Humans are composed and calm


Suffering Is SewageThere were 23 metaphorical expressions compared suffering with sewage found in the study, such as soiled (เลอะเทอะ), stained (เปรอะเปื้อน), wash (ล้าง), wipe off (ลบ), dirt (สิ่งสกปรก), etc.

• We have to use heart to wash suffering. (ล้างทุกข)์• Humans are not only close to suffering or sewage, but also always take the sewage to bath or pour their heart until it is absolutely heavy, tired, or soiled

This concept reflected that suffering was dirty, soiled, and uncl. (สิ่งสกปรก, สิ่งสกปรกเหล่านั้นมาอาบหรือราด ใจ, เลอะ) ean things, so it needed to be cleaned because sewage of suffering created blemish and impurity for humans. Anyhow, Thai people linked the concept which they knew that the sewage was a desirable thing and needed to be washed and cleared in order to make human body and mind clean and pure. The understanding in suffering through the concept of sewage can be expressed the processes of meaning transfer as follows:


SEWAGE SUFFERING

Dirty and soiled things Suffering

Cleaning (wash, wipe out, etc.)

Clean the suffering out of mind

Cleaning tools Consciousness


Suffering is Fierce AnimalsThere were 19 metaphorical expressions compared suffering with fierce animals found in the study, such as maul (ขย�้า), bite (กัด), eat away (กัดกิน), broken hive suffering (ทุกข์แตกรัง), fierce tiger (เสือร้าย), wasp (ตัวต่อ), a wasp bites (ต่อต่อย), suffering nest (รังทุกข)์, etc.

• Suffering comes to aggravate us like a fierce tiger coming to maul and eat away us. (เสือร้าย, ขย�้ากัดกิน)• How suffering can break its hive to bite and harm humans; anyone poking the hive has to avoid. (ทุกข์แตกรัง, ต่อยหรือท�าร้าย, แหย่รังทุกข)์

This concept reflected that suffering was an animal with its instinct of being a hunter, fierce, cold - hearted, and ruthless as if suffering got in human mind to harm human lives resulting in physical and mental suffering. The understanding in suffering through the concept of fierce animals can be expressed the processes of meaning transfer as follows:


FIERCE ANIMALS SUFFERING

Animals with instinct of Being a hunter and

harmfulSuffering

Prey of fierce animals Humans

Doing harm of animals (eat away, maul, wasp

bites, etc.)

Human mind are dominated by suffering

Effects of doing harm Human mind is hurt and unhappy

Handling with fierce animals

Be calm and stop suffering


Suffering is FoodsThere were 19 metaphorical expressions compared suffering with foods found in the study, such as be full of suffering, keep suffering in the mouth (อิ่มทุกข ์ อมทุกข์), flavor suffering (ปรุงความทุกข)์, bitter (suffering) (ทุกข์ขม), spicy (suffering) (ทุกข์รสจัด), useless (suffering) (ทุกข์ไม่มีประโยชน)์, cook (suffering) (หุงทุกข)์, etc.


• Stop being a cook flavoring the suffering to become spicy. (ปรุงแต่ง, รสจัด)• Any useless foods are similar to suffering. (อาหารอันไหนไม่มีประโยชน์)

This concept reflected that suffering was essential food for humans that was to say foods can help human body to grow and be strong. However, some types of foods were unhealthy for human body i.e. suffering which was harmful and had a negative impact on mind and body. The understanding in suffering through the concept of foods can be expressed the processes of meaning transfer as follows:


FOODS SUFFERING

Foods or edible things Suffering

Cooks Human beings

CookingHumans feel uneasy and

ponder until getting suffering

Food eaters Humans get suffering

Sweet, bitter, spicy, and humans useless foods

Suffering causing feel unhappy


Suffering is JourneyThere were 14 metaphorical expressions compared suffering with journey found in the study, such as step over suffering (ก้าวผ่านความทุกข)์, suffering routes (ทางทุกข์), destinations (จุดหมายปลายทาง), way for being free from suffering (ทางพ้นทุกข)์, way for ending the suffering (เส้นทางดับทุกข)์, suffering is express ways (ความทุกข์เป็นทางลัด), map (แผนที)่, etc.

• The distance of suffering is not too far to be unable to see the way. (ระยะทางของความทุกข์, ยาวไกล, มองไม่เห็นทาง)• Suffering is express ways. (ความทุกข์เป็นทางลัด)

This concept reflected that when humans got suffering, it was like travelling along a suffering route which was bumpy, dangerous, and dark, and humans were always mistaken for travelling this route when allowing heart to be dominated by suffering. However, humans can change to use other safe routes by using a map existing in all humans that was consciousness for considering in order to be calm and happy. In other words, using map was to find other routes better than the suffering route which was the route of unhappiness. Finally, when humans used the consciousness as a map, they can reach the destination that was calm

mind and happiness. The understanding in suffering through the concept of journey can be expressed the processes of meaning transfer as follows:


JOURNEY SUFFERING

Traveler Humans

Routes for journey Suffering dominating human mind

Navigator (map) Consciousness

Destination Be free from suffering and happy


Suffering is Places or ConstructionsThere were 12 metaphorical expressions compared suffering with places or constructions found in the study, such as suffering hut (กระท่อมทุกข)์, gate of suffering (ประตูแห่งความทุกข)์, build suffering (สร้างทุกข)์, foundation, substratum (รากฐาน, ฐานรองรับ), etc.

• Dark suffering hut is probably deserted - happy hut endlessly. (กระท่อมทุกข)์• When love happening, worry and concern can also happen, so gate of suffering is opened unavoidably. (ประตูแห่งความทุกข์จึงเปิด)

This concept reflected that suffering was made by humans like a bounded area or residence. Therefore, when humans got body and mind suffering while living in a house or a suffering area, they can move out of suffering or pull suffering in their mind out. The understanding in suffering through the concept of places or constructions can be expressed the processes of meaning transfer as follows:


PLACES OR CONSTRUCTIONS SUFFERING

Area/land/house/building Suffering

Residence construction Humans start to get suffering

Residents Humans

Area condition and constructions are inconvenient and unfavorable to live

Suffering makes the paleness to human mind

Remove from places or constructions

Remain conscious and calm mind

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Conclusion

The concept that reflected the thinking system of Thai people above emphasized that suffering is undesirable thing and should be avoided because it is unhappiness; moreover, suffering not only makes human lives unhappy, but it also affects to people around. According to the features of suffering making sadness to human mind, Thai people link these to the concept perceiving from experiences to clarify them. For example, suffering was compared with the features of fierce animals in conceptual metaphor Suffering Is Fierce Animals considering that the suffering is fierce animals doing harm and eating humans for food. Also, when the suffering happens, humans will have sad, depressed, and cheerless mind; this suffering was compared with illnesses in the conceptual metaphor Suffering Is Illnesses. This conceptual metaphor was considered that suffering is virus causing the illnesses of humans, and when suffering virus spreads, human body and mind will be weak. Even though suffering is fierce animals or illnesses, humans have to find the ways to handle with the suffering that is to say suffering is fierce animals, so humans have to battle with those animals by using a consciousness as a weapon to battle. Moreover, suffering illness must be cured by concentration saying that the consciousness is only one thing that can handle with the suffering. The researchers realized that Thai social respects Buddhism including having Buddha’s teaching which focus on the importance of release from all suffering by being conscious or calm - hearted for helping. When humans have a consciousness to find the causes of suffering, they will understand thoroughly to be delivered from suffering and meet the happiness.

This study indicated that suffering can make mental and physical unhappiness to humans. When humans encounter the suffering, they usually try to run away from or destroy it, so happiness and peace are required goals of humans. Ratchaneeya (2012) studied metaphors on happiness in Thai blog on how Thai people have thinking system toward happiness which is abstract concept by considering from metaphorical expressions obviously used in everyday life. Thai people think that happiness is needed and everyone wants to possess it. In contrast, suffering is undesirable thing for humans. Additionally, Thai people think that happiness is impermanent and unstable condition. This point corresponds with the study of suffering concept because the suffering can be dissolved or disappeared by peaceful mind and instability. The researchers considered that Thai people believe that happiness and suffering are

impermanent and unstable because Thai people were influenced on thinking from Buddhist principles like “Impermanent (anicca), Suffering (dukkha), and Non - self (anattaa)” meaning all things are impermanent, unstable, and they can gradually disappear and change all the time similar to suffering and happiness that can be appeared and disappeared from human mind.

Furthermore, according to the comparison of study discovered that some concepts found a remark emphasizing that Thai people have negative thinking toward suffering but have positive thinking toward happiness like in the conceptual metaphor [Suffering Is Foods] as following metaphorical expressions:

• Stop being a cook flavoring the suffering to become spicy. (ปรุงแต่ง, รสจัด)• Any useless foods are similar to suffering. (อาหารอันไหนไม่มีประโยชน์)

The metaphorical expressions above mentioned reflected that Thai people think that suffering is foods. Suffering food is unhealthy because when humans consume it, body and mind would be weak. In contrast, happiness food can make body strong and joyful like in the conceptual metaphor [Happiness Is Foods] as following metaphorical expressions:

• When you are hungry, you feel suffering, and when you are full, you feel little happy but then turn to hungry for suffering again....you may have to find happiness to feed yourself thoroughly. (ป้อน)• A big mouthful of happiness (ค�าโต้โต) These examples indicated that happiness is foods that nourish human mind and body, so happiness is necessary for humans.

Moreover, suffering metaphors in Thai language also correspond with the research of Wuttinun (2012) studying conceptual metaphors on “Human Passion or/kileet/”. The research found that Thai people have negative thinking system toward the word “Human Passion or/kileet/” noticing from the expressions compared with bad things, such as enemies, illnesses, fire, sewage, etc. The use of these comparative expressions correspond with metaphors on suffering because Thai people think that suffering is terrible by reflecting from metaphorical expressions in the meanings of battle, illnesses, fire, or sewage. Therefore, according to the correspondence between two concepts, it can indicate that human passion and suffering are the things that make blemish and despondency inside human mind, so humans should


eliminate and stay away from this condition in order to get happy life.

Although the results of this research above were close, the researchers considered that “Human Passion or/kileet/” and “Suffering” were different because “Human Passion or/kileet/” means a thing that make human mind gloomy, such as greed, anger, delusion... (The Royal Institute, 2013), but “Suffering” means hardship, unhappiness of both mind and body, intolerance, intolerance of being in the same old state (The Royal Institute, 2013). These two words have abstract and complex meanings, but apparent meanings including thinking system toward these two concepts of Thai people is negative. However, the results of the study indicated that Thai people linked concrete experiences to help in comparative expression of “Human Passion or/kileet/” and “Suffering” in order to understand and visualize easily.

This research studied the comparative concept of suffering in the context of Thai society. The researchers considered that if there had been the studied of comparative concept of the suffering in different cultures and societies, it would have known about thinking system of people groups in other societies which probably have thinking system of suffering similar to or different from Thai people.

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Metaphors on Suffering in Thai Language