Mental Concepts as Natural Kind Concepts

CANADIAN 'OURNAL OF P.ILOSOP.YSu22lementar: V<lume 3>

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Semantic Eliminativism and the Theory-Theory of Linguistic Understanding

DORIT BAR-ON

Su22<seE FamGlGarl:E tHat :<u anI a FrGenI Have lanIeI Gn an alGen ter-rGt<r:E amGIst 2e<2le KH< s2eaL a lanMuaMe :<u I< n<t Ln<K. U2<n seeGnM :<uE <ne <F tHem starts :ellGnME seemGnMl: alarmeI. Y<u sa: t< :<ur FrGenIE OSHe tHGnLs Ke Kant t< Hurt Her. SHePs scareI. Re must seem ver: stranMe t< Her.S Y<ur FrGenIE KH< Gs FacGnM :<uE sa:sE ON<E I tHGnL sHePs actuall: tr:GnM t< Karn :<u: tHerePs a snaLe rGMHt ab<ve :<ur HeaIE <n tHat tree. Y<u see tHe slGnM Gn Her HanIV I tHGnL sHePs M<GnM t< tr: t< sH<<t Gt I<Kn.S

On a 2revalent vGeKE mucH IGscusseI Gn recent :earsE :<u anI :<ur FrGenI Have enMaMeI Gn a mGnG-tHe<retGcal enter2rGse. UsGnM certaGn <bservatG<ns <F tHe alGenPs beHavG<ur as :<ur IataE anI Ie2l<:GnM cer-taGn MeneralGWatG<ns anI 2rGncG2les c<ncernGnM Human beHavG<urE :<u aIvance H:2<tHeses reMarIGnM tHe Gnternal 2s:cH<l<MGcal states KHGcH GssueI Gn Her <bserveI beHavG<ur. Y<u attrGbute t< tHe alGen tHe belief tHat :<u Kant t< Hurt HerE tHe feeling <F beGnM scareIE tHe perception tHat :<u are stranMe-l<<LGnME tHe intention t< Karn :<uE tHe meaning-to-say tHat tHere Gs a snaLe <n tHe tree ab<ve :<uE tHe desire t< rescue :<u b: sH<<tGnM I<Kn tHe snaLeE anI s< <n. THese 2s:cH<l<MGcal attrGbutG<ns are all 2art <F a tHe<retGcal eFF<rt t< eX2laGn anI 2reIGct Her beHavG<ur.

Acc<rIGnM t< tHe s<-calleI Theory-Theory <F c<mm<nsense 2s:cH<-l<MGcal attrGbutG<nsE tHe F<reM<GnM cHaracterGWes KHat Ke reMularl: I< at H<me as Kell as abr<aI. Our ever:Ia: n<tG<ns <F belGeFE IesGreE Gnten-tG<nE etc.E F<rm 2art <F a naYve ZanI F<r tHe m<st 2art tacGt[ 2s:cH<l<MG-cal tHe<r:E a s<-calleI F<lL 2s:cH<l<M:. THese n<tG<ns are 2r<t<-tHe<-retGcal n<tG<ns tHat tHe F<lL use t< 2<Gnt t< GnternalE c<ntentFul mental

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Dorit Bar-On

states as 2art <F tHeGr causal-eX2lanat<r: anI 2reIGctGve acc<unt <F tHe beHavG<ur <F certaGn HGMHl: c<m2leX <b]ects Z2araIGMmatGcall:E Fell<K Human beGnMs[. THe: serve tHe F<lL mucH Gn tHe same Ka: tHat tHe n<tG<ns <FE e.M.E FraMGlGt:E KeGMHtE m<lecular structureE anI s< <nE Have serveI tHem Gn tHeGr naYve attem2ts t< acc<unt F<r tHe beHavG<ur <F GnanGmate <b]ects.1

N<KE tHe F<lL Have been Kr<nM ab<ut man: tHGnMs. THe: Have been Kr<nM ab<ut lGMHtnGnM anI tHunIer beGnM sGMns Fr<m anMr: M<IsE ab<ut tHe eXGstence <F KGtcHes anI 2Hl<MGst<nE ab<ut tHe eFFects <F tHe c<n! MuratG<n <F stars <n Human cHaracter anI actG<nE anI ab<ut c<untless <tHer tHGnMs. A c<nseûence <F tHe THe<r:-THe<r: Gs tHat tHe F<lL ma: turn <ut t< be Kr<nM Gn tHeGr 2s:cH<l<MGcal tHe<r:E t<<_ anI n<t ]ust Kr<nM ab<ut 2artGcular IetaGlsE but Kr<nM Gn tHe maGn. A s<2HGstGcateIE 2r<2erl: scGentG! c tHe<r: <F mGnI mGMHt be able t< <FFer causal eX2lanatG<ns anI s:stematGc 2reIGctG<ns <F Human beHav-G<ur KGtH<ut a22ealGnM t< c<ntentFul mental states sucH as mentG<neI ab<ve. THe F<lLPs 2s:cH<l<MGcal n<tG<ns <F belGeFsE IesGresE etc. ` anI KGtH tHem all c<mm<nsense 2s:cH<l<MGcal attrGbutG<ns ` mGMHt tHen 2r<ve entGrel: <bs<lete. SucH Gs tHe THe<r:-THe<r:Ps c<mmGtment t< tHe 2<ssGbGlGt: <F eliminativism.

A M<<I Ieal <F tHe current Iebate <n tHe status <F aF<lL 2s:cH<l<M:P Has centereI ar<unI tHe actual 2r<s2ects F<r Gts elGmGnatG<n.2 S<me FrGenIs <F c<mm<nsense GntentG<nal attrGbutG<ns Have been m<veI t< arMue tHatE at least Gn <utlGneE F<lL 2s:cH<l<M: Gs a ratHer M<<I anI successFul tHe<r:E s< tHere Gs n< serG<us IanMer <F Gts beGnM c<m2letel: su2erseIeI b: a scGentG! c 2s:cH<l<M:. THese FrGenIs Have re]ecteI 2s:cH<l<MGcal elGmGnatGvGsm KHGle stGll embracGnM tHe THe<r:-THe<r: <F c<mm<nsense 2s:cH<l<MGcal attrGbutG<ns. But <tHer FrGenIs Have cH<sen a less c<nservatGve <2tG<n: ratHer tHan claGm tHat F<lL 2s:cH<l-<M: Gs a M<<I tHe<r:E anI s< unlGLel: t< be entGrel: re2laceI b: a better

1 F<r earlGer artGculatG<nsE seeE e.M.E LeKGs 1966E F<I<r 196dE anI CHurcHlanI 19dd. F<r m<re recent artGculatG<nsE see relevant artGcles Gn DavGes anI St<ne 199@a anI 199@bE anI Gn CarrutHers anI SmGtH 1996.

2 F<r a brGeF Oma2 <F tHe areaES see tHe Intr<IuctG<n t< CarrutHers anI SmGtH 1996[E SectG<n 2.

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Semantic Eliminativism and Linguistic Understanding

scGentG! c tHe<r:E tHe: Have suMMesteI tHat Gt ma: n<t be a tHe<r: at allE tHereb: Ien:GnM tHat Gt Gs a 2<tentGal canIGIate F<r elGmGnatG<n.

THere are IGFFerent Ka:s t< re]ect tHe THe<r:-THe<r:. One can maGn-taGn tHat <ur <rIGnar: 2s:cH<l<MGcal terms are n<t lGLe tHe<retGcal terms but are m<re lGLe <bservatG<n terms. AlternatGvel:E <ne can maGntaGn tHat F<lL 2s:cH<l<M: Gs n<t Gn tHe busGness <F <FFerGnM causal eX2lana-tG<ns anI 2reIGctG<ns <F beHavG<urE lGLe <rIGnar: scGentG! c tHe<rGesE but Gs ratHer Gn tHe busGness <F <FFerGnM ratG<nalGWGnM <r s:stematGWGnM eX2lanatG<ns. As evGIence F<r tHGs claGmE <ne mGMHt 2<Gnt <ut tHat F<lL attrGbutG<ns <F 2s:cH<l<MGcal states anI 2r<2<sGtG<nal attGtuIes are M<verneI b: n<rmatGve 2rGncG2les tHe lGLes <F KHGcH Have n< 2lace Gn scGenceE 2rGncG2les sucH as OCHarGt:ES O.umanGt:ES <r ORatG<nalGt:.S3 FGnall:E <ne can arMue tHat F<lL-2s:cH<l<MGcal eX2lanatG<ns I< n<t ! t tHe F<rmat <F scGentG! c eX2lanatG<nE but ratHer Ie2l<: strateMGes sucH as asGmulatG<nEP are2lGcatG<nEP <r amGmGcLGnMP.4

In tHGs 2a2er I am n<t IGrectl: GnteresteI Gn 2s:cH<l<MGcal elGmGna-tGvGsmE but ratHer Gn a relateI F<rm <F elGmGnatGvGsm: semantic elGmGna-tGvGsm. M<re s2ecG! call:E I am GnteresteI Gn tHe 2<ssGbGlGt: <F Ien:GnM semantGc elGmGnatGvGsm b: re]ectGnM KHat I Iub tHe THe<r:-THe<r: <F linguistic understanding. SemantGc elGmGnatGvGsm Gs tHe vGeK tHat tHe central n<tG<ns <F OF<lL semantGcsES sucH as the meanGnM <F a lGnMuGstGc eX2ressG<nE sameness anI IGFFerence <F meanGnME c<rrect translatG<nE etc.E lacL <b]ectGve status. THese n<tG<ns KGll ! nI n< r<<m Gn a 2r<2-erl: scGentG! c tHe<r: <F lanMuaMe. On <ne Ka: <F l<<LGnM at tHGnMsE tHGs vGeK Gs an GmmeIGate c<nseûence <F 2s:cH<l<MGcal elGmGnatGv-Gsm. THGs Gs s< GF F<lL semantGcs Gs seen as sGm2l: a 2r<2er 2art <F F<lL 2s:cH<l<M:E anI semantGc n<tG<ns are taLen t< bel<nM KGtH <tHer 2s:-cH<l<MGcal n<tG<ns useI b: tHe F<lL Gn tHeGr naYve attem2ts t< tHe<rGWe ab<ut tHeGr Fell<KsP beHavG<ur. On an<tHer Ka: <F l<<LGnM at tHGnMsE

3 F<r s<me IGscussG<n <F tHese 2rGncG2les anI reFerencesE see RamberM 19d9 anI Bar-On anI RGs]<rI 1992. S<me su22<rt F<r tHe GIea ma: be F<unI Gn C<llGnMK<<IE anI Gn tHe Eur<2ean VersteHen traIGtG<n Zre2resenteI b: MaX Reber anI RGlHelm DGltHe:[E KHGcH maGntaGns tHat tHe s<cGal scGences Gn Meneral IGFFer Fr<m tHe natural scGences Gn reûGrGnM a IGFFerent s<rt <F unIerstanIGnM.

4 F<r IeFenses <F tHGs vGeKE seeE e.M.E .eal 19d6E199@_ G<lIman 19d9E 1992E1993_ anI G<rI<n 19d6E 1992E 199@.

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Dorit Bar-On

Gt Gs ratHer 2s:cH<l<MGcal elGmGnatGvGsm ` at least elGmGnatGvGsm ab<ut tHe 2r<2<sGtG<nal attGtuIes ` tHat Gs GtselF a c<nseûence <F semantGc elGmGnatGvGsm.@ On tHGs sec<nI Ka: <F tHGnLGnME Gt Gs because tHere Gs n< H<2e <F maLGnM <b]ectGve sense <F tHe n<tG<ns <F meanGnME sameness <F meanGnME etc.E tHat tHere can be n< H<2e <F maLGnM <b]ectGve sense <F c<ntentFul mental states ZbelGeFsjIesGresjGntentG<nsjH<2es that p[ KHGcH can be MenuGne causes <F <bservable beHavG<ur.

EGtHer Ka:E semantGc elGmGnatGvGsm can be IGrectl: lGnLeI t< a THe<r:-THe<r: ab<ut lGnMuGstGc unIerstanIGnME as I arMue Gn SectG<n I bel<K. FurtHerm<reE I arMue Gn SectG<n II tHat aIHerGnM t< a MenuGne THe<r:-THe<r: <F lGnMuGstGc unIerstanIGnM maLes Gt ver: IGF! cult t< av<GI s<me F<rm <F semantGc elGmGnatGvGsm. In SectG<n IIIE I <FFer rea-s<ns F<r re]ectGnM tHe THe<r:-THe<r: c<nce2tG<n <F unIerstanIGnM. I c<ncluIe b: s2eculatGnM <n KHat Ke mGMHt 2ut Gn Gts 2lace.

I. Linguistic Understanding, Translation, and the Theory-TheoryRe all Have a remarLable abGlGt: t< unIerstanI eacH <tHerPs lGnMuGstGc utterances. Re eXercGse Gt all tHe tGmeE anI KGtH Mreat FacGlGt:. RHat Gs Gnv<lveI Gn HavGnM tHGs abGlGt:V AnI H<K I< Ke c<me t< 2<ssess Gt Gn tHe ! rst 2laceV A natural ! rst 2ass Gs t< taLe lGnMuGstGc unIer-stanIGnM t< Gnv<lve tHe abGlGt: t< maLe ]uIMments reMarIGnM KHat lGn-MuGstGc eX2ressG<ns mean. C<mGnM t< 2<ssess tHGs abGlGt: Gs a matter <F s<meH<K learnGnM t< maLe tHese ]uIMments. Acc<rIGnM t< KHat I sHall IescrGbe as tHe THe<r:-THe<r: <F lGnMuGstGc unIerstanIGnME bec<mGnM a c<m2etent lanMuaMe-s2eaLer Gs a matter <F tacGtl: Ievel-<2GnME <r c<mGnM t< Ln<KE <r OGnternalGWGnMES a ! nGteE recursGve tHe<r: <F tHe relevant lanMuaMeE KHGcH Gssues Gn assGMnments <F meanGnMs t< Gn! nGtel: man: lGnMuGstGc eX2ressG<ns. THe tHe<r: IetermGnes tHe c<nIGtG<ns unIer KHGcH eX2ressG<ns mean sucH-anI-sucHE tHe c<nIG-tG<ns unIer KHGcH eX2ressG<ns mean tHe sameE anI s< <n. One Has acHGeveI master: <F tHe lanMuaMe KHen <ne Has successFull: ! MureI

@ See kuGne 196>E es2ecGall: CHa2ter IV.

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<ut Gn s<me Ka: KHat tHese c<nIGtG<ns areE <n tHe basGs <F Gn2ut Fr<m tHe relevant lGnMuGstGc envGr<nment.6

On tHGs c<nce2tG<nE unIerstanIGnM KHat <tHer s2eaLers sa: anI meanE at H<me as Kell as abr<aIE can be seen as tHe <utc<me <F tHe<r: c<nstructG<nE H<Kever tacGt. Our entr: Gnt< <tHersP s2eecH ` even as c<m2lete lGnMuGstGc n<vGces ` Gs 2r<vGIeI b: observation <F tHeGr beHav-G<ur_ tHe beHavG<ur serves as tHe data <r evidence <n tHe basGs <F KHGcHE KGtH tHe Hel2 <F varG<us hypothesesE Ke infer KHat tHe: meanE tHGnLE etc. Re Have acHGeveI unIerstanIGnM <F KHat tHe: mean KHen Ke Have matcHeI KGtH tHe s<unIs tHat c<me <ut <F tHeGr m<utHs tHe Gnter2retatG<n IGctateI b: <ur tHe<r:. Our access t< tHe meanGnMs <F <tHersP utterances Gs tHus meIGateI b: an Gm2lGcGtl: HelI tHe<r: ab<ut tHe structure <F tHeGr s2eecH beHavG<urE <vert <r c<vert_ Gt Gs tHe IelGv-erances <F tHGs tHe<r: tHat all<Ks us t< assGMn semantGc c<ntent t< tHeGr s2eecH. M: 2resent aGm Gs t< sH<K H<K tHGs c<nce2tG<n <F lGnMuGstGc unIerstanIGnM c<ns2GresE al<nM KGtH certaGn <tHer claGmsE t< tHreaten us KGtH semantGc elGmGnatGvGsm. T<KarI tHat enIE I GnvGte tHe 2atGent reaIer t< revGsGt a FamGlGar tH<uMHt eX2erGment IesGMneI t< c<nvGnce us <F semantGc elGmGnatGvGsm ` kuGnePs Fam<us tH<uMHt eX2erGment <F raIGcal translatG<n. ZSee kuGne 196>E CHa2ter II[.

I.i. Quine’s Indeterminacy and Semantic Eliminativism

Su22<seE aFter beGnM rescueI Fr<m tHe snaLe b: tHe LGnI natGveE :<u anI :<ur FrGenI IecGIe t< learn Her lanMuaMe. As kuGnePs st<r: M<esE :<u mGMHt n<tGceE ! rstE tHat v<lunteereI utterances <F certaGn seûences <F s<unIs ` sa:E lbagbum ` are s:stematGcall: c<rrelateI KGtH tHe 2resence <F snaLes. Y<u can tHen tr: actGvel: t< IetermGne tHe c<n-IGtG<ns unIer KHGcH natGve s2eaLers assent t< anI IGssent Fr<m tHe relevant s<unI seûence KHen you utter Gt. On tHe basGs <F all sucH IataE :<u mGMHt F<rm tHe F<ll<KGnM GnIuctGve H:2<tHesGs:

lBagbumE as a one-word sentenceE matcHes <ur EnMlGsH <ne-K<rI sentence aSnaLenP

6 RHetHer <r n<t <ne must als< be able t< rec<MnGWe KHen tHe c<nIGtG<ns <btaGn Gs a matter F<r Iebate. F<r relevant IGscussG<nE see m: 1996.

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Dorit Bar-On

AnI sGmGlarl: F<r <tHer natGve utterances. T< acHGeve a c<m2lete translatG<n manual betKeen tHe alGen lanMuaMe anI EnMlGsHE H<KeverE :<u K<ulI Have t< M< be:<nI sucH sGm2le c<rrelatG<ns <F <ne-K<rI sentences. Y<u must ! nI a Ka: t< breaL I<Kn sGnMle utterances Gnt< recurrGnM 2arts ` K<rIs anI 2Hrases ` GIentGF: varG<us MrammatG-cal c<nstructG<nsE anI c<rrelate tHem KGtH EnMlGsH K<rIsE 2Hrases anI c<nstructG<ns. F<r GnstanceE :<u must IecGIe KHetHerE as a termE lbagbum sH<ulI be c<rrelateI KGtH tHe EnMlGsH term asnaLeEP <r KGtH aan attacHeI snaLe 2artPE <r KGtH aa m<mentar: snaLe a22earanceP. THese s<rts <F c<rrelatG<ns cann<t be IetermGneI sGm2l: b: <bservGnM 2atterns <F assent t<jIGssent Fr<m KH<le sentences. THe: als< cann<t be IetermGneI <n tHe basGs <F sGm2le <stensG<n. ZP<Gnt t< a snaLeE anI :<uPve 2<GnteI t< Gts attacHeI 2artsE as Kell as t< m<mentar: snaLe a22earances[. THese c<rrelatG<ns are KHat kuGne calls Oanal:tG-cal H:2<tHeses.S A c<m2lete translatG<n manual Gs a set <F anal:tGcal H:2<tHeses tHat K<ulI enable us t< MGve F<r eacH sentence <F OBaMbu-eseS a translatG<n Gnt< EnMlGsH.

As Gs Kell Ln<KnE kuGne Has taLen HGs tH<uMHt eX2erGment t< Gssue Gn tHe thesis of the indeterminacy of translationE KHGcH sa:s: GGven an: tK< lanMuaMesE Gt Gs <b]ectGvel: GnIetermGnate KHGcH <F mutuall: Gnc<m2atGble sets <F anal:tGcal H:2<tHeses F<r translatGnM betKeen tHem Gs tHe c<rrect <ne.e THGs claGm can be br<Len I<Kn Gnt< tK<. THe claGm <F translational underdetermination sa:s tHatE F<r an: MGven s<urce lanMuaMe anI tarMet lanMuaMeE <ne can IevGse IGstGnct sets <F anal:tG-cal H:2<tHeses tHat K<ulI b<tH ! t all <b]ectGve evGIence anI :GelI translatG<ns tHat Ke K<ulI rec<MnGWe as mutuall: Gnc<m2atGble.d THe claGm <F translational indeterminacy Gs tHat OtHere Gs n<t even ... an <b]ec-

e In 196>E CHa2ter IIE kuGne suMMesteI tHat n< sucH Gnc<m2atGbGlGt: c<ulI arGse KGtH res2ect t< KHat He calls OstGmulus meanGnMs.S Acc<rIGnMl:E He restrGcteI tHe GnIetermGnac: tHesGs t< n<n-<bservatG<n sentences. F<r reas<ns I IGscuss Gn m: 19deE CHa2ter IIE tHGs restrGctG<n Gs mGsleaIGnM at best. I sHall Gn an: event GMn<re Gt Gn KHat F<ll<KsE sGnce Gt Has n< bearGnM <n an:tHGnM Gm2<rtant t< tHe 2resent IGscussG<n.

d IF Ke tHGnL <F a translatG<n manual as a recursGve FunctG<n F<r ma22GnM sen-tences <F a s<urce-lanMuaMe Gnt< sentences <F a tarMet-lanMuaMeE tHe tHesGs sa:s tHatE F<r an: tK< lanMuaMesE tHere can be tK< recursGve FunctG<nsE f1 anI f2E F<r ma22GnM tHe s<urce- Gnt< tHe tarMet- lanMuaMeE sucH tHat f1 KGll ma2 s<me MGven

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tGve matter t< be rGMHt <r Kr<nM ab<utS ZkuGne 196>E e3[ c<ncernGnM KHGcH translatG<n manual Gs tHe c<rrect <ne. kuGne seems t< tHGnL tHat tHe F<rmer claGm 2r<vGIes su22<rt F<r tHe latter claGm.

As kuGne anI HGs F<ll<Kers Have stresseI <ver tHe :earsE tHe GnIe-termGnac: tHesGs Has Far-reacHGnM c<nseûences.9 PretHe<retGcall:E Ke taLe Gt tHat <ur tasL Gn Ievel<2GnM a translatG<n manual F<r tHe natGvePs lanMuaMe Gs t< 2r<Iuce translatG<ns tHat ca2ture tHe native’s understand-ing <F Her <Kn lanMuaMe. But tHe tHesGs <F translatG<nal GnIetermGnac: Gs antGtHetGcal t< tHe GIea tHat tHere Gs a 2rG<r unIerstanIGnM <F tHe natGvesP Zn<n-<bservatG<n[ sentences ` <urs or tHeGrs ` tHat a transla-tG<n manual can ca2ture c<rrectl: <r Gnc<rrectl:. An: unIerstanIGnM <F tHe natGvesP sentences Gs an artGFact <F ` ratHer tHan a 2rec<nIGtG<n F<r ̀ tHe 2r<IuctG<n <F a translatG<n manual. AnIE KHere manuals c<n-" GctE tHere Gs n< unGûel: c<rrect O2rG<rS unIerstanIGnM b: reFerence t< KHGcH c<n" Gct c<ulI even Gn 2rGncG2le be settleI. RelateIl:E sGnce a translatG<n manual Gs a Ka: <F s2ecGF:GnM tHe meanGnMs <F s<urce sen-tencesE Gt K<ulI F<ll<K Fr<m tHe GnIetermGnac: tHesGs tHat tHere Gs n< <b]ectGve Fact c<ncernGnM KHat tHe sentences <F an: lanMuaMe mean.1>

In sH<rtE tHe GnIetermGnac: tHesGs Gssues Gn tHe vGeK earlGer calleI OsemantGc elGmGnatGvGsm.S GGven GnIetermGnac:E lGnMuGstGcs as an <b]ectGve scGence cann<t taLe GtselF t< be treatGnM <F meanGnMs <rIG-narGl: c<nceGveI. THe central n<tG<ns <F KHat kuGne calls OGntuGtGve semantGcsS ` meanGnME samenessjIGFFerence <F meanGnME etc. ` K<ulI all Have t< M< b: tHe Ka:sGIe_ tHe: KGll Have n< r<<m Gn a scGentG! c tHe<r: <F lanMuaMe. M<re<verE lGnMuGstsP Freûent a22eals t< s2eaLersP GntuGtGve semantGc judgments as Iata t< be acc<unteI F<rE <r evGIence t< be acc<mm<IateI b: lGnMuGstGc tHe<rGesE K<ulI Have t< be elGmG-nateI. THGs Gs becauseE GF tHe GnIetermGnac: tHesGs Gs rGMHtE tHese ]uIM-ments tHemselves lacL <b]ectGve status.

s<urce sentence S <nt< a tarMet sentence p anI f2 KGll ma2 Gt <nt< qE KHere p anI q K<ulI be ]uIMeI ZsemantGcall:[ n<n-eûGvalent. See m: 1993E SectG<n 2 F<r IGscussG<n.

9 F<r reFerences anI IGscussG<n <F tHese c<nseûencesE see m: 19d6E 199>E 1992bE 1993.

1> Be:<nI a lGmGteI ranMe_ see N<te e.

162

Dorit Bar-On

F<ll<KGnM CH<msL:E11 man: crGtGcs <F kuGne Have cHallenMeI HGs a22arent GnFerence Fr<m translatG<nal unIerIetermGnatG<n t< transla-tG<nal GnIetermGnac:. THe: Have GnsGsteI tHat Ke Have n< reas<n t< reMarI unIerIetermGnatG<n as IGFFerentE <r m<re IamaMGnME Gn tHe case <F lGnMuGstGcs tHan Gt Gs Gn tHe case <F <tHer s2ecGal scGences. AFter allE tHe: Have 2<GnteI <utE kuGne HGmselF belGeves tHat unIerIetermG-natG<n GnFects all scGentG! c tHe<rGes: even MGven all 2<ssGble evGIenceE tHere c<ulI alKa:s be rGval tHe<rGes Gn 2H:sGcsE cHemGstr:E etc. t:GnM F<r ! rst 2lace. Yet kuGne Kas never 2re2areI t< c<ncluIe <n tHat basGs tHat tHere are n< <b]ectGve 2H:sGcalE cHemGcalE etc. Facts.12

AIIressGnM CH<msL:Ps cHallenMeE kuGne Has saGI:

THe GnIetermGnac: <F translatG<n IGFFers Fr<m tHe unIerIetermG-natG<n <F scGence Gn tHat tHere Gs <nl: tHe natGvesP verbal beHav-G<r F<r tHe manuals <F translatG<n t< be rGMHt <r Kr<nM ab<ut_ o In tHe case <F natural scGenceE o tHere Gs a Fact <F tHe matterE even GF all 2<ssGble <bservatG<ns are GnsuF! cGent t< reveal Gt unGûel:. THe Facts <F nature <utrun <ur tHe<rGes as Kell as all 2<ssGble <bservatG<ns. Z19deE 9 F.[

Re ma: be able t< see tHe 2<Gnt beHGnI kuGnePs res2<nse GF Ke rec<M-nGWe a IGstGnctG<n betKeen tK< IGFFerent levels at KHGcH unIerIeter-mGnatG<n c<ulI arGse Gn tHe case <F lGnMuGstGcsE c<rres2<nIGnM t< tK< t:2es <F ]uIMments c<ncernGnM lanMuaMe. F<cusGnM <n semantGcsE at tHe ground level Ke Have unre" ectGve semantGc ]uIMments maIe b:

11 SeeE e.M.E HGs 19e@a.

12 kuGne Has arMueI Zsee HGs 19e>[ tHat a scGence <F lGnMuGstGcs K<ulI suFFer Fr<m a Osec<nI-<rIer unIerIetermGnatG<n.S ZSee als< HGs 19d6E 199>.[ LGLe 2H:sGcsE Gt K<ulI be unIerIetermGneI relatGve t< all 2<ssGble evGIenceE butE Gn aIIGtG<nE Gt K<ulI be unIerIetermGneI even relatGve t< a ! XeI 2H:sGcal tHe<r:. .<KeverE kuGnePs crGtGcs Have 2<GnteI <ut tHat tHe same H<lIs <F all <tHer s2ecGal scGences_ <nl: 2H:sGcs ma: en]<: a 2rGvGleMeI status. Bel<KE I <FFer a rec<nstructG<n <F kuGnePs reas<nGnM KHGcH 2r<vGIes an alternatGve Ka: <F unIerstanIGnM tHe claGm ab<ut Osec<nI-<rIer unIerIetermGnatG<n.S PutnamE F<r <neE Has acce2teI kuGnePs GnFerence Fr<m unIerIetermGnatG<n t< GnIetermGnac: Gn OtHe s2ecGal case <F GnIetermGnac: <F translatG<nS ZPutnam 19e@E 1d2[E F<r reas<ns n<t unrelateI t< tHe <nes I MGve bel<K. But Putnam I<es n<t IraK tHe crucGal IGstGnctG<n <n KHGcH m: rec<nstructG<n relGes.

163


<rIGnar: lanMuaMe users. THese are GntuGtGve ]uIMments ab<ut KHat eX2ressG<ns mean Ze.M.E tHat tHe K<rI aFutGleP means sucH-anI-sucH[E ab<ut sameness anI IGFFerence <F meanGnMs <F eX2ressG<ns ZtHat tHe K<rI asnaLeP anI tHe 2Hrase aattacHeI snaLe 2artP I< n<t mean tHe same_ <r tHat Gn sucH-anI-sucH a c<nteXtE eX2ressG<n a Gs GntercHanMe-able KGtH eX2ressG<n bE etc.[E as Kell as ab<ut varG<us <tHer semantGc Features <F lGnMuGstGc eX2ressG<ns anI semantGc relatG<ns am<nM tHem. S2eaLers ma: eX2lGcGtl: artGculate GntuGtGve semantGc ]uIMments KHen tHe: teacH tHe use <F lGnMuGstGc eX2ressG<ns t< n<vGcesE KHen tHe: v<l-unteer 2r<n<uncements ab<ut meanGnMs <F eX2ressG<nsE <r KHen tHe: ansKer IGrectl: ûestG<ns ab<ut varG<us semantGc Features <F eX2res-sG<ns. SemantGc ]uIMments can als< be artGculateI less eX2lGcGtl:E as KHen a s2eaLer v<lunteers a 2ara2Hrase <F KHat s<me<ne else Z<r sHe HerselF[ Has saGI.13 AnI s<metGmes semantGc ]uIMments are <nl: GnIG-rectl: evGIenceIE as KHen Ke elGcGt s2eaLersP res2<nses c<ncernGnM tHe a22lGcabGlGt: <F eX2ressG<ns Gn varG<us c<unterFactual sGtuatG<ns.14

THere Gs KGIe IGsaMreement ab<ut tHe nature anI c<rrect cHarac-terGWatG<n <F sucH GntuGtGve semantGc ]uIMmentsE as Kell as ab<ut tHeGr centralGt: t< a 2HGl<s<2HGcal unIerstanIGnM <F lanMuaMe.1@ But I tHGnL Gt K<ulI be HarI t< IGs2ute tHe relatGvel: m<Iest claGm tHat sucH ]uIM-ments are reMularl: maIe b: c<m2etent s2eaLersE anI are <Ften useI as a measure <r test <F a s2eaLerPs lGnMuGstGc c<m2etence. Clearl:E tHese ]uIMments are rec<MnGWeI as Gm2<rtantl: relevant F<r lGnMuGstGc tHe<r: b: CH<msLGan lGnMuGstsE Gns<Far as tHe: taLe s2eaLersP GntuG-tGve Gnter2retatG<ns <F lGnMuGstGc eX2ressG<ns t< 2r<vGIe crucGal data F<r lGnMuGstGc tHe<r:. As F<r tHe kuGneansE Gt Gs arMuable tHat Quine’s

13 See Platts 19e9E 236.

14 THGs Gs <ne natural Ka: t< unIerstanI tHe 2<Gnt <F tHe FamGlGar tKGn eartH tH<uMHt eX2erGments 2r<2<seI GnE e.M.E Punam 19e@ anI BurMe 19e9.

1@ F<r a sLe2tGcal vGeKE see DevGtt 1991E 14.6. DevGtt a22ears t< H<lI tHat semantGc c<m2etence Gn a lanMuaMe Gn n< essentGal Ka: reûGres abGlGt: t< maLe ]uIMments <F tHe s<rt mentG<neI Here. DevGtt c<nnects tHGs claGm t< an<tHer claGm ZKHGcH I belGeve t< be se2arate[E namel:E tHat tHe semantGc v<cabular: <F a lanMuaMe Gs ]ust lGLeE sa:E tHe tHe<retGcal v<cabular: <F cHemGstr:: Gt Gs Full: IetacHable Fr<m tHe lanMuaMe KGtH<ut IamaMe t< a s2eaLerPs semantGc c<m2etence. F<r IGscus-sG<n <F DevGttPs vGeKE see m: 199e.

164

Dorit Bar-On

<Kn arMuments F<r GnIetermGnac: reûGre acLn<KleIMGnM tHat Ke maLe Mr<unI-level semantGc ]uIMments <F sameness anI IGFFerence <F meanGnME GF <nl: as a ste2 t<KarI unIermGnGnM tHe <b]ectGve status <F sucH ]uIMments.16

Re sH<ulI se2arate semantGc ]uIMments maIe at tHe Mr<unI level Fr<m ]uIMments about tHe semantGcs <F a lanMuaMe maIe at tHe theoreti-cal level. THe relevant ]uIMments Here are tHe em2GrGcal semantGcGstPs claGms reMarIGnM tHe c<rrect re2resentatG<n <r s:stematGWatG<n <F tHe semantGc Facts ab<ut an: MGven lanMuaMe. THere Gs as :et n< aMreeI-u2<n can<nGcal F<rm F<r sucH tHe<retGcal claGms. RHat I Have Gn mGnI Here Gs KHatever KGll turn <ut t< be tHe semantGc anal<Mue <F tHe abstract rules <FFereI b: c<ntem2<rar: lGnMuGsts t< ca2ture tHe 2H<n<-l<MGcal anI s:ntactGc Facts <F a lanMuaMe. THe aXG<ms <F a DavGIs<nGan trutH-tHe<retGc semantGcs ma: ûalGF: as an eXam2le. StGll at tHe tHe<-retGcal level Z2erHa2s m<re <n tHe 2s:cH<lGnMuGstGc sGIe[E Ke ma: ! nI varG<us eX2lanat<r: claGms maIe b: a c<m2lete em2GrGcal semantGcs as t< tHe actual 2r<cesses b: KHGcH s2eaLers arrGve at tHeGr Mr<unI-level semantGc ]uIMments.

Re are n<K Gn a 2<sGtG<n t< IGstGnMuGsH tK< 2<ssGble claGms <F unIerIetermGnatG<n Gn tHe semantGc case. THe claGm <F ground-level underdetermination K<ulI sa: tHat Mr<unI-level semantGc ]uIMments are unIerIetermGneI Gn r<uMHl: tHe F<ll<KGnM sense: MGven tHe lGnMuGs-tGc Iata t< KHGcH lanMuaMe learners are eX2<seIE tHe: c<ulI c<me u2 KGtH c<n" GctGnM sets <F Mr<unI-level semantGc ]uIMments.1e THe claGm

16 See m: 19d6E 1993 F<r arMuments t< tHGs eFFectE anI m: 1994E 199eE anI bel<K F<r FurtHer relevant IGscussG<n. kuGne HGmselF K<ulI n< I<ubt reFuse t< reMarI s2eaLersP ]uIMments ab<ut semantGc Features <F eX2ressG<ns Zas <22<seI t< tHeGr <bservable IGs2<sGtG<ns t< use eX2ressG<ns Gn varG<us Ka:s anI t< assent t<jIGssent Fr<m sentences KHGcH use tHem[ as relevant t< a tHe<r: <F lanMuaMe. .<KeverE even He can be seen as at least <blGûel: rec<MnGWGnM Mr<unI-level semantGc ]uIMments. RGtnessE F<r GnstanceE HGs talL <F OGntuGtGveS <r OuncrGtGcalS semantGcs ZGnE e.M.E 196>E CHa2ter II_ 1969E 2e_ 19d6E e4[E <r <F <ur OacûGescGnM Gn <ur m<tHer t<nMueE taLGnM Gts terms at Face-valueS Z1969E 49[. On tHe rec<nstructG<n I <FFer bel<KE sucH rec<MnGtG<n 2la:s an essentGal r<le Gn tHe kuGnean reas<nGnM beHGnI GnIetermGnac:.

1e StrGctl: s2eaLGnME tHGs Gs ambGMu<us betKeen aIGFFerent s2eaLers c<ulI c<me u2 KGtH c<n" GctGnM Mr<unI-level ]uIMmentsP anI aa MGven sGnMle s2eaLer mGMHt Have c<me u2 KGtH Mr<unI-level ]uIMments KHGcH c<n" Gct KGtH tH<se sHe actuall:

16@


<F theoretical underdetermination K<ulI sa: tHat tHe em2GrGcal semantG-cGstPs tHe<r: Gs unIerIetermGneI: tHe evGIence <n KHGcH sHe bases Her tHe<r: ma: be c<m2atGble KGtH c<n" GctGnM semantGc tHe<rGes.

UsGnM tHe aMr<unI-levelP`PtHe<retGcal levelP IGstGnctG<nE Ke can rec<nstruct tHe arMument F<r GnIetermGnac: as F<ll<Ks.1d Recall tHat tHe semantGc elGmGnatGvGst 2<sGtG<n Gs not tHat Ke mGMHt n<t be able t< tell KHat alGen s2eaLers mean b: tHeGr K<rIs_ ratHerE Gt Gs tHat tHere Gs n< Fact <F tHe matter ab<ut KHat tHe: mean. In m: termGn<l<M:E tHGs Gs tHe claGm tHat tHere Gs GnIetermGnac: <F meanGnM at the ground level. IF sucH GnIetermGnac: can be establGsHeIE tHen em2GrGcal semantGcs <rIGnarGl: c<nceGveI K<ulI GnIeeI lacL a leMGtGmate sub]ect matter. N<KE <n m: 2r<2<seI rec<nstructG<nE GF tHere Gs Mr<unI-level GnIe-termGnac:E Gt must be n<t because <F our lGmGtatG<ns as tHe<rGsts 2r<b-GnM tHeGr lanMuaMeE but ratHer because their semantGc ]uIMments are n<t a2t t< su22<rt unGûe Gnter2retatG<ns F<r eX2ressG<ns <F tHeGr <Kn lanMuaMe. In <tHer K<rIsE Gt must be because tHere Gs ground-level unIerIetermGnatG<n ` unIerIetermGnatG<n <F tHe natGve s2eaL-ersP <Kn Gnter2retGveE semantGc ]uIMments. AnI tHe tH<uMHt eX2erG-ment <F raIGcal translatG<n can be seen as attem2tGnM t< c<nvGnce us <F tHe F<ll<KGnM. GGven tHat unIerIetermGnatG<n GnevGtabl: aF" Gcts our attem2ts at s2ecGF:GnM KHat tHe natGves mean ZsGnce Ke c<ulI c<me u2 KGtH alternatGve translatG<n manuals F<r tHeGr lanMuaMe[E tHe natGvesP own ]uIMments c<ncernGnM KHat eX2ressG<ns <F tHeGr lanMuaMe mean must als< be unIerIetermGneI.

C<mmGtteI kuGneans ma: balL at tHGs talL <F s2eaLersP seman-tGc ]uIMments. .<KeverE I tHGnL a22eal t< s2eaLersP ]uIMment Gs crucGal F<r at least <ne c<m2ellGnM Ka: <F arMuGnM F<r translatG<nal

came u2 KGtHP. N<tHGnM Gn KHat F<ll<Ks HanMs <n IGsambGMuatGnM Here. Als<E tHere Gs a ̂ uestG<n ab<ut tHe status <F tHe m<Ial element Gn tHGs claGm. RHat s<rt <F 2<ssGbGlGt: Gs claGmeI Here ̀ l<MGcalV Meta2H:sGcalV E2GstemGcV Ps:cH<l<MGcalV TH<uMH I I< n<t tHGnL tHe ûestG<n Gs unGm2<rtantE I I< n<t attem2t t< settle Gt Here.

1d THe arMument I rec<nstruct bel<K uses FamGlGarE IGstGnctGvel: kuGnean materG-als. THe rec<nstructG<n Gs Gn 2art IesGMneI t< GllumGnate as2ects <F kuGnePs <Kn reas<nGnM ab<ut GnIetermGnac:. .<KeverE Gt ma: Gnv<lve elements KHGcH kuGne HGmselF K<ulI ! nI <b]ectG<nable. ZSee N<tes 16 anI 2>.[ StrGct eXeMesGs Gs n<t m: c<ncernE Here.

166

Dorit Bar-On

GnIetermGnac:. On tHe 2resent c<nstrualE tHe arMument m<ves Fr<m Mr<unI-level semantGc unIerIetermGnatG<n t< ZMr<unI-level[ seman-tGc GnIetermGnac:. But unIerIetermGnatG<n reûGres tHe 2<ssGbGlGt: <F c<n" GctGnM tHe<rGesE <r sets <F ]uIMmentsE relatGve t< MGven evGIence <r Iata. IF <ne IGsall<Ks all talL <F Mr<unI-level semantGc ]uIMmentsE anI c<n! nes <neselF t< talL <F s2eaLersP brute IGs2<sGtG<ns t< verbal beHavG<urE tHere can be n< r<<m t< talL <F unIerIetermGnatG<n at tHe Mr<unI level. THe 2resent rec<nstructG<n I<esE H<KeverE all<K us t< taLe acc<unt <F kuGnePs GnsGstence tHat lGnMuGstGc Facts are Facts ab<ut s2eaLersP beHavG<ural IGs2<sGtG<nsE F<r Gt enables us t< see HGs 2reFer-ence F<r alGnMuGstGc beHavG<urGsmP <ver Gts m<st 2r<mGnent alternatGve ` CH<msLGan mentalGsm ` as a c<nseûence <F a reductio arMument. Acc<rIGnM t< tHGs arMumentE tHe CH<msLGan mentalGst Gs b<unI t< c<nstrue lGnMuGstGc Facts Gn terms <F mental ZMr<unI-level[ ]uIMments maIe b: s2eaLers. But sucH ]uIMments ZkuGne K<ulI arMue[ must be unIerIetermGneIE tHus ultGmatel: maLGnM OGntuGtGveS Mr<unI-level meanGnM GnIetermGnate.19

Re can n<K taLe tHe tH<uMHt eX2erGment <F raIGcal translatG<n as aGmGnM t< establGsHE ! rstE tHe<retGcal unIerIetermGnatG<n. THe<retGcal unIerIetermGnatG<n Gs tHen su22<seI t< leaI t< Mr<unI-level unIer-IetermGnatG<n. FGnall:E Mr<unI-level unIerIetermGnatG<n Gs useI t< c<nvGnce us <F Mr<unI-level GnIetermGnac:. ScHematGcall:E Ke Have:

Z1[ THe<retGcal unIerIetermGnatG<n ! Z2[ Gr<unI-level unIerIetermGnatG<n ! Z3[ Gr<unI-level GnIetermGnac:

THe IGalectGc betKeen kuGnean GnIetermGnGsts anI tHeGr CH<msLGan <22<nents can tHen be seen as F<ll<Ks. CH<msLGans acce2t Z1[ but re]ect Z3[. THe: arMue tHat tHe<retGcal unIerIetermGnatG<n sH<ulI be n< m<re IamaMGnM t< tHe stuI: <F lanMuaMe tHan Gt Gs t< <tHer scG-entG! c 2ursuGts. AnI tHe: ma: Kell be rGMHt ab<ut tHGs. But sGm2l: callGnM attentG<n t< unIerIetermGnatG<n Gn <tHer s2ecGal scGences Gs n<t en<uMH. One must sH<K eGtHer tHat tHe lGnL betKeen Z1[ ! Z2[ FaGlsE <r tHat tHe lGnL betKeen Z2[ ! Z3[ FaGls. IF tHere are reas<ns t< GnsGst <n both tHese lGnLsE tHe CH<msLGan <b]ectG<n K<ulI FaGl.

19 F<r a Fuller Ievel<2ment <F tHGs reaIGnME see m: 1992E 9e FF. anI SectG<n 2[.

16e


I.ii. Linguistic Underdetermination and the Theory-Theory of Understanding

Let us ! rst c<nsGIer tHe lGnL betKeen Z1[ ` tHe tHe<retGcal unIerIeter-mGnatG<n <F em2GrGcal semantGcs ` anI Z2[ ` tHe unIerIetermGnatG<n <F Mr<unI-level semantGc ]uIMments. Su22<seE as seems naYvel: 2lausG-bleE tHat Ke tHGnL <F em2GrGcal semantGcs as attem2tGnM t< s:stematGWe anI eX2laGn tHe Mr<unI-level semantGc ]uIMments maIe b: s2eaLers <F a MGven lanMuaMe.2> Em2GrGcal semantGcs s< c<nceGveI seems IGF-Ferent Fr<m s2ecGal scGences lGLe cHemGstr: <r bG<l<M: Gn tHat Gt ultG-matel: c<ncerns Mr<unI-level judgments <F s2eaLers. It Gs Gn tHGs sense Osec<nI-<rIerES KHereas cHemGstr:E bG<l<M:E <r tHe tHe<r: <F Human 2H:sG<l<M:E are O! rst-<rIerS ` tHe: c<ncernE GF :<u KGllE Mr<unI-level natural 2Hen<mena ZKHetHer tH<se Gnv<lve Human sub]ects <r n<t[. N<tGce tHat KHen Gt c<mes t< O! rst-<rIerS natural scGencesE tHe Mr<unI-level`tHe<retGcal-level IGstGnctG<n Has n< a22lGcatG<n. THusE tHe IGstGnctG<n can be useI t< marL a certaGn metH<I<l<MGcal IGFFer-ence betKeen natural scGencesE <n tHe <ne HanIE anI c<MnGtGve anI s<cGal scGencesE <n tHe <tHer. LGLe em2GrGcal lGnMuGstGcsE tHe<rGes tHat stuI: c<MnGtGve <r s<cGal 2Hen<menaE sucH as tHe stuI: <F vGsual 2er-ce2tG<nE m<ral 2s:cH<l<M:E ec<n<mGcsE anI varG<us s<cGal scGencesE Gnv<lve tHe s:stematGWatG<nE eX2lanatG<nE anI 2reIGctG<n <F Mr<unI-level ]uIMments maIe b: sub]ects.

Recentl:E F<I<r Has maIe a cl<sel: sGmGlar <bservatG<n. C<ntrastGnM tHe 2H:sGcGstPs ]<b KGtH tHe 2s:cH<l<MGstPsE F<I<r remarLs tHat:

o tHe GntentG<nal scGences are IGFFerent. RHen a 2s:cH<l<MGst sa:s ablaHE blaHE blaHE because tHe cHGlI re2resents tHe snaGl as an aMent o EP tHe 2r<2ert: <F being an agent-representation Zviz.

2> THGs K<ulI be c<ns<nant KGtH tHe Ka: CH<msL: at least useI t< tHGnL <F lGnMuGstGc tHe<r: ZseeE e.M.E 196@E SectG<n 1[. Once aMaGnE <ne K<ulI eX2ect kuGneans t< balL at tHGs mentalGstGc-s<unIGnM cHaracterGWatG<n <F em2GrGcal semantGcs anI t< GnsGst <n a cHaracterGWatG<n Gn terms <F tHe s:stematGWatG<n anI eX2lanatG<n <F IGs2<sGtG<ns t< verbal beHavG<ur. But as I Have eX2laGneIE <n m: rec<nstructG<n tHe 2reFerence F<r lGnMuGstGc beHavG<urGsm sH<ulI be seen as a c<nseûence <F tHe s<rts <F c<nsGIeratG<ns IGscusseI HereE ratHer tHan as an unarMueI assum2tG<n.

16d

Dorit Bar-On

being a symbol that means aMent[ Gs a22ealeI t< Gn tHe eX2lana-tG<nE anI tHe 2s:cH<l<MGst <Kes an acc<unt <F KHat 2r<2ert: tHat Gs.o B<tH tHe 2H:sGcGst anI tHe 2s:cH<l<MGst Gs reûGreI t< tHe<rGWe ab<ut tHe 2r<2ertGes He ascrGbesE anI neGtHer Gs reûGreI t< tHe<rGWe ab<ut tHe 2r<2ertGes <F tHe lanMuaMe He uses t< ascrGbe tHem. THe IGFFerence Gs tHat tHe 2s:cH<l<MGst Gs K<rLGnM one level up. ZF<I<r 199dE @9E m: em2HasGs[

OrIGnar: F<lL ma: Have all s<rts <F naYve belGeFs ` OF<lL tHe<rGesS ` ab<ut tHe 2Hen<mena IescrGbeI anI eX2laGneI b: O! rst-<rIerS tHe<-rGes. But sucH F<lL tHe<rGes Gn n< Ka: c<ncern 2e<2lePs ]uIMments <r belGeFs. AssumGnM tHe Osec<nI-<rIerS cHaracter <F em2GrGcal seman-tGc Gs acLn<KleIMeIE H<KeverE Gt Gs Far Fr<m <bvG<us KHat Ke sH<ulI reMarI as OF<lL semantGc tHe<r:.S Is tHere an GIentG! able b<I: <F belGeFs ` a rec<MnGWable set <F 2latGtuIes ` HelI b: tHe F<lL c<ncernGnM s2eaL-ersP semantGc ]uIMmentsV GranteIE tHe F<lL all maLe varG<us semantGc ]uIMments. ButE <n tHeGr FaceE sucH ]uIMments c<ncern Features <F lGn-MuGstGc eX2ressG<ns ` KHat tHe: meanE KHen tHe: mean tHe sameE etc. THe: constitute s2eaLersP Mr<unI-level semantGc ]uIMments_ tHe: I< n<t a22ear t< be about s2eaLersP Mr<unI-level ]uIMments. ZLater <nE Ke sHall return t< tHGs 2<GntE KHGcH I tHGnL Gs Gm2<rtant but 2<tentGall: c<nFusGnM.[

N<K c<nsGIer an<tHer tHe<retGcal enter2rGse tHat I<es IGrectl: c<n-cern ZMr<unI-level[ belGeFs: KHat Has been calleI ZF<ll<KGnM kuGne[ OnaturalGWeI e2Gstem<l<M:.S NaturalGWeI e2Gstem<l<M: seeLs t< s:s-tematGWe anI eX2laGn tHe belGeFs Human sub]ects arrGve at reMarIGnM tHe eXternal K<rlIE anI s<E t< tHat eXtentE Gt Gs als< Osec<nI-<rIer.S IFE as man: belGeveE an: serG<us s2ecGal scGence Gs b<unI t< suFFer Fr<m tHe<retGcal unIerIetermGnatG<nE b<tH tHe naturalGWeI stuI: <F Human eXternal-K<rlI belGeFs anI tHe naturalGWeI stuI: <F Human lGnMuGs-tGc ]uIMments K<ulI Gssue Gn unIerIetermGneI tHe<rGes. In aIIGtG<nE H<KeverE tHe naturalGstGc stuI: <F HumansP belGeFs ab<ut tHe K<rlI K<ulI lGLel: reveal a certaGn Ma2 betKeen tHe relevant Iata avaGlable t< Human sub]ects ZtHeGr K<rlIl: <bservatG<ns[ anI tHeGr eXternal-K<rlI belGeFs. One mGMHt arMue tHat tHere Gs sucH a Ma2 b: 2<GntGnM <ut tHe 2<ssGbGlGt: <F alternatGve K<rlI tHe<rGes. In tHGs Ka:E Ke can see tHat tHere Gs Mr<unI-level unIerIetermGnatG<n <F <ur eXternal-K<rlI belGeFs. In sucH a caseE Ke can s2eaL <F asec<nI-<rIer unIerIetermGna-

169


tG<nP: Gt Gs tHe unIerIetermGnGnatG<n <F a tHe<r: KH<se sub]ect-matter Gs s<me<nePs unIerIetermGneI set <F belGeFs.

In tHe case <F em2GrGcal semantGcsE tHe kuGnean claGm Gs tHat tHere Gs Mr<unI-level semantGc unIerIetermGnatG<n ` unIerIetermGnatG<n <F tHe unre" ectGveE GntuGtGve semantGc ]uIMments tHat <rIGnar: lan-MuaMe-users c<me t< maLe Gn tHe c<urse <F acûGrGnM tHeGr lanMuaMe. ZT< re2eatE tHese are ]uIMments c<ncernGnM tHe Gnter2retatG<n <F lGn-MuGstGc eX2ressG<nsE s:n<n:m: relatG<ns am<nM eX2ressG<nsE anI s< <n.[ F<r tHGs claGm t< maLe senseE Ke neeI t< tHGnL <F tHe Mr<unI-level semantGc ]uIMments asE Gn s<me senseE theoretical ]uIMments ` ]uIM-ments tHat re2resent tHe result <F tHe<rGWGnM ZGF <nl: tacGt[E anI KHGcH t<MetHerE 2erHa2s l<<sel:E F<rm a tHe<r:. Em2GrGcal semantGcs ̀ tH<uMHt <F as tHe em2GrGcal stuI: <F semantGc ]uIMments ` K<ulI tHen c<n-stGtute an unIerIetermGneI tHe<r: <F unIerIetermGneI Mr<unI-level ]uIMments_ Gt K<ulI eXHGbGt sec<nI-<rIer unIerIetermGnatG<nE ]ust as kuGne Has claGmeI.21

N<KE Gn MeneralE unIerIetermGnatG<n <F tHe<r: b: evGIence I<es n<t Gm2l: GnIetermGnac: <F Fact. In 2artGcularE unIerIetermGnatG<n <F Mr<unI-level belGeFs <r ]uIMments neeI n<t Gm2l: GnIetermGnac: Gn tHe relevant I<maGn. THusE <ur em2GrGcal e2Gstem<l<MGst c<ulI leMGtG-matel: maGntaGn tHatE KHere Her sub]ectsP eXternal-K<rlI belGeFs are unIerIetermGneIE tHere c<ulI stGll be OFacts <F natureS KHGcH O<utrunS all <F Her sub]ectsP belGeFsE anI KHGcH c<ulI Gn 2rGncG2le IetermGne tHe trutH <r FalsGt: <F tHeGr unIerIetermGneI belGeFs. THat GsE tHe em2GrGcal e2Gstem<l<MGst neeI n<t ultGmatel: taLe tHe Mr<unI-level belGeFs sHe GnvestGMates at Face value. Once Her tHe<r: Gs c<m2leteE tHe e2Gstem<l-<MGst ma: M< <n t< asL: Are Human sub]ects right Gn tHeGr belGeFs ab<ut tHe eXternal K<rlIV AnI sHe ma: leMGtGmatel: su22<se tHat tHere Gs an <b]ectGvel: IetermGnate Zeven GF unLn<Kn[ ansKer t< tHGs ûestG<n.

TurnGnM t< <ur em2GrGcal semantGcGstE Ke ma: asL: Are tHere seman-tGc Facts KHGcH c<ulI O<utrunS tHe s:stematGWeI s2eaLersP ]uIMments anI aMaGnst KHGcH Ke c<ulI measure tHe aIeûac: <F tH<se ]uIM-mentsV Once tHe semantGcGst Has c<m2leteI tHe tasL <F s:stematGWGnM anI eX2laGnGnM Mr<unI-level semantGc ]uIMmentsE Gs tHere r<<m F<r Her t< asL: Are tHe users <F tHe lanMuaMe right Gn tHeGr Mr<unI-level

21 SeeE e.M.E kuGne 19e>.

1e>

Dorit Bar-On

]uIMmentsV IF tHe ansKer t< tHese ûestG<ns Gs ON<ES tHen Gt K<ulI seem as tH<uMH tHe sub]ect-matter <F em2GrGcal semantGcs Ob<tt<ms <utS Gn tHe ]uIMments s2eaLers maLe ZeX2lGcGtl: <r Gm2lGcGtl:[ ab<ut eX2ressG<ns <F tHeGr lanMuaMe. ButE GF tHGs Gs s<E tHen underdetermination in speakers’ ground-level semantic judgments would indeed imply ground-level semantic indeterminacyE tHat GsE GnIetermGnac: <F semantGc Facts. THGs K<ulI MGve creIence t< kuGnePs GIea tHat tHere Gs s<metHGnM s2e-cGal ab<ut em2GrGcal semantGcs ZanI lGnMuGstGcs Menerall:[. Em2GrGcal semantGcs ` c<nceGveI as tHe stuI: <F Mr<unI-level semantGc ]uIM-ments ` K<ulI c<ncern Mr<unI-level ]uIMments tHat cannot tHem-selves be unIerIetermGneIE <n 2aGn <F GnIetermGnac:.

Recall <ur rec<nstructeI arMument F<r GnIetermGnac::

Z1[ THe<retGcal unIerIetermGnatG<n ! Z2[ Gr<unI-level unIerIetermGnatG<n ! Z3[ Gr<unI-level GnIetermGnac:

IF Mr<unI-level semantGc unIerIetermGnatG<n GnIeeI brGnMs seman-tGc GnIetermGnac: Gn Gts traGnE tHe GnFerence Fr<m Z2[ t< Z3[ K<ulI be secureI. Re sHall return t< tHGs GnFerence later <n. RGMHt n<KE H<K-everE <ur c<ncern Gs KGtH tHe GnFerence Fr<m Z1[ t< Z2[. THGs GnFer-enceE I K<ulI n<K lGLe t< arMueE Gs Gm2lGcGtl: su22<rteI b: a certaGn vGeK sHareI b: both 2r<2<nents <F semantGc elGmGnatGvGsm and tHeGr CH<msLGan <22<nents: KHat I sHall call tHe THe<r:-THe<r: <F lGnMuGs-tGc unIerstanIGnM.

B<tH kuGne anI CH<msL:E F<r GnstanceE GnvGte us t< tHGnL <F a cHGlI learnGnM a ! rst lanMuaMe asE Gn crucGal res2ectsE lGLe an amateur tHe<-rGst <F tHe lanMuaMe s2<Len Gn HGs c<mmunGt:. In 2r<bGnM a lanMuaMeE kuGne tells usE b<tH cHGlI anI raIGcal lGnMuGst use as tHeGr Iata OtHe c<nc<mGtances <F o utterance anI <bservable o sGtuatG<nS Z1969E d1[.22 AnI CH<msL: 2resents OltmHe 2r<blem F<r tHe lGnMuGstE as Kell

22 kuGne als< 2<Gnts <ut tHatE ]ust as tHe raIGcal translat<rE restrGcteI t< sucH meaMer evGIenceE cann<t IetermGne 2urel: GnIuctGvel: KHat tHe natGve means b: tHe K<rI lMavaMaGmE s< a cHGlI HearGnM <ur K<rI arabbGtP uttereI Gn c<n]unctG<n KGtH a Mesture 2<GntGnM t< rabbGts cann<t learn b: 2ure c<nIGtG<nGnM KHetHer tHe K<rI reFers t< rabbGts <rE <n tHe c<ntrar:E t< tHeGr unIetacHeI 2arts <r staMes. kuGne Has claGmeI tHat tHe GnIetermGnac: tHesGs Gs O<F a 2GeceS KGtH tHe I<ctrGne tHat Oc<nIGtG<nGnM Gs GnsuF! cGent t< eX2laGn lanMuaMe learnGnMS Z19e6E @d[. F<r s<me IGscussG<n anI FurtHer reFerencesE see m: 1992bE 9e FF.

1e1


as F<r tHe cHGlI learnGnM tHe lanMuaMeS as tHat <F OIetermGnlGnMm Fr<m tHe Iata <F 2erF<rmance tHe unIerl:GnM s:stem <F tHe rulesS tHat M<vern tHe lanMuaMeE KHGcH reûGres HavGnM Oa metH<I F<r IevGsGnM an a22r<2rGate MrammarE MGven 2rGmar: lGnMuGstGc IataS Z19e@bE 4E 2@[. On tHGs 2GctureE tHe tasL F<r b<tH tHe cHGlI anI tHe lGnMuGst Gs t< settle <n a tHe<r: <F tHe lanMuaMe at HanI. In tHe cHGlIPs caseE tHGs Z<bvG-<usl: tacGt[ tHe<r: Gs eX2ressGble Gn tHe m<re <r less stable set <F lGn-MuGstGc ]uIMments KHGcH can serve t< cHaracterGWe Her as a c<m2etent s2eaLer. In tHe lGnMuGstPs caseE tHe tHe<r: ma: be eX2lGcGtl: eX2resseI Gn terms <F a set <F rules F<r tHe lanMuaMe unIer stuI:.23

M<re recentl:E kuGne Has eX2lGcGtl: enI<rseI tHe cHGlI-lGnMuGst anal<M::

I aMree KGtH CH<msL: <n tHe learner as tHe<rGst. THat Gs tHe Ka: t< l<<L at b<tH tHe ! elI lGnMuGst anI tHe learnGnM cHGlI. It Gs GnstructGve tHus t< GntellectualGWe tHe cHGlIPs beHavG<r. .e Gs 2GcLGnM u2 Iata anI c<n]ecturGnME 2erF<rmGnM GnIuctG<n. DelGberate GnIuctG<n Gs m<re <F tHe same_ Gt Gs ]ust tHat Ke Met m<re c<nscG<us <F KHat Ke are I<GnM anI m<re re! neI Gn H<K Ke I< Gt. Z199>E 291[

One Feature <F tHe anal<M: Gs tHat Gt reûGres seeGnM tHe cHGlI as beGnM Gn 2rGncG2le able t< represent t< HerselF varG<us alternatGve H:2<tH-eses reMarIGnM aIult s2eecH. SeGWGnM u2<n tHGs FeatureE 'err: F<I<r Has aIvanceI an arMument F<r tHe eXGstence <F a language of thought. F<I<r tHGnLs learnGnM a lanMuaMe must Gnv<lve c<nstructGnM H:2<tH-eses ab<ut Zat least[ tHe eXtensG<ns <F 2reIGcates <F tHe lanMuaMe learneI. AnI tHGsE Gn turnE reûGres tHat tHe ! rst-lanMuaMe learner 2<s-sess a s:stem rGcH anI c<m2leX en<uMH t< re2resent OtHe 2reIGcates <F ltHe learneI lanMuaMem and their extensionsS Z19e@E 64[. .enceE F<I<r arMuesE t< learn a lanMuaMe <ne must alreaI: have a lanMuaMe. AnIE <n 2aGn <F reMressE tHat lanMuaMe cann<t GtselF be learneIE s< Gt must

23 F<r earl: artGculatG<ns <F tHGs aTHe<r:P-tHe<r: b: tHese autH<rsE see CH<msL: 19e@E CHa2ters 1 anI2E anI kuGne 196>E CHa2ter II_ 19e4_ 19e6E @e F. In m<re recent KrGtGnMsE CH<msL: Has MraIuall: m<veI aKa: Fr<m IescrGbGnM tHe tasL F<r tHe ! rst-lanMuaMe learner as tHat <F selectGnM am<nM alternatGve Mrammars <n s<me basGs. I IGscuss tHe sHGFt bel<KE Gn SectG<n II.GGG.

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Dorit Bar-On

be Gnnate. THGs 2Gcture Gs IGrectl: carrGeI <ver b: F<I<r Fr<m ! rst-lan-MuaMe learnGnM t< aIult lGnMuGstGc unIerstanIGnM anI Gnter2retatG<n. A mature HearerPs unIerstanIGnM <F an utterance maIe b: a s2eaLer c<nsGsts Gn a translation <F tHe utterance Gnt< tHe HearerPs lanMuaMe <F tH<uMHt. AnI IetermGnGnM KHat Gs tHe a22r<2rGate translatG<n Gs a matter <F IecGIGnM OKHGcH H:2<tHesGs ab<ut tHe s2eaLerPs lc<mmu-nGcatGvem GntentG<ns best eX2laGns HGs ZtHe s2eaLerPs[ verbal beHavG<rS Z19e@E 1>d N<te e[. F<I<r remarLs tHat tHGs Gs ]ust a Os2ecGal caseS <F tHe vGeK tHat OattrGbutG<ns <F mental states t< <tHers areE Gn MeneralE t< be anal:WeI as GnFerences t< tHe best eX2lanatG<n <F tHeGr beHavG<rS Z19e@E 1>d N<te e[.24

DavGIs<nE KH< F<ll<Ks kuGne Gn enI<rsGnM semantGc GnIetermG-nac:E Has maIe s<me ver: sGmGlar remarLs.2@ A HearerPs Gnter2retatG<n <F a s2eaLerPs K<rIs re2resents Her best attem2t at ! MurGnM <ut tHe s2eaLerPs GntentG<n. AnI tHe 2r<cess b: KHGcH tHe Hearer I<es tHatE DavGIs<n tHGnLsE Gs best IescrGbeI Gn terms <F tHe Gnter2reter c<n-

24 RGtH tHGsE F<I<r GnvGtes us t< return t< tHe classGcal mentalGst m<Iel <F lGnMuGstGc c<mmunGcatG<n. THGs m<IelE KGtH Gts Omuseum m:tHES Gs kuGnePs ma]<r tarMet <F attacL Gn HGs IGscussG<ns <F GnIetermGnac:. On tHe mentalGst m<IelE tHe s2eaLer Gn a lGnMuGstGc transactG<n Has a 2artGcular messaMe Gn mGnIE KHGcH sHe Oenc<IesS Gn a c<nventG<nal lGnMuGstGc F<rm. THe HearerPs ]<b Gs t< use Her Ln<KleIMe <F lGnMuGstGc c<nventG<ns t< OIec<IeS tHe messaMe. C<mmunGcatG<n succeeIs KHen Iec<IeI anI enc<IeI messaMes c<nverMe. As F<I<r 2uts Gt:

A s2eaLer Gs a ma22GnM Fr<m messaMes <nt< Kave F<rmsE anI a Hearer Gs a ma22GnM Fr<m Kave F<rms <nt< messaMes. THe cHaracter <F eacH ma2-2GnM Gs IetermGneIE Gnter alGaE b: tHe c<nventG<ns <F tHe lanMuaMe tHat tHe s2eaLer anI Hearer sHare. Verbal c<mmunGcatG<n Gs 2<ssGble because tHe s2eaLer anI Hearer b<tH Ln<K KHat tHe c<nventG<ns are anI H<K t< use tHem: o THe eXercGse <F tHeGr Ln<KleIMe o eFFects a certaGn c<rres2<nI-ence betKeen tHe mental states <F s2eaLer anI Hearero. THe s2eaLer o Has a certaGn lmessaMem Gn mGnI anI tHe Hearer can tell lKHat messaMem Gt Gs. Z19e@E 1>d[

2@ THGs ma: seem sur2rGsGnME sGnce Gt Gs Kell Ln<Kn tHat DavGIs<n K<ulI Have n< trucL KGtH F<I<rPs lanMuaMe <F tH<uMHtE <r KGtH m<st <tHer ma]<r as2ects <F F<I<rPs vGeKs <n lanMuaMeE mGnIE meta2H:sGcsE <r e2Gstem<l<M:. But Gt sH<ulI be rec<MnGWeI tHat tHe aMreement I am GIentGF:GnM betKeen tHese tK< autH<rs c<ncerns tHe e2Gstem<l<M: <F lanMuaMe. It leaves 2lent: <F r<<m F<r IGsaMree-ment betKeen tHem <n <tHer ma]<r as2ects <F tHe c<nce2tG<n <F lanMuaMe.

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structGnM a theory <F tHe s2eaLerPs s2eecH: OA 2ers<nPs abGlGt: t< Gnter-2ret <r s2eaL t< an<tHer 2ers<nSE DavGIs<n sa:sE Oc<nsGsts... lGnm tHe abGlGt: tHat 2ermGts HGm t< c<nstruct a c<rrectE tHat GsE c<nverMentE ... tHe<r: F<r s2eecH transactG<ns KGtH tHat 2ers<nS Z19d6E 44@[.26 RHat tHe Gnter2reter c<nstructsE He sa:sE

reall: Gs lGLe a tHe<r: at least Gn tHGsE tHat Gt Gs IerGveI b: KGtE lucL anI KGsI<m Fr<m a 2rGvate v<cabular: anI MrammarE Ln<KleIMe <F tHe Ka:s 2e<2le Met tHeGr 2<Gnt acr<ssE anI rules <F tHumb F<r ! MurGnM <ut KHat IevGatG<ns Fr<m tHe IGctG<nar: are m<st lGLel: o lTHGs Gs lGLem tHe 2r<cess <F creatGnM neK tHe<-rGes t< c<2e KGtH neK Iata Gn an: ! elI ` F<r tHat Gs KHat tHGs 2r<cess Gnv<lves. Z19d6E 446[2e

LeaIGnM GnIetermGnGsts anI tHeGr cHGeF <22<nentsE tHenE a22ear t< c<nverMe <n a Meneral c<nce2tG<n <F KHat M<es Gnt< lGnMuGstGc unIer-stanIGnM. On tHGs c<nce2tG<nE t< reca2GtulateE tHe 2r<cess <F c<mGnM t< unIerstanI <tHer s2eaLersP s2eecH Gs assGmGlateI t< tHe 2r<cess <F tHe<r: c<nstructG<n ` maLGnM <bservatG<nsE assessGnM relevant evG-IenceE IraKGnM GnFerencesE FramGnM H:2<tHeses Zall<KGnME <F c<urseE tHat tHe 2r<cess Gs unc<nscG<us[. Once tHGs assGmGlatG<n Gs maIeE Gt Gs natural t< see tHe Mr<unI-level GntuGtGve ]uIMments Gn KHGcH tHe acûGsGtG<n <F a ! rst lanMuaMe culmGnates as tHemselves c<m2rGsGnM a tHe<r:E <F s<rts. M<re<verE <n tHe THe<r:-THe<r: <F lGnMuGstGc unIer-stanIGnME <ur aIult access t< <tHersP s2eecH Gs meIGateI b: tHe tHe<r: Ke Have Gm2lGcGtl: c<nstructeI <r GnternalGWeI <n tHe basGs <F Iata ab<ut tHeGr s2eecH beHavG<ur t< KHGcH Ke Have been eX2<seI.

26 DavGIs<n IGstGnMuGsHes Gn tHGs c<nnectG<n a O2rG<rS tHe<r: Fr<m a O2assGnMS tHe<r::

F<r tHe HearerE tHe 2rG<r tHe<r: eX2resses H<K He Gs 2re2areI Gn aIvance t< Gnter2ret an utterance <F tHe s2eaLerE KHGle tHe 2assGnM tHe<r: Gs H<K He I<es Gnter2ret tHe utterance. F<r tHe s2eaLerE tHe 2rG<r tHe<r: Gs H<K He belGeves tHe Gnter2reterPs 2rG<r tHe<r: t< beE KHGle HGs 2assGnM tHe<r: Gs tHe tHe<r: He GntenIs tHe Gnter2reter t< use. Z19d6E 442[

2e THe aTHe<r:P-THe<r: <F lGnMuGstGc unIerstanIGnM Gs sHareI b: at least tK< <tHer kuGnean OGnIetermGnGstsES Paul CHurcHlanI Z19dd[ anI Ste2Hen StGcH Z19d3[ ZaltH<uMH StGcH Has m<re recentl: recanteI lsee HGs 1996m[.

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Dorit Bar-On

N<KE tHe tH<uMHt eX2erGment <F raIGcal translatG<n Gs su22<seI t< c<nvGnce usE ! rstE tHat an: tHe<rGstPs attem2t t< c<nstruct a tHe<r: <F meanGnM F<r a lanMuaMe Gs b<unI t< be unIerIetermGneI. RGtH tHe THe<r:-THe<r: c<nce2tG<n br<uMHt t< tHe F<reMr<unIE Ke can n<K see tHat tHGs result K<ulI Have IGrect Gm2act <n tHe Mr<unI-level: inas-much as ground-level semantic judgments are the outcome of theorizing, they too must be recognized as underdetermined_ Hence tHe GnFerence Fr<m Z1[ t< Z2[. IF <ne acce2ts tHat em2GrGcal tHe<rGes Gn MeneralE anI lGnMuGstGc tHe<rGes Gn 2artGcularE are unIerIetermGneIE anI <ne FurtHer H<lIs tHat s2eaLersP Mr<unI-level semantGc ]uIMments c<nstGtute a tHe<r:E tHen <ne KGll be c<mmGtteI t< tHe claGm <F Mr<unI-level semantGc unIerIe-termGnatG<n. But tHenE t< av<GI tHe tHreat <F semantGc elGmGnatGvGsmE <ne K<ulI Have t< GnsGst tHat semantGc unIerIetermGnatG<n I<es not Gm2l: semantGc GnIetermGnac:_ tHat GsE <ne K<ulI Have t< Ien: tHe GnFerence Fr<m Z2[ t< Z3[.2d

II. Underdetermination, the Linguistic Theory-Theory, and Semantic FactsTHe GnFerence Fr<m Z2[ t< Z3[ Gs t< tHe eFFect tHat if tHe semantGc ]uIM-ments <F s2eaLers c<nstGtute an unIerIetermGneI tHe<r:E tHen lGn-MuGstGc meanGnM Gs inIetermGnate. As n<teI earlGer ZGn SectG<n I.GG[E acce2tGnM tHe GnFerence reûGres acce2tGnM tHat tHe semantGc Facts <F a lanMuaMe cann<tE Gn MeneralE <utrun tHe semantGc ]uIMments s:s-tematGcall: maIe b: tHe s2eaLers <F tHe lanMuaMe. In <tHer K<rIsE Gt reûGres acce2tGnM a certaGn Ie2enIence <F semantGc Facts <n s2eaLersP ZMr<unI-level[ semantGc ]uIMments. Re n<K turn t< a cl<ser eXamGna-tG<n <F tHGs Ie2enIence claGm.

2d THere Gs an aIIGtG<nal <2tG<n HereE t< be IGscusseI Gn SectG<n II.Gv: It Gs t< GnsGst tHat tHe Mr<unI-level ]uIMmentsE tH<uMH Gn s<me sense tHe<retGcalE are nevertHeless n<t reall: unIerIetermGneIE Gn tHe sense tHat tHere are n< real alternatGves t< tHemE MGven tHe s2eaLersP mental eûG2mentjc<nstGtutG<n. But n<te tHat tHGs reûGres eGtHer reneMGnM <n tHe claGm tHat all tHe<rGes are trul: unIerIetermGneI b: tHeGr IataE <r HeavGl: ̂ ualGF:GnM tHe claGm tHat Mr<unI-level ]uIMments F<rm a tHe<r: Gn an:tHGnM but tHe m<st O2r<mGscu<usS sense. ZSee BlacLburn l199@m.[

1e@


II.i The Public Accessibility of Semantic Facts

.ere are s<me c<nsGIeratG<ns <ne mGMHt Gnv<Le Gn su22<rt <F tHe Ie2enIence claGm. As realGsts <Ften <bserveE naYvel: s2eaLGnME Gt seems t< maLe 2erFect sense ZtH<uMH Gt Gs ûGte 2r<babl: False[ t< suM-Mest tHat n< <ne Has ever Ln<Kn tHe real cHemGcal structure <F Gr<nE <r tHat 2e<2le Have ever:KHere anI alKa:s taLen tK< substances KHGcH are reall: IGstGnct t< be tHe same Z<r vGce versa[. But Gt seems t< maLe lGttle sense t< suMMest tHat tHe K<rI aele2HantP Has always been mGs-2r<n<unceI b: all Z<r even m<st[ EnMlGsH s2eaLers_ Gt seems t< maLe eûall: lGttle sense t< sa: tHat EnMlGsH s2eaLers Have alKa:s useI tHe Kr<nM K<rI <rIer <r eXtracteI a relatGve clause Gn tHe Kr<nM Ka:E etc. SGmGlarl:E Gt K<ulI be ver: <II Zat best[ t< suMMest tHat EnMlGsH s2eaLers Have always mGsunIerst<<IE <r mGsuseIE sa:E tHe K<rI acHaGrPE <r tHat no EnMlGsH s2eaLer Has ever unIerst<<I KHatE sa:E tHe K<rI at<m<r-r<KP reall: meantE <r tHatE c<ntrar: t< tHe ]uIMments <F all EnMlGsH s2eaLers Zever[E tK< eX2ressG<ns reall: I< Z<r I< n<t[ mean tHe same.29 FurtHerE su22<se tHatE Iue t< s<me c<smGc Ha22enGnME ever:<ne Gn tHe EnMlGsH s2eaLGnM c<mmunGt: suIIenl: came t< tHGnL tHe sentence aBreaL a leMnP meant KHat tHe sentence aRatcH :<ur ste2nP n<K means. R<ulInPt tHe sentence tHereb: c<me t< Have tHat meanGnMV

In vGeK <F tHGsE <ne c<ulI arMue tHatE ultGmatel:E tHe semantGc IGs-tGnctG<ns IraKn anI tHe Gnter2retGve ]uIMments maIe b: tHe s2eaLers <F a lanMuaMe are tHe ! nal arbGter F<r an em2GrGcal semantGc tHe<r:. SemantGc IGstGnctG<ns tHat are n<t s<meH<K IGscernGble <r IraKn b: s2eaLers <F tHe lanMuaMe can have no objective semantic status_ tHe: Have n< tGtle t< beGnM am<nM tHe semantGc Facts <F tHe lanMuaMe. C<nversel:E Features <F eX2ressG<ns tHat are <F semantGc relevance sH<ulI be Gn 2rGncG2le IGscernGble <r rec<verable b: s2eaLers <F tHe lanMuaMe. In MeneralE Gt ma: seem tHat semantGc Facts ` Facts ab<ut KHat eX2res-sG<ns meanE ab<ut sameness anI IGFFerence <F meanGnME etc. ` cann<t be HGIIen Fr<m s2eaLers <F tHe lanMuaMe Gn tHe Ka: tHat Ke tHGnL Facts ab<ut tHe cHemGcal structure <F substances can be. THese s<rts <F

29 '<natHan BennettE F<r GnstanceE IescrGbes as OluIGcr<usS tHe suMMestG<n tHat On< <ne Has ever Ln<Kn KHat an: 2art <F <ur lanMuaMe reall: meansES anI c<nnects tHGs <bservatG<n KGtH tHe GIea tHat OKHat an eX2ressG<n means Gn lanMuaMe L Gs l<MGcall: c<nnecteI KGtH KHat tHe users <F L Menerall: mean b: GtS Z19e6E d[.

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Dorit Bar-On

Facts must be Gn 2rGncG2le publicly accessible. THGs 2laces KHat Ke ma: call a Publicity Requirement <n <ur c<nce2tG<n <F meanGnM:

THe c<rrect unIerstanIGnM <F lGnMuGstGc eX2ressG<ns b: tHeGr users must be Gn 2rGncG2le 2<ssGble. SemantGc ZanI <tHer lGnMuGs-tGc[ Features <F eX2ressG<ns must be publicly available t< anI dis-cernible b: users <F a lanMuaMe.3>

II.ii Semantic Veri! cationism

It Gs natural t< reaI tHe PublGcGt: ReûGrement as eX2ressGnM a F<rm <F verG ! catG<nGsm ` verG! catG<nGsm ab<ut meanGnME <r semantic veri! ca-tionism. SemantGc verG! catG<nGsmE lGLe <tHer verG! catG<nGsmsE F<rMes a lGnL betKeen tHe meta2H:sGcal anI tHe e2GstemGc ` betKeen tHe Facts anI <ur abGlGt: t< IGsc<verE Ln<KE <r maLe c<rrect ]uIMments ab<ut tHem ` Gn a s2ecG! c I<maGn. A semantGc verG! catG<nGst maGntaGns tHat tHere cann<t be semantGc Facts <F a lanMuaMe tHat are be:<nI tHe e2GstemGc reacH <F tHe s2eaLers <F tHe lanMuaMe. SemantGc Facts Z<rIG-narGl: c<nceGveI[ cann<t be meta2H:sGcall: GnIe2enIent <F ZOcann<t <utrunES Gn kuGnePs 2Hrase[ s2eaLersP eX2lGcGt anI Gm2lGcGt semantGc ]uIMments.31

3> kuGne Has <Ften lGnLeI HGs lGnMuGstGc beHavG<urGsm t< an <bservatG<n ab<ut tHe 2ublGc nature <F lanMuaMe. F<r Gnstance: Oo M: aversG<n lt< tHe mentalmE KGtHGn Gts lGmGtsE Has a reas<n: tHe Kant <F Gntersub]ectGve cHecL2<Gnts. It Gs RGttMensteGnPs re]ectG<n <F 2rGvate lanMuaMe. It Gs tHGsE anI n<t mentalGt: as sucHE tHat IGsûalG! es an: GrreIucGbl: GntuGtGve n<tG<n <F meanGnM <r s:n<n:m: <r semantGc relevance oS Z19d6E e4E m: em2Hases[. AnI see als< kuGnePs 1969E 26 FF._ 19e>E 19de.

D<nalI DavGIs<n ZecH<GnM kuGne[ Has artGculateI tHe PublGcGt: ReûGrement as F<ll<Ks: OMental 2Hen<mena Gn Meneral ma: <r ma: n<t be 2rGvateE but tHe c<rrect Gnter2retatG<n <F <ne 2ers<nPs s2eecH b: an<tHer must Gn 2rGncG2le be 2<ssGble.... THat meanGnMs are IecG2Herable Gs n<t a matter <F lucL_ 2ublGc avaGl-abGlGt: Gs a c<nstGtutGve as2ect <F lanMuaMeS Z199>E 314[. VersG<ns <F tHe PublGcGt: ReûGrement can be als< F<unI Gn FreMeE RGttMensteGnE DummettE anI Putnam Zam<nM <tHers[. F<r s<me IGscussG<n <F PublGcGt:E see F<llesIal Z199>[E St]ernberM Z1991[E anI Bar-On Z1992bE 1994E 199e[. F<r a re]ectG<n <F tHe GIea tHat PublGcGt: 2r<vGIes su22<rt F<r beHavG<urGsm <ver mentalGsmE see F<I<r anI Le2<re Z1992E d> FF.[.

31 I tHGnL tHGs Gs tHe natural reaIGnM KHen Ke taLe tHe reûGrement as GntenIeI t< se2arate tHe I<maGn <F lanMuaMe Fr<m <tHer I<maGns. AnI Gt Gs tHe reaIGnM .

1ee


Re sH<ulI n<te tHat beGnM a semantGc verG! catG<nGst Gn tHe sense IescrGbeI Here Gs n<t tHe same as maGntaGnGnM a verG! catG<nGst tHe<r: <F meanGnM. SemantGc verG! catG<nGsm H<lIs tHat semantGc Facts ` Facts <F tHe LGnI eX2resseI b:E e.M. aEX2ressG<n E means lsucH-anI-sucHm oEP <r aEX2ressG<n E1 anI eX2ressG<n E2 Have tHe samejIGFFerent meanGnMP ZGn a MGven lanMuaMe[ ` cann<t M< be:<nI s2eaLersP semantGc ]uIM-ments. THe verG! catG<n tHe<r: <F meanGnME <n tHe <tHer HanIE Gs a 2artGcular vGeK <F tHe nature <F meanGnM: Gt GIentG! es tHe meanGnM <F a statement ` any statement ` KGtH tHe 2r<ceIures b: KHGcH tHe state-ment can be verG! eI <r FalsG! eI. EnI<rsGnM tHe verG! catG<n tHe<r: <F meanGnM ma: be tantam<unt t< es2<usGnM a Dummett-st:leE KH<le-sale verG! catG<nGsm: tHe vGeK tHat no Facts can Gn 2rGncG2le <utrun <ur ]uIMments. AnI <ne ma: ! nI tHGs Gm2lausGbleE KHereas semantGc ver-G! catG<nGsm can arMuabl: c<-eXGst KGtH n<n-verG! catG<nGst Z<r realGst[ vGeKs c<ncernGnM n<n-semantGc Facts.32

SemantGc verG! catG<nGsm as 2resenteI Here Gs GntenIeI t< be c<m-2atGble KGtH a varGet: <F vGeKs <n meanGnM. OF 2artGcular Gnterest Here K<ulI be tHe 2<2ular Ocausal tHe<r:S <F reFerence IetermGnatG<nE sGnce Gt seemsE <n Gts FaceE t< c<n" Gct KGtH semantGc verG! catG<nGsm. THe semantGc verG! catG<nGst GnsGsts tHat Facts ab<ut tHe meanGnMs <F eX2ressG<ns Ie2enI <n tHe s:stematGc semantGc ]uIMments <F s2eaL-ers <F tHe lanMuaMe. AnI tHGs GIea K<ulI seem t< M< aMaGnst tHe claGm maIe b: 2r<2<nents <F tHe causal tHe<r: tHat OmeanGnMs aGnPt Gn

neeIeI t< all<K tHe rec<nstructeI arMument F<r GnIetermGnac: t< M< tHr<uMH ZF<r a mucH KeaLer reaIGnME see F<I<r anI Le2<re 1992E d> FF.[. SemantGc verG! catG<n c<ulI be seen as a F<rm <F antG-realGsm ab<ut meanGnME GnasmucH as Gt u2H<lI tHe ]uIMment-Ie2enIence <F semantGc Facts. On tHe <tHer HanIE Gt c<ulI be seen as a realGst tHesGs ab<ut tHe meta2H:sGcal c<nstGtutG<n <F semantGc Facts. RHetHer <r n<t tHe tHesGs ̂ ualG! es as realGst <r antG-realGst KGll Ie2enI <n H<K <ne IraKs tHe realGsmàntG-realGsm IGstGnctG<nE a matter KHGcH I cann<t taLe u2 Here. ZBut see relevant IGscussG<n bel<KE Gn SectG<n II.GGG[.

32 I IGscuss tHGs Gssue at lenMtH Gn m: Z1994[. kuGne Has Gn several 2laces eX2resseI alleMGance t< tHe verG! catG<n tHe<r: <F meanGnM ZseeE e.M.E 1969E d>[. On tHe Face <F GtE H<KeverE tHGs vGeK <F meanGnM K<ulI seem Gn tensG<n KGtH HGs claGm tHat tHe trutHs <F <b]ectGve scGence c<ulI O<utrun <ur tHe<rGes as Kell as all 2<ssGble <bservatG<nS Z19deE 1>[.

1ed

Dorit Bar-On

s2eaLersP HeaIs.S33 RHat Ke sH<ulI n<tGceE H<KeverE Gs tHat tHe O]uIM-ment-Ie2enIenceS <F meanGnM maGntaGneI b: semantGc verG! catG<n-Gsm I<es not Gm2l: tHat a set <F necessar: anI suF! cGent IescrG2tG<ns OGn tHe HeaIS <F an: Z<r even all[ <F tHe s2eaLers can serve t< ! X tHe eXtensG<ns <F all terms. Eûall:E H<KeverE t< sa: tHat causal relatG<ns betKeen s2eaLers anI K<rlIl: Gtems Feature essentGall: Gn IetermGn-GnM tHe eXtensG<n <F certaGn terms cann<t Gm2l: tHe elGmGnatG<n <F tHe r<le <F s2eaLersP semantGc ]uIMments Gn IetermGnGnM tHe meanGnM <F tH<se terms. It Gs tHGs r<le tHat semantGc verG! catG<nGsm HGMHlGMHts.

THusE c<nsGIer aMaGn tHe H:2<tHetGcal c<smGc Ha22enGnMs men-tG<neI earlGer. THere seems t< be n< reas<n KH: <ne c<ulI n<t maGntaGn a causal tHe<r: ab<ut eXtensG<n IetermGnatG<n <F relevant terms :et aMree tHat sucH c<smGc Ha22enGnMs K<ulI GnIeeI leaI t< a cHanMe <F meanGnM. T< remaGn FaGtHFul t< tHe causal tHe<r:E <ne K<ulI sGm2l: Have t< Ien: tHat Ke sH<ulI unIerstanI an: cHanMe Gn tHe eXtensG<n <F terms tHat mGMHt result Fr<m tHe cHanMe <F mean-GnM merel: Gn terms <F cHanMes Gn tHe IescrG2tGve c<ntents s2eaLers Have c<me t< ass<cGate KGtH tHe terms. In FactE as Far as I can seeE acce2tGnM tHe GnsGMHts <F tHe causal tHe<r: Gs c<nsGstent even KGtH tHe vGeK tHat tHe semantGc rules F<r IetermGnGnM tHe eXtensG<n <F tH<se terms are stGll OGn s2eaLersP HeaIsES Gn tHe sense tHat tHe cHaracter <F tHe rules Gs GtselF Ie2enIent <n s2eaLersP ]uIMments. ZAMaGnE tHGs GsE <F c<urseE n<t t< sa: tHat tHe relevant rules can be s2ecG! eI Gn terms <F IescrG2tGve necessar: anI suF! cGent c<nIGtG<ns.[34

FGnall:E n<tGce tHat semantGc verG! catG<nGsm b: GtselF I<es n<t entaGl tHat semantGc ]uIMments are Gllus<r:E anI Hence tHat tHere reall: are n< semantGc Facts. All Gt claGms Gs a certaGn Ie2enIence <F semantGc

33 See Putnam 19e@. As a brGeF remGnIerE tHe c<re GIea <F tHe causal tHe<r: Gs tHat Gt Gs Facts ab<ut <b]ectGve causal relatG<nsHG2s betKeen s2eaLers anI actual Gtems Gn tHe K<rlI ZGnIGvGIualsE natural LGnIsE etc.[E anI n<t an:tHGnM 2urel: OGn s2eaLersP HeaIsS ZsucH as IescrG2tGve c<ntentsE <r anal:tGc Ie! nGtG<ns[ tHat IetermGne tHe reFerence <FE e.M.E 2r<2er namesE <r tHe eXtensG<n <F terms sucH as aM<lIP <r aKaterP. THGs Gs KHat ma: seem t< M< aMaGnst tHe GIea tHat tHe meanGnMs <F lGnMuGstGc eX2ressG<ns Ie2enI Gn s<me essentGal Ka: <n KHat s2eaLers <F tHe relevant lanMuaMe ]uIMe tH<se meanGnMs t< be.

34 F<r relevant IGscussG<nE see m: 1992aE SectG<n 4.

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Facts <n tHe s:stematGc semantGc ]uIMments s2eaLers maLe. ZIt ma: be taLenE Gn eFFectE as tHe claGm tHat semantGc Facts are Ol<MGcal c<n-structG<nsS <ut <F tHe s:stematGc semantGc ]uIMments <F s2eaLers.[ SemantGc verG! catG<nGsm Gm2lGes tHat where ground-level semantic judg-ments do not determine the correct interpretation <F s<me termE there can be no fact of the matter ab<ut KHat tHe term means.3@

IF semantGc verG! catG<nGsm Gs rGMHtE tHen semantGc Facts K<ulI be IGFFerent Fr<mE sa:E cHemGcal FactsE Gn tHat ZbarrGnM KH<lesale verG! -catG<nGsm[ cHemGcal Facts could Gn 2rGncG2le <utrun all 2<ssGble verG-! catG<n b: Human s2eaLers. AnI em2GrGcal semantGcs K<ulI IGFFer Fr<m <tHer em2GrGcal tHe<rGesE Gn tHat ` as suMMesteI beF<re ` Gt K<ulI c<ncern Mr<unI-level ]uIMments KHGcH cann<t tHemselves be unIer-IetermGneI Z<n 2aGn <F GnIetermGnac:[. InIeeIE em2GrGcal semantGcs K<ulI turn <ut t< be IGFFerent even Fr<m s<me tHe<rGes tHatE unlGLe cHemGstr:E I< c<ncern Mr<unI-level ]uIMments. TaLe aMaGn tHe em2GrGcal tHe<r: <F <ur belGeFs ab<ut tHe eXternal K<rlI_ tHe belGeFs Gt stuIGes tHemselves c<ncern Facts KHGcH ma: Gn 2rGncG2le <utrun all 2<ssGble verG! catG<n b: belGevers. Re can all<K tHese Mr<unI-level belGeFs t< be unIerIetermGneI KGtH<ut rGsL <F GnIetermGnac:E sGnce tHere Gs n< reas<n ZaMaGnE barrGnM KH<lesale verG! catG<nGsm[ t< taLe tHe Facts ab<ut tHe eXternal K<rlI t< be Ie2enIent <n <ur belGeFs. In tHGs Ka:E semantGc verG! catG<nGsm K<ulI su22<rt tHe GnFerence Fr<m Mr<unI-level semantGc unIerIetermGnatG<n Z2[ t< semantGc GnIeter-mGnac: Z3[E anI K<ulI vGnIGcate a kuGnean se2aratG<n <F lGnMuGstGcs Fr<m <tHer scGences ZGncluIGnM <tHer s2ecGal scGences[.

.<KeverE KHGle semantGc verG! catG<nGsm K<ulI sH<K tHe GnIeter-mGnGsts t< be rGMHt Gn tHGnLGnM tHat a certaGn LGnI <F unIerIetermGna-tG<n cann<t be t<lerateI Gn lGnMuGstGcsE b: GtselF Gt I<es n<t all<K us t< aF! rm tHat tHere is Mr<unI-level semantGc unIerIetermGnatG<n. On tHe 2resent rec<nstructG<nE tHe CH<msLGans are als< rGMHt ab<ut s<me-tHGnM: tHe: are rGMHt Gn tHGnLGnM tHat GnIetermGnac: I<es n<t F<ll<K simply Fr<m tHe Fact tHat lGnMuGstGcsE as an em2GrGcal tHe<r:E Gs ZlGLe an: <tHer scGence[ b<unI t< be unIerIetermGneI. InIetermGnac: K<ulI <nl: F<ll<K Fr<m ground-level unIerIetermGnatG<n. But I Have arMueI

3@ I c<nsGIer anI re]ect varG<us reas<ns F<r Ien:GnM semantGc verG! catG<nGsm Gn Bar-On 199eE SectG<n III.

1d>

Dorit Bar-On

tHat tHe claGm tHat tHere Gs Mr<unI-level unIerIetermGnatG<n Gs su2-2<rteI b: a vGeK acce2teI b: CH<msLGans: tHe vGeK tHat s2eaLersP Mr<unI-level ]uIMments are sGmGlar t< tHe ]uIMments arrGveI at b: lGn-MuGsts Gn F<rmGnM a theory <F tHe relevant lanMuaMe. S<E GF CH<msLGans acce2t tHat lGnMuGstGc tHe<rGes ZlGLe all tHe<rGes[ are GnIeeI unIerIeter-mGneI b: tHeGr evGIenceE anI tHe: FurtHer acce2t tHat tHe acûGsGtG<n <F a ! rst lanMuaMe Gs a matter <F IevGsGnM a tHe<r: F<r KHGcH aIult s2eecH beHavG<ur 2r<vGIes tHe evGIenceE tHen tHe: a22ear saIIleI KGtH tHe claGm <F Mr<unI-level unIerIetermGnatG<n. But tHen Gt l<<Ls as tH<uMH tHe <nl: avenue <2en t< tHe CH<msLGan KH< KGsHes t< Ien: GnIetermGnac: Gs t< attacL semantGc verG! catG<nGsmE sGnceE as Ke saKE Gt Gs tHGs claGm tHat leaIs Fr<m Mr<unI-level unIerIetermGnatG<n t< GnIetermGnac:.

II.iii. Chomskian Mentalism: “Ground-Level” Underdetermination, Semantic Veri! cationism, and Theory-Theory36

As I Have 2resenteI tHe IGalectGcs betKeen kuGnean elGmGnatGvGsts anI tHeGr <22<nents s< FarE tHere Gs a certaGn c<nverMence betKeen tHem <n a THe<r:-THe<r: c<nce2tG<n <F lanMuaMe. THGs c<nverMence can be seen t< re2resent aMreement <n central as2ects <F tHe epistemology <F lanMuaMe acûGsGtG<n anI unIerstanIGnM. .<KeverE tHe aMreement a22ears t< leave 2lent: <F r<<m F<r KGIe IGsaMreement betKeen tHem <n tHe metaphysics <F lanMuaMe. F<r tHe kuGnean elGmGnatGvGstE lGnMuGs-tGc Facts must be IGFFerent Fr<m <rIGnar: scGentG! c Facts ab<ut KHGcH Ke ma: tHe<rGWe. LGnMuGstGc FactsE sucH as tHere areE must be rec<ver-able Fr<m 2ublGcl: avaGlable evGIence_ tHe: cann<t c<nsGst Gn Facts tHat are 2<tentGall: HGIIen. SGnceE Gn aIIGtG<nE tHe: belGeve tHat tHe 2ublGc evGIence leaves unIetermGneI certaGn semantGc matters tHat Ke GntuG-tGvel: tenI t< tHGnL are IetermGnateE tHe: aI<2t elGmGnatGvGsm ab<ut s<-calleI OGntuGtGve semantGcs.S

RealGst <22<nents <F kuGnean elGmGnatGvGsmE <n tHe <tHer HanIE KGll tr: t< 2<rtra: tHe meta2H:sGcs <F lanMuaMe as Full: <n a 2ar KGtH realGst meta2H:sGcs Gn <tHer I<maGnsE anI KGll GnsGst tHat tHere Gs n<

36 In KHat F<ll<KsE I 2resent a summar: <F an arMument I <FFer Gn Bar-On 199eE SectG<n IV.

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m<re r<<m F<r sLe2tGcal anXGet: Gn tHe stuI: <F lanMuaMe tHan tHere Gs Gn an: <tHer area. RHen Ke stuI: lanMuaMeE as n<vGcesE as <rIGnar: aIultsE <r as em2GrGcal lGnMuGstsE Ke tr: t< arrGve at c<rrect ]uIMments c<ncernGnM tHe meanGnMs <F eX2ressG<ns Gn 2e<2lePs s2eecH. Our aGm Gs t< ! Mure <ut certaGn Facts: lGnMuGstGc Facts. THese are tHe Facts Ke reMu-larl: H:2<tHesGWe ab<utE anI KHGcH K<ulI renIer <ur ]uIMments true. An: tHe<r: Ke reacH Gn stuI:GnM lanMuaMe KGll be unIerIetermGneIE but sucH unIerIetermGnatG<n sH<ulI n<t be reMarIeI as Gm2l:GnM GnIetermGnac: Gn tHGs I<maGn an: m<re tHan Gn an: <tHer I<maGn. As Gn <tHer I<maGnsE HereE t<<E tHe Facts are <ne tHGnM_ 2e<2lePs Ln<Kl-eIMe <F tHe Facts Gs an<tHer.

But tHe ̂ uestG<n F<r tHe realGst <22<nent Gs tHGs: RHat are tHe Facts Gn tHe lGnMuGstGc I<maGn sucH tHat tHe: mGMHt s:stematGcall: M< be:<nI all relevant evGIenceE <r <utrun tHe<rGstsP best ]uIMments Zbe tHe: lGn-MuGsts <r cHGlIren[V In tHGs sectG<nE <ur Gnterest Gs Gn tHe CH<msLGan ansKer t< tHGs ûestG<nE anI Gts success Gn FenIGnM <FF tHe lGne <F rea-s<nGnM t< GnIetermGnac: 2resenteI earlGer. I KGll be arMuGnM tHatE Gns<-Far as tHe CH<msLGan ansKer succeeIs Gn rebuttGnM GnIetermGnac:E Gt I<es notE as Gts aIv<cates <Ften 2resent GtE succeeI b: 2lacGnM lGnMuGs-tGc Facts <n a 2ar KGtH <tHer Facts tHat can M< be:<nI s2eaLersP e2Gs-temGc reacHE tHereb: re]ectGnM semantGc verG! catG<nGsm. RatHerE Gt Gs b:E Gn eFFectE Ie2artGnM Fr<m tHe THe<r:-THe<r: c<nce2tG<n <F lanMuaMe acûGsGtG<n anI unIerstanIGnM.

THe m<st c<mm<n CH<msLGan res2<nse t< kuGnean sLe2tGcGsm ab<ut lanMuaMe Has been t< cHarMe kuGneans KGtH aIHerence t< a IateI anI <b]ectG<nable F<rm <F lGnMuGstGc beHavG<urGsm. In Gts 2laceE CH<msLGans Have aIv<cateI tH<r<uMHM<GnM mentalism. CH<msLGan mentalGsm Gs usuall: 2resenteI as esca2GnM kuGnean elGmGnatGvGsm ab<ut lanMuaMe tHr<uMH tHe re]ectG<n <F tHe verG! catG<nGst m<ve Fr<m unIerIetermGnatG<n t< GnIetermGnac:. .<KeverE I tHGnL tHGs sH<ulI be seen as mGsleaIGnMl: <versGm2lG! eIE <nce <ur earlGer IGstGnctG<n betKeen Mr<unI-level anI tHe<retGcal unIerIetermGnatG<n Gs 2r<2erl: a22recGateI. As Ke Have seenE Gt Gs <ne tHGnM t< acce2t tHat all tHe evG-Ience tHat linguists can MatHer reMarIGnM s2eaLers ma: unIerIeter-mGne tHeGr tHe<r: <F lanMuaMe. It Gs an<tHer t< acce2t tHat s2eaLersP lGnMuGstGc ]uIMments are tHemselves unIerIetermGneI. It Gs tHe latter claGm tHat tHreatens t< brGnM GnIetermGnac: Gn Gts traGn. THe crGtGcal ûestG<n Gs KHetHer aI<2tGnM CH<msLGan mentalGsm all<Ks us t<

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Dorit Bar-On

aIHere t< tHe GIea tHat tHere Gs Mr<unI-level unIerIetermGnatG<n ̀ tHat s2eaLersP Mr<unI-level lGnMuGstGc ]uIMments c<m2rGse a tHe<r: tHat Gs unIerIetermGneI b: Gts evGIence ` KHGle at tHe same tGme Ien:GnM tHat tHGs Gm2lGes an: LGnI <F kuGnean GnIetermGnac:. F<r tHGs Gs KHat Gt K<ulI taLe t< re]ect semantGc verG! catG<nGsm.

On tHe 2Gcture suMMesteI b: tHe CH<msL: <F Syntactic Structures Z19@e[E Ke are t< tHGnL <F a cHGlI acûGrGnM a ! rst lanMuaMe as FacGnM tHe tasL <F Ievel<2GnM a tHe<r: ab<ut tHe lanMuaMe s2<Len Gn tHe lGnMuGs-tGc c<mmunGt: Gnt< KHGcH sHe Gs b<rn. THe lGnMuGstGc re2resentatG<ns tHe cHGlI c<mes t< ass<cGate KGtH lGnMuGstGc eX2ressG<ns are tH<uMHt <F as hypotheses about a certain public language. AssumGnM tHat all tHe<r: Gs unIerIetermGneI b: evGIenceE tHe cHGlIPs tHe<r: ZGF tHat Gs KHat Gt Gs[ K<ulI beE t<<: tHere K<ulI be c<m2etGnM sets <F semantGc H:2<tHeses eûall: c<m2atGble KGtH tHe lGnMuGstGc evGIence avaGlable t< tHe cHGlI. THe 2r<blem <F unIerIetermGnatG<n can tHen be 2resenteI as a ver-sG<n <F OtHe 2<vert: <F stGmulusS 2r<blem: .<K Gs Gt 2<ssGble F<r tHe cHGlI t< settle <n a sGnMle set <F lGnMuGstGc H:2<tHeses ZanI c<nverMe KGtH <tHer learners <n tHe same set <F H:2<tHeses[E tHereb: acHGev-GnM Ln<KleIMe <F Her lanMuaMeE MGven tHat tHe evGIence vastl: unIer-IetermGnes lGnMuGstGc tHe<r:V Em2GrGcal lGnMuGstGcsE as c<nceGveI b: CH<msL:E Gs IesGMneI t< 2r<vGIe an ansKer t< tHGs ûestG<n.

THe mentalGst ansKer Gs tHat cHGlIren brGnM t< tHe tasL <F lanMuaMe acûGsGtG<n s<me ver: s<2HGstGcateIE Gnnate mental enI<Kment. AltH<uMH tHe lGnMuGstGc evGIence leaves <2en a cH<Gce am<nM a KGIe arra: <F c<m2etGnM sets <F lGnMuGstGc H:2<tHesesE tHe cHGlIPs cH<Gce Gs IetermGneI Gnnatel:. Innate mental c<ntrGbutG<n serves t< Ieter-mGne KHat K<ulI <tHerKGse Have been unIerIetermGneI. THe mGnI brGIMes <ver tHe Ma2s F<unI Gn tHe <bservable beHavG<ural evGIence. THe a22earance <F re]ectGnM semantGc verG! catG<nGsm Gs MenerateI b: aIIGnM tHe GIea tHat tHe relevant Facts Gn tHe case <F lanMuaMe c<nsGst Gn GnternalE mental M<GnMs-<n <F KHGcH KeE as <rIGnar: s2eaLersE ma: be as GMn<rant as Ke are <F <tHer Gnternal M<GnMs-<n Zsa:E Gn <ur st<m-acHs[. THese Gnternal M<GnMs-<n are KHat Ke tr: t< latcH <nt< Gn <ur <rIGnar: ascrG2tG<ns <F meanGnM.

On tHe mentalGst 2GctureE Ke sH<ulI reMarI ever:Ia: e2Gs<Ies <F unIerstanIGnM anI Mr<unI-level semantGc ]uIMments as c<n]ectural_ tHe: Gnv<lve maLGnM H:2<tHeses ab<ut HGIIen M<GnMs-<n. THe mental-GstPs c<ntrGbutG<n Gs t< 2r<vGIe a stable sub]ect-matter F<r tHese H:2<tH-

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esesE an OunIerl:GnM realGt:ES <r I<maGn <F Facts: tHe Gnner K<rLGnMs <F s2eaLersP mGnIs. It Gs b: reFerence t< tHese Gnner K<rLGnMs tHat Gnter-2retGve H:2<tHeses K<ulI be ultGmatel: verG! able <r FalsG! able. THe mentalGst 2r<2<sal seems t< be tHat Ke can c<nstrue semantGc Facts ` tHe real semantGc Facts ` <n tHe m<Iel <F <rIGnar: scGentG! c FactsE KHGcH ma: ver: Kell be HGIIen Fr<m <rIGnar: 2ublGc vGeK anI ma: <utrun s2eaLersP ]uIMments. THGs Gs KHat a22ears t< M< aMaGnst tHe PublGcGt: ReûGrement anI tHe attenIant semantGc verG! catG<nGsm.

.<KeverE tHGs a22earance Gs mGsleaIGnM. F<rE as I KGll n<K arMueE a cl<ser l<<L at tHe CH<msLGan mentalGst c<nce2tG<n as Gt Has Ievel-<2eI <ver tHe :ears reveals tHat tHGs c<nce2tG<nE Far Fr<m re]ectGnM semantGc verG! catG<nGsmE Gs str<nMl: c<mmGtteI t< a versG<n <F Gt. T< see tHGsE c<nsGIer tHe m<re Ievel<2eI CH<msLGan 2GctureE acc<rIGnM t< KHGcH tHe cHGlIPs Gnnate OunGversal MrammarS 2laces Heav: c<n-straGnts <n tHe set <F 2<ssGble Mrammars tHe cHGlI can acûGreE leav-GnM unIetermGneI <nl: certaGn su2er! cGal lGnMuGstGc Features. THese FeaturesE IubbeI O2arametersES bec<me O! XeIS u2<n eX2<sure t< tHe GIG<s:ncratGc lGnMuGstGc Gn2ut <F tHe 2artGcular lanMuaMe tHe cHGlI enIs u2 acûGrGnM. ZSeeE e.M.E CH<msL: 19d>[. THe 2<Gnt <F enrGcHGnM tHe Gnnate unGversal Mrammar Gs t< leave ver: lGttle unsettleI beF<re tHe cHGlI beMGns tHe 2r<cess <F lanMuaMe acûGsGtG<nE s< as t< maLe Gt 2<ssGble F<r tHe cHGlI t< c<nstruct a tHe<r: <F tHe lanMuaMe He Gs acûGrGnME Ies2Gte tHe lGmGteI am<unt <F Iata He Has t< K<rL KGtH. ZTHGs Gs CH<msL:Ps Ka: <F s<lvGnM tHe O2<vert: <F tHe stGmulGS 2r<b-lem.[ THe ass<cGatG<n <F 2artGcular sets <F mental re2resentatG<ns KGtH lGnMuGstGc eX2ressG<ns Gs n< l<nMer tH<uMHt t< be a matter <F cH<Gce F<r tHe cHGlI. LucLGl: F<r tHe cHGlIE Gt Gs Gnnatel: IetermGneI.

THGs Ka: <F tHGnLGnM <F tHe cHGlIPs sGtuatG<n c<ulI be seen as <FFer-GnM a Ka: <F av<GIGnM tHe 2r<blem <F unIerIetermGnatG<n. But GF Gt I<esE Gt Gs <nl: b: m<vGnM aKa: Fr<m seeGnM tHe cHGlIPs tasL as trul: sGmGlar t< tHat <F tHe lGnMuGstPs. On tHe ab<ve 2GctureE Gt Gs n< l<nMer clear tHat Ke sH<ulI tHGnL <F tHe lGnMuGstGc Gn2ut receGveI b: tHe cHGlI as evidence <r data <n tHe basGs <F KHGcH tHe cHGlI Gs t< determine ZH<K-ever unc<nscG<usl:[ tHe Facts <F a certaGn 2ublGc lanMuaMe. InsteaIE Gt seems as tH<uMH aIult s2eecH merel: serves as a 2s:cH<l<MGcal trGMMer enablGnM tHe cHGlI t< bec<me a s2eaLer <F a 2artGcular lanMuaMe. THe 2r<cess as IescrGbeI I<es n<t leave mucH r<<m F<r tHGnLGnM <F tHe stable lGnMuGstGc ]uIMments tHe cHGlI arrGves at as F<rmGnM a b<I: <F

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Ln<KleIMe ` a set <F true anI KarranteI belGeFs ` tHat Gs sGmGlar Gn an: GnterestGnM Ka: t< tHe<retGcal Ln<KleIMe Gn <tHer I<maGns. ZOne Ka: <F 2uttGnM tHe 2<Gnt: <n tHe revGseI CH<msLGan 2GctureE tHere seems t< be ver: lGttle reas<n t< tHGnL <F tHe relatG<n betKeen cHGlIPs lGnMuGstGc OIataS anI Her ensuGnM lGnMuGstGc ]uIMment as a rational ratHer tHan merel: causal relatG<n.[

IF tHGs Gs s<E tHen Ke must c<ncluIe tHat tHe lGnMuGst anI tHe cHGlI are Gn ver: IGFFerent busGnessesE mucH t< tHe IetrGment <F tHe cHGlI`lGnMuGst anal<M:. RHereas tHe cHGlIPs tasL Gs t< reacH a stable set <F ma22GnMs Fr<m s<unIs t< meanGnMs u2<n suF! cGent eX2<sure t< lGn-MuGstGc Gn2utE tHe lGnMuGstPs Gs t< IGsc<ver tHe Facts ab<ut which set <F ma22GnMs tHe cHGlI Has settleI <nE <n tHe basGs <F Her <bservatG<ns <F tHe cHGlIPs s2eecH beHavG<ur ZanI <tHer evGIence[. THe lGnMuGstPs rela-tG<n t< tHe semantGc Facts ma: Kell be ]ust lGLe tHat <F an: em2GrGcal tHe<rGst t< tHe Facts Gn Her I<maGn <F GnvestGMatG<n. AnI Ke can maLe sense <F tHe 2<ssGbGlGt: <F unIerIetermGnatG<n for the linguistE sGnce tHe evGIence avaGlable t< Her ma: Kell unIerIetermGne tHe c<rrect tHe<-retGcal IecGsG<n c<ncernGnM KHGcH set <F re2resentatG<ns ZFr<m am<nM c<m2etGnM alternatGves[ an: MGven s2eaLer ass<cGates KGtH eX2res-sG<ns. But tHe cHGlIPs relatG<n t< tHe relevant Facts Gs IGFFerent. THGs Gs because tHe mental re2resentatG<ns tHat c<nstGtute tHe cHGlIPs lGn-MuGstGc ]uIMments are n<t for him a matter F<r IGsc<ver: <r cH<Gce. .e sGm2l: comes to have tHese re2resentatG<ns. AnI tHere can be n< FurtHer ûestG<n ab<ut KHetHer <r n<t HGs s<-calleI H:2<tHeses are c<rrect. RatHerE tHe lGnMuGstGc ]uIMments He c<mes t< Have are what determine which language he ends up speaking. RHereas tHe lGnMuGstPs ]uIMments c<ncern which lanMuaMe tHe s2eaLer s2eaLsE tHe s2eaLerPs ]uIMments c<nstGtute tHe lanMuaMe He s2eaLs.

S< FarE I Have arMueI tHat GFE as mentalGsm maGntaGnsE lGnMuGstGc Facts c<nsGst Gn certaGn Facts ab<ut s2eaLersP mental re2resentatG<nsE Ke must rec<MnGWe a IGFFerence betKeen tHe cHGlIPs anI tHe lGnMuGstPs relatG<n t< tHe lGnMuGstGc Facts. THe IGFFerence tHat matters m<st t< <ur IGscussG<n Gs tHGs: Gt Gs n<t clear KHat sense can be maIe <F a 2<tentGal 2r<blem <F unIerIetermGnatG<n for the child. In tHat caseE tHe lGnMuGstPs tHe<r: Gs n<t an unIerIetermGneI tHe<r: <F an unIerIetermGneI ZMr<unI-level[ tHe<r:. S< CH<msLGan mentalGsm Has n<t 2r<vGIeI us KGtH a Ka: <F aIHerGnM t< a THe<r:-THe<r: anI Mr<unI-level unIer-IetermGnatG<n KHGle re]ectGnM GnIetermGnac:. IF CH<msLGan mental-

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Gsm all<Ks us t< re]ect GnIetermGnac:E Gt GsE Gn eFFectE b: Ien:GnM tHat tHere Gs ZMr<unI-level[ unIerIetermGnatG<n Gn tHe ! rst 2lace.

N<KE CH<msL: Gs Kell Ln<Kn F<r GnsGstGnM tHat tHe re2resenta-tG<ns KHGcH a lGnMuGstGc tHe<r: attrGbutes t< s2eaLers are s<me LGnIs <F belGeFsE <r c<MnGtGve ]uIMments. THGs Gs 2art anI 2arcel <F tHe stan-IarI CH<msLGan 2r<2<sal tHat Ke unIerstanI lGnMuGstGc c<m2etence Gn terms <F what speakers know. A true lGnMuGstGc tHe<r: KGll attrGbute t< tHe s2eaLers all anI <nl: tHe lGnMuGstGc rules <r re2resentatG<ns KHGcH tHe s2eaLer can be said to know.3e S2eaLersE Ke are t<lIE OtacGtl: belGeveS tHe trutHs useI b: a lGnMuGstGc tHe<r: t< IescrGbe tHeGr c<m-2etence.3d N<KE CH<msL: Has IGsmGsseI <b]ectG<ns t< c<nstruGnM tacGt lGnMuGstGc belGeF as a s2ecGes <F <rIGnar: belGeF as mere 2eIantGc ûGb-ble. But He Has als< remarLeI tHat OlsmGnce a lanMuaMe Has n< <b]ectGve eXGstence a2art Fr<m Gts mental re2resentatG<nE we need not distinguish between ‘system of beliefs’ and ‘knowledge,’ in this caseS Z19e2E 169E m: em2HasGs[.39 S<E altH<uMH CH<msL: Kants t< 2reserve tHe c<nnectG<n betKeen lGnMuGstGc Ln<KleIMe anI <rIGnar: Ln<KleIMeE He seems t< rec<MnGWe tHat KHen Gt c<mes t< lanMuaMeE GnIGvGIuals must be Gn a 2<sGtG<n t< 2<ssess tHe relevant Ln<KleIMe. But tHen Gt is tHe case aFter all tHat s2eaLers must be Gn a 2<sGtG<n t< Ln<K tHe semantGc Facts <F

3e RHen IGscussGnM 2s:cH<l<MGcal tHe<rGes <F c<nce2tsE F<I<r c<m2laGns tHat 2s:cH<l<MGsts t<< <Ften GMn<re tHGs reûGrement. ORHen PGnLer sa:s tHat tHe cHGlI re2resents tHe snaGl as an aMentE aaMentP GsnPt ]ust a term <F art tHatPs beGnM useI t< eX2ress a c<nce2t <F tHe tHe<rGstPs_ GtPs als<E sGmultane<usl:E beGnM useI t< eX2ress a c<nce2t tHat tHe tHe<rGst Gs attrGbutGnM t< tHe cHGlI. It serves as 2art <F tHe Ie IGct< cHaracterGWatG<n <F tHe GntentG<nal c<ntent <F tHe cHGlIPs state <F mGnIE anI tHe burIen <F tHe tHe<r: Gs tHat GtPs tHe cHGlIPs beGnM Gn a state <F mGnI KGtH tHat c<ntent tHat eX2laGns tHe beHavG<ral IataS Z199dE @d[. F<r relevant IGscussG<n Zas Kell as reFerences t< CH<msL: anI F<I<r[E see DevGtt anI Stereln: 19d9E SectG<n 3.

3d F<r IGscussG<n <F tacGt lGnMuGstGc Ln<KleIMeE see tHe artGcles b: DavGes anI b: .GMMGnb<tHam Gn Ge<rMe 19d9.

39 See als<: OOne c<ulI 2erHa2s taLe tHe GntuGtG<nGst vGeK <F matHematGcs as beGnM n<t unlGLe tHe lGnMuGstGc vGeK <F MrammarS Z19d2E 16[E anIE Opn<KGnM ever:-tHGnM ab<ut tHe mGnIjbraGn o tHere Gs n<t tHe slGMHtest reas<n t< su22<se tHat tHere are trutHs <F lanMuaMe tHat K<ulI stGll esca2e <ur Mras2S Z19d6E 33[. THGs last 2r<n<uncement GsE H<KeverE 2r<babl: best unIerst<<I as a statement <F meta2H:sGcal su2ervenGenceE Ies2Gte tHe e2Gstem<l<MGcal MuGse.

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Dorit Bar-On

tHeGr lanMuaMeE tH<uMH tHe: ma: be GMn<rant <F <rIGnar: em2GrGcal Facts. SemantGc FactsE unlGLe <tHer em2GrGcal FactsE K<ulI be str<nMl: Ie2enIent <n s2eaLersP ]uIMments. Re are bacL KGtH a versG<n <F semantGc verG! catG<nGsm.

N<tGce tHat tHe semantGc verG! catG<nGsm I am attrGbutGnM t< tHe CH<msLGan mentalGst c<ncerns tHe relatG<n <F s2eaLers t< tHe seman-tGc Facts <F tHeGr own lanMuaMe ` G.e.E t< tHeGr GIG<lects. It I<es n<t c<ncern tHeGr relatG<n t< 2ublGc lanMuaMes. .<KeverE CH<msL: Zas Kell as F<I<r[ Has lGttle 2atGence KGtH 2ublGc lanMuaMesE anI lGttle IesGre t< secure an <b]ectGve status F<r tHem. It K<ulI n<t be unFaGr t< sa: tHat tHe CH<msLGan 2<sGtG<n KGtH res2ect t< 2ublGc lanMuaMes Gs elGmGnatGvGst. A fortioriE tHenE Gt I<es n<t esca2e elGmGnatGvGsm b: re]ectGnM verG! catG<nGsm KHen Gt c<mes t< 2ublGc lanMuaMes. FGnall:E Gt stGll remaGns 2<ssGble F<r tHe CH<msLGan mentalGst t< re]ect seman-tGc verG! catG<nGsm c<ncernGnM tHe relatG<n <F s2eaLers t< tHe semantGc Facts <F others’ GIG<lects. IF CH<msLGan mentalGsm Gs rGMHtE s2eaLersP Gnter2retatG<n <F others’ s2eecH ma: Kell be <n an e2GstemGc 2ar KGtH tHeGr <tHer em2GrGcal GnvestGMatG<ns. THe earlGer 2<GntE c<ncernGnM a s2eaLerPs <Kn lanMuaMeE remaGnsE H<Kever. CH<msLGan mentalGsm must acLn<KleIMe tHat tHe Facts ab<ut a s2eaLerPs own GIG<lect I< n<t O<utrunS tHe s2eaLerPs lGnMuGstGc ]uIMments. Ins<Far as tHere Gs an e2GstemGc relatG<n at all betKeen s2eaLers anI tHe Facts <F tHeGr GIG<-lectsE Gt Gs ver: IGFFerent Fr<m tHe e2GstemGc relatG<ns tHe: Have t< <tHer em2GrGcal FactsE or t< tHe semantGc Facts <F <tHersP lanMuaMe.

III. Between Mentalism and Semantic Eliminativism: A No-Theory TheoryCA 2<ssGble c<nclusG<n Fr<m <ur IGscussG<n <F CH<msLGan mentalGsm K<ulI be tHat Ke sH<ulI n< l<nMer tHGnL <F tHe cHGlI acûGrGnM a ! rst lanMuaMe as beGnM Gn tHe 2reIGcament <F a lGnMuGst stuI:GnM a lan-MuaMe. S2eaLGnM <n tHe Gssue <F tHe cHGlIPs e2GstemGc sGtuatG<nE F<I<r anI Le2<re sa::

lTHe cHGlIm IGFFers Fr<m tHe lGnMuGst Gn tHat HGs bacLMr<unI assum2tG<ns arenPt ]ustG! eI b: b<<tstra22GnM. In FactE tHe: arenPt ]ustG! eI at all. A F<rtG<rGE HGs cH<Gce <F a T-tHe<r: <n tHe basGs <F tHe <bservatG<nal evGIence t<MetHer KGtH tHeses assum2tG<ns

1de


does not yield justi! ed true beliefE anI tHus I<es n<t :GelI knowl-edgeo. But tHenE tHere Gs n< reas<n t< su22<se tHat cHGlIren Z<r an:b<I: eXce2tE ma:beE a FeK lGnMuGsts[ do Have Ln<KleIMe <F tHeGr lanMuaMe Gn that sense. RHat Gs truGstGc Gs <nl: tHat cHGlIren Ln<K tHeGr lanMuaMe Gn tHe sense tHat tHe: are able t< talL Gt. ZF<I<r anI Le2<re 1992E ee[

RHat Gs Here 2r<2<seI Gs a ratHer un-CH<msLGan se2aratG<n betKeen tHe cHGlIPs lGnMuGstGc competence ` Her abGlGt: t< talL ` anI Her judg-ments <r belGeFs ab<ut Her lanMuaMe.4> THGs se2aratG<n K<ulI seem t< M< aMaGnst a crucGal as2ect <F tHe THe<r:-THe<r: <F lanMuaMe acûGsG-tG<n: tHe GIea tHat acûGrGnM lanMuaMe Gs Gn Gm2<rtantE n<n-trGvGal Ka:s lGLe tHe F<rmGnM Z<r GnternalGWGnM[ <F a tHe<r:. AnI tHGs K<ulI <FFer a Ka: <F breaLGnM <ut <F tHe reas<nGnM t< GnIetermGnac: <FFereI earlGer. F<rE <n tHe rec<nstructG<n Ievel<2eI Gn tHGs 2a2erE a crucGal ste2 <n tHe Ka: t< semantGc elGmGnatGvGsm Gs tHe claGm tHat Mr<unI-level s2eaL-ersP ]uIMments are unIerIetermGneI b: lGnMuGstGc evGIence. THGs ste2 can be unIermGneI GF Ke cease alt<MetHer t< tHGnL <F tHe lGnMuGstGc Gn2ut t< KHGcH cHGlIren are eX2<seI as evGIence <r Iata F<r tHe cHGlIE anI <F tHeGr lGnMuGstGc ]uIMments as ZûasG-[ tHe<retGcal belGeFs tHat s<meH<K re2resent tHe theory <F lanMuaMe tHe: c<nstruct ` H<Kever unc<nscG<usl: ̀ on the basis of lGnMuGstGc evGIence. ZTHGs Gs <F c<urse n<t t< sa: tHat tHere ma: n<t be <tHer arMuments F<r GnIetermGnac:.[

In tHe 2revG<us sectG<nE Ke Have seen s<me reas<ns Gnternal t< tHe CH<msLGan c<nce2tG<n t< abanI<n tHe vGeK <F tHe cHGlI as tHe<rGst. THe vGeK reûGres tHat Ke taLe tHe cHGlI t< be Gn a 2<sGtG<n t< maLe a cH<Gce ZH<Kever tacGtl: anI arbGtrarGl:[ am<nM alternatGve semantGc H:2<tHeses. BeGnM able t< maLe sucH a cH<GceE Gn turnE reûGres tHat tHe varG<us alternatGves ` tHe canIGIates F<r selectG<n ` beE Gn s<me

4> See als< F<I<rPs m<re recent attem2t at res<lvGnM tHe GnIetermGnac: 2r<blem b: Ien:GnM tHat 2ublGc lGnMuGstGc evGIence unIerIetermGnes translatG<nal H:2<tHesesE GnsteaI <F a22ealGnM t< CH<msLGan Gnnate c<nstraGnts Zsee F<I<r 1994E Lecture 3[.

THere Gs a stranI Gn CH<msL:Ps <Kn KrGtGnMs tHat leaIs Gn tHe same IGrectG<n. It Gs tHe claGm tHat lanMuaMe learnGnM Gs aLGn t< tHe Ievel<2ment <F a bG<l<MG-cal <rMan. NeeIless t< sa:E tHGs stranI Gs Gn tensG<n KGtH tHe m<re Oc<MnGtGvGstS 2r<n<uncementsE KHGcH 2lace em2HasGs <n tHe GIea <F lGnMuGstGc Ln<KleIMe as an GnternalGWatG<n <F a tHe<r: <F lanMuaMe.

1dd

Dorit Bar-On

Ka:E avaGlable t< tHe cH<Gce-maLer. But even GF Ke all<K tHat cHGlIren I< alreaI: Have a lanMuaMe Gn KHGcH tHe relevant alternatGves could be re2resenteI ` an unacûGreI lanMuaMe <F tH<uMHt ` Gt Gs stGll n<t clear H<K t< maLe sense <F tHe GIea tHat tHe cHGlI maLes a tHe<retGcal Z<r even OûasG-tHe<retGcalS[ cH<Gce am<nM tHese alternatGves.

THe IGF! cult: Gs Gn seeGnM H<K t< MGve substantGve c<ntent t< tHe GIea <F a MenuGne cH<Gce <n tHe cHGlIPs 2artE <ver anI ab<ve tHe claGm tHat sHe actuall: acûGres <ne 2artGcular set <F semantGc ]uIMments ratHer tHan an<tHer <ne. M<re Gm2<rtantE 2erHa2sE Gs tHe IGF! cult: Gn maGntaGnGnM tHat tHe cHGlIPs selectG<n Gs sGMnG! cantl: sGmGlar t< tHe LGnI <F rational cH<Gces maIe b: a lGnMuGst tHe<rGWGnM ab<ut a lanMuaMe. T< s2eaL <F a tacGt cH<GceE Here Zas CH<msLGans are <Ften m<veI t< I<[E I<es n<tHGnM m<re tHan sGMnal an eX2lanat<r: Ma2. ZN<tGce tHat tHe 2resent 2<Gnt I<es n<t Ie2enI <n cHallenMGnM tHe CH<msL:jF<I<r GIea tHat tHere Gs a Fact <F tHe matter ab<ut KHGcH set <F H:2<tHeses best cHaracterGWes tHe cHGlIPs semantGc c<m2etence ̀ KHGcH <ne Gs O2s:cH<-l<MGcall: realS ` <r tHe GIea tHat semantGc c<m2etence Gnv<lves ass<cG-atGnM lGnMuGstGc s<unIs KGtH s<me Gtems Gn a lanMuaMe <F tH<uMHt.[

GGven tHese 2eculGarGtGesE anI MGven tHe c<nseûences IGscusseI Gn tHGs 2a2er <F enI<rsGnM tHe cHGlI`lGnMuGst anal<M:E I belGeve Ke K<ulI I< Kell t< abanI<n tHe anal<M:. AbanI<nGnM tHe anal<M: K<ulI mean ceasGnM t< tHGnL <F tHe lGnMuGstGc ]uIMments s2eaLers c<me t< maLe Gn tHe c<urse <F acûGrGnM tHeGr lanMuaMe as belGeFs <r H:2<tH-eses assesseI Gn lGMHt <F evGIence anI selecteI Gn 2reFerence t< alter-natGves ZalbeGt unc<nscG<usl:[. But GF tHGs THe<r:-THe<r: c<nce2tG<n M<esE KHat sHall Ke 2ut Gn Gts 2laceV

.ere Gs <ne 2<ssGbGlGt:E Iue t< MGcHael DevGtt Z1996[. At KHat ZI am callGnM[ tHe Mr<unI-levelE Ke sGm2l: Have s2eaLersP lGnMuGs-tGc c<m2etence ` tHeGr abGlGt: t< s2eaL a 2artGcular 2ublGc lanMuaMe. THGs abGlGt: Gs a 2urel: 2ractGcal abGlGt:E a matter <F mere Ln<K-H<KE KHGcH reûGres n< tHe<retGcal Ln<KleIMe <F Facts about tHe lanMuaMe. LGnMuGstGc c<m2etence neeI Gnv<lve n< metalGnMuGstGc ]uIMments_ a s2eaLer can Ln<K KHat K<rIs meanE F<r eXam2leE KGtH<ut F<rmGnM an: ]uIMments ab<ut K<rIs <r ab<ut meanGnM. T< Ln<K KHat K<rIs mean Gs sGm2l: t< be able t< do certaGn tHGnMs KGtH tHemE t< Have certaGn lGnMuGstGc sLGlls. OrIGnar: s2eaLers I<E Gn FactE maLe varG<us lGnMuGs-tGc ]uIMments ` tHe: Have OlGnMuGstGc GntuGtG<ns.S But sucH GntuGtGve ]uIMments are Gn n< Ka: Gm2lGcateI b: tHeGr c<m2etence as s2eaLers.

1d9


RatHerE tHe: c<nstGtute a OF<lL lGnMuGstGc tHe<r:ES <n a 2ar KGtH F<lL cHemGstr:E F<lL anat<m:E etc. F<lL lGnMuGstGcs Gs n<tHGnM m<re tHan a 2rGmGtGve tHe<r: ab<ut tHe s:mb<ls <F a lanMuaMe.41

On DevGttPs vGeKE tHe semantGc Facts <F EnMlGsH can be as Far be:<nI tHe e2GstemGc reacH <F s2eaLers as <rIGnar: em2GrGcal Facts. THere Gs n< c<nstGtutGve relatG<n betKeen s2eaLersP ]uIMments anI tHe Facts ab<ut tHe Z2ublGc[ lanMuaMe tHe: s2eaL. AnI He IenGes tHat s2eaLers en]<: an: m<re tHan an accGIentall: 2rGvGleMeI Ln<KleIMe <F tHese Facts. .e sa:s:

lOmrIGnar: semantGc GntuGtG<ns are o 2arts <F an em2GrGcalE Fal-lGbleE anI certaGnl: GnaIeûate set <F F<lL <2GnG<ns <rE m<re 2re-tentG<usl:E aF<lL tHe<r:EP tHe lGnMuGstGc KGsI<m <F tHe aMes. Z1996E @4[

Fr<m tHe naturalGstGc 2ers2ectGveE semantGc GntuGtG<ns are lGLe GntuGtG<ns Gn an: <tHer scGence: <2en t< revGsG<n Gn tHe Face <F em2GrGcal tHe<r:. Re c<ulI be Kr<nM ab<ut KHat Has a 2utatGve meanGnM. Re c<ulI be Kr<nM Gn tHGnLGnM tHat an:tHGnM Has Gt. Z1996E d>[

F<r DevGttE tH<uMH semantGc Facts I< Ie2enI <n s2eaLersP eXGstenceE Gn tHat s2eaLers anI tHeGr actGvGtGes can be saGI t< produce meanGnMsE tHe: I< n<t eXHGbGt an: epistemic Ie2enIence <n s2eaLers. Presumabl:E s2eaLers ` even a KH<le lGnMuGstGc c<mmunGt: ` c<ulI be larMel: Kr<nM Gn tHeGr ]uIMments c<ncernGnM KHat tHeGr K<rIs mean. THe: c<ulI FaGl t< Ln<K KHat K<rIs mean even KHGle beGnM c<m2etent users <F tHemE anI tHe: neeI n<t even be Gn a 2<sGtG<n t< IGsc<ver KHat meanGnMs eX2ressG<ns tHe: use Have. THGs Gs clearl: Gn IGrect <22<sGtG<n t< semantGc verG! catG<nGsm.

DevGttPs 2r<2<sal IGverMes Fr<m CH<msLGan mentalGsm Gn tK< strGLGnM Ka:s. FGrstE Gt taLes lGnMuGstGcs t< be tHe em2GrGcal stuI: <F lanMuaMeE n<t <F as2ects <F mGnIE <r <F 2s:cH<l<M:. Sec<nIl:E Gt taLes s2eaLersP lGnMuGstGc Ln<KleIMe t< be n<t a matter <F 2r<2<sGtG<nal Ln<KleIMe <F tHe trutHs IelGvereI b: a lGnMuGstGc tHe<r:E but ratHer

41 See DevGtt 1996E SectG<n 2.2.

19>

Dorit Bar-On

2urel: a matter <F Ln<K-H<KE a 2ractGcal sLGll. It Gs tHGs c<mbGnatG<n <F vGeKs tHat enables Gt t< av<GI semantGc verG! catG<nGsm.

N<KE I tHGnL DevGtt Gs rGMHt t< be sus2GcG<us <F tHe CH<msLGan c<nce2tG<n <F lGnMuGstGc Ln<KleIMe Gn terms <F 2r<2<sGtG<nal belGeFs. .<KeverE I sGIe KGtH Dummett ZanI <tHers[ Gn tHGnLGnM tHat tHe Omere Ln<K-H<KS vGeK I<es n<t I< ]ustGce t< tHe nature <F s2eaLersP semantGc c<m2etenceE at least as l<nM as Ke H<lI as a 2araIGMm <F sucH Ln<KleIMe sLGlls sucH as bGc:cle rGIGnM <r sKGmmGnM.42 THe sLGlls DevGtt HGmselF I<es mentG<nE sucH as tHe abGlGt: t< maLe certaGn mean-GnM-relevant GnFerencesE OtHe sLGll <F matcHGnM sentences anI tH<uMHts tHat are o alGLe lGn meanGnM-relevant structuresmS ZDevGtt anI Stereln: 19d9E @1e[E anI tHe abGlGt: t< use that-clausesE all a22ear sus2GcG<usl: O2r<2<sGtG<nalS anI seem t< Gnv<lve at least tacGt semantGc ]uIMments Ze.M.E reMarIGnM meanGnM sGmGlarGtGes anI relatG<ns <F 2ara2Hrase[. At tHe ver: leastE <ne K<ulI lGLe t< see an eX2lanatG<n <F tHese abGlGtGes KHGcH av<GIs all a22eal t< 2r<2<sGtG<nal belGeFsE <r t< metalGnMuGstGc ]uIMments. ZM: <Kn sus2GcG<n Gs tHat sucH ]uIMments are necessar: t< acc<unt F<r s2eaLersP c<m2etence KGtH 2r<2<sGtG<nal attGtuIe ascrG2-tG<nsE KHGcH are central t< DevGttPs cHaracterGWatG<n. But tHGs arMument KGll Have t< KaGt F<r an<tHer <ccasG<n.[

I belGeve semantGc ]uIMments ZanI 2erHa2s <tHer c<MnGtGve ]uIM-ments[ are 2r<! tabl: tH<uMHt <F as l:GnM betKeen mere beHavG<ural IGs2<sGtG<ns <r 2ractGcal sLGllsE <n tHe <ne HanIE anI tHe<retGcal belGeFs <r H:2<tHesesE <n tHe <tHer.43 In certaGn res2ectsE tHe: are lGLe tHe 2er-ce2tual ]uIMments Ke maLeE F<r GnstanceE KHen Ke see a certaGn c<n-! MuratG<n <F lGnes <n a 2Gece <F 2a2er as Zsa:[ a IucL at <ne tGme anI a rabbGt at an<tHer. RHGle sucH ]uIMments are s:stematGcall: maIe Gn res2<nse t< 2artGcular LGnIs <F stGmulatG<ns <r elGcGtatG<nsE learn-GnM t< maLe tHem Gs m<re tHan merel: acûGrGnM a IGscrGmGnat<r: beHavG<ural IGs2<sGtG<nE <r a Ln<K-H<K ca2acGt: t< 2erF<rm s<me tasL. It Gs m<re tHan tHatE Gn tHatE F<r GnstanceE Gt reûGres rec<MnGWGnM certaGn Gtems ` lGnMuGstGc eX2ressG<ns Gn tHe lGnMuGstGc caseE <r lGnes <n

42 See Dummett 1991E 2assGm.

43 See m: 1994E es2ecGall: SectG<ns III anI IvIE F<r a cl<sel: relateI IGscussG<n <F tHe s2ecGal nature <F lGnMuGstGc Ln<KleIMe as s<metHGnM Gn betKeen 2urel: 2ractGcal Ln<K-H<K anI Full-" eIMeI 2r<2<sGtG<naljtHe<retGcal Ln<KleIMe.

191


tHe 2a2erE Gn tHe 2erce2tual case ` as HavGnM re2resentatG<nal 2<Kers. Als<E s<me <F tHe ]uIMments s2eaLers learn t< maLe Gn tHe 2r<cess <F learnGnM a lanMuaMe a22ear t< be artGculable 2r<2<sGtG<nal ]uIMments: e.M.E ]uIMments that eX2ressG<ns <F tHe lanMuaMe Have sucH-anI-sucH meanGnMs. ZAs 2<GnteI <ut earlGerE sucH ]uIMments ma: be eX2resseI b: s2eaLers IGrectl: <r GnIGrectl:.[ SucH ]uIMments can enter Gnt< l<MG-cal GnFerences anI can serve as reas<ns F<r GntentG<nal actG<ns. It GsE Gn M<<I 2artE tHese Facts ab<ut tHe nature <F semantGc ]uIMments tHat maLes a 2urel: beHavG<urGstGcE as Kell as a 2ure OLn<K-H<KES c<nce2-tG<n <F lanMuaMe acûGsGtG<n 2HGl<s<2HGcall: unattractGve.

On tHe <tHer HanIE acûGrGnM semantGc ]uIMments als< seems IGFFer-ent Fr<m learnGnM t< maLe <bservatG<nsE <r F<rmGnM <rIGnar: Factual belGeFsE <r IraKGnM c<nclusG<nsE <r FramGnM H:2<tHeses <n tHe basGs <F evGIence. THGs Gs Gn 2art because sucH ]uIMments ZaMaGnE lGLe tHe 2erce2tual ]uIMments mentG<neI ab<ve[ Gnv<lve a crucGal c<nstruc-tGve element. F<r GnstanceE tHere Gs a sense Gn KHGcH Gt Gs mucH m<re a22r<2rGate t< tHGnL <F tHe trutH-c<nIGtG<ns assGMneI b: a s2eaLer t< an utterl: n<vel sentence as SlaGI I<KnS <r c<nstructeIE ratHer tHan IGsc<vereI <r H:2<tHesGWeI.44

SemantGc ]uIMments canE tHenE be seen as Ores2<nsGvejc<nstruc-tGve.S I belGeve sucH ]uIMmentsE KHen Full: cHaracterGWeIE KGll turn <ut t< be GnterestGnMl: IGFFerent Fr<m tHe s<rts <F belGeFs tHat Ke 2ara-IGMmatGcall: tHGnL <F as F<rmGnM tHe<rGes. IF tHGs Gs s<E tHen Gt Gs mGs-MuGIeI t< reMarI s2eaLersP 2Gecemeal anI unre" ectGve Gnter2retGve ]uIMmentsE tHeGr ]uIMments <F s:n<n:m:E Heter<n<m: anI s< <nE as t<MetHer F<rmGnM a OF<lL semantGc tHe<r:.S UnlGLe F<lL cHemGstr:E F<lL bG<l<M:E <r even s<-calleI F<lL 2s:cH<l<M:E tHese ]uIMments I< n<t c<llectGvel: re2resent a re2<sGt<r: <F belGeFs anI 2at-eX2lanatG<ns about a MGven I<maGn. RatHerE tHe: 2artGall: c<nstGtute a I<maGn: tHe I<maGn F<r em2GrGcal semantGcs. RHat kuGne calls OGntuGtGveS <r OuncrGtGcalS semantGcsE tHenE Gs n<t a naYve anI FaGleI tHe<r:E lGLe 2Hl<-MGst<n tHe<r:E KHGcH <uMHt t< be re2laceI b: an a22r<2rGatel: 2urMeI scGentG! c tHe<r: <F lanMuaMe. F<rE Gt Gs n<t a tHe<r: at all.

THere ma: be s<metHGnM tHat Ieserves tHe tGtle aF<lL semantGc tHe<r:.P F<lL semantGc tHe<r:E t< tHe eXtent tHat Gt eXGstsE K<ulI be a

44 See m: 1994 F<r s<me IGscussG<n <F tHGs GIea.

192

Dorit Bar-On

set <F F<lL belGeFs ab<ut tHe c<rrect cHaracterGWatG<nE s:stematGWatG<n anI eX2lanatG<n <F Mr<unI-level semantGc ]uIMments maIe b: s2eaL-ers. AnI tHGs F<lL tHe<r: sH<ulI 2r<babl: be eX2ecteI t< be n< cl<ser t< tHe trutH tHan F<lL anat<m: <r F<lL tHe<r: <F vGsG<n <r mem<r:.

Once an a22r<2rGate n<-tHe<r: c<nce2tG<n <F lanMuaMe acûGsGtG<n Gs Ievel<2eIE Ke c<ulI 2erHa2s LGcL aKa: tHe laIIer <F raIGcal trans-latG<n. THe tH<uMHt eX2erGment <F raIGcal translatG<n can n<K be seen as attem2tGnM t< artGculate KHat K<ulI be Gnv<lveI Gn tHe em2GrGcal stuI: <F a lanMuaMe. RHat Gt 2ur2<rts t< IescrGbe GsE at b<tt<mE a 2r<-cess <F tHe<r: c<nstructG<n KHGcH ZGF I am rGMHt[ Gs IGFFerent Fr<m tHe 2r<cess <F Mr<unI-level lanMuaMe acûGsGtG<n. But <n a n<-tHe<r: c<n-ce2tG<nE a ! rst-lanMuaMe learner Gs n<t FruGtFull: tH<uMHt <F as an ama-teur tHe<rGst <F tHe lanMuaMe s2<Len ar<unI HerE 2assGvel: <bservGnM Zat least GnGtGall:[ <tHer s2eaLersP beHavG<ur anI H:2<tHesGWGnM ab<ut tHe unIerl:GnM structure anI causes <F tHeGr lGnMuGstGc emGssG<nsE KGtH an e:e t< 2r<IucGnM a s:stematGc re2resentatG<n <F tHe lanMuaMe tHe: s2eaL. RatHerE sHe Gs an GnGtGateI user <F tHe lanMuaMeE a s<<n-t<-be actGve 2artGcG2ant Gn an <nM<GnME ever-ev<lvGnM s:stem <F c<mmunG-catGve 2ractGcesE lGnMuGstGc transactG<nsE ]uIMmentsE anI Gnter2reta-tG<ns. Once tHGs Gs acce2teIE Ke can M< bacL t< tHe naYve c<nce2tG<nE acc<rIGnM t< KHGcH lanMuaMe acûGsGtG<n Gs tHe m<re FunIamental 2Hen<men<n tHat F<rms tHe basGs F<r tHe<rGWGnM ab<ut lanMuaMe. F<r tHe raIGcal translat<r t< Have a ]<bE tHere must alreaI: be a lanMuaMe Gn 2laceE acûGreI anI useI b: natGve s2eaLersE anI sustaGneI b: tHeGr lGnMuGstGc 2ractGces anI ]uIMments. In 2ursuGnM Her 2r<]ectE tHe raIGcal translat<r Gs res2<nsGble t< tH<se 2ractGces anI ]uIMments. In a sense I Have trGeI t< eX2<unIE tHe: F<rm tHe ultGmate c<urt <F a22eal Gn mat-ters lGnMuGstGc.

A n<-tHe<r: c<nce2tG<n as I envGsaMe Gt c<ulI acce2t tHe PublGcGt: ReûGrement anI re]ect ZKGtH kuGne[ tHe Omuseum m:tHES F<r Gt K<ulI reFuse t< see tHe semantGc Facts <F lanMuaMe as IetermGnate be:<nI tHe s:stematGc semantGc ]uIMments <F s2eaLers <F tHe lanMuaMe_ Gt K<ulI GnsGst tHat tHere Gs ultGmatel: no more t< semantGc acts tHan KHat tHe lanMuaMe s2eaLers can maLe <F tHem. ButE at tHe same tGmeE Gt K<ulI st<2 sH<rt <F kuGnePs sLe2tGcGsm ab<ut s<-calleI GntuGtGve semantGcs. THGs Gs because Gt K<ulI GnsGst tHat tHe semantGc Facts <F a lanMuaMe are als< no less tHan KHat tHe s2eaLers <F tHat lanMuaMe maLe <F tHem. In <22<sGtG<n t< kuGnean sLe2tGcGsmE Gt K<ulI ! nI a 2r<2er 2lace F<r

193


tHe GntuGtGve ZanI n<n-tHe<retGcal[ semantGc ]uIMments tHat s2eaLers maLe as a crucGal 2art <F tHe sub]ect-matter F<r lGnMuGstGc tHe<r:.

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tG<n.S Paci! c Philosophical Quarterly 6e: 24@`63.qqq. 199>. OSce2tGcGsm: THe EXternal R<rlI anI MeanGnM.S Philosophical

Studies 6>: 2>e`31.qqq.1992a. OOn tHe P<ssGbGlGt: <F a S<lGtar: LanMuaMe.S Noûs 26: 2e`46.qqq. 1992b. OSemantGc VerG! catG<nGsmE LGnMuGstGc BeHavG<rGsmE anI

TranslatG<n.S Philosophical Studies 66: 9@`119.qqq. 1993. OInIetermGnac: <F TranslatG<n: THe<r: anI PractGce.S Philoso-

phy and Phenomenological Research @3: ed1`d1>.qqq. 1996. OAntG-RealGsm anI S2eaLer pn<KleIMe.S Synthèse 1>6: 139`

66.qqq. 199e. OaNaturalP SemantGc Facts ̀ BetKeen ElGmGnatGvGsm anI .:2er-

RealGsm.S In The Maribor Papers in Naturalized SemanticsE eI. D. 'utr<nGcE 99`11e. MarGb<r: PeIaM<sLa Faculteta MarGb<r.

Bar-OnE D. anI RGs]<rIE M. 1992. OIs THere SucH a THGnM as a LanMuaMeVS Canadian Journal of Philosophy 22: 163`9>.

BarrettE R. anI GGbs<nE R.E eIs.. 199>. Perspectives on Quine. OXF<rI anI Cam-brGIMeE MA: BlacLKell.

BennettE '. 19e6. Linguistic Behavior. CambrGIMeE MA: CambrGIMe UnGversGt: Press.

BlacLburnE S. 199@. OTHe<r:E ObservatG<nE anI Drama.S Re2rGnteI Gn M. DavGes anI T. St<ne 199@aE 2e4`9>.

BurMeE T. 19e9. OInIGvGIualGsm anI tHe Mental.S Midwest Studies in Philoso-phy 4E e3`122 MGnnea2<lGs: UnGversGt: <F MGnnes<ta Press.

CarrutHers P.E anI SmGtHE P. p.E eIs.. 1996. Theories of Theories of Mind. Cam-brGIMe UnGversGt: Press.

CH<msL:E N. 19@e. Syntactic Structures. THe .aMue: M<ut<n.qqq. 196@. Aspects of the Theory of Syntax. CambrGIMeE MA: MIT Press.qqq. 19e2. Language and Mind. NeK Y<rL: .arc<urt Brace '<van<vGcH.qqq. 19e@a. OkuGnePs Em2GrGcal Assum2tG<ns.S In Words and ObjectionsE

eI. DavGIs<n anI .armanE @3`6d. D<rIrecHtE .<llanI: D. ReGIel.qqq. 19e@b. Re" ections on Language. NeK Y<rL: PantHe<n.

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qqq.19d>. Rules and Representations. NeK Y<rL: C<lumbGa UnGversGt: Press.

qqq.19d2. The Generative Enterprise. D<rIrecHt: F<rGs.qqq.19d6. Knowledge of Language: Its Nature, Origin, and Use. NeK Y<rL:

PraeMer.CHurcHlanIE PaulE 19dd. Matter and Consciousness ZrevGseI eIGtG<n[. Cam-

brGIMeE MA: MIT Press.DavGIs<nE D. 19d6. A Nice Derangement of Epitaphs. In Truth and InterpretationE

eI. E. Le2<reE 433`46. OXF<rI anI CambrGIMeE MA: BlacLKell.qqq. 199>. OTHe Structure anI C<ntent <F TrutH.S The Journal of Philosophy

de: 2e9`32d.DavGesE M.E anI St<neE T.E eIs. 199@a. Folk Psychology: The Theory of Mind

Debate. OXF<rI: BlacLKell.qqq. 199@b. Mental Simulation. OXF<rI: BlacLKell.DevGttE M. 1991. Realism and Truth Z2nI eI.[. OXF<rI anI CambrGIMeE MA:

BlacLKell.qqq. 1996. Coming to Our Senses. CambrGIMeE MA: CambrGIMe UnGversGt:

Press.DevGttE M. anI Stereln:E p.19d9. ORHat Gs Rr<nM KGtH atHe RGMHt VGeK.PS In

Philosophical Perspectives 3E eI. '. T<mberlGnE 49e`@d1. AtascaIer<E CA: RGIMevGeK.

DummettE M. 1991. The Logical Basis of Metaphysics. CambrGIMeE MA: .ar-varI UnGversGt: Press.

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I<n Press.F<I<rE '.E anI Le2<reE E. 1992. Holism. OXF<rI anI CambrGIMeE MA: BlacL-

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19@


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UnGversGt: Press.qqq. 19e>. OPHGl<s<2HGcal Pr<Mress Gn LanMuaMe THe<r:.S Metaphilosophy

1: 2`19.qqq. 19e4. The Roots of Reference. La SalleE Ill.: O2en C<urt.qqq. 19e6. The Ways of Paradox and Other Essays ZrevGseI anI enlarMeI

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.aHn anI P.A. ScHGl22E e3è@. La SalleE Ill.: O2en C<urt.qqq. 19de. OInIetermGnac: <F TranslatG<n AMaGn.S Journal of Philosophy d4:

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RGLsell InternatG<nal ZI<ct<ral IGssertatG<n[.


19e

Mental Concepts as Natural Kind Concepts

DIANA I. PsREt

THe aGm <F tHGs 2a2er Gs t< eX2l<re tHe H:2<tHesGs tHat mental c<nce2ts are natural LGnI c<nce2ts.1 B: amental c<nce2tsP I mean tHe <rIGnar: K<rIs bel<nMGnM t< <ur ever:Ia: lanMuaMes ZEnMlGsHE S2anGsHE anI s< <n[ tHat Ke use Gn <rIer t< IescrGbe <ur mental lGFe. THe 2lan <F tHe 2a2er Gs as F<ll<Ks. In tHe ! rst 2artE I sHall 2resent tHe H:2<tH-esGs: ! rstl:E I sHall 2resent a tHe<r: ab<ut tHe meanGnM <F natural LGnI c<nce2ts F<ll<KGnM PutnamPs 19e@ 2r<2<salE KGtH s<me m<IG! catG<ns_ sec<nIl:E I sHall 2resent a taX<n<m: <F mental c<nce2ts anIE tHGrIl:E I sHall eX2laGn KHat tHe meanGnM <F eacH LGnI <F mental c<nce2t K<ulI be <n tHe H:2<tHesGs IeFenIeI Gn tHGs 2a2er. In tHe sec<nI 2art <F tHe 2a2erE I sHall 2resent tK< GnterestGnM c<nseûences <F tHe H:2<tHesGs 2r<2<seI: ! rstE tHat Gt Gs 2reFerable t< av<GI a certaGn Ka: <F c<nceGv-GnM 2Hen<menal c<nce2ts KHGcH I<es n<t ! t KGtH tHe H:2<tHesGs 2r<-2<seI_ sec<nIE tHat F<lL 2s:cH<l<M: c<ulI FruGtFull: be c<nsGIereI a tHe<r:E anI KH:E ultGmatel:E Gt KGll n<t be elGmGnateI.

I. Natural Kinds, Essences and StereotypesAcc<rIGnM t< PutnamPs 2r<2<salE tHe meanGnM <F natural LGnI terms Gs a n-tu2le c<nstGtuteI b: s:ntactGc marLersE semantGc marLersE a ste-re<t:2eE anI an GnIeXGcal c<m2<nent KHGcH 2<Gnts t< tHe eXtensG<n <F tHe term.2 THGs acc<unt F<r tHe meanGnM <F natural LGnI terms tenIs

1 In tHGs 2a2er I sHall use ac<nce2tP anI atermP GntercHanMeabl:.

2 Putnam 2resents tHGs acc<unt <F tHe meanGnM <F man: m<re t:2es <F K<rIs tHan natural LGnI terms. I sHall <nl: be c<ncerneI KGtH tHGs s2ecG! c t:2eE G.e.E KGtH K<rIs sucH as atGMerPE aKaterPE etc.E KHGcH bel<nM t< <ur ever:Ia: lanMuaMeE anI

19d

Diana I. Pérez

t< GncluIe Gn tHe meanGnM <F natural LGnI terms tK< elements tHat traIGtG<nal semantGc tHe<rGes leFt asGIe: tHe c<ntrGbutG<n <F tHe real K<rlIE anI tHe c<ntrGbutG<n <F s<cGet:. THe actual K<rlI c<ntrGbutes t< tHe meanGnM <F natural LGnI terms tHr<uMH tHe GnIeXGcal c<m2<nent Gm2lGcGt Gn all natural LGnI terms. In tHe case <F aKaterPE Gts GnIeXGcal c<m2<nent 2<Gnts t< a MGven substance Gn tHe actual K<rlI KH<se c<r-rect IescrG2tG<n Has been IGsc<vereI b: cHemGstr:: t Gs tHe substance KH<se scGentG! c IescrG2tG<n Gs a.2OP. THGs GIea Gs c<m2lementeI b: Putnam KGtH a realGstGc meta2H:sGcs. .e H<lIs: OIn tHe vGeK I am aIv<catGnME KHen ArcHGmeIes asserteI tHat s<metHGnM Kas M<lI He Kas n<t sa:GnM tHat Gt HaI tHe su2er! cGal cHaracterGstGcs <F M<lI o He Kas sa:GnM tHat Gt HaI tHe same Meneral hidden structure ZtHe same aessencePE s< t< s2eaL[ as an: n<rmal 2Gece <F l<cal M<lIS ZPutnam 19e@E 23@[. .<KeverE Gn s2Gte <F HGs eX2lGcGt realGstGc c<mmGtmentE Putnam Gs aKare tHat even GF all natural LGnI terms 2<Gnt t< a HGIIen structureE tHe K<rlI I<es n<t c<ntrGbute t< tHe meanGnM <F tHe terms Gn tHe same Ka: Gn all tHe cases: Gn certaGn casesE scGence KGll Gn Fact IGsc<ver tHe HGIIen structure KHGcH Kas GnIGcateI b: tHe <rIGnar: termE lGLe Gn tHe aKaterP caseE but tHere are <tHerE IGFFerent cases_ F<r eXam2leE ZG[ s<me IGseases turneI <ut t< Have n< HGIIen structure at all ZtHere are cases KHere tHe <nl: tHGnM Gn c<mm<n betKeen tHe members <F tHe eXten-sG<n Gs a cluster <F s:m2t<ms[E ZGG[ tHere are <tHer IGseases KHere tHe <nl: HGIIen structure F<unI Kas an etG<l<M:E anI ! nall: ZGGG[ tHere are s<me cases KHere Gt Kas F<unI tHat tHere Gs n<t a sGnMle HGIIen struc-ture but tK<E lGLe Gn tHe a]aIeP case. F<r tHGs reas<nE Putnam Gs <nl: able t< maLe a c<nIGtG<nal claGm: OGF tHere Gs a HGIIen structureE tHen Menerall: Gt IetermGnes KHat Gt Gs t< be a member <F tHe natural LGnIS Z19e@E 241[E but He I<es n<t sa: KHat Ha22ens Gn tHe <tHer 2<ssGble ZanI even actual[ cases mentG<neI.

In m: <2GnG<nE a better unIerstanIGnM <F tHGs c<m2<nent <F natural LGnI terms Gs acHGeveI GF Ke acce2t tHat KHat c<ntrGbutes t< tHe mean-GnM <F natural LGnI terms Gs n<t an essence Gn tHe K<rlIE but a certaGn O2s:cH<l<MGcal essentGalGsmS ZMeIGn 19d9[. Acc<rIGnM t< tHGs 2r<-2<salE Gn <rIer t< classGF: tHGnMs unIer natural LGnI terms Ke 2resu2-

acc<rIGnM t< KHGcH Ke classGF: tHGnMs KH<se OIee2 natureS Has been scGentG! call: eX2laGneI tHr<uMH 2<stulatGnM neK tHe<rGes tHr<uMH<ut tHe HGst<r: <F scGence.

199


2<se tHe eXGstence <F HGIIen mecHanGsms tHat c<ntrGbute t< tHe actual classG! catG<n. AnI tHGs same 2resu22<sGtG<n IrGves 2e<2le t< 2r<2<se neK tHe<rGes Gn <rIer t< MGve an acc<unt <F tH<se mecHanGsms. In FactE Ke c<ulI sa: tHat KHat <ccurs Gn tHe aKaterP case Gs tHat Gn <rIer t< MGve an acc<unt <F tHe nature <F tHat substanceE scGence HaI t< create a neK set <F c<nce2tsE sucH as a<X:MenP anI aH:Ir<MenPE etc. anI a neK set <F laKs c<nnectGnM tHem_ brGe" :E Gt HaI t< Menerate a neK tHe<r: ab<ut a certaGn I<maGn <F 2Hen<mena. RHen tHGs neK tHe<r: can GIentGF: ZGn Gts <Kn terms[ a certaGn substance tHat beHaves Gn tHe same Ka: as tHe unLn<Kn substance reFerreI t< b: tHe natural LGnI termE a tHe<-retGcal GIentGt: Gs stateI ZKater u .2O[. In tHe aKaterP caseE tHe tHe<r: <FFereI Gs a mGcr<structural tHe<r:E but Gn <tHer casesE a IGFFerent LGnI <F tHe<r: c<ulI I< tHe ]<b: tHe 2r<2ertGes 2<stulateI b: tH<se tHe<rGes I< n<t Have t< be GntrGnsGcjcateM<rGcE but tHe: can be relatG<nalE <r FunctG<nalE <r HGst<rGc 2r<2ertGes ZF<r eXam2leE tHe HGIIen essence <F areIP c<ulI be a certaGn relatG<n betKeen tHe 2H:sGcal K<rlI anI <ur e:eE tHe HGIIen essence <F atGMerP c<ulI be Gts ev<lutG<nar: HGst<r:E3 tHe HGIIen structure <F aHeartP c<ulI be tHe FunctG<n <F 2um2GnM bl<<I[.

Acc<rIGnM t< tHe vGeK I am 2r<2<sGnME tHGs c<m2<nent HGMHlGMHts an Gnc<m2leteness <F tHe meanGnM <F tHe termE KHGcH c<ulI be c<m-2leteI KGtH tHe Mr<KtH <F Ln<KleIMeE KGtH tHe 2<stulatG<n <F neK eX2lanat<r: c<nce2ts <F tHe 2Hen<mena.4 THGs acc<unt <F tHe meanGnM <F natural LGnI termsE as man: 2e<2le Have remarLeI ZB<:I 1991E GrGF! tHs 199e[E I<es n<t Gm2l: an essentGalGst c<mmGtment. On tHe c<ntrar:E Gt <nl: Gm2lGes tHat 2e<2le ZGn man: cases tHe s2ecGalGstsE G.e.E scGentGsts[ KGll F<rmulate neK tHe<rGesE em2l<:GnM neK c<nce2tsE

3 THere Gs n< aMreement am<nM 2HGl<s<2Hers <F bG<l<M: <n tHGs GssueE but tHere Gs a scH<<l <F s:stematGcs Ln<Kn as OclaIGstGcsS tHat IeFenIs tHGs 2<sGtG<n ZSee GrGF! tHs 199eE CHa2ter d[.

4 Even Putnam 19e@ aImGts an Gnter2retatG<n less realGstGc lGLe tHGsE GF Ke 2a: attentG<n t< 2araMra2Hs lGLe tHe F<ll<KGnM: OIt Gs be:<nI ̂ uestG<n tHat scGentGsts use terms AS IF tHe ass<cGateI crGterGa Kere n<t necessary and suf! cient conditionsE but ratHer approximately c<rrect cHaracterGWatG<ns <F s<me K<rlI <F tHe<r:-GnIe-2enIent entGtGesE anI tHat tHe: talL AS IF later tHe<rGes Gn a mature scGence KereE Gn MeneralE better IescrG2tG<ns <F tHe same entGtGes tHat earlGer tHe<rGes reFerreI t<S ZPutnam 19e@E 23e_ HGs GtalGcsE m: ca2Gtals[. .ereE realGsm seems t< be Gn tHe s2eaLersP GntentG<njmGnI.

2>>

Diana I. Pérez

Gn <rIer t< unIerstanI tHe macr<2Hen<mena <bserveI Gn ever:Ia: lGFe. THGs 2r<2<sal aGms t< be Gn acc<rIance KGtH tHe s2GrGt <F kuGnePs tHe<r: <F natural LGnIsE anI Gt Gs ûGte Far Fr<m an: meta2H:sGcal essentGalGsm KHats<ever.@

ReturnGnM t< PutnamE tHe meanGnM <F a natural LGnI term Gs n<t <nl: c<nstGtuteI b: tHe eXtensG<n <F tHe termE but als< 2artl: c<nstG-tuteI b: tHe stere<t:2e. As I saGI ab<veE tHe stere<t:2e Gs s<metHGnM tHat c<ulI be aIIeI t< tHe semantGc marLer Gn <rIer t< MGve a IescrG2-tG<n <F tHe meanGnM <F a natural LGnI term. It Gs tHe 2art <F meanGnM KHere tHe c<ntrGbutG<n <F all s<cGet: ZG.e.E tHe lGnMuGstGc c<mmunGt: as a KH<le[ Gs manGFesteI.

Acc<rIGnM t< PutnamE tHe stere<t:2e Gs ! rst <F all s<metHGnM tHat all<Ks 2e<2le t< c<mmunGcate ZPutnam 19e@E 24e`49[ ` F<rE t<MetHer KGtH tHe s:ntactGc anI semantGc marLerE Gt re2resents tHe lGnMuGstGc Ln<KleIMe tHat MuGIes tHe s2eaLerP s use <F tHe term_ HenceE tHe 2<s-sessG<n <F tHe stere<t:2e 2resu22<ses a set <F c<mm<n belGeFs sHareI b: tHe c<mmunGt:E a b<I: <F Ln<KleIMe ab<ut tHe eXtensG<n <F tHe term. In tHe sec<nI 2laceE tHe stere<t:2e Gs c<nstGtuteI b: crGterGaE tHe Features tHat Gn n<rmal sGtuatG<ns all<K 2e<2le t< rec<MnGWe tHat a MGven entGt: bel<nMs t< a MGven class. FGnall:E tHe Features assGMneI t< tHe <b]ects b: tHe stere<t:2e are <nl: Features <F tHe 2araIGMmatGc Zn<rmal[ <b]ects <F tHe eXtensG<nE tHe: GnIGcate tHe usual Features <F X ` H<K Gt beHavesE <r KHat Gt l<<Ls lGLe6 ` but tHe: are n<t necessar: Features <F all tHe <b]ects <F tHe class. THereF<reE tHe lGnLs betKeen a term anI tHe Features tHat c<nstGtute tHeGr stere<t:2e are n<t anal:tGcal. THusE tHe GnF<rmatG<n c<ntaGneI Gn tHe stere<t:2e cann<t be Ln<Kn

@ kuGne Z1969[ aF! rms tHat :<unM cHGlIren usuall: classGF: tHGnMs acc<rIGnM t< su2er! cGal sGmGlarGtGesE but KGtH tHe Mr<KtH <F Ln<KleIMeE 2e<2le Zeven <lIer cHGlIren[ tenI t< cateM<rGWe tHGnMs acc<rIGnM t< tHe<r:-baseI sGmGlarGtGes. THGs GIea Kas aI<2teI b: Ievel<2mental 2s:cH<l<MGstsE KH< em2GrGcall: testeI kuGnePs GntuGtG<n KGtH successE MGvGnM rGse t< tHe OtHe<r:-vGeKS <r OeX2lanat<r:-vGeKS <F c<nce2ts Zsee peGl 19d9[.

6 N<te tHat Putnam I<es n<t sa: tHat stere<t:2es are c<nstGtuteI eXclusGvel: <F 2Hen<menal 2r<2ertGes <F tHGnMsE n<r <F FunctG<nal 2r<2ertGes. THe: are c<n-stGtuteI <F tH<se Features GnIGs2ensable Gn <rIer t< acûGre tHe K<rIs <F <ur ever:Ia: lanMuaMeE KHGcHever tHe: turn <ut t< be Gn eacH case.

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a prioriEe Gt Ie2enIs u2<n tHe actual Features tHat certaGn 2araIGMmatGc members <F tHe eXtensG<n 2<ssessE anI HenceE tHe stere<t:2e Gs n<t en<uMH t< IecGIe KHetHer a MGven term c<ulI be c<rrectl: a22lGeI in every possible situation. T< Have tHe master: <F terms Gs sGm2l: t< a22l: tHem c<rrectl: t< tHe 2araIGMmatGc members <F tHe eXtensG<n_ KHen ûeer sGtuatG<ns <btaGnE tHere Gs n<t a Ie! nGte ansKer t< MGve.

It seems t< me tHat Ke can Ievel<2 an GIea <F astere<t:2eP a22ealGnM t< tHe RGttMensteGnGan n<tG<n <F acrGterGaP.d THe GIea Gs tHat tHere eXGsts a 2eculGar relatG<n betKeen sentences ` tHe crGterGal relatG<n ` KHGcH c<ntrGbutes t< IetermGne tHe meanGnM <F tHe K<rIs Gnv<lveI Gn tH<se sentences. THGs OcrGterGalS relatG<n Gs n<t a necessar: c<nIGtG<n rela-tG<n <r an entaGlment relatG<nE n<r a merel: GnIuctGvejem2GrGcal rela-tG<n. It Gs an OGn betKeenS relatG<nE str<nMer tHan tHe merel: GnIuctGve relatG<n but KeaLer tHan tHe l<MGcal relatG<nE because Gt Gs IeFeasGble. RHen Ke learn <ur lanMuaMeE Ke learn H<K t< use tHe K<rIs atGMerPE areIPE a2aGnP <r KHateverE learnGnM tHe n<rmal cGrcumstances unIer KHGcH Ke are ]ustG! eI t< utter a ZbGME anI Gn 2rGncG2le GnIetermGnate[ set <F sentences KHere tHe c<nsGIereI K<rI <ccurs.9 THGs Gs tHe set <F sentences tHat c<ntrGbutes t< tHe meanGnM <F tHe MGven K<rI.

I am n<t tr:GnM t< IeFenI a RGttMensteGnGan tHe<r: <F meanGnM ZGF tHere eXGsts s<metHGnM lGLe tHat[_ I am <nl: GnIGcatGnM s<me sGmGlarGtGes betKeen PutnamPs stere<t:2es anI s<me RGttMensteGnGan GIeas ab<ut tHe Mrammar <F K<rIsE because Gn tHe tHGrI sectG<nE I KGll use s<me <F tHe crGterGal ZMrammatGcal[ c<nsGIeratG<ns tHat RGttMensteGn 2r<2<seI t< unIerstanI mental c<nce2ts Gn <rIer t< maLe clear KHat c<ulI c<n-stGtute tHe stere<t:2e <F mental c<nce2ts GF tHe: are c<nceGveI as natu-ral LGnI c<nce2ts.1>

e B: aa 2rG<rGP Here I mean s<metHGnM tHat Ke c<ulI Ln<K KGtH<ut c<nsGIerGnM 2eculGar Features <F <ur actual K<rlIE G.e.E s<metHGnM Ke c<ulI Ln<K merel: b: c<nsGIerGnM all 2<ssGble K<rlIsE KGtH<ut Ln<KGnM KHGcH Gs actual.

d F<ll<KGnM .acLerPs Z19e2E CH. X[ Gnter2retatG<n.

9 AnI Ke als< learn Gn KHGcH LGnI <F cases n< ]ustG! catG<n Gs neeIeI: s<me K<rIs are sucH tHat tHeGr meanGnM Gs c<nstGtuteI b: tHe Fact tHat certaGn sentences KHere tHe K<rI Gn ûestG<n <ccurs c<ulI be asserteI KGtH<ut crGterG<nE lGLe aI am Gn 2aGnP Gn tHe case <F a2aGnP.

1> I K<ulI lGLe t< n<te tHat tHere Gs str<nM em2GrGcal su22<rt F<r tHe acc<unt <F tHe semantGcs <F natural LGnI terms tHat I am 2r<2<sGnM Gn tHGs 2a2er. As I saGI

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Diana I. Pérez

II. Mental Concepts: A TaxonomyTHere are man: K<rIs Gn <ur ever:Ia: lanMuaMes tHat are useI Gn reFerence t< <ur mental lGves ZK<rIs lGLe a2aGnPE abelGeFPE aIesGrePE atH<uMHtPE aanMerPE aFearPE al<vePE aHatePE etc.[. As I saGI ab<veE Gn tHGs 2a2er I KGll reFer t< tHese K<rIs KGtH tHe eX2ressG<n amentalj 2s:cH<-l<MGcal c<nce2tsP Z<r amentalj2s:cH<l<MGcal termsP[. THe: are a subset <F tHe <rIGnar: c<nce2ts eX2resseI Gn <ur natural lanMuaMes anIE c<n-seûentl:E tHe: Have a HGst<r:E tHe: ma: IGFFer Fr<m culture t< cultureE anI tHe: ma: cHanMe <ver tHe HGst<r: <F manLGnI. .<KeverE tHere are als< s<me c<nce2ts tHat seem t< be c<nstant am<nM cultures anI <ver tHe aMesE F<r eXam2le sensatG<n c<nce2ts sucH as a2aGnPE tHe basGc em<-tG<n c<nce2ts sucH as aFearPE aanMerPE asur2rGsePE anI tHe basGc 2r<2<sG-tG<nal attGtuIe c<nce2ts sucH as aIesGreP anI abelGeFP. I sHall c<ncentrate <n tHese c<nstant c<nce2ts. THese mental c<nce2ts F<rm a LGnI <F net-K<rL_ tHe: are Gnterc<nnecteI anI tHe 2<ssessG<n <F eacH <ne seems t< 2resu22<se tHe 2<ssessG<n <F man: <tHers. THGs netK<rL <F ever:-Ia: 2s:cH<l<MGcal c<nce2ts Gs usuall: calleI aF<lL 2s:cH<l<M:P: tHe netK<rL <F c<nce2ts b: means <F KHGcH n<rmal aIult Human beGnMs Gnter2retE 2reIGct anI eX2laGn <ur <Kn anI <tHer 2e<2lePs beHavG<ur.11 NevertHelessE n<t all <F tHese <rIGnar: terms FunctG<n Gn a sGmGlar Ka:E

ab<veE tHe GIea <F O2s:cH<l<MGcal essentGalGsmS Gs a Kell-Ievel<2eI em2GrGcal H:2<tHesGs Gn recent K<rLs <n c<nce2ts ZMur2H: anI MeIGn 19d@E MeIGn 19d9[. THat saGIE a cruIe 2s:cH<l<MGcal essentGalGsm Z<rE Gn <tHer termsE a 2ure causal tHe<r: <F meanGnM[ Gs n<t a22r<2rGate F<r natural LGnI terms. F<r GnstanceE Gn recent researcH ZMalt 1994[ Gt Gs n<teI tHat 2e<2le KGll acce2t labelGnM s<me stuFF aKaterP n<t <nl: acc<rIGnM t< tHe sGm2le 2resence Z<r absence[ <F .2OE but als< bearGnM Gn mGnI tHe useE s<urceE l<catG<n anI 2Hen<menal Features <F tHe stuFF unIer c<nsGIeratG<n. In m: termsE 2e<2le KGll taLe Gnt< acc<unt n<t <nl: tHe eXtensG<n but als< tHe stere<t:2e <F tHe term Gn <rIer t< classGF: tHGnMs unIer a natural LGnI term <r <tHer. ZI tHanL '. EWûerr<E KH< 2r<vGIeI tHe reFerence t< MaltPs 2a2er[

11 At tHGs 2<GntE I Kant t< remaGn neutral <n tHe Iebate ab<ut tHe tHe<r:-tHe<r: vs. tHe tHe<r: <F sGmulatG<n vGeK <F F<lL 2s:cH<l<M:_ tHGs Gs tHe reas<n KH: I 2reFer t< talL ab<ut a anetK<rL <F c<nce2tsP ratHer tHan ab<ut a atHe<r:P KHGle reFerrGnM t< F<lL 2s:cH<l<M:: b<tH sGIes <F tHe Iebate aImGt tHat n<rmal aIult Human beGnMs are Gn 2<ssessG<n <F a netK<rL <F mental c<nce2ts.

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tHe: I< n<t seem t< reFer t< tHe same t:2e <F entGtGesE12 anI Gt Gs IGF! cult t< maGntaGn tHat all <F tHem sHare a c<mm<n Feature be:<nI bel<nMGnM t< F<lL 2s:cH<l<M:. M<re<verE Gt Gs n<t clear tHat ever: <ccurrence <F a sGnMle K<rIE F<r eXam2le abelGeFPE reFers t< tHe same LGnI <F entGtGes Gn ever: case.13

It Gs a Kell-establGsHeI Fact tHat <ur mental lGves Have at least tK< IGFFerent as2ects. On tHe <ne HanIE s<me mental states are GntentG<nal ZGn Brentan<Ps sense[_ tHe: are ab<ut s<metHGnME ab<ut an GntentG<nal <b]ect <r a 2r<2<sGtG<n. THese mental states are tH<uMHt <F as HavGnM a re2resentatG<nal as2ect_ tHe: are states KHere a MGven GnIGvGIual H<lIs a relatG<n KGtH a mental re2resentatG<n KGtH semantGc 2r<2er-tGesE a state tHat carrGes GnF<rmatG<n Ztrue <r False GnF<rmatG<n[ ab<ut tHe K<rlI. THe 2araIGMmatGc cases <F GntentG<nal states are belGeFs anI IesGres. On tHe <tHer HanIE tHere are s<me mental states tHat seem t< 2<ssess an GnelGmGnable ûalGtatGve as2ectE G.e.E a certaGn ûalGt: tHat all<Ks us t< IGstGnMuGsH a MGven state Fr<m an<tHerE F<r eXam2leE a 2aGn Fr<m an GtcH. THe 2araIGMmatGc cases <F ûalGtatGve states are sensatG<nsE F<r eXam2le a2aGnPE aHavGnM an eX2erGence <F reIPE aseeGnM MreenPE etc.

OrIGnar: terms useI Gn <rIer t< reFer t< em<tG<ns are IGF! cult t< classGF:. S<me <F tHem clearl: Have an GntentG<nal <b]ect_ F<r eXam-2leE Ke mGMHt be aFraGI <F lG<ns but n<t <F s2GIers. But tHere are s<me em<tG<nal states tHat I< n<t seem t< reFer t< an: <b]ect <r stateE lGLe anMuGsH. S<me em<tG<ns clearl: 2<ssess a ûalGtatGve as2ectE lGLe

12 S<me <F tHem seem t< reFer t< eventsE <tHers t< statesE IGs2<sGtG<nsE 2r<cessesE anI s< <n.

13 G<lIman Z19e>[ IGstGnMuGsHes betKeen <ccurrent versus stanIGnM belGeFs. An <ccurrent belGeF GsE F<r eXam2leE tHe belGeF I am HavGnM n<K tHat m: r<<m Gs c<lIE KHGcH causes me t< turn <n tHe Heat. A stanIGnM belGeF Gs s<metHGnM tHat I belGeveE F<r eXam2le tHat tHe EartH rev<lves ar<unI tHe SunE but ab<ut KHGcH I am n<t tHGnLGnM rGMHt n<KE anI as a c<nseûence I<es n<t cause an: <F m: 2resent beHavG<urs. Occurrent belGeFs are better tH<uMHt <F as events_ stanIGnM belGeFs are better unIerst<<I as IGs2<sGtG<ns. Occurrent belGeFs are usuall: acc<m2anGeI b: <ur aKareness <F beGnM Gn tHat belGeF-stateE but stanIGnM belGeFs are sucH tHat Ke mGMHt n<t be aKare <F tHem at an: tGmeE but nevertHeless Gt Gs rGMHt t< sa: tHat Ke 2<ssess tHemE sucH as tHe belGeF tHat Webras I< n<t use cl<tHesE ab<ut KHGcH Dennett <nce maIe us tHGnL.

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Diana I. Pérez

FearE but Gt Gs n<t clear tHat all <F tHem 2<ssess GtE lGLe sHame <r l<veE em<tG<nal states tHat I can entertaGn KGtH<ut beGnM aKare <F tHemE s< KGtH<ut HavGnM an: ûalGtatGve sub]ectGve eX2erGence ass<cGateI.14 M<re<verE man: em<tG<nal c<nce2tsE F<r eXam2le aFearPE 2<Gnt n<t <nl: t< a certaGn ûalGt: ZtHe OsensatG<n <F FearS[ anI a certaGn FunctG<naljre2resentatG<nal stateE but als< t< a certaGn 2H:sGcal stateE IescrGbeI Gn terms <F levels <F aIrenalGneE tHe Gncrease <F <ur Heart rateE etc. As R. 'ames Z1d9>[ KGsel: Kr<te:

RHat LGnI <F an em<tG<n K<ulI be leFt GF tHe FeelGnM neGtHer ûGcLeneI Heart-beats n<r <F sHall<K breatHGnME neGtHer <F trem-blGnM lG2s n<r <F KeaLeneI lGmbsE neGtHer <F M<<se" esH n<r <F vGsceral stGrrGnMsE Kere 2resentE Gt Gs ûGte Gm2<ssGble F<r me t< tHGnL. Can <ne Fanc: tHe state <F raMe anI 2Gcture n< ebullGtG<n Gn tHe cHestE n< " usHGnM <F tHe FaceE n< IGlatatG<n <F tHe n<strGlsE n< clencHGnM <F tHe teetHE n< Gm2ulse t< vGM<r<us actG<nE but Gn tHeGr steaI lGm2 musclesE calm breatHGnME anI a 2lacGI FaceV Zû<teI Gn DamasG< 1994[

On tHe <tHer HanIE sensatG<n c<nce2ts anI 2r<2<sGtG<nal attGtuIe c<n-ce2ts are m<re IGstant Fr<m tHeGr 2H:sGcal manGFestatG<ns: Gt Gs usuall: claGmeI tHat tHere Gs <nl: a c<ntGnMent lGnL betKeen belGeFs <r 2aGns anI tHeGr beHavG<uralj2H:sGcal manGFestatG<n. ZRe cann<t IGsc<ver tHat s<me<ne belGeves tHat sn<K Gs KHGte b: l<<LGnM at Her FaceE n<r IGsc<ver GF s<me<ne Gs trul: Gn 2aGn b: l<<LGnM at Her FaceE F<r sHe c<ulI be an actress <n tHe staMe.[1@

SummGnM u2E Gt seems t< me tHat Ke can clearl: IGstGnMuGsH tHree IGFFerent LGnIs <F mental c<nce2ts: sensatG<n c<nce2tsE em<tG<n c<nce2ts anI 2r<2<sGtG<nal attGtuIe c<nce2tsE16 KHGcH are Gnterc<n-

14 THGnL ab<ut tHe Fact tHat man: tGmes a M<<I FrGenI c<ulI Ln<K :<ur FeelGnMs better tHan :<u I<.

1@ N<te tHat tHe claGm tHat tHere Gs <nl: a c<ntGnMent lGnL betKeen a ̂ ualGtatGve state anI a 2H:sGcal jbeHavG<ural state Gs tHe ! rst ste2 Gn tHe stanIarI arMuments F<r ûalGaE sucH as tHe GnverteI s2ectrum anI tHe W<mbGes arMuments.

16 I Ln<K tHat tHGs classG! catG<n Gs n<t eXHaustGve_ tHere are als< m<<Is anI 2er-s<nalGt: traGts tHat I KGll n<t taLe Gnt< acc<unt Gn tHGs 2a2er. ZI tHanL P. R:cHter F<r maLGnM me tHGnL ab<ut tHGs 2<Gnt.[

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necteI1e anI c<nstGtute tHe netK<rL <F <ur OF<lL 2s:cH<l<M:.S S< c<n-ceGveIE F<lL 2s:cH<l<M: Gs a netK<rL <F mental c<nce2ts. THe aGm <F tHGs 2a2er Gs t< eX2l<re tHe GIea tHat mental c<nce2ts are natural LGnI c<nce2ts_ tHereF<reE Gn tHe neXt sectG<nE I sHall sH<K KHat Ha22ens GF Ke c<nsGIer em<tG<n c<nce2tsE sensatG<n c<nce2tsE anI 2r<2<sGtG<nal attGtuIe c<nce2ts as natural LGnI c<nce2ts.

III. Mental Concepts as Natural Kind Concepts1d

GrGF! tHs Z199e[ Gs Iev<teI t< tHe H:2<tHesGs tHat <ur <rIGnar: em<-tG<n terms are natural LGnI terms. .e eX2laGns s<me <F <ur <rIGnar: em<tG<n c<nce2ts ` Gn 2artGcular tHe sGX basGc em<tG<ns: FearE sur-2rGseE anMerE IGsMustE saInessE anI Ha22Gness ` Gn terms <F tHe GIea <F OaFFect 2r<MramS tHat bel<nMs t< a bG<l<MGcal tHe<r: 2r<2<seI b: ELman.19 In tHe case <F tHese basGc em<tG<nsE acc<rIGnM t< GrGF! tHsE

1e B: aGnterc<nnecteIP I mean tHat tHe stere<t:2e <F eacH <F tHese K<rIs GncluIes s2ecG! c relatG<ns KGtH K<rIs reFerrGnM t< <tHer t:2es <F mental states. F<r eXam2leE abeGnM aFraGIP usuall: 2resu22<ses aHavGnM tHe sensatG<n <F FearPE aHavGnM a 2aGn Gn tHe st<macHPE abelGevGnM tHat <neselF Gs Gn IanMerPE aIesGrGnM n<t t< be Gn tHat sGtuatG<nPE anI s< <n.

1d NaMel Z19d6E CHa2ter 2E SectG<n 3[ Gs an Gm2<rtant anteceIent <F tHe GIea Ievel-<2eI Here. .e c<nsGIers tHe K<rI aIP as tHe maGn eXam2le Gn <rIer t< a22l: PutnamPs semantGcs t< mental c<nce2tsE but I tHGnL tHat Gt Gs a baI cH<GceE because Z1[ Gt Gs n<t clear GF tHe stere<t:2e <F tHGs K<rI Gs sHareI b: tHe IGFFerent s2eaLers <F a MGven lanMuaMeE anI Z2[ because tHe reFerence <F tHGs K<rI Gs a t<LenE n<t a t:2e KHGcH c<ulI be scGentG! call: stuIGeI. M: eXam2les are m<re aIeûate t< Ievel<2 tHe H:2<tHesGs 2r<2<seI. McGGnn 1991 als< arMues F<r tHe eXGstence <F a OHGIIen essenceS <F c<nscG<usness ZanI <tHer mental states as Kell[E but He re]ects tHe GIea tHat tHGs HGIIen structure c<ulI be 2Hen<men<l<MGcal <r 2H:sGcal_ He H<lIs ` Gn acc<rIance KGtH HGs OTrascenIental NaturalGsmS ZMcGGnn 1993[ ` tHat Ke KGll never Ln<K tHe real nature <F tHat Iee2 essenceE altH<uMH Gt eXGsts. .Gll 1991 aI<2ts tHe GIea tHat certaGn lGmGteI Mr<u2s <F mental terms sucH as O2aGnS are natural LGnI c<nce2ts.

19 OTHe central GIea <F aFFect 2r<Mram tHe<r: Gs tHat em<tG<nal res2<nses are c<m-2leXE c<<rIGnateI anI aut<mateI. THe: are c<m2leX because tHe: Gnv<lve several elements. THese are usuall: taLen t< GncluIe Za[ eX2ressGve FacGal cHanMesE Zb[ muscul<sLeletal res2<nses sucH as " GncHGnM anI <rGentGnME Zc[ eX2ressGve v<cal cHanMesE ZI[ enI<crGne s:stem cHanMes Gn tHe level <F H<rm<nesE anI Ze[ aut<n<mGc

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Diana I. Pérez

tHere Gs a Kell-establGsHeI bG<l<MGcal tHe<r: tHat GIentG! es tHe Iee2 structure ZtHe aFFect 2r<Mram[ tHat eX2laGns tHe c<-<ccurrence <F tHe beHavG<ural 2r<2ertGes ZGncluIGnM FacGal eX2ressG<ns[ anI tHe 2H:sGcal 2r<2ertGes ZGncreasGnM Heart rateE 2alenessE tremblGnME etc.[ ass<cGateI KGtH <ur <rIGnar: em<tG<n termsE G.e.E tHe stere<t:2Gcal macr<2r<2er-tGes ass<cGateI KGtH eacH em<tG<n term.2> But tHe <tHer <rIGnar: em<-tG<n c<nce2tsE sucH as Ol<veES OMuGltS anI Oenv:S F<r eXam2leE cann<t be GIentG! eI KGtH aFFect 2r<Mrams. In GrGF! tHsP K<rIs: OtHe Meneral cateM<r: <F em<tG<n subsumes tHree IGFFerent LGnIs <F 2s:cH<l<MGcal states. THe best unIerst<<I <F tHese are aFFect 2r<Mrams. THe sec<nIE m<re s2eculatGve LGnI are Grru2tGve m<tGvatG<nal c<m2leXes Gn HGMHer c<MnGtG<n. THe tHGrI LGnI are IGsclaGmeI actG<nsS Z199eE 24@[. As a c<n-seûenceE He H<lIs tHat <ur <rIGnar: c<nce2t <F em<tG<n ZGn Meneral[ Has t< be elGmGnateI Fr<m <ur lanMuaMeE anI re2laceI b: tHreeE m<re s2ecG! c c<nce2tsE because aem<tG<nPE as Ke Have F<unI em2GrGcall:E Has 2artGal reFerenceE G.e.E Gt reFers t< IGFFerent 2Hen<mena KGtH n<tH-GnM Gn c<mm<n am<nM tHem_ but tHe 2artGcular em<tG<n c<nce2tsE sucH as aFearPE aHa22GnessPE al<vePE etc.E KGll be 2reserveI as l<nM as tHeGr OHGIIen structureS can be F<unI b: <ne scGentG! c tHe<r: <r an<tHer: bG<l<M:E 2s:cH<l<M:E <r antHr<2<l<M:.

nerv<us s:stem cHanMes. Em<tG<n FeelGnMs anI c<MnGtGve 2Hen<mena sucH as tHe IGrectGnM <F attentG<n are <bvG<us canIGIates t< be aIIeI t< tHe lGst. THe aFFect res2<nses are c<<rIGnateI because tHe varG<us elements <ccur t<MetHer Gn rec<MnGWable 2atterns <r seûences. THe: are aut<mateI because tHe: unF<lI Gn tHGs c<<rIGnateI FasHG<n KGtH<ut tHe neeI F<r c<nscG<us IGrectG<n. ELman s<metGmes c<nceGves aFFect 2r<Mrams as lGteral neural 2r<Mrams KHGcH c<<rIGnate tHe varG<us elements Gn tHe em<tG<nal res2<nse. .<KeverE tHe 2Hrase can be useI Gn a m<re n<nc<mmGttal FasHG<n. THe aFFect 2r<Mram Gs tHe c<<rIGnateI set <F cHanMes tHat c<nstGtute tHe em<tG<nal res2<nse. I use tHe 2Hrase Gn tHGs senseS ZGrGF! tHsE 199eE ee[.

2> GrGF! tHs 199e 4d`@> re2r<Iuces tHe FacGal anI muscul<sLeletal eX2ressG<n <F basGc em<tG<nsE KHGcH Kere ! rst F<rmulateI b: DarKGn 1de2. GrGF! tHs 199eE SectG<n 3.2. Gs Iev<teI t< m<re recent F<rmulatG<ns <F em<tG<nal eX2ressG<ns. THese em<tG<nal eX2ressG<ns c<nstGtute an Gm2<rtant Gtem am<nM tHe crGterGa acc<rIGnM t< KHGcH Ke learn em<tG<n K<rIs. ZM<re IetaGls reMarIGnM tHe OMram-marS <F em<tG<n c<nce2ts ma: be F<unI Gn RGttMensteGn 196eE SectG<n 4dd FF.[ In an: caseE as I saGI Gn tHe last 2araMra2HE FacGal eX2ressG<nE b<IGl: alteratG<nsE anI beHavG<ur are am<nM tHe crGterGa KHGcH c<nstGtute tHe stere<t:2e <F em<tG<n terms.

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THere areE Gn sumE tK< GnterestGnM ûestG<n Ke c<ulI aIIressE Gns2GreI b: GrGF! tHsP b<<L: Z1[ Is amental c<nce2tP a natural LGnI c<n-ce2tV anI Z2[ Are GnIGvGIual mental c<nce2tsE e.M. aFearPE a2aGnPE abelGeFPE natural LGnI c<nce2tsV I trGeI t< sH<K Gn tHe sec<nI sectG<n tHat tHe ansKer t< tHe ! rst ̂ uestG<n Gs neMatGveE anI GrGF! tHsP b<<L MGves a sGm-Glar ansKer F<r Meneral mental termsE sucH as aem<tG<nP. In tHe rest <F tHGs 2a2er I sHall be F<cuseI <n tHe sec<nI ̂ uestG<nE KHGcH Gs ansKereI b: a OYesS F<r tHe case <F GnIGvGIual em<tG<n terms b: GrGF! tHs. I sHall eX2anI HGs 2r<2<sal t< tHe <tHer GnIGvGIual mental c<nce2ts sucH as abelGeFPE aIesGrePE anI s< <nE G.e.E 2r<2<sGtG<nal attGtuIe c<nce2tsE anI als< t< a2aGnPE aseeGnM reIPE anI s< <nE G.e.E sensatG<n c<nce2ts.

RHat K<ulI Ha22en GF Ke serG<usl: c<nsGIereI tHe GIea tHat <rIG-nar: sensatG<n c<nce2tsE sucH as a2aGnPE are natural LGnI c<nce2tsV In m: <2GnG<nE tHGs 2<ssGbGlGt: Gs HGMHl: 2lausGble. THe stere<t:2Gcal 2art <F tHe meanGnM <F tHese terms Gs c<nstGtuteI b: KHat RGttMensteGn calleI tHe OMrammarS <F tHese terms. RGttMensteGn Z19@3E 196e[ GsE Gn m: vGeKE <ne <F tHe m<st Gm2<rtant s<urces F<r a IescrG2tG<n <F tHe OMrammarES G.e.E tHe relatG<nal as2ectsE tHe stere<t:2eE <F <ur ever:-Ia: sensatG<n c<nce2ts ZanI man: <tHers[. THere are man: remarLs tHat RGttMensteGn maIe ab<ut tHGs t<2Gc. I K<ulI lGLe t< recall a FeK <F tHemE KHGcH KGll be useFul Gn KHat F<ll<Ks.

FGrstE RGttMensteGn clearl: IGstGnMuGsHes betKeen tHe ! rst- anI tHe tHGrI 2ers<n ascrG2tG<n <F mental states. Acc<rIGnM t< RGttMensteGnE tHe crGterGa F<r tHGrI 2ers<n ascrG2tG<ns are beHavG<uralE KHGle ! rst 2ers<n ascrG2tG<ns are crGterG<nless Z19@3E 2d9`9>_ 196eE @e6E @91E @39`64_ see RGttMensteGn 196eE 4e2 F<r a MeneralGWatG<n <F tHese GIeas F<r all mental c<nce2ts[. But KHat Gs attrGbuteI Gn b<tH cases Gs tHe same c<nce2t ZRGttMensteGn 196eE 22>[.21 Sec<nIE tHere are man: tHGnMs Ke Have t< Ln<K beF<re acûGrGnM mental c<nce2ts sucH as a2aGnP Z19@3E 2@e[: tHe Mrammar <F 2aGn Gs 2resu22<seI beF<re learnGnM tHe K<rI. RGtH<ut a Meneral aMreement ab<ut H<K tHe K<rlI GsE tHere are n< c<nce2ts at all Z196eE 3@1`2E 43>`31[.22 THe eX2ressG<n <F 2aGn anI Gts manGFest beHavG<ur are relevant KHGle learnGnM tHe K<rIE anI als< relevant F<r

21 See F<<tn<tes 9 anI 1> ab<ve.

22 See tHe Features <F stere<t:2es mentG<neI Gn sectG<n 1.

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Diana I. Pérez

successFul c<mmunGcatG<n. But KHat Gs OGn tHe b<XS Z19@3E 293[ Gs Grrel-evant Gn b<tH cases. TranslateI Gnt< m: K<rIsE tHGs means tHat tHe stere<t:2e I<es n<t GncluIe tHe essence <F a2aGnP_ F<r c<mmunGcatGve 2ur2<sesE 2ublGc crGterGa are en<uMH. But tHGs claGm Gs c<m2atGble KGtH tHe GIea tHat tHe essence ` KHat Gs OGn tHe b<XS ` c<ulI be scGentG! call: stuIGeIE altH<uMH I am n<t IeFenIGnM tHe claGm tHat RGttMensteGn HGm-selF acce2teI tHGs GIea.

THe GnIeXGcal 2art <F tHe meanGnM <F sensatG<n c<nce2ts GsE Gn m: vGeKE KHat scGentG! c researcH Gs l<<LGnM F<r n<KaIa:s: tHe Oneural c<rrelateS <F c<nscG<usness. In m: <2GnG<nE Ke ma: rec<nsGIer tHe <lI 2s:cH<2H:sGcal GIentGt: tHesGs IeFenIeI F<rt: :ears aM< b: '.'.C. Smart Gn lGMHt <F tHGs GIea: tHe GIentGt: betKeen 2aGn anI a neur<-2H:sG<l<MGcal state ZOC-! berPs ! rGnMsS[ KGll be stateI KHen a neK neur<2H:sG<l<MGcal tHe<r: Gs F<rmulateI Gn terms <F KHGcH Ke mGMHt IescrGbe tHe GnIeXGcal element tHat Kas alKa:s 2art <F tHe meanGnM <F <ur ever:Ia: mental c<nce2ts.

Let us brGe" : remember tHe central tHeses <F t:2e-t:2e GIentGt: tHe<r:E Gn tHe s2GrGt <F Smart.23 Acc<rIGnM t< tHGs tHe<r:E tHere are n< mere n<mGc c<rrelatG<ns betKeen ûalGtatGve 2Hen<mena <F <ur mental lGFe anI 2H:sG<l<MGcal 2Hen<mena Z<r s<me <tHer m<re basGc 2Hen<mena[_ tHe: are sGm2l: GIentGcal. Mental c<nce2tsE lGLe a2aGnPE anI 2H:sGcal c<nce2tsE lGLe aC-! berPs stGmulatG<nPE eX2ress IGFFerent c<nce2ts KGtH<ut an: c<nce2tualja priori c<nnectG<n betKeen tHem butE F<ll<KGnM FreMePs IGstGnctG<nE tHese tK< c<nce2ts sHare tHe same reFerence: tHe: 2<Gnt t< tHe same 2r<2ert: Gn <ur K<rlI. THGs same tHesGs can be restateI Gn lGMHt <F tHe GIea tHat <ur sensatG<n c<nce2ts beHave as natural LGnI c<nce2ts.

Acc<rIGnM t< tHGs 2r<2<salE a2aGnP Gs ass<cGateI <n tHe <ne HanI KGtH tHe relatG<naljFunctG<nal 2r<2ertGes tHat c<nstGtute tHe OMram-marS <F 2aGnE anIE <n tHe <tHer HanIE a2aGnP Has an GnIeXGcal c<m-

23 It Gs GnterestGnM t< remarL tHat tHe <rGMGnal F<rmulatG<n <F tHe IIentGt: THe<r: Gnv<lveIE 2recGsel:E tHe ûalGtatGve states <F <ur mental lGFe: tHe GIentGt: Kas establGsHeI betKeen sensatG<ns anI braGn 2r<cesses. ZSmart 19@9[ IIentGt: tHe<rGsts tH<uMHt tHat tHe rest <F mental 2Hen<menaE lGLe belGeFE unIerstanIGnME KantGnME etc. c<ulI be aIeûatel: HanIleI b: a beHavG<urGstGc a22r<acH. .<KeverE tHe: later eXtenIeI tHe GIentGt: tHesGs t< all LGnIs <F mental 2Hen<mena. ZI <Ke tHGs HGst<rGcal 2<Gnt t< E. Rab<ssG.[

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2<nent tHat KGll be IescrGbeI b: neur<2H:sG<l<M:. THGs neur<2H:sG-<l<MGcal IescrG2tG<n KGll be F<rmulateI Gn a neK scGentG! c v<cabular:. THe neur<2H:sG<l<MGcal IescrG2tG<n KGll GIentGF: tHe reFerence tHat tHe c<nce2t <F 2aGn Has t<Ia:E G.e.E tHe GnIeXGcal c<m2<nent <F tHe c<nce2t <F 2aGnE but tHGs IescrG2tG<n KGll be F<rmulateI KGtH a neK v<cabu-lar:E s< Ke KGll n<t ! nI a c<nce2tual lGnL betKeen tHe stere<t:2e <F 2aGn anI tHe IescrG2tG<n <F tHe Iee2 structure <F 2aGn ZtHe neur<2H:sG-<l<MGcal state GIentG! eI KGtH 2aGn[_ tHe: KGll ]ust be tK< alternatGve IescrG2tG<ns <F tHe same stuFF Gn tHe K<rlI. In tHe same Ka: aKaterP anI a.2OP are IGFFerent Zc<nce2tuall: GnIe2enIent[ c<nce2tsE <ne <F tHem Gs c<nstGtuteI b: tHe stere<t:2e <F Kater anI Gts GnIeXGcal c<m-2<nentE anI tHe <tHer <ne Gs a IescrG2tG<n <F tHe eXtensG<n <F tHe term aKaterP Gn a neK scGentG! c v<cabular:. THGs acc<unt <F aKaterP as a natural LGnI c<nce2t Gs n<t Gnc<m2atGble KGtH tHe GIea HelI b: tHe t:2e-GIentGt: tHe<rGsts acc<rIGnM t< KHGcH aKater u .2OP Gs an a poste-riori GIentGt:E IGsc<vereI b: scGentG! c 2r<Mress.

Pr<2<sGtG<nal attGtuIe c<nce2ts seem t< 2<se certaGn 2r<blems GF tHe H:2<tHesGs I am 2r<2<sGnM Gs t< acc<mm<Iate tHem. In tHGs caseE Gt seems em2GrGcall: Gm2<ssGble t< ! nI a cateM<rGcal 2r<2ert:E <r a unGûe neur<2H:sG<l<MGcal 2r<2ert:E KGtH KHGcH Ke can GIentGF: a 2r<2<sGtG<nal attGtuIe c<nce2tE because <F tHe Kell-Ln<Kn multG2le realGWabGlGt: arMument. NevertHelessE Gt Gs KGIel: acce2teI tHat 2r<2<-sGtG<nal attGtuIes are FunctG<nal states: tHeGr OessenceS Gs FunctG<nalE relatG<nalE anI n<t mGcr<structural Zas Gn tHe case <F cHemGcal 2r<2er-tGes[. BelGeFs are states tHat carr: GnF<rmatG<n ab<ut tHe K<rlI. AnI Gt Gs usuall: tH<uMHt tHat tHese GnF<rmatG<nal states are eXactl: tH<se 2<stulateI b: c<MnGtGve 2s:cH<l<M: KHGle tr:GnM t< eX2laGn 2s:cH<-l<MGcal 2Hen<mena sucH as mem<r:E IecGsG<n-maLGnME 2r<blem-s<lv-GnME teXt c<m2reHensG<nE etc.: tHe neK scGentG! c IescrG2tG<n <F tHese 2Hen<mena 2r<2<seI n<KaIa:s Gs MGven Gn FunctG<nal termsE but Gt Gs a leMGtGmate essence aFter all Z<n m: <Kn reaIGnM <F 2s:cH<l<MGcal essentGalGsm 2r<2<seI Gn tHe ! rst 2araMra2H <F tHGs 2a2er[. THus Ke c<nsGIer 2r<2<sGtG<nal attGtuIe c<nce2ts t< be natural LGnI c<nce2tsE KGtH a FunctG<nal essence ZKHGcH c<ulI be multG2l: realGWeIE as tHe <rtH<I<X: claGms[.

As Ke can seeE tHe H:2<tHesGs tHat mental c<nce2ts are natural LGnI c<nce2ts c<Heres KGtH tHe taX<n<m: <F mental c<nce2ts 2r<2<seI Gn tHe last 2araMra2H. As Ke saK ab<veE tHere Gs a certaGn Heter<MeneGt:

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Diana I. Pérez

am<nM mental c<nce2ts: n<t all <F tHem beHave Gn tHe same Ka:E anI Gt Gs IGF! cult t< ! nI a c<mm<n Feature sHareI b: all mental states ZGn FactE Gt seems t< me tHat mental c<nce2ts are b<unI t<MetHer <nl: Gn vGrtue <F certaGn FamGl: resemblanceE anI tHat Gs all_ tHere are n< FurtHer rea-s<ns t< 2ut tHem all t<MetHer[. On tHe <tHer HanIE 2HGl<s<2HGcal IGs-cussG<ns ab<ut tHe ûalGtatGve usuall: taLe neur<scGence as tHe basGc scGence Gn terms <F KHGcH reIuctG<nE elGmGnatG<nE anI s< <n Have t< be tH<uMHt_ but tHe 2arallel IGscussG<ns ab<ut tHe GntentG<nal alKa:s taLe c<MnGtGve scGence as tHe basGc scGence ZanI tHe case <F em<tG<ns Gs Gn betKeen[. IF Ke acce2t tHe GIea tHat mental c<nce2ts are natural LGnI c<nce2tsE tHGs IGFFerence c<ulI be easGl: eX2laGneI: Gt Gs true n<t <nl: tHat tHere are IGFFerences Gn stere<t:2e betKeen <ne LGnI <F c<nce2t anI tHe <tHers Zas Ke saK ab<veE basGc em<tG<ns stere<t:2es GncluIe 2H:sGcal cHanMesE KHGle 2r<2<sGtG<nal attGtuIesP stere<t:2e I<es n<t[E but als<E tHere are IGFFerences Gn tHeGr OessencesS: KHGle tHe best set <F c<nce2ts Gn <rIer t< IescrGbe tHe OessenceS <F tHe ûalGtatGve are neur<2H:sG<l<MGcal c<nce2tsE tHe OessenceS <F tHe GntentG<nal Gs best eX2laGneI b: a c<MnGtGve tHe<r:E a HGMHer-level tHe<r:. THe Heter<Mene-Gt: tHat Ke ! nI Gn tHe stere<t:2e <F mental c<nce2ts tracLs tHe IGFFer-ence Gn essences tHat tHe: 2<ssess.

IV. First Consequence: Phenomenal Concepts are DispensableUnIerstanIGnM mental c<nce2ts as natural LGnI c<nce2ts entaGls man: GnterestGnM 2HGl<s<2HGcal c<nseûences. T< beMGn KGtHE tHe n<tG<n <F a2Hen<menal c<nce2tP su22<seI Gn recent IGscussG<ns ab<ut qualia turns <ut t< be a IGs2ensable n<tG<n. All Ke neeI Gn <rIer t< eX2laGn tHe 2Hen<mena are sensation concepts: a2aGnPE ac<l<ur sensatG<nsPE anI tHe lGLe. PHen<menal c<nce2ts are su22<seI t< be tH<se tHat reFer t< tHe 2Hen<menal 2r<2ertGes <F <ur mental lGvesE t< <ur sub]ectGve eX2e-rGenceE t< <ur qualia ZG.e.E t< KHat Gs be:<nI tHe FunctG<nalE tHe rela-tG<nalE anI tHe c<MnGtGve[. THe: reFer t< tHe GntrGnsGc cHaracter <F <ur mGnIs. THe Kell-Ln<Kn tH<uMHt eX2erGments <F W<mbGes anI GnverteI s2ectra are IesGMneI t< set a2art tHe FunctG<nal Features <F <ur mGnI Fr<m tHe n<n-FunctG<nalGWable 2art <F <ur mGnI: tHe ûalGtatGve Fea-turesE reFerreI t< b: 2Hen<menal c<nce2ts. I KGll set asGIe tHe ̂ uestG<n <F tHe ver: eXGstence <F tHese qualia. In KHat F<ll<KsE I KGll <nl: be

211


c<ncerneI KGtH tHe GIea <F 2Hen<menal c<nce2tsE anI KGtH KHetHer Gt maLes sense t< c<nsGIer tHese 2Hen<menal c<nce2ts as natural LGnI c<nce2ts. In tHe ! rst 2laceE Gt Gs n<t clear tHat <ur ever:Ia: lanMuaMe c<ntaGns 2Hen<menal c<nce2ts Gn tHe sense <utlGneI ab<ve. In FactE <ur <rIGnar: lanMuaMe c<ntaGns sensatG<n c<nce2ts sucH as a2aGnPE asensatG<n <F reIPE etc.E but tHese <rIGnar: c<nce2ts Have a relatG<nal sGIeE a FunctG<nal as2ect ZanI Gn tHe <2GnG<n <F s<me 2HGl<s<2HersE tHGs FunctG<nal as2ect eXHausts tHe meanGnM <F tHese terms LeKGs 1966E 19e2[. As CHalmers Z1996E 1e[ acLn<KleIMesE OKe mGMHt sa: tHat tHe n<tG<n <F 2aGn Gs ambGMu<us betKeen tHe 2Hen<menal anI tHe 2s:-cH<l<MGcal lFunctG<nalm c<nce2tE <r Ke mGMHt sa: tHat b<tH <F tHese are c<m2<nents <F a sGnMle rGcH c<nce2t.S In m: vGeKE tHe ! rst <F tHese <2tG<ns Gnv<lves tHe H:2<tHesGs tHat tHere are tK< c<nce2ts beHGnI <ur <rIGnar: K<rI a2aGnPE a 2Hen<menal c<nce2t <F 2aGn ZKHGcH reFers t< an GntrGnsGc 2r<2ert: <F <ur eX2erGenceE Ln<Kn Fr<m tHe ! rst 2ers<n 2ers2ectGve[E anI a 2s:cH<l<MGcal c<nce2t <F 2aGn ZKHGcH reFers t< tHe cause <F <ur <bservable 2aGn-beHavG<urE eXclusGvel: Ln<Kn Fr<m tHe tHGrI 2ers<n 2ers2ectGve[. In an: caseE tHGs K<ulI be a 2HGl<s<2HGcal IGstGnctG<nE n<t an <rIGnar: <neE because Gt Gs baseI <n tHe tH<uMHt eX2erGments mentG<neI ab<ve. THe sec<nI <2tG<n GsE Gn m: vGeKE tHe rGMHt <ne c<ncernGnM <ur ever:Ia: lanMuaMe. Our <rIGnar: mental c<nce2ts are c<m2leXE rGcH_ tHe: Have IGFFerent a22lGcatG<n crGterGa F<r tHe ! rst anI tHe tHGrI 2ers<n. THat Gs tHe OMrammarS <F <ur <rIGnar: mental c<nce2ts. IF Ke tr: t< taLe a2art tHe ! rst- anI tHe tHGrI 2ers<n as2ects <F <ur mental lGvesE tHe 2Hen<menal anI tHe beHavG<ural as2ects <F tHe mental c<nce2tsE Ke Fracture <ur <rIGnar: c<nce2tsE anI tHGs m<ve Has t< be ]ustG! eI. I am n<t claGmGnM tHat <ur <rIGnar: c<nce2ts cann<t cHanMeE but tHat an: cHanMe Ke Gntr<Iuce Has t< be ]ustG! eI Gn <ne Ka: <r an<tHer.

In tHe sec<nI 2laceE even GF 2Hen<menal c<nce2ts are acce2teI as a c<nseûence <F a philosophical IGstGnctG<nE tHere Gs a 2r<blem KGtH tHeGr GnIGvGIuatG<n. In a recent 2a2erE CHalmers Z2>>3[ aF! rms tHat KHen Ke are HavGnM a reI eX2erGence anI Ke tHGnL tHat Ke are HavGnM a reI eX2erGenceE tHere are at least F<ur 2Hen<menal c<nce2ts Gnv<lveI Gn tHat tH<uMHt: Z1[ tHe c<mmunGt: relatG<nal c<nce2t: reIC ZatHe ûal-Gt: causeI Gn n<rmal <bservers Gn m: c<mmunGt: b: reI tHGnMsP[E Z2[ tHe GnIGvGIual relatG<nal c<nce2t: reII ZatHe ûalGt: n<rmall: causeI Gn me b: reI tHGnMsP[E Z3[ tHe GnIeXGcal c<nce2t: E ZatHe ûalGt: I am

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eX2erGencGnM n<KP[ anI Z4[ tHe ûalGtatGve c<nce2t: R. ButE acc<rIGnM t< CHalmersE tHe same 2r<2ert: maLes true tHe IGFFerent statements Gnv<lvGnM all <F tHese c<nce2tsE tHat Gs t< sa: tHat Gt Gs a posteriori neces-sar: tHat reIC u reII u E u R. M: claGm Gs tHat Z1[`Z4[ are all c<nstGtu-ents <F tHe <rIGnar: c<nce2t asensatG<n <F reIP. IF b: ac<nce2tP Ke mean tHe c<ntent <F <rIGnar: termsE I tHGnL m: claGm Gs rGMHt.

In tHe tHGrI 2laceE Gt Gs n<t clear KHat R c<ulI be. In <rIer t< eX2laGn tHe IGstGnctG<n betKeen a 2Hen<menal anI a FunctG<nal ZO2s:cH<l<MG-calES Gn CHalmersP K<rIs[ c<nce2tE CHalmers Gntr<Iuces s<me tecH-nGcal n<tG<ns ab<ut tHe meanGnM <F K<rIs. F<r HGmE tHe meanGnM <r GntensG<n <F a MGven term Gs c<m2<seI <F tK< IGFFerent GntensG<nsE tHe 2rGmar: GntensG<n <F tHe term anI tHe sec<nIar: GntensG<n <F tHat same term. THe 2rGmar: GntensG<n <F a term Gs a FunctG<n Fr<m K<rlIs t< eXtensG<ns acc<rIGnM t< tHe Ka: tHe actual-K<rlI reFerence Gs ! XeI: Gt 2GcLs <ut tHe Features tHat .2O <F <ur EartHE anI XYt <F TKGn EartHE Have Gn c<mm<n. THe sec<nIar: GntensG<n 2GcLs <ut tHe same sub-stance Gn all K<rlIs_ MGven tHe Fact tHat Kater turns <ut t< be .2O Gn <ur actual K<rlIE tHe sec<nIar: GntensG<n <F aKaterP 2GcLs <ut .2O Gn ever: 2<ssGble K<rlI. THe 2rGmar: GntensG<n 2GcLs <ut tHe stere<t:2eE tHe relatG<nalE 2Hen<menal Features <F tHe substance reFerreI t< b: tHe natural LGnI term. THe 2rGmar: GntensG<ns <F tHe c<nce2ts are Ieter-mGneI b: c<nce2tual anal:sGs_ tHe: are abs<lutel: a prioriE tHe: are GnIe2enIent <F tHe Ka: <ur K<rlI Gs.

PHen<menal c<nce2tsE acc<rIGnM t< CHalmersE are tH<se KHere 2rGmar: anI sec<nIar: GntensG<ns c<lla2seE <rE m<re accuratel:E tHe: are tH<se tHat lacL 2rGmar: GntensG<n_ tHe: lacL a stere<t:2eE tHe: I< n<t Have an: relatG<nal <r FunctG<nal Features. .<KeverE GF tHGs Gs trueE tHe: cann<t be natural LGnI c<nce2tsE because natural LGnI c<nce2ts reûGre a stere<t:2e c<nstGtutGnM tHeGr meanGnM. AnI acc<rIGnM t< KHat I Have saGI ab<veE <ur <rIGnar: sensatG<n c<nce2ts I< n<t seem t< beHave tHGs Ka:_ tHe: I< Have a FunctG<nal <r relatG<nal sGIejas2ect: <ur <rIGnar: sensatG<n c<nce2ts are n<t c<nce2ts lGLe R.

FGnall:E CHalmers eX2lGcGtl: arMues aMaGnst tHe anal<M: betKeen 2Hen<menal c<nce2ts anI natural LGnI c<nce2ts. .Gs arMument M<es as F<ll<Ks:

But Here Ke see a str<nM IGsanal<M:. Once Oscar acûGres tHe cHemGcal c<nce2t .2O anI TKGn Oscar acûGres XYtE tHe: KGll

213


n< l<nMer be tKGns: tHeGr FunctG<nal 2r<2ertGes KGll IGFFer sGM-nG! cantl:. B: c<ntrastE at tHe c<rres2<nIGnM 2<Gnt Mar: anI InverteI Mar: are stGll tKGns. Even tH<uMH Mar: Has a 2ure 2He-n<menal c<nce2t R anI GnverteI Mar: Has GE tHeGr FunctG<nal 2r<2ertGes are ]ust tHe same. S< tHe IGFFerence betKeen tHe c<n-ce2ts R anI G acr<ss FunctG<nal tKGns Gs s<metHGnM tHat Has n< c<unter2art Gn tHe stanIarI TKGn EartH st<r:. Z2>>3E 231[

I Have tK< K<rrGes KGtH tHGs arMument. FGrstE Ke can c<nsGIer tHGs same 2assaMe as a reductio ad absurdum <F tHe GIea tHat R anI G Z2ure 2Hen<menal c<nce2ts[ are concepts at all. IF s<metHGnM I<esnPt maLe a IGFFerence Gn tHe belGeFs tHat Gt c<nstGtutesE Gt Gs n<t a c<nce2t. Sec<nIE GF 2Hen<menal c<nce2ts are c<nce2tsE Gn tHe sense tHat tHe: I< maLe a IGFFerence Gn tHe belGeFs tHat tHe: c<nstGtuteE24 tHen there really is a Func-tG<nal IGFFerence betKeen Mar: anI TKGn Mar: GF tHe: Have IGFFerent 2Hen<menal c<nce2ts because <F tHeGr IGFFerent eX2erGencesE anI s< tHe anal<M: KGtH tHe .2O case Gs re-establGsHeI. THe <nl: Ka: t< av<GI tHGs <b]ectG<n Gs t< acce2t a IGFFerence am<nM belGeFs KGtH<ut a c<rrela-tGve FunctG<nal IGFFerence ` but GF tHGs Gs tHe caseE belGeFs I< n<t su2er-vene l<MGcall: <n tHe FunctG<nalE anI tHe ver: IGstGnctG<n betKeen tHe Oeas: 2r<blemS anI tHe OHarI 2r<blemS <F c<nscG<usness IGsa22ears Zsee CHalmers 1996E 199e[.

SummGnM u2E su22<seI ûalGtatGve c<nce2ts Z2urel: 2Hen<menal c<nce2ts[ are n<t natural LGnI c<nce2ts_ <ur F<lL 2s:cH<l<M: Gs c<nstG-tuteI b: mental c<nce2ts tHat are natural LGnI c<nce2ts_ tHusE tHere Gs n< reas<n t< acce2t tHGs LGnI <F c<nce2tE because all tHe 2Hen<mena <F <ur mental lGFe KHGcH c<ulI be scGentG! call: eX2laGneI are eXactl: tH<se 2Hen<mena tHat are alreaI: reFerreI t< b: <ur <rIGnar: mental c<nce2ts.

24 It Gs K<rtH mentG<nGnM tHat tHGs Gs eXactl: tHe tHesGs tHat CHalmers Gs IeFenIGnM Gn tHGs 2a2er: HGs GIea Gs tHat 2Hen<menal belGeFs are a s2ecGal LGnI <F belGeF n<t c<m2letel: FunctG<nalE but 2artl: c<nstGtuteI b: tHese 2Hen<menal c<nce2tsE KHGcH <bvG<usl: cann<t be FunctG<nalGWeI.

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V. Second Consequence: Folk Psychology is IneliminableIn tHe last tHGrt: :earsE man: 2a2ers Have been KrGtten Gn <rIer t< clarGF: tHe status anI nature <F F<lL 2s:cH<l<M:. SGnce LeKGs 19e2 anI CHurcHlanI 19d1E tHe GIea tHat F<lL 2s:cH<l<M: Gs a tHe<r: Kas KGIel: IGscusseI. AnI sGnce CHurcHlanI 19d1 anI StGcH 19d3E tHe Fate <F F<lL 2s:cH<l<M: Has been GneXtrGcabl: lGnLeI t< Gts tHe<retGcal status. N<KaIa:sE tHere are man: IGFFerent Gssues c<ncernGnM F<lL 2s:cH<l-<M: tHat are IGscusseI Gn tHe 2HGl<s<2HGcal anI tHe 2s:cH<l<MGcal lGt-erature_ I I< n<t Kant t< eXamGne tHe KH<le IGscussG<n. On tHe c<n-trar:E I Kant t< taLe as a startGnM 2<Gnt tHe GIea <F F<lL 2s:cH<l<M: as tHGs netK<rL <F ever:Ia: 2s:cH<l<MGcal c<nce2ts b: means <F KHGcH Zat least s<metGmes[ n<rmal aIult Human beGnMs Gnter2retE 2reIGctE anI eX2laGn <ur <Kn anI <tHer 2e<2lePs beHavG<ur.2@ In lGMHt <F tHe H:2<tHesGs 2r<2<seI Gn tHGs 2a2er ZG.e.E tHat mental c<nce2ts are natu-ral LGnI c<nce2ts Gn tHe sense s2ecG! eI Gn SectG<ns IÌII[E I sHall tr: t< sH<K tHat tHere Gs a leMGtGmate sense acc<rIGnM t< KHGcH F<lL 2s:cH<l-<M: Gs t< be c<nsGIereI as a tHe<r: butE Gn s2Gte <F beGnM a tHe<r:E Gt maLes n< sense t< IGscuss KHetHer <r n<t Gt KGll be elGmGnateI because <F scGentG! c 2r<Mress_ t< tHe c<ntrar:E tHe sense <F atHe<r:P Gnv<lveI Gn tHGs 2r<2<sal KGll 2revent Gt Fr<m beGnM elGmGnateI. In <rIer t< I< tHat I sHallE ! rstl:E 2resent tHe Meneral F<rm <F tHe elGmGnatGvGstPs arMumentE anI I sHall maLe s<me remarLs ab<ut tHe m<st Fam<us eXem2lG! ca-tG<ns <F Gt_ tHenE I sHall eX2laGn tHe sense Gn KHGcH F<lL 2s:cH<l<M: Gs a tHe<r: KGtHGn tHe FrameK<rL 2r<2<seI Gn tHGs 2a2erE anI I sHall sH<K KH: tHGs tHe<r: KGll n<t be elGmGnateI.

2@ I KGll n<t c<nsGIer tHe cases ZGF tHere are an:[ KHere Gt Gs 2<ssGble t< maLe 2reIGctG<ns <r eX2lanatG<ns <F Human beHavG<ur KGtH<ut usGnM mental c<nce2ts Zas Gt seems t< be 2<ssGble acc<rIGnM t< tHe OsGmulatG<n tHe<r:S[. I KGll n<t taLe Gnt< acc<unt tHe IGscussG<ns ab<ut tHe acûGsGtG<n <F mental c<nce2ts Z<r tHe s<-calleI OtHe<r: <F mGnIS[E G.e.E tHe IGscussG<ns <n KHetHer tHere eXGsts an Gnnate m<Iule c<ntaGnGnM tHGs tHe<r: <F tHe mGnIE <r GF Gt Gs tHe result <F a Meneral-2ur2<se mecHanGsm tHat Ke use Gn <rIer t< Menerate Meneral tHe<rGes ab<ut tHe K<rlIE <r GF Gt Gs acûGreI b: enculturatG<n. AnI ! nall:E I KGll n<t be c<ncerneI KGtH tHe em2GrGcal ̂ uestG<n ab<ut tHe GnF<rmatG<n-2r<cessGnM mecHanGsms tHat neeI t< be 2<stulateI Gn <rIer t< 2r<vGIe an eX2lanatG<n <F tHe actual Human 2ractGce usuall: calleI OF<lL 2s:cH<l<M:.S

21@


THe Meneral F<rm <F tHe arMument F<r elGmGnatGvGsm Gs sGm2le. THe ! rst 2remGse aF! rms tHat F<lL 2s:cH<l<M: Gs a tHe<r:. THe sec<nI 2remGse Gs tHat Gt Gs a baI tHe<r:. Man: IGFFerent 2artGcular arMuments F<r tHGs 2remGse taLe IGFFerent Facts as a startGnM 2<Gnt. CHurcHlanIPs Z19d1[ versG<n <F tHe arMument maGntaGns tHat F<lL 2s:cH<l<M: Gs a baI tHe<r: because Gt cann<t eX2laGn certaGn 2Hen<menaE because Gt Gs n<t a O2r<MressGveS researcH 2r<MramE anI because Gt Gs Gn c<n" Gct KGtH <tHer Kell-establGsHeI tHe<rGesE es2ecGall: KGtH neur<scGence. StGcHPs Z19d3E 1996E CHa2ter 2[ arMument Gs baseI <n tHe GIea tHat tHe unIer-stanIGnM <F belGeFs 2r<vGIeI b: F<lL 2s:cH<l<M: Gs Gn c<n" Gct KGtH mature c<MnGtGve scGence. THGs baI tHe<r:E s< tHe Meneral arMument c<ntGnuesE KGll be re2laceI b: a better ZscGentG! c[ tHe<r:. THereF<reE tHe <nt<l<M: 2resu22<seI Gn tHe re]ecteI tHe<r: Has t< be re]ecteI t<<: aFter allE tHere are n< belGeFsE IesGresE anI s< <n.

THe ! rst 2remGse <F tHGs arMument Has been re2eateIl: IGscusseI Gn tHe last tKent: :ears. RHat LGnI <F OtHe<r:S Gs Gt su22<seI tHat F<lL 2s:cH<l<M: GsV THe GIea sHareI b: StGcHE CHurcHlanIE LeKGs ZF<ll<K-GnM Sellars[E anI man: <tHers Gs tHat F<lL 2s:cH<l<M: Gs a set <F causal laKs tHat are useI Gn <rIer t< eX2laGn anI 2reIGct beHavG<ur. THese laKs c<nnect 2erce2tual anI <tHer Gn2uts KGtH beHavG<ural <ut2utsE 2<stulatGnM a s2ecGal LGnI <F tHe<retGcal entGt: ` mental states ` KHGcH HaveE KGtHGn tHGs F<lL tHe<r:E tHe same status as <tHer tHe<retGcal entG-tGes Gn <tHer scGentG! c tHe<rGes_ tHe: areE F<r eXam2leE lGLe Oat<msS: n<n-<bservable entGtGes assumeI Gn <rIer t< eX2laGn <bservable Facts.

I Kant t< maLe s<me remarLs <n s<me Gnstances <F tHGs Meneral arMument F<rm. THe sense <F OtHe<r:S CHurcHlanI aI<2ts Gs ûGte clear: He assumes tHat F<lL 2s:cH<l<M: Gs an em2GrGcal tHe<r: lGLe an: <tHer scGentG! c tHe<r:_ tHe em2GrGcal tHe<rGes tHat He uses Gn <rIer t< eXem2lGF: tHe GIea tHat tHe <nt<l<M: <F a False tHe<r: Has t< be elGmG-nateI are alcHem: anI tHe 2Hl<MGst<n tHe<r: ZCHurcHlanI 19d1E 12`14[. It Gs remarLable tHat He I<es n<t c<m2are <ur F<lL 2s:cH<l<M: KGtH <ur c<mm<nsense c<nce2tG<n <F 2H:sGcal 2Hen<mena ` <ur F<lL <r OGntuGtGveS 2H:sGcs ZMcCl<sLe: 19d3[ È but KGtH tK< 2artGcular 2H:sGcal tHe<rGes 2r<2<seI b: a s2ecGal c<mmunGt:E G.e.E tHe 2H:sG-cGstsP c<mmunGt: at tHat tGme.

In tHe sec<nI 2laceE CHurcHlanIPs crGtGcGsms <F F<lL 2s:cH<l<M: are F<cuseI <n a s2ecGal 2art <F GtE tHe 2art c<ncerneI KGtH 2r<2<sGtG<nal attGtuIes ` KHGcHE He sa:sE are OtHe 2rGncG2al elements <F c<mm<n

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sense 2s:cH<l<M:S ZCHurcHlanI 19d1E 1[. .e eX2lGcGtl: GMn<res em<-tG<ns anI sensatG<ns. StGcHPs Z19d3[ arMuments F<r elGmGnatGvGsm are als< F<cuseI <n 2r<2<sGtG<nal attGtuIes. THere are als< elGmGnatGvGst arMuments tHat are c<ncerneI KGtH qualia ZDennett 19dd[ <r em<tG<ns ZGrGF! tHs 199e[. But tHere I< n<t seem t< be Meneral arMuments aMaGnst F<lL 2s:cH<l<M: as a KH<le. AnIE as I saGI ab<veE Gt seems <bvG<us t< me tHat <ur c<mm<nsense c<nce2tG<n <F <urselves GncluIes em<tG<ns anI sensatG<ns as Kell as belGeFs anI IesGres. Our beHavG<ur Gs usu-all: eX2laGneI Gn terms <F 2r<2<sGtG<nal attGtuIesE but als< Gn terms <F tHe em<tG<ns anI sensatG<ns Ke 2<ssess. AnI tHe K<rst c<nseûence <F tHe 2artGal unIerstanIGnM <F <ur F<lL 2s:cH<l<M: tHat CHurcHlanI assumes Gs tHat Gt Has GnFecteI all tHe IGscussG<ns tHereaFter ab<ut tHe statusE natureE anI Future <F F<lL 2s:cH<l<M:.26

I belGeve tHat tHe H:2<tHesGs I 2r<2<se Gn tHGs 2a2er all<Ks us t< 2reserve tHe tHe<retGcal status <F F<lL 2s:cH<l<M: Gn a FruGtFul Ka:E av<GIGnM Gts elGmGnatG<n. Acc<rIGnM t< tHe H:2<tHesGs tHat mental c<n-ce2ts are natural LGnI c<nce2tsE anI F<ll<KGnM tHe acc<unt <F natural LGnI c<nce2ts I 2r<2<seI ZGn SectG<n I[E F<lL 2s:cH<l<M: ` tHe set <F <ur <rIGnar: mental c<nce2ts ` Gs a netK<rL <F c<nce2tsE GncluIGnM at least tHree LGnIs <F mental c<nce2ts: sensatG<n c<nce2tsE em<tG<n c<nce2ts anI 2r<2<sGtG<nal attGtuIe c<nce2ts. As I saGI ab<veE eacH <F tHese c<nce2ts Has a OMrammarES a tHe<r: <r b<I: <F Ln<KleIMe tHat GncluIes man: <tHer mental c<nce2tsE s<me beHavG<ural Facts Zb<tH lGnMuGstGc anI n<n-verbal[E s<me FacGal manGFestatG<nsE etc.

THGs tHe<r: Gs <ur F<lL 2s:cH<l<M:E tHe stere<t:2Gcal c<m2<nent <F <ur 2s:cH<l<MGcal natural LGnI c<nce2ts. LearnGnM tHe meanGnM <F <ur <rIGnar: mental c<nce2ts Gs HavGnM tHe master: <F tHGs tHe<r:E beGnM able t< use Gt Gn <rIer t< c<mmunGcate <ur mental states anI t< eX2laGn anI 2reIGct <ur <Kn anI <tHersP beHavG<ur.

In m: <2GnG<nE Ke can IGstGnMuGsH at least tK< IGFFerent senses Gn KHGcH Ke c<ulI sa: tHat F<lL 2s:cH<l<M: Gs a tHe<r:. On tHe <ne HanIE Ke c<ulI su22<se tHat Gt Gs a tHe<r: because Ke acce2t tHe GIea tHat mental states are 2<stulateI <n tHe basGs <F <bservable beHavG<urE Gn

26 SeeE F<r eXam2leE GreenK<<I 1991E Intr<IuctG<nE KHere He restrGcts tHe IGscussG<ns ab<ut tHe Future <F F<lL 2s:cH<l<M: t< tH<se c<nce2tG<ns tHat Gnv<lve 2s:cH<l<MGcal states tHat are c<ntentFul anI causall: eF! cacG<us.

21e


<rIer t< eX2laGn anI 2reIGct Human actG<n. THGs Gs tHe <rGMGnal sense Gn KHGcH LeKGs anI CHurcHlanI aF! rmeI tHat F<lL 2s:cH<l<M: Gs a tHe<r:. But tHere Gs an<tHer ZKGIer[ sense <F tHe<r:: Gt Gs tHe GIea tHat an: c<Herent set <F belGeFs ab<ut a certaGn sub]ect Gs a tHe<r:E anI tHGs Gs tHe sense Gn KHGcH Ke acce2t tHat beF<re Ln<KGnM tHe scGentG! c struc-ture <F KaterE Ke alreaI: HaI a OtHe<r: <F Kater.S In tHGs sec<nI senseE I Kant t< aF! rm tHat F<lL 2s:cH<l<M: Gs a tHe<r:. But tHGs claGm I<es n<t c<mmGt us t< tHe GIea tHat Ke can <nl: <bserve beHavG<ur. T< tHe c<ntrar:E Gt Gs 2laGnl: c<m2atGble KGtH tHe GIea tHat Ke c<ulI <bserve IGrectl: <ur <Kn as Kell as <tHer 2e<2leP s mental satesE anI tHat Ke I< n<t OGnFerS <tHer 2e<2lePs mental states <n tHe basGs <F tHeGr beHav-G<urE <r FacGal eX2ressG<n.2e

Acc<rIGnM t< tHe acc<unt <F natural LGnI c<nce2ts tHat I 2r<2<seI ab<veE mental c<nce2ts als< Have an OGnIeXGcalS c<m2<nent. THGs c<m2<nentE unIerst<<I Gn terms <F 2s:cH<l<MGcal essentGalGsmE Has t< be ! lleI Gn KGtH m<re tHe<rGesE sucH as tH<se 2r<2<seI Gn <rIer t< IGs-c<ver tHe HGIIen essence <F tHese mental c<nce2ts. But tHese tHe<rGes are c<ntGnu<us KGtH <ur F<lL tHe<rGesE MGven tHe Fact tHat tHe: are buGlt Gn <rIer t< eX2laGn m<re Iee2l: tHe Facts alreaI: eX2laGneI b: tHe tHe<r: tHat c<nstGtutes tHe Mrammar <F tHese c<nce2ts. F<lL 2s:cH<l-<M: anI scGentG! c 2s:cH<l<M: are Zas a c<nseûence <F m: vGeK[ Gn tHe same relatG<n as <ur F<lL tHe<r: ab<ut Kater KGtH cHemGstr:E KHGcH Mr<unIs tHe GIentGt: Kater u .2O.

Acc<rIGnM t< tHe H:2<tHesGs I am IeFenIGnME tHe elGmGnatGvGst 2<sG-tG<n Gs untenable because <ur F<lL 2s:cH<l<M: Gs tHe basGc unIerstanI-GnM <F <ur mental lGvesE tHe GnGtGal 2<Gnt F<r unIertaLGnM <ur scGen-tG! c researcH. Our c<mm<nsense anI <ur scGentG! c Ln<KleIMe F<rm a c<ntGnuumE anI scGentG! c researcH can eX2laGn s<me c<mm<nsense 2Hen<mena. OF c<urseE <ur c<mm<nsense unIerstanIGnM can cHanMe

2e In m: <2GnG<nE tHe 2assaMe alKa:s û<teI Fr<m RGttMensteGn Z196eE 22@[ Gn <rIer t< arMue tHat He IGI n<t acce2t tHat F<lL 2s:cH<l<M: Gs a LGnI <F tHe<r: Gs <nl: aIeûate Gn <rIer t< re]ect tHe ! rst sense <F tHe<r:E but n<t tHe sec<nI <neE KHGcH Gs c<m2atGble KGtH tHe GIea tHat <ur c<mm<n Ln<KleIMe ab<ut <ur mental lGFeE tHe LGnI tHat maLes 2<ssGble <ur mental c<nce2tsE Gs Gn Fact a certaGn LGnI <F tHe<r: ZaltH<uMH n<t entGrel: em2GrGcalE but F<r s<me<ne lGLe me KH< re]ects tHe tK< I<Mmas <F em2GrGcGsmE tHe ûestG<n GF Gt Gs an em2GrGcal <r a c<nce2tual tHe<r: Gs n<t Gm2<rtant[.

21d

Diana I. Pérez

because <F scGentG! c ! nIGnMsE butE Gn tHe enIE tHe ver: same 2Hen<m-ena tHat c<nstGtute <ur <rIGnar: unIerstanIGnM <F tHe K<rlI anI <F <urselves Have t< be GncluIeI Gn tHe scGentG! c GmaMe <F tHe K<rlIE F<r tHe: cann<t c<ntraIGct Gt.2d

C<m2arGnM tHe F<lL 2s:cH<l<M: case KGtH tHe Kater caseE KHat scG-entG! c researcHers l<<L F<r Gs tHe OessenceS <F Kater_ KHen tHe: IGs-c<ver tHat Kater Gs .2OE tHe: I< n<t elGmGnate aKaterPE but tHe: Gnc<r-2<rate aKaterP Gnt< tHe scGentG! c GmaMe <F tHe K<rlI. IF Ke 2retenI tHat 2s:cH<l<M:E KHGle IealGnM KGtH GnF<rmatG<nal states <r KGtH neu-r<2H:sG<l<MGcal statesE can eventuall: cHanMe Gnt< s<metHGnM KHere tHere Gs n< 2lace F<r n<tG<ns sucH as abelGeFPE aIesGrePE a2aGnPE aFearPES anI s< <nE tHen tHere Gs a cHanMe <F sub]ectE anI Ke are n<t IealGnM an: m<re KGtH <ur 2s:cH<l<M:.

M<re<verE as I suMMesteI ab<veE tHe elGmGnatGvGst arMuments tHat Ke ! nI Gn tHe 2HGl<s<2HGcal lGterature areE Gn MeneralE 2ar-tGalE G.e.E restrGcteI t< tHe GIea <F elGmGnatGnM 2r<2<sGtG<nal attGtuIes ZCHurcHlanI 19d1E StGcH 19d3E GreenK<<I 1991[ or ûalGa ZDennett 19dd[ or em<tG<n ZGrGF! tHs 199e[E but n<t all <F tHem b: a sGnMle arMu-ment. AnI even acce2tGnM tH<se arMuments F<r tHeGr res2ectGve casesE Gt Gs rGsL: t< eXtenI tHe same arMument t< <tHer casesE because tHe: are usuall: baseI <n 2eculGar Features <F tHe mental Gnv<lveI Gn tHe 2ar-tGcular cases c<nsGIereIE anI tHe: cann<t be eXtenIeI t< <tHer cases

2d THe strateM: I am IeFenIGnM aMaGnst elGmGnatGvGsm Gs n<t tHe same as tHat 2r<2<seI b: L:canE KH< <22<seI tHe 2HGl<s<2HGcal tHesGs <F elGmGnatGvGsm KGtH a buncH <F OM<<rean FactsS sucH as tHat Grann: Kants a beer. THe <22<sGtG<n I am tr:GnM t< IraK Here Gs n<t sGm2l: betKeen 2HGl<s<2H: anI c<mm<n senseE but betKeen tHe GIea tHat scGentG! c researcH can GMn<re c<mm<n sense versus tHe GIea tHat scGentG! c GnûGr: Gs c<ntGnu<us KGtH c<mm<n sense_ anIE because <F tHatE tHat c<mm<nsensGcal 2s:cH<l<M: KGll n<t be elGmGnateI. I am c<nMenGal t< M<<rePs anI RGttMensteGnPs IeFense <F c<mm<nsense certaGntGes aMaGnst tHe GIealGst ZanI tHe sLe2tGc[E but a IGrect a22lGcatG<n <F tHGs strateM: t< tHe 2r<blem <F tHe status <F F<lL 2s:cH<l<M: ZRab<ssG 2>>> Gs an eXam2le <F tHGs m<ve[ IrGves <neE Gn m: <2GnG<nE t< a 2<sGtG<n KHGcH IenGes an: 2<ssGble cHanMe Gn F<lL 2s:cH<l<M:. THat GsE I Kant t< maLe a KeaLer claGm: man: tHGnMs c<ulI cHanMe Gn <ur F<lL unIerstanIGnM <F <urselvesE anI 2r<babl: scGentG! c researcH anI 2HGl<s<2H: KGll Have t< I< a l<t KGtH tH<se cHanMesE but tHere KGll alKa:s be s<me basGc 2s:cH<l<MGcal c<nce2ts useI Gn <rIer t< unIerstanI <urselves tHat KGll n<t be abanI<neI. See PwreW ZF<rtHc<mGnM[ F<r FurtHer arMuments al<nM tHese lGnes.

219


easGl:: tHe arMuments F<r tHe elGmGnatG<n <F 2r<2<sGtG<nal attGtuIes 2resu22<se tHat tHe: are relatG<nalE anI tHat tHe aMent Gnv<lveI Gs relateI t< a sentence-lGLe Gtem ZCHurcHlanI 19d1E StGcH 19d3[E KHereas tHe arMument F<r tHe elGmGnatG<n <F ûalGa 2resu22<ses tHeGr GntrGnsG-calGt:E IGrectnessE 2rGvac:E anI s< <n Zsee Dennett 19dd[. ButE GF tHere Gs n< Gnterest Gn eXtenIGnM tHe arMument 2r<2<seI F<r a subset <F mental c<nce2ts t< tHe <tHer mental c<nce2tsE tHen tHe 2r<blem Gs tHat tHe arMument Gnv<lves an GnaIeûate unIerstanIGnM <F F<lL 2s:cH<l<M:. THe set <F <rIGnar: mental c<nce2ts tHat c<nstGtutes F<lL 2s:cH<l<M: c<mbGne Gn a FrameK<rL tHat Gs Gm2<ssGble t< IGvGIe: tHe GnteractG<ns am<nM tHem are s< str<nM tHat Gt Gs artG! cGal t< set a2art a subset anI treat Gt GnIe2enIentl: <F tHe remaGnGnM c<nce2tsE 2retenIGnM tHat tHe: I< n<t eXGst.29

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Natural pGnIs. Philosophical Studies 61: 12e`14d.Care:E S. 19d@. Opn<KleIMe AcûGsGtG<n: EnrGcHment <r C<nce2tual

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29 S<me <F tHe GIeas 2r<2<seI Gn tHGs 2a2er Kere 2revG<usl: 2resenteI t< tHe Mr<u2 LOGOSE UnGversGtat Ie Barcel<naE S2aGnE Februar:E 2>>2E at tHe XI C<nMres< NacG<nal Ie FGl<s<FxaE SaltaE ArMentGnaE N<vember 2>>1E C<l<ûG< Ie ! l<s<Fxa teyrGca : ! l<s<Fxa Ie la cGencGaE SADAFE Buen<s AGresE ArMentGnaE 'ul: 2>>1E anI SeventH InternatG<nal C<ll<ûGum <n C<MnGtGve ScGenceE San SebastGznE S2aGnE Ma: 2>>1. I Kant t< tHanL man: 2e<2le F<r useFul IGscussG<nE GncluIGnM '. BGr<E '. C<rbxE '.A. DGeW CalWaIaE '. EWûerr<E M. GarcGa Car2Gnter<E C. G<nWaleWE D. 'ust<E D. PGneIaE E. Rab<ssGE P. R:cHterE M. SabatwsE L. SLGIelsL:E R. StaGnt<nE '. VerMara anI man: <tHer 2artGcG2ants <F tHe mentG<neI events. FGnancGal su22<rt Kas 2r<vGIeI b: tHe FunIacGyn Ant<rcHas.

22>

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qqq. 2>>3. OTHe C<ntent anI E2Gstem<l<M: <F PHen<menal BelGeFs.S In Consciousness. New Philosophical PerspectivesE eI. k. SmGtH anI A. '<LGcE 22>`2e2. OXF<rI: OXF<rI UnGversGt: Press.

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eIs. MarcelE A.E anI E. BGsGacHE 43èe. OXF<rI: OXF<rI UnGversGt: PressE G<lImanE A. 19e>. A Theory of Human Action. PrGncet<n: PrGncet<n UnGver-

sGt: Press.qqq. 1993. OTHe Ps:cH<l<M: <F F<lL Ps:cH<l<M:.S Behavioral and Brain Sci-

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UnGversGt: Press.GrGF! tHsE P. 199e. What Emotions Really Are. CHGcaM<: CHGcaM< UnGversGt:

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brGIMe UnGversGt: Press. 'acLs<nE '. 1993. OkualGa F<r Pr<2<sGtG<nal AttGtuIesVS Behavioral and Brain

Science 16: @2.peGlE F. 19d9. Concepts, Kinds and Cognitive Development. CambrGIMeE MA:

MIT Press.LaurenceE E. anI MarM<lGsE S. 19dd. Concepts. Core Readings. CambrGIMeE MA:

MIT Press.LeKGsE D. 1966. OAn ArMument F<r tHe IIentGt: THe<r:.S Journal of Philosophy

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Journal of Philosophy @>: 249`@d.L:canE R. ZUn2ublGsHeI ManuscrG2t[ OA PartGcularl: C<m2ellGnM ReFutatG<n

<F ElGmGnatGve MaterGalGsm.SMcpl<sL:E M. 19d3. OIntuGtGve PH:sGcs.S Scienti! c American 24d: 122`3>.McGGnnE C. 1991. OTHe .GIIen Structure <F C<nscG<usness.S In The Problem

of ConsciousnessE eI. C. McGGnnE d9 - 12@. OXF<rI: BlacLKell. qqq. 1993. Problems in Philosophy. OXF<rI: BlacLKell.MaltE B. 1994. ORater Gs n<t .2O.S Cognitive Psychology 2e: 41è>.

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MeIGnE D. 19d9. OC<nce2ts anI C<nce2tual Structure.S American Psychologist 44: 1469`d1.

Mur2H:E G. anI MeIGnE D. 19d@. OTHe R<le <F THe<rGes Gn C<nce2tual C<Her-ence.S In Laurence anI MarM<lGs 199dE 42@`4@d.

NaMelE T.19d6. The View from Nowhere. OXF<rI: OXF<rI UnGversGt: Press.PwreWE D. Z2>>4[ ORe2ensanI< la Folk Psychology IesIe el barc< Ie NeuratH.S

In La mente y sus problemas. Temas actuales de ! loso! a de la psicologiaE eI. E. Rab<ssGE 41è4. Buen<s AGres: Catal<M<s.

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kuGneE R.V.O. 1969. ONatural pGnIs.S In Ontological Relativity and Other EssaysE 114`13d. NeK Y<rL: C<lumbGa UnGversGt: Press.

Rab<ssGE E. 2>>>. OLa ! l<s<Fxa Ie sentGI< c<m{n : la te<rxa Ie la te<rxa. AlMu-nas re" eXG<nes crGtGcas.S Endoxa 12: 643`@@.

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223

The Rashness of Traditional Rationalism and Empiricism

GEORGES REY

I Kas br<uMHt u2 t< belGeve tHatE Gn tHe OMreat IebateS KGtH tHe RatG<nalGstsE tHe Em2GrGcGsts HaI larMel: K<nE 2artGcularl: Gn vGeK <F kuGnePs H<lGstGc c<nce2tG<n <F ]ustG! catG<nE KHereb: even tHe claGms <F l<MGcE tH<uMH rem<te Fr<m eX2erGenceE are GnIGrectl: testeI b: Gt. But s<me :ears aM< I aK<Le t< tHe 2<ssGbGlGt: tHat tHere Kas s<metHGnM ! sH: Gn all tHGsE anI tHat tHe FallGbGlGstGc banalGtGes tHat Have 2la:eI sucH a larMe r<le Gn IrGvGnM tHe kuGnean c<nce2tG<n c<ulInPt 2lausGbl: Have sucH IramatGc c<nseûences. OEver:tHGnM can be revGseI Gn tHe lGMHt <F eX2erGenceS Gs M<<I aIvGce F<r s<me<ne KH< HasnPt n<tGceI ]ust H<K rGcHE c<m2leX anI GnIGrect <ur reas<nGnMs ab<ut an: GssueE GncluIGnM l<MGc anI matHematGcsE can be_ but I<es Gt reall: tell aMaGnst KHat pant anI tHe <tHers HaI Gn mGnI KHen tHe: belGeveI tHat tHere Kere s<me claGms whose justi! cation needn’t appeal to experience ZKHGcHE GtPs crucGal t< rememberE Gs H<K He anI <tHers tH<uMHt <F GtE untGl tHe P<sGtGvGsts anI kuGne revGseI Gt t< OunrevGsabGlGt:S[V

One tHGnM tHat s<<n strucL me Kas tHe uncHaracterGstGc casualness <F kuGnePs actual acc<unt <F em2GrGcal Ln<KleIMe Zsee kuGne anI UllGan 19e>jed[. SGm2lGcGt:E m<Iest:E c<nservatGvGsmE anI Meneral-Gt: are allE n< I<ubtE sterlGnM vGrtues <F an entGre belGeF s:stemE but tHe: are HarIl: serG<usE substantGve 2r<2<sals ab<ut H<K scGentGsts I<E <r <uMHt t<E assess rGval H:2<tHeses. RHen crGtGcGWeI ab<ut tHe vaMueness <F tHese vGrtuesE kuGne re2lGeIE OI Have treateI tHe matter maGnl: at tHat level because I Have Ln<Kn lGttle t< sa: <F Gt tHat Kas n<t 2rett: mucH c<mm<n Ln<KleIMeS Z19d6E 493[. But GF tHat Gs reall: all He Has t< sa:E KHat Gs su22<seI t< rule <ut a priori Ln<KleIMeV pant

224

Georges Rey

HGmselF c<ulI aMree tHat Ke <uMHt t< <2t F<r tHe sGm2lestE m<st Men-eralE etc.E H:2<tHesesE 2r<ceeIGnM cHeerFull: t< aII: O'ust s<_ tHat Gs KHat leaIs me t< 2<sGt a priori transcenIental c<nIGtG<ns F<r tHe 2<ssG-bGlGt: <F eX2erGence.S THe 2<Gnt Gs tHat metH<Is <F ]ustG! catG<n neeInPt be exclusive: tHat Ke sometimes mGMHt reas<n H<lGstGcall: Gn terms <F <verall sGm2lGcGt:E MeneralGt:E etc.E mGMHt <nl: cam<u" aMe KHetHer tHe resultGnM KH<le Gnv<lves m<re l<cal ]ustG! cat<r: means. ItPs selI<m n<tGceI tHat kuGne claGms n<t <nl: tHat <ur belGeFs c<nFr<nt tHe trGbu-nal <F eX2erGence as a c<r2<rate b<I:E but tHat tHe: c<nFr<nt Gt Oonly as a c<r2<rate b<I:S ZkuGne 19@3bE 41_ m: em2HasGs[. RHere IGI He Met tHGs a<nl:PV

As a result <F tHGs aKaLenGnM Fr<m m: kuGnGan slumbersE I beMan t< rec<nsGIer tHe 2<ssGbGlGt: <F a priori Ln<KleIMeE anI t< reaI c<ntem-2<rar: 2r<2<nents <F GtE sucH as Ge<rMe BealerE CHrGs Peac<cLeE 'err: patWE anI Laurence B<n]<ur. IPm aFraGIE H<KeverE tHat IPve F<unI m<st <F KHat tHe: sa: sur2rGsGnMl: IGsa22<GntGnM. RHat I ! nI sur2rGsGnM Gs tHat tHe acc<unt tHe: <FFer seems t< be 2recGsel: tHe <ne tHat leI 2HG-l<s<2Hers lGLe kuGne t< be Kar: <F tHe a priori Gn tHe ! rst 2lace.

RHat I Kant t< I< Gn tHGs 2a2er GsE ! rstE t< reGterate tHe <ne good reas<n kuGne aIvanceI F<r HGs KarGnessE but tHen M< <n t< sLetcH KHat seems t< me a m<re 2r<mGsGnM IeFense <F tHe a priori tHat seems t< me t< res2<nI t< HGs M<<I reas<n. I tHen Kant t< call attentG<n t< a 2r<blem tHat seems t< me t< be sHareI b: b<tH kuGne anI HGs traIG-tG<nal RatG<nalGst <22<nentsE viz.E a IGsreMarI <F tHe 2<tentGal Ie2tH anI relatGve GnaccessGbGlGt: <F tHe a prioriE anI a c<nseûent Gm2atGence ab<ut an acc<unt <F Gt. B<tH 2r<2<nents anI <22<nents seem t< me t< assume tHatE GF tHere Gs a priori Ln<KleIMeE Gts eXGstence as a priori Ln<KleIMe sH<ulI be relatGvel: reaI: t< HanIE establGsHable eGtHer b: Gntr<s2ectGve <r beHavG<ural test. PHGl<s<2Hers lGLe patW anI B<n]<ur rel: <n sucH tests t< establGsH sucH Ln<KleIMeE anI 2HGl<s<2Hers lGLe kuGneE ! nIGnM tHe tests GnaIeûateE Ien: sucH Ln<KleIMe eXGsts. I ! nI b<tH vGeKs rasH. THe assum2tG<n tHat a 2Gece <F <ur Ln<KleIMe can be establGsHeI as a priori b: sucH reaIGl: avaGlable tests seems t< me <F a 2Gece KGtH a 2resum2tG<n ab<ut <ur mGnIs tHat I Have elseKHere ZRe: 1994E 199e[ calleI super! cialismE <r tHe vGeK tHat Facts ab<ut <ur mGnIs must Gn Meneral be avaGlable t< us at eGtHer tHe Gntr<s2ectGve <r beHav-G<ural surFace <F <ur lGves. THe vGeK can be F<unI Gn CartesGan claGms ab<ut tHe IelGverances <F Gntr<s2ectG<nE anI als< Gn BeHavG<urGst <nes

22@


1 A vGeK tHat IGI n<t IGe <ut KGtH RGttMensteGn Z19@3[E but lGves <n GnE e.M.E McGGnn Z1991[E Dennett Z1991[E anI .<rnsb: Z199e[_ see Re: 2>>1b F<r IGscussG<n.

2 IPve IGscusseI Peac<cLePs Z1992E 1996E 199d[ vGeKs at lenMtH elseKHere Ze.M.E Re: 1996E 199d[.

ab<ut H<K Oan Gnner 2r<cess stanIs Gn neeI <F an <utKarI crGterG<n.S1 IF tHe last HalF-centur: <F tHe Oc<MnGtGve rev<lutG<nS Has tauMHt us an:-tHGnME GtPs tHat tHe structure <F tHe mGnI Gs at least as unavaGlable t< us as tHe structure <F tHe rest <F <ur b<IGes ` actuall:E 2r<babl: Far m<re s<E MGven Gts eXtreme abstractness ` anI tHat tHereF<re Ke are M<GnM t< Have t< be Far m<re 2atGent Gn IraKGnM c<nclusG<ns ab<ut Gt tHan eGtHer tHe CartesGan <r tHe BeHavG<urGst su22<seI. ItPs tHGs s<rt <F 2atGence ab<ut tHe a priori tHat I Kant t< urMe Here.

In SectG<n I <F tHe 2resent 2a2er I KGll revGeK tHe claGms anI 2r<b-lems <F tHe Zr<uMHl:[ CartesGan vGeK <F tHe a priori aIv<cateI b: patW anI B<n]<ur.2 In SectG<n IIE IPll GnIGcate KH: I tHGnL Ke neeI t< IGM Iee2erE l<<LGnM ! rst ZII.G[ at KHat seems t< stGll rGMHt ab<ut tHe cHallenMe kuGne raGseI aMaGnst tHGs CartesGanGsmE turnGnM Gn II.GG t< c<nsGIer Ka:s Gn KHGcH less su2er! cGalGst a22r<acHes <FFer a better 2r<s2ect <F IeFenIGnM tHe 2<ssGbGlGt: <F F<rmal a priori Ln<KleIMe. In SectG<n IIIE IPll taLe <n tHe mucH m<re IGF! cult Gssues <F tHe 2<ssGbGl-Gt: <F a priori Ln<KleIMe <F anal:tGc trutHs baseI <n tHe eXGstence <F s<metHGnM lGLe semantGc rules. AFter aImGttGnM tHe IGF! cultGes ZIII.G[E I Kant t< IraK attentG<n t< KHat I call tHe Oanal:tGc IataS tHat sucH rules are su22<seI t< eX2laGn ZIII.GG[. THere are <tHer 2r<2<seI eX2la-natG<ns <F tHese Iata_ Gn III.GGG anI III.Gv IPll sa: KH: I tHGnL at least tK< 2r<mGnent <nesE kuGnePs anI F<I<rPsE are GnaIeûate. In SectG<n IVE IPll sLetcH KHat an Gnternal rule acc<unt mGMHt l<<L lGLeE anI H<K Gt can be IeFenIeI ` <r IeFeateI ` <nl: b: tHe LGnI <F GntrGcate tHe<rGW-GnM ab<ut tHe structure <F <ur mGnIs tHat CH<msLGan lGnMuGsts Have beMun t< 2r<vGIe ab<ut <ur lanMuaMe Facult:. I em2HasGWe tHat I Kant t< establGsHE aMaGnE n<t tHat tHere really is a priori Ln<KleIMeE but <nl: tHat tHe ûestG<n <F KHetHer <r n<t tHere Gs reûGres Far m<re IetaGleI unIerstanIGnM <F lGnMuGstGcs anI 2s:cH<l<M: tHan an: <F us :et HasE anI c<nseûentl: Far m<re 2atGence anI em2GrGcal curG<sGt: tHan m<st 2HGl<s<2Hers Have IGs2la:eI.

226

Georges Rey

I. Reasonable Qorries'err<lI patW Z19d1E 2>>`16E anI 199dE 32`61[ <FFers OtK< tH<uMHtsS ab<ut OH<K t< unIerstanI a priori Ln<KleIMe <F abstract <b]ectsS Z199dE 39[. THe ! rst Gs t< av<GI m<IelGnM sucH Ln<KleIMe <n tHe LGnI <F causal c<ntact tHat seems t< be t:2Gcal <F 2erce2tual Ln<KleIMe_ tHe sec<nI Gs tHat O<ur reas<n Gs an a22r<2rGate Gnstrument F<r IetermGn-GnM H<K tHGnMs must be Gn tHat labstractm realmS Z199dE 9[.

RH: I<es patW tHGnL reas<n Gs s< a22r<2rGateV .e c<nsGIers a t:2G-cal 2r<<F tHat tK< Gs tHe <nl: even 2rGmeE KHGcH Gnv<lves Oreas<n-GnM s< cl<se-teXtureIE s< tGMHtE tHat Gt eXcluIes tHe 2<ssGbGlGt: <F tHe c<nclusG<nPs beGnM FalseS Z199dE 4>[. RH: sH<ulI Ke Have c<n! Ience Gn sucH O2r<<FsSV

In tHe F<rmal scGencesE Gt Gs c<mm<n t< reFer t< seeGnM tHat s<metHGnM Gs tHe case as OGntuGtG<nS anI t< taLe sucH GmmeIG-ate a22reHensG<n as a s<urce <F basGc matHematGcal Ln<KleIMe. ZpatW 199dE 43[

T< tHe K<rr: tHat sucH a22eals t< GntuGtG<n Have m<re tHan a KHGFF <F Om:stGcGsmES He Hastens t< IGstGnMuGsH Om:ster:S Fr<m Om:stGcGsmS:

N< <ne K<ulI Ien: tHat tHere Gs a m:ster: ab<ut H<K Ke can Have Ln<KleIMe <F abstract <b]ectso. But tHe <bscurGt: <F tHe ratG<nal mecHanGsm Gs n< Mr<unIs F<r IGsmGssGnM tHe claGm tHat 2ure reas<n I<es KHatE Fr<m tHe c<mm<n-sense stanI2<GntE Gt a22ears t< I<. Z199dE 33[

On a m<re 2<sGtGve n<teE He aIIs:

THe relevant n<tG<n <F GntuGtG<n tHat Gs relevant t< <ur ratG<nalGst e2Gstem<l<M: Gs tHat <F an GmmeIGateE G.e.E n<n-GnFerentGalE 2urel: ratG<nal a22reHensG<n tHat Gnv<lves abs<lutel: n< c<nnectG<n t< an:tHGnM c<ncreteo. IntuGtG<ns are a22reHensG<ns <F structure tHat can reveal tHe lGmGts <F 2<ssGbGlGt: KGtH res2ect t< tHe <b]ects HavGnM tHe structureo. In lsucH casesm tHere Gs n< eX2lanatG<n <tHer tHan GntuGtG<n F<r tHe Fact tHat <rIGnar:E un s<2HGstGcateI 2e<2leE KGtH<ut eX2ert Hel2E GmmeIGatel: Mras2 tHe trutH. Z199dE 44`4@[

22e


.e aIIs t< tHGs claGm a stanIarI reMress arMument Fr<m A.C. EKGnM Z194e[ tHat an: GnFerentGal ste2 must be ]ustG! eI b: an Gnter2<lateI arMument <r be seen GmmeIGatel: Fr<m GntuGtG<n ` OKe must c<me t< s<metHGnM KHGcH Ke see GntuGtGvel: t< be trueE as tHe 2r<cess <F Gnter2<latG<n cann<t M< <n ad in! nitumS ZEKGnM 194eE 26E cGteI at patW 199dE 46[.

patW seems t< me Here t< be c<nFusGnM serG<us explanation KGtH a 2r<cess <F <rIGnar: justi! cation: Gt ma: Kell be tHatE es2ecGall: Gn a necessarGl: ! nGte b<ut <F actual ]ustG! catG<nE tHere must be ste2s tHat are at least 2r<vGsG<nall: taLen F<r MranteI Gn tHe IGscussG<n. AnI 2er-Ha2s Gn an GIeal ]ustG! catG<nE tHere Have t< be ste2s tHat are s<meH<K GntrGnsGcall: ]ustG! eI ZaltH<uMH Gt seems t< me tHat tHe t<2Gc <F ]ustG! -catG<n Has :et t< be suF! cGentl: unIerst<<I t< GnsGst <n tHGs IemanI[. But n<ne <F tHGs entaGls tHat tHere can be n< explanation <F KH: 2e<2le mGMHt acce2t tHese ste2sE anI tHat tHGs eX2lanatG<n mGMHt n<t 2la: an Gm2<rtant r<le Gn ]ustGF:GnM KH: tHat acce2tance Gs ]ustG! eI. F<r eXam-2leE Gt ma: be tHat tHe eX2lanatG<n <F 2e<2lePs acce2tance <F tHese ste2s Gs <ne tHat als< sH<Ks tHem t< be terrG! call: reliable_ <r tHat tHe s2ecG! c ste2s are <nes s<me<ne K<ulI Have t< acce2t GF tHe: Kere t< Have ratG<nal belGeFs at all. In an: caseE Gt Gs b: n< means clear tHat Ke neeI t< rel: <n s<me mere uneX2laGneI ZuneX2laGnableV[ intuition ab<ut tHe acce2tabGlGlt: <F tH<se ste2s. InIeeIE tHe ûestG<n Gs KH: patW tHGnLs a22ealGnM t< GntuGtG<n Gs eX2lanat<r: Gn tHe least.

Laurence B<n]<ur Z199d[ sGmGlarl: reMarIs a priori Ln<KleIMe as baseI u2<n

o an act <F rational insight <r rational intuition o ltHatm Gs seem-GnMl: Za[ IGrect <r GmmeIGateE n<n-IGscursGveE anI :et als< Zb[ Gntellectual <r reas<n-M<verneIo. lItm Ie2enIs u2<n n<tHGnM be:<nI an unIerstanIGnM <F tHe 2r<2<sGtG<nal c<ntent GtselFo Z199dE 1>2[

OF c<urseE <ne mGMHt Kell K<nIer Gn KHat sucH a OIGrectS GntuGtGve Mras2 <F tHe necessGt: <F a 2r<2<sGtG<n c<ulI 2<ssGbl: c<nsGst. .ere B<n]<ur M<es a lGttle FurtHer tHan patWE anI su22lements HGs remarLs KGtH an acc<unt <F a 2ers<nPs Mras2 <F meanGnM:

THe Le: claGm <F sucH a vGeK K<ulI be tHat Gt Gs a neces-sar:E ûasG-l<MGcal Fact tHat a tH<uMHt GnstantGatGnM a c<m2leX

22d

Georges Rey

unGversal Gnv<lvGnM tHe unGversal trGanMularGt: Gn tHe a22r<2rG-ate Ka: Zab<ut KHGcH mucH m<re K<ulI <bvG<usl: neeI t< be saGI[ Gs ab<ut trGanMular tHGnMs. In tHGs Ka:E tHe c<ntent <F tHe tH<uMHt K<ulI be n<n-c<ntGnMentl: ca2tureI b: tHe cHaracter <F tHe mental actE anI c<ulI acc<rIGnMl: be accessGble t< tHe tHGnLer. Z199dE 1d4[

OF c<urseE tHe Oa22r<2rGate Ka:S tHat a tH<uMHt OGnstantGates a unG-versalS Gs <bvG<usl: IGFFerent Fr<m tHe Ka: an object en]<:GnM tHe unG-versal I<es: aFter allE tH<uMHts ab<ut trGanMularGt: arenPt tHemselves trGanMular. B: Ka: <F su22l:GnM KHat Om<re K<ulI neeI t< be saGIES B<n]<ur Gnv<Les a IGstGnctG<n Fr<m AûGnas betKeen Oesse intentio-naleO anI Oesse naturaleSE KHereb:E e.M.E

o tHe F<rm trGanMularGt: GnF<rms m: mGnI Gn a s2ecGal Ka: tHat Gs IGFFerent Fr<m tHe Ka: Gn KHGcH Gt GnF<rms trGanMular tHGnMs. Z199dE 1d3[

THese IGFFerent Ka:s actuall: MGve rGse t< OIGstGnctE tH<uMH 2resum-abl: GntGmatel: relateI unGversalsS Z199dE 1d3[. B<n]<ur I<es acLn<Kl-eIMe tHe neeI <F Os<me m<re artGculate acc<unt o <F tHe tK< unGver-sals anI tHe relatG<n betKeen tHemS Z1d4[E but c<nFesses tHatE Ies2Gte OtHe venerable HGst<r: <F tHGs LGnI <F vGeKS Z1d@[E Gt Gs On<t lt< bem F<unI Gn AûGnas ` <rE s< Far as I Ln<KE an:KHere Gn tHat traIGtG<nS Z1d4[. I tHGnL I Ln<K KHat IGstGnctG<n AûGnas anI B<n]<ur at least sH<ulI Have HaI Gn mGnI Gn tHe IGstGnctG<n betKeen naturale anI inten-tionale: GtPs tHe IGstGnctG<n betKeen ZMenuGne[ 2r<2ertGes anI concepts. B<n]<urE HGmselFE MGves c<nce2ts Zas IGstGnct Fr<m 2r<2ertGes[ sH<rt sHrGFtE c<m2laGnGnM tHat tHe: K<ulI be Osub]ectGve entGtGesE KH<se nature anI meta2H:sGcal status K<ulI be eXtremel: 2uWWlGnMS Z199dE 1@1[. ButE H<Kever 2uWWlGnM sucH c<nce2ts ma: beE tHe: I< en]<: an GnIe2enIent r<le Gn 2s:cH<l<MGcal eX2lanatG<nE asE e.M.E tHe c<nstGtu-ents <F tHe 2r<2<sGtG<ns t<KarIs KHGcH Ke Have attGtuIesE a r<le tHat Gs Gm2<rtantl: IGstGnct Fr<m tHe FurtHerE GnIe2enIent r<le <F ZMenu-Gne[ 2r<2ertGes asE e.M.E tHe relata <F real causal GnteractG<ns. B<n]<ur Gs 2resumabl: l<atH t< IGstGnMuGsH tHese r<lesE sGnce HGs acc<unt <F a priori Ln<KleIMe K<ulI tHen neeI t< eX2laGn H<K Ke Met Fr<m <ur ZOIGrectSV[ a22reHensG<n <F c<nce2ts t< an: GnsGMHt Gnt< MenuGne 2r<2-ertGes <F a mGnI-GnIe2enIent K<rlIE anI tHGs 2r<blem K<ulI 2atentl:

229


be ]ust an<tHer Ka: <F raGsGnM tHe central 2r<blem <F b<tH semantGcs anI e2Gstem<l<M:: H<K I<es tHe mGnI manaMe t< tHGnL anI Ln<K ab<ut a mGnI-GnIe2enIent K<rlIV3

I Kant t< stress KHat seems t< me Zbut a22arentl: n<t t< ever:<ne[ an <bvG<us 2<Gnt. UntGl s<me<ne su22lGes a M<<I arMumentE there is no particular reason that the world should conform to our conception of itE tHat esse intentionale sH<ulI matcH esse naturale. In 2artGcularE I see n< reas<n t< tHGnL tHat tHerePs a genuine property in the world F<r ever: <ne <F <ur c<nce2ts. THGs seems t< me ûGte evGIent Gn tHe case <F <ur c<m2leX c<nce2ts ` lr<unI sûaremE llarMest 2rGmemE <rE lest tHere be an: I<ubtE l2r<2ert: <F all anI <nl: tH<se 2r<2ertGes tHat arenPt 2r<2-ertGes <F tHemselvesm ZKHere eX2ressG<ns Gn c<rner bracLets reFer t< tHe c<ntent eX2resseI b: tHe eX2ressG<n[. But I see n< reas<n t< tHGnL GtPs n<t true Gn tHe case <F s<me 2rGmGtGve c<nce2ts as Kell: as man: RatG<nalGsts sGnce Plat< Have been F<nI <F 2<GntGnM <utE tHe K<rlI <F sens<r: eX2erGence c<ulI n<t 2<ssGbl: aFF<rI Gnstances <F tHe Me<met-rGc <b]ects c<rres2<nIGnM t< <ur EuclGIean GIeas <FE e.M.E lGneE cGrcleE trGanMle. N<rE arMuabl:E c<ulI an: MenuGnel: 2<ssGble K<rlI aFF<rI Gnstances <F l2Hl<MGstGcateImE lmaMGcalmE ls<ulmE lFreeI<mmE lM<ImE <r <F an:tHGnM c<rres2<nIGnM t< <ur 2rGmGtGve GIeas <F lc<l<urmE lûalGamE anI lc<nscG<usnessm.4 I sus2ect <ne tHGnM tHat leaIs 2HGl<s<2Hers t< tHGnL <tHerKGse Gs a certaGn 2r<" GMac: ab<ut 2r<2ertGes tHat GsnPt usu-all: t<lerateI F<r mere materGal <b]ects: 2r<2ertGes are tH<uMHt t< eXGst even un-GnstantGateIE anI s< are a22arentl: tHere ]ust F<r tHe asLGnM Z<r are 2resumeI t< eXGst untGl 2r<ven <tHerKGseE an eX2ectatG<n ab<ut tHe 2<Kers <F 2r<<F tHat I tH<uMHt G|Iel HaI IasHeI[.@ AMaGnst tHGs

3 RHen 2resseI <n tHGs 2<GntE B<n]<ur Has c<nceIeI tHat c<nce2ts are neeIeIE but tHat OGF sucH c<nce2ts are t< maLe Gt 2<ssGble F<r us t< MenuGnel: tHGnL ab<ut a mGnI-GnIe2enIent K<rlIE tHe: must be tGMHtl: en<uMH relateI t< o 2r<2ertGes t< serve as tHe veHGcle F<r MenuGne GnsGMHt Gnt< tHem Zs< tHat tHe resultGnM a priori Ln<KleIMe K<ulI n<t 2ertaGn merely t< tHe c<nce2tsS Z2>>1E 6d3`d4[. THatE <F c<urseE Gs tHe conclusion a RatG<nalGst Kants. THe ûestG<n GsE KHat entGtles HGm t< GtV I return t< tHGs Gssue at tHe enI.

4 THese last areE <F c<urseE m<re c<ntr<versGal_ butE KHatever tHe ultGmate verIGctE Gt seems Gna22r<2rGate t< IecGIe tHem <n semantGc Mr<unIs al<ne.

@ It Gs GnterestGnM tHat tHGs 2r<" GMac: ab<ut 2r<2ertGes Gs sHareI n<t <nl: b: OratG<nalGstsS lGLe B<n]<urE but b: m<re OnaturalGstGcS 2HGl<s<2Hers lGLe F<I<r

23>

Georges Rey

2r<" GMac:E I Kant t< enter a certaGn metH<I<l<MGcal 2r<testE <r an:Ka:E a 2lea F<r H<nest t<Gl tHat I belGeve Gs H<n<reI Gn all <tHer scGences:

Occam’s Sharpened Razor: EXce2t as a last res<rtE I< n<t Gntr<Iuce Gnt< :<ur mental <nt<l<M: entGtGes F<r KHGcH tHere Gs n< GnIe-2enIent evGIence.

BeF<re Ke uncrGtGcall: 2resume tHere Gs sucH a 2r<2ert: asE sa:E l2Hl<-MGstGcateIm <r lmaMGcalmE Ke neeI t< asL KHetHer <r n<tE GnIe2enIent <F <ur semantGc Ies2eratG<nE tHere Gs an: reas<n KHats<ever t< belGeve Gn Gt. Our best tHe<rGes <F tHe K<rlI ` bG<l<M:E cHemGstr:E 2H:sGcsE c<s-m<l<M: ` seem n<t t< 2r<vGIe an:. THe 2resum2tG<n tHat tHere never-tHeless are sucH 2r<2ertGes seems sGm2l: a MratuGt<us 2r<]ectG<n <F <ur semantGc neeIsE <ne tHatE KGtH<ut GnIe2enIent evGIenceE <nl: serves t< <bscure tHe eX2lanat<r: 2r<blems at Gssue.

II. Digging Deeper

II.i. The Quinean Challenge

F<r lacL <F a satGsFact<r: acc<unt <F tHe a prioriE man: HaveE <F c<urseE K<nIereI KHetHer Gt eXGsts at all. kuGne raGseI tHe GssueE but He ratHer <ver2la:eI HGs HanIE lGnLGnM HGs I<ubts t< sKee2GnM attacLs <n mean-GnME mentalGt:E anI m<IalGt: tHat FeK stGll enI<rse. Des2Gte HGs F<Gbles Gn tHese res2ectsE H<KeverE tHere Gs <ne serG<us cHallenMe tHat Gs <Ften mGsseI:

ZC[ .<K are Ke t< IGstGnMuGsH sucH claGms <F a priori GnsGMHt Fr<m merel: Iee2l: HelI em2GrGcal c<nvGctG<nV

Z199>E 199d[E KH<se tHe<r: <F c<ntent reûGres tHere n<t <nl: t< be a 2r<2ert: F<r ever: 2rGmGtGve 2reIGcateE but tHat tHGs 2r<2ert: actuall: ! Mure Gn laws. THusE tHere Have t< be laKs relatGnM M<I tH<uMHts t< a real 2r<2ert: <F divinityE tH<uMHts ab<ut cGrcles t< MenuGne circularity. I K<ulI Have tH<uMHt tHat 2resent 2H:sGcal tHe<r: 2r<vGIes abunIant reas<n t< I<ubt tHe eXGstence <F an: sucH laKsE a 2<Gnt t< KHGcH Ke sHall return Zsee n<te 1@ bel<K[.

231


ZC[ survGves as a cHallenMe even F<r tH<se <F us KH< belGeve Gn mGnIE meanGnME anI m<IalGt:E F<r Ke ma: raGse Gt eûall: ab<ut claGms Gn those I<maGns as Kell: KH: sH<ulInPt KHatever claGms Ke maLe ab<ut Oun<bserveIS mGnIsE mental c<ntentsE anI even 2<ssGble K<rlIs be ]ustG! eI b: tHe same metH<IsE KHatever tHe: areE b: KHGcH Ke ]us-tGF: claGms ab<ut Oun<bserveIS 2laces anI tGmesV Remember kuGnePs <Kn ]ustG! catG<n F<r belGeF Gn 2H:sGcalGstGc ratHer tHan a 2Hen<menal-GstGc tHe<r: <F tHe K<rlI:

A 2H:sGcalGstGc c<nce2tual scHemeE 2ur2<rtGnM t< talL ab<ut eXternal <b]ectsE <FFers Mreat aIvantaMes Gn sGm2lGF:GnM <ur <ver-all re2<rts. B: brGnMGnM t<MetHer scattereI sense events anI treatGnM tHem as 2erce2tG<ns <F <ne <b]ectE Ke reIuce tHe c<m-2leXGt: <F <ur stream <F eX2erGence t< a manaMeable c<nce2tual sGm2lGcGt:. Z19@3aE 1e[

'ust s<: b: brGnMGnM t<MetHerE e.M.E scattereI c<nIGtG<nals anI treatGnM tHem as False Z<r true[ even GF tHeGr anteceIents Ha22en t< be FalseE Ke reIuce tHe c<m2leXGt: <F <ur unIerstanIGnM <F tHe enIurGnM ZIGs-2<sGtG<nal[ traGts <F tH<se <b]ects ` tHe 2<Gs<n<usness <F tHe musH-r<<ms I<esnPt 2ass Gn anI <ut <F eXGstence Ie2enIGnM u2<n s<me-<ne Zun[lucLGl: sam2lGnM tHem. An:Ka:E tHGsE I sus2ectE Gs 2recGsel: H<K :<ur tH<r<uMHl: m<Iern kuGneanE e.M.E DevGtt Z1996E 2E 46`@4_ 199e[E mGMHt arMue F<r m<IalGt: ZanIE mutatis mutandisE F<r meanGnM anI mGnI[. S< Ke seem t< Have a stanI<FF betKeen RatG<nalGsm anI Em2GrGcGsm.

THe <nl: Ka: I can tHGnL <F m<vGnM be:<nI tHGs stanI<FF Gs t< IGM Iee2er Gnt< an eX2lanat<r: acc<unt <F <ur Ln<KleIMe tHan kuGneE patWE <r B<n]<ur I<. InIeeIE m: c<m2laGnt KGtH patW anI B<n]<ur Gs Gn tHe enI <F a 2Gece KGtH m: <Kn c<m2laGnt KGtH kuGne: al<nM tHe lGnes <F tHe su2er! cGalGsm I mentG<neI at tHe startE b<tH c<n! ne tHemselves 2rett: mucH t< tHe surface appearances <F tHe a prioriE anI I<nPt c<nsGIer tHe Iee2er eX2lanatG<ns <F tHem tHat mGMHt be F<unI OGnsGIe.S In kuGneE tHGs su2er! cGalGsm 2la:s a 2artGcularl: crucGal r<le Gn HGs IGsmGssal <F tHe a prioriE sGnce Gt leaIs HGm t< re2laceE as I GnIG-cateI at tHe startE tHe traIGtG<nal c<nce2tG<n <F tHat cateM<r: ` O]us-tG! abGlGt: GnIe2enIent <F eX2erGenceS ` KGtH a beHavG<urGstGc ersatzE OGmmunGt: t< revGsG<n.S OF c<urseE GF this latter Gs tHe crGterG<nE GtPs

232

Georges Rey

HarIl: sur2rGsGnM tHat <ne Gs HarI 2ut t< IGstGnMuGsH tHe a priori Fr<m sGm2l: ! rml: HelI em2GrGcal c<nvGctG<ns.

patW anI B<n]<urE <F c<urseE are n< beHavG<urGstsE anI s< are n<t committed t< stGcLGnM t< a behavioural surFace. But Gn tHeGr em2HasGs u2<n OGnsGMHtS anI OratG<nal GntuGtG<nES tHe: seem KeIIeI t< an Gntr<s2ectGve <ne. B<n]<ur I<es rGMHtl: IGss<cGate tHe a priori Fr<m tHe infallible Z199dE 11@FF[E n<tGnM s<me Ka:s tHe surFace c<ulI M< Kr<nM. But He unIerestGmates tHe varGet: <F tHe s<urces <F FallGbGlGt:E F<cus-GnM larMel: <n OGrre2arable bGas <r I<MmatGsmS Z199dE 13e[. THe real 2r<blem raGseI b: ZC[ GsE aMaGnE IGstGnMuGsHGnM tHe a priori n<t merel: Fr<m bGasE but Fr<m <tHer merel: empirical commitments tHat mGMHt n<t Ieserve tHe name. AFter allE :<ur Zm<Iern[ kuGnGan mGMHt arMueE GF tHe claGm tHat Kater Gs necessarGl: .2O Gs n<t a prioriE KH: sH<ulI arGtHme-tGc <r l<MGc be s<V SGm2l: GnsGstGnM u2<n tHe OIGrectnessS <r OGmme-IGac:S <F <nePs unIerstanIGnM tHat a 2r<2<sGtG<n Gs necessar: Z199dE 1>3`6E 131[ Gs GnsuF! cGent t< meet tHat cHallenMe: KGtH<ut an: acc<unt <F tHGs OGmmeIGac:S <r OIGrectnessS tHe claGm seems GnIGstGnMuGsHable Fr<m mere table tHum2GnM ` <r sGm2l: ! nIGnM certaGn tHGnMs O<bvG-<us.S MucH Gn tHe <rIGnar: 2erce2tG<n <F tHe K<rlI ar<unI us seems sGmGlarl: OIGrectS anI OGmmeIGateES but tHat al<ne sH<ulI HarIl: Iaunt tHe 2s:cH<l<MGst Fr<m seeLGnM GntermeIGar: mecHanGsmsE <r tHe sLe2tGc Fr<m seeLGnM GntermeIGar: ]ustG! catG<ns. InIeeIE KHat <ne Kants Gn tHe case <F OratG<nal GnsGMHtS Gs 2recGsel: tHe LGnI <F GnIe-2enIent unIerstanIGnM Ke Have <F tHe vGsual s:stemE KHereb: Ke can cHecL tHe relGabGlGt: ` anI 2artGcularl: tHe varGable relGabGlGt: ` <F surFace re2<rts.6

RHat I am envGsG<nGnME <F c<urseE K<ulI am<unt t< an em2GrGcal vGnIGcatG<n <F <ur claGms t< a priori Ln<KleIMe. I lGLe t< tHGnL <F tHGs as a LGnI <F OtK<-ste2S: <ne ste2s bacL Fr<m <nePs claGms anI trGesE

6 N<tHGnM better Gllustrates b<tH tHe 2r<blems I Have Gn mGnI HereE as Kell as tHe neeI <F tHe a22r<acH I Kant t< rec<mmenIE tHan B<n]<urPs 2araIe eXam2le <F an a priori trutHE tHe ]ustG! catG<n <F tHe claGm tHat n<tHGnM can be reI anI Mreen all <ver:

GGven lm:m unIerstanIGnM <F tHe GnMreIGents <F tHe 2r<2<sGtG<nE I am able t< see <r Mras2 Gn a seemGnMl: IGrect anI unmeIGateI Ka: tHat tHe claGm Gn ̂ uestG<n cann<t FaGl t< be true ` tHat tHe natures <F reIness anI Mreenness are sucH as t< 2recluIe tHeGr beGnM ]<Gntl: realGWeI Z199dE 1>1[.

233


à la kuGneE t< 2r<vGIe tHe m<st H<lGstGcall: reas<nable tHe<r: <F tHe K<rlI anI <ur Ln<KleIMe <F Gt. But tHenE in the light of that holistically con! rmed theoryE Gt c<ulI turn <ut tHat Ke Have ever: reas<n t< belGeve tHat tHere are also entGrel: relGableE local ]ustG! cat<r: means ` 2erHa2sE certaGn FacultGes <F <ur mGnIs. AnI s< Ke c<ulI ste2 F<rKarI aMaGn anI taLe serG<usl: <ur e:es anI ears Gn tHe case <F tHe s2atG<tem2<ral K<rlIE anI 2erHa2s certaGn FacultGes <F <ur mGnIs Gn tHe case <F l<MGcE matHematGcs anI <tHer O2urel: c<nce2tualS Gssues. THat GsE <ne c<ulI tr: t< MGve a kuGnGan ]ustG! catG<n F<r s<metHGnM lGLe tHe OratG<nal Fac-ult:S tHat patWE B<n]<urE anI traIGtG<nal RatG<nalGsts trGeI t< secure F<r FreeE but tHenE KGtH tHat meta-]ustG! catG<n Gn HanIE <ne c<ulI tHen re" ect tHat 2e<2leE GncluIGnM <neselFE HaI been ]ustG! eI a priori Gn belGevGnME e.M.E tHe trutHs <F l<MGc anI arGtHmetGc all al<nM. THe meta-]ustG! catG<n eX2laGns KH: s<metHGnM Gs a ]ustG! catG<n KGtH<ut beGnM 2art <F tHat ]ustG! catG<n GtselF.

PerHa2s tHGs Gs c<ntrar: t< tHe s2GrGt Gn KHGcH tHe a priori Has tra-IGtG<nall: been 2r<2<seIE KHGcH Kas lGnLeI t< a certaGn s<rt <F selF-]ustGF:GnME GmmeIGateE Gntr<s2ectGve clarGt: KGtH reMarIs t< KHGcH GF Gt Kas a priori tHat pE tHen Gt Kas eGtHer Gntr<s2ectGvel: <bvG<us tHat pE <r c<ulI be sH<Kn t< F<ll<K b: Gntr<s2ectGvel: <bvG<us ste2s Fr<m s<metHGnM tHat Kas Gntr<s2ectGvel: <bvG<us. F<r man:E I sus2ect tHGs Kas lGnLeI t< a 2resum2tG<n tHat aa priori’ GterateI: GF Gt Kas a priori tHat pE tHen Gt HaI t< be a priori tHat Gt Kas a priori tHat p. But GtPs HarI t< see KH: an: <F tHese latter 2resum2tG<ns sH<ulI be essentGal. Idiots savants KH< can accuratel: rattle <FF 2rGme Fact<rs mGMHtnPt Have a clue ab<ut H<K tHe: I< GtE mucH less ab<ut KHetHer <r n<t tHe: Ln<K tHem

ResearcH <n c<l<ur vGsG<n str<nMl: suMMests tHat tHe 2artGcular eXclusG<n <F reI anI Mreen Gs Iue t< O<22<nent 2r<cessGnMS: tHe ! rGnMs <F retGnal cells sensGtGve t< <ne <F tHe 2aGrs reIjMreenE bluej:ell<K su22ress tHe ! rGnMs <F <nes sensGtGve t< tHe <tHer ZseeE e.M.E .arIGn 19ddE 121FF[. SGnce tHGs Gs a ûGte basGc anI ! XeI Feature <F <ur vGsual s:stemE Gt seems t< 2revent s<me 2e<2le Fr<m even GmaMGnGnM s<metHGnM s< c<l<ureI. ButE GF tHatPs tHe eX2lanatG<nE tHenE pace B<n]<urPs Z2>>1E 6dd[ Oclear GnsGMHtS t< tHe c<ntrar:E tHe Gm2<ssGbGlGt: Gs n<t as Iee2 as Gt seems. S<me<ne KH<se <22<nent 2r<cessGnM Kas s<meH<K <verrGIIen Zas Gn tHe case <F retGnal ! XatG<n IescrGbeI Gn .arIGn Z19ddE 124`2@[ mGMHt Kell be as 2re2areI t< ! nI s<metHGnM reI anI Mreen all <ver as Ke are t< ! nI s<metHGnM turû<Gse t< be b<tH Mreen anI blue.

234

Georges Rey

a priori. PerHa2s tHe: c<ulInPt enMaMe Gn tHe s2ecG! c actGvGt: <F explicit justi! cation tHat Gnterests e2Gstem<l<MGsts_ but GtPs n<t at all <bvG<us tHat that s2ecG! c actGvGt: Gs Menerall: essentGalE <r even GnterestGnM t< an:<ne <tHer tHan e2Gstem<l<MGsts.e Idiot savant cHGlIren ma: Ln<K a priori tHat l<ts <F numbers are 2rGme n<netHeless.

In an: caseE GtPs surel: a contingent Fact tHat Ke Have an: Ln<Kl-eIMe at allE KHetHer em2GrGcal <r a priori. TraIGtG<nal e2Gstem<l<MGesE KHetHer ratG<nalGst <r em2GrGcGstE Have usuall: ]ust slG22eI Gn em2GrG-cal assum2tG<ns ab<ut <ur c<ntGnMent 2s:cH<l<MGcal structure. I am merel: suMMestGnM tHat tH<se assum2tG<ns be m<re GnF<rmeI b: actual em2GrGcal tHe<r: Gn a Ka: tHat patWPs anI B<n]<urPs IGscussG<ns seem t< me t< FaGl t< be.

II.ii. A Logic Module?

B: Ka: <F a c<ntrastE anI Gm2lementGnM tHe e2GstemGc OtK<-ste2S IPm rec<mmenIGnME I Have elseKHere Z1993E 199d[ raGseI tHe F<ll<K-GnM 2<ssGbGlGt:E b: KHGcH I tHGnL <ne could hope t< sH<K s<metHGnM t< be MenuGnel: a priori. Al<nM lGnes suMMesteI b: tHe currentl: Gn" u-entGal c<m2utatG<nal-re2resentatG<nal tHe<r: <F tH<uMHtE su22<se Gt turns <ut tHat Ke Have buGlt Gnt< us a GentWen-st:le natural IeIuctG<n s:stem <F l<MGc tHat Gs ca2able <F 2r<IucGnM tHe Full Gn! nGtuIe <F valGI sentences <F tHe 2reIGcate calculusE anI su22<se tHat Gt Gs tHe <2era-tG<n <F tHGs macHGne tHat Gs causall: res2<nsGble F<r s<me<nePs belGeF Gn a s2ecG! c l<MGcal trutHE sa::

ZR[ N<tHGnM bGtes all anI <nl: tH<se tHGnMs tHat I< n<t bGte tHemselves.

e PerHa2s GtPs als< GnterestGnM t< 2e<2le struMMlGnM t< settle Iee2-seateI Ze.M.E relGMG<us[ IGs2utes. ButE Gn MeneralE Gt K<ulI seem a M<<I GIea n<t t< burIen a theory <F Ln<KleIMe KGtH KHat ma: turn <ut t< be a matter <F l<calE 2raMmatGc e2GstemGcs ̀ <rE F<r tHat matterE KGtH tHe ver: s2ecGal Gssues tHat arGse Gn tHe case <F ! rst 2ers<n ]ustG! catG<nE KH<se Gm2<rtance anI 2rGvGleMes seem t< me <2en as Kell t< tHe cHallenMe <F ZC[. Pace B<n]<ur Z199dE 2>3_ 2>>1E 6de[ anI F<I<r Z2>>4[E I I<nPt see an: reas<n t< 2resume tHat a tHGnLer enMaMes Gn an: s<rt <F metarepresentation <F tHe nevertHeless valGI GnFerences sHe ma: maLe.

23@


THenE I submGtE Ke K<ulI Have a MenuGne case <F a priori Ln<KleIMe: tHe belGeF Gn ZR[ K<ulI be tHe result <F a 2r<cess tHat Kas abs<lutel: reliable ZGts sentences K<ulI be true n< matter KHat eXternal c<n-teXt tHe aMent mGMHt be Gn[E Gt K<ulI Have been justi! ed b: rules tHat are perfectly truth-preservingE anI tHat ]ustG! catG<n K<ulI Gnv<lve n< 2remGses anIE s<E a fortioriE n< 2remGses ab<ut eX2erGence. M<re<verE tHese 2r<2ertGes <F sucH a belGeF K<ulI be no accident: tHe rules tHat 2ermGt tHe MeneratG<n <F tHe tHe<rems are <nes tHat are 2atentl: sensG-tGve t< KHat seem t< be tHe validity-making properties of the sentencesE tHeGr logical form ` Gt Gs because <F tHe l<MGcal F<rm <F ZR[ tHat Gt Gs true Gn all 2<ssGble K<rlIs. One can even su22<se tHat tHe lGttle s:stem Gs res2<nsGble F<r Gntr<s2ectGvel: avaGlable OGntuGtG<nsS ab<ut valGIGt: anI <tHer l<MGcal relatG<ns.

N<KE KH: sH<ulI Ke belGeve an: <F tHese stanIarI claGms ab<ut natural IeIuctG<nV RellE let us su22<seE <ur reas<ns are KHatever rea-s<ns a kuGnGan Has F<r belGevGnM an:tHGnM: sGm2lGcGt:E c<nservatGvGsmE etc.E <F <nePs <verall tHe<r: <F tHe K<rlIE KHatever tHese OvGrtuesS ma: ultGmatel: turn <ut t< be. THe crucGal 2<Gnt Gs tHGs: if there is such a holistic, empirical justi! cation of natural deduction, it will serve as a meta-justi! cation of the processes of belief formation based upon itE anI sGnce tHe s:stem Gs Gn Fact abs<lutel: relGable anI Free <F an: Zem2GrGcal[ 2rem-GsesE tHe belGeFs tHat Gssue Fr<m tH<se 2r<cesses al<ne satGsF: at least pantPs c<nIGtG<n <n tHe a priori ` s<me<nePs acce2tGnM ZR[ anI HavGnM <tHer l<MGcal GntuGtG<ns <n tHe basGs <F tHe <2eratG<n <F a GentWen-st:le l<MGc s:stem K<ulI Have a ]ustG! catG<n <F ZR[ anI tH<se GntuGtG<ns tHat Kas n<t Ie2enIent u2<n eX2erGence.

OF c<urseE tHerePs n< reas<n t< tHGnL sucH belGeFs mGMHt satGsF: kuGnePs c<nIGtG<n <F OunrevGsabGlGt: c<me KHat ma:S: s<me<ne mGMHt Have been leIE even b: tH<r<uMHl: ratG<nal c<nsGIeratG<nsE t< revise sucH a belGeF Gn tHe lGMHt <F eX2erGenceE sa:E Gn tHe Ka: tHat Putnam Z19e@[ Kas <nce leI t< 2r<2<se revGsGnM l<MGc Gn tHe lGMHt <F ûantum mecHanGcs. ButE MGven tHe c<m2leXGtGes <F ZratG<nal[ belGeF ! XatG<nE GtPs HarI t< see KH: Ke sH<ulI burIen an acc<unt <F tHe a priori KGtH an: sucH FurtHer c<nIGtG<n.

THe eXtensG<n <F tHGs e2GstemGc tK<-ste2 t< I<maGns be:<nI ! rst-<rIer l<MGcE t< 2erHa2s even tHe Oanal:tGcS trutHs s<uMHt b: lGnMuGstGcs anI 2HGl<s<2H:E Gs n<t at all <bvG<usE anI I Kant t< aIIress s<me <F tHe IGF! cultGes <F I<GnM s< Gn tHe neXt sectG<n.

236

Georges Rey

III. Conceptual Truths and the Analytic

III.i. Problems with Analysis

RellE m: <22<nent mGMHt c<nceIeE s< tHere mGMHt be an em2GrGcal vGn-IGcatG<n <F l<MGc al<nM tHese lGnes. Even kuGne Kas ambGvalent ab<ut H<K t< reMarI l<MGc.d But KHat ab<ut tHe m<re substantGve claGms <F O2HGl<s<2HGcal anal:sGsS reMarIGnME e.M.E tHe essentGal nature <F numberE Me<metr:E tH<uMHtE tHe M<<IE tHe v<luntar:V .ere Ke seem t< Have cases tHat a22ear n<t t< be matters <F Ol<MGcal F<rmS al<neE butE n<t<rG<usl:E <F claGms <F Os:n<n:m:S anI Onecessar: c<nnectG<ns am<nM GIeasES KHGcH seem es2ecGall: susce2tGble t< kuGnePs cHallenMe ZC[.

R<rseE Gn aIIGtG<n t< kuGnePs cHallenMesE tHere are tHe cHallenMes Fr<m RGttMensteGnGans anI O2r<t<t:2eS 2s:cH<l<MGsts attacLGnM tHe Onecessar: anI suF! cGentS Ie! nGnM c<nIGtG<ns tHat 2HGl<s<2HGcal anal:sts t:2Gcall: s<uMHt. THese latter c<nIGtG<ns I<nPt seem avaGl-able t< c<m2etent usersE <rE GF tHe HGst<r: <F tHe enter2rGse Gs an: GnIG-catG<nE even t< HGMHl: re" ectGve 2HGl<s<2Hers. InsteaIE acc<rIGnM t< RGttMensteGnE kuGneE puHn anI man: <F tHese 2s:cH<l<MGstsE all tHatPs avaGlable are 2r<t<t:2Gcal OFamGl: resemblancesS betKeen eXem2larsE <r FraMments <F tHe<rGes Gn KHGcH tHe c<nce2ts are useI. THe unLGnI-est cut <F all Gs 2erHa2s 'err: F<I<rPs recent Z199d[ arMuments tHat tHe anal:tGcE c<nce2tual r<le semantGcs s<uMHt b: 2HGl<s<2Hers anI 2s:-cH<l<MGsts as c<nstGtutGve <F c<nce2ts ` KHetHer ClassGcalE 2r<t<t:2G-calE <r tHe<retGcal ` Gs OKHere c<MnGtGve scGence Kent Kr<nM.S

THerePs a l<t t< aIIress HereE but F<r startersE I Kant t< suMMest tHat man: <F tHese crGtGcGsms als< seem t< me t< arGse Fr<m t<< su2er! cGal-Gst a c<nce2tG<n <F tHe enter2rGse <F Oanal:sGs.S THere Gs n< ûestG<n tHat man: 2HGl<s<2Hers anI 2s:cH<l<MGsts Have serG<usl: unIeres-tGmateI tHe IGF! cult: <F 2r<IucGnM tHese anal:sesE anI tHat tHe: I< Kell t< HeeI s<me <F tHe sLe2tGcal cHallenMes tHat Have been raGseI aMaGnst tHem. .<KeverE al<nM tHe lGnes <F m: IeFense <F tHe 2<ssGble a prioricity <F l<MGcE I Kant t< arMue nevertHeless tHat s<me LGnIs <F

d SeeE e.M.E HGs OcHanMe <F l<MGcE cHanMe <F sub]ectS slG2 Gn HGs 19e>E d>`d1.

23e


anal:ses ma: Kell be crucGal t< an: c<MnGtGve 2s:cH<l<M: tHat KGll acc<unt n<t <nl: F<r tHe su2er! cGal c<MnGtGve performances KGtH KHGcH man: <F tHe ab<ve crGtGcs Have been c<ncerneIE but KGtH <ur c<nce2-tual competence.

III.ii. The Analytic Data

SucH K<rIs brGnM t< mGnIE <F c<urseE CH<msL:Ps K<rL <n MrammarE tHe anal<M: KGtH KHGcH seems t< me ûGte cl<se. As Gn tHe case <F MrammarE Ke are c<nFr<nteI b: reMularGtGes Gn s2<ntane<us ]uIM-ments tHat Ke neeI t< eX2laGn. Man: <F tHem areE <F c<urseE tHe OGntu-GtG<nsS em2HasGWeI b: B<n]<ur anI patWE butE unlGLe tHemE Ke I<nPt neeI t< reMarI tHem as explanations <F an: 2Hen<menaE but as data tHat an: satGsFact<r: eX2lanatG<n aGms t< eX2laGn ` 2recGsel: asE Gn tHe case <F MrammarE 2e<2lePs GntuGtGve Oacce2tabGlGt:S ]uIMments are merel: Iata F<r lGnMuGstGc Z<rE m<re br<aIl:E 2s:cH<l<MGcal[ tHe<r:.

It Gs K<rtH 2ausGnM <ver tHe remarLable Fact tHat 2e<2le s< mucH as have GntuGtG<ns ab<ut tHese s<rts <F tHGnMs. One <F tHe man: K<nIer-Ful tHGnMs tHat CH<msL: br<uMHt t< <ur attentG<n Kas n<t merel: tHat 2e<2le Have c<nverMent ]uIMments ab<ut tHe acce2tabGlGt: <F varG<us strGnMs <F EnMlGsH K<rIsE but tHat tHese ]uIMments are t< s<me eXtent orthogonal t< tHeGr Muesses ab<ut KHat s<me<ne mGMHt nevertHeless GntenI b: utterGnM sucH strGnMs. F<r eXam2leE s<me<ne mGMHt utter:

ZS1[ }RH< I< :<u tHGnL tHat l<ves Mar:VZS2[ }RH< I< :<u Kanna M< vGsGt tHe 2<2e <n THursIa:VZS3[ }.e H<2es '<Hn KGll KGn ZHe beGnM '<Hn[.

anI a Hearer K<ulI Ln<K 2erFectl: Kell KHat Kas GntenIeI. IF Gt Kere n<tGceI at allE Gt K<ulI ]ust Os<unI <II.S As CH<msL: Has em2Ha-sGWeIE Facts sucH as tHese str<nMl: suMMest tHat Ke Have a s2ecGal Fac-ult: F<r tHe 2r<cessGnM <F natural lanMuaMe tHat Gs at least t< s<me sGMnG! cant eXtent GnIe2enIent <F tHe IemanIs <F c<mmunGcatG<n <r K<rlIl: unIerstanIGnM. It seems tHat <ur tH<uMHts I< n<t c<nsGst Gn tHe s<rt <F Oseamless KebS <F s2eecH IGs2<sGtG<ns envGsaMeI b: kuGne Z196>[. SGMnG! cant 2<rtG<ns <F <ur mGnIs a22ear t< be Om<IularGWeIES anI tHe lanMuaMe s:stem a22ears t< be <ne sucH m<Iule Zsee F<I<r 19d3[.

23d

Georges Rey

I tHGnL tHGs Gs a useFul 2ers2ectGve t< taLe n<t <nl: KGtH reMarI t< MrammarE but KGtH reMarI t< c<nce2tual GnvestGMatG<nsE anIj<r OsemantGcsES as Kell Zall<KGnM 2r<vGsG<nall: tHat tHe: are t< be IGstGn-MuGsHeI Fr<m s:ntaX[. InsteaI <F treatGnM tHe c<nce2tual OGntuGtG<nsS tHat Gnterest tHe ratG<nalGsts as s<me LGnI <F IGrect acûaGntance KGtH genuine possibilities <r real propertiesE as patW anI B<n]<ur K<ulI Have us I<E treat tHem GnsteaI merel: as evGIence ab<ut structures Gn <ur mGnIs. THese structures tHen ma: <r ma: n<t 2r<vGIe us an: GnsGMHt Gnt< an: ZmaterGal <r Plat<nGstGc[ realGtGes GnIe2enIent <F <ur mGnIsE Ie2enIGnM u2<n H<K relGable Gn tHGs reMarI <ur mGnIs turn <ut t< be.

C<nstrueI al<nM tHese lGnesE let us call tHe Oanal:tGc IataS tHe Iata tHat 2<sGtGnM tHe anal:tGc Gs su22<seI t< eX2laGn Zall<KGnM tHat Gt mGMHt turn <ut t< be OeX2laGneI aKa:S[. It GncluIesE inter aliaE a n<n-neMlGMGble c<nverMence Gn 2e<2lePs ]uIMments KGtH reMarI t< 2artGcular c<nce2ts anIj<r leXGcal GtemsE e.M. ab<ut s:n<n:mGesE ambGMuGtGesE ant<n:mGesE entaGlments.9 AsL s2eaLersE as lGnMuGsts I<E KHetHer abanLEP <r a2rGIeP are ambGMu<us_ KHetHer LGllGnMs necessarGl: Gnv<lve I:GnMs_ KHetHer a<2enP anI acl<seIP are ant<n:ms_ KHetHer a'Gm b<GleI tHe KaterP Gm2lGes aTHe Kater b<GleIP_ KHetHer aTHe sûare-r<<t <F a sHaI<K Gs reIP Gs an<mal<us. AsL 2e<2le KHat tHGnMs ûalGF: as a bacHel<rE Ln<KleIMeE c<ercG<nE a v<luntar: actE 2erce2tG<nE KaterE brGsLet_ elGcGt tHeGr c<nsGIereI ]uIMments ab<ut H:2<tHetGcal cases_ asL tHem KHat tHe: tHGnL constitutes beGnM <ne <F tHese tHGnMs. I submGt tHat <ne ! nIs KHat 2HGl<s<2Hers Have F<unI sGnce S<crates beMan casuall: I<GnM tHGs Gn HGs agora: tHat tHere Gs Mreat Ieal <F c<nverMence ab<ut KHat <ne can anI canPt sa:E anI ab<ut KHat clearl: I<es anI KHat clearl: I<es n<t satGsF: a c<nce2t_ anI tHatE altH<uMH 2e<2le canPt reaIGl: 2r<vGIe aIeûate rules <r Ie! nGtG<ns t< ca2ture tHese 2atternsE tHe: s<<n real-ize tHe: canPtE anIE Ies2Gte IGsaMreementE are ûGcL t< acLn<KleIMe at least the cogency <F eacH <tHersP cases anI c<nsGIeratG<ns.

B: Ka: <F a FurtHerE Gm2<rtant s<rt <F evGIenceE c<nsGIer als< tHe Fam<us Euthyphro ûestG<n tHatE altH<uMH Gt Gs a stanIarI eXercGse Gn Gntr<Iuct<r: 2HGl<s<2H:E Gs GnsuF! cGentl: IGscusseI Gn tHe c<nteXt <F tHe anal:tGc:

9 See es2ecGall: patW 19e2E 3`6 F<r a rGcH set <F eXam2les tHat seem t< me t< Have been GnsuF! cGentl: IGscusseI Gn tHe crGtGcal lGterature.

239


Is s<metHGnM M<<I because tHe M<Is sa: Gt GsE <r I< tHe: sa: Gt Gs because Gt Gs M<<IV

C<m2are Gt KGtH tHe sGmGlar ûestG<n:

Is s<metHGnM leMal because tHe autH<rGtGes sa: Gt GsE <r I< tHe: sa: Gt Gs because Gt Gs leMalV

I taLe Gt tHat Gt Gs eXcellent evGIence <F HavGnM tHe c<nce2ts lM<<Im vs. merel: lleMalm tHat <ne ! nIs <ne ansKerGnM tHe ûestG<ns IGFFerentl:: tHe GIea tHat tHe ultGmate autH<rGtGes c<ulI be Kr<nM ab<ut leMalGt: seems OunGntellGMGbleS Gn a Ka: tHat tHe c<rres2<nIGnM GIea ab<ut tHe M<Is FaGlGnM t< a22recGate tHe M<<I I<es n<t Zn<te Kell tHat Gt ma: n<t be possible F<r tHe M<Is t< be Kr<nM ab<ut tHe M<<IE but Gt Gs stGll intel-ligible: F<r all HGs Iev<tG<n t< G<IE AbraHamE 2<GseI KGtH tHe IaMMer <ver HGs s<nPs tHr<atE can stGll GntellGMGbl: K<nIer KHetHer G<I Has M<t Gt ûGte rGMHt[. RHatever tHe merGts <F tHe m<re O<b]ectGveS acc<unt <F tHe M<<I tHat tHGs GnsGMHt seems t< rec<mmenIE I I< tHGnL an eXamGna-tG<n <F sucH EutH:2Hr<nGc GntuGtG<ns aFF<rIs s<me GnsGMHt Gnt< tHe c<n-ce2t <F tHe M<<IE as <22<seI t< tHe merel: leMalE as Kell as Gnt< man: <tHer c<nce2ts tHat Ke reMularl: em2l<:.1> AnI m: suMMestG<n Here Gs tHat traIGtG<nal 2HGl<s<2HGcal IGscussG<ns <F tHGs s<rtE anI attem2ts at Oc<nce2tual anal:sGsES can be reMarIeI Gn tHGs Ka: as elGcGtGnM evG-Ience anI aIvancGnM H:2<tHeses ab<ut sucH c<nce2tual structures.

AlasE <F c<urseE tHese anal:tGc GntuGtG<ns are a l<t m<re slG22er: anI elusGve tHan tHe l<vel: cases <F MrammarE tHe rules a l<t HarIer t< c<me b:. As man: 2e<2le are F<nI <F 2<GntGnM <utE 2HGl<s<2HGcal anal:sGs Gs larMel: a HGst<r: <F FaGlures ZF<I<r 199dE 69è>[. Ir<nGcall: en<uMHE H<KeverE tHGs HGst<r: <F FaGlure could be taLen as actuall: an arMument forE n<t aMaGnstE tHe 2r<]ect <F anal:sGsE <r s<metHGnM lGLe Gt. ZItPs a lGttle lGLe tHe combination <F success anI FaGlure Gn scGence tHat arMues F<r realGsm ab<ut Gts <b]ects: Ke Met en<uMH success t< tHGnL KePre <n t< s<metHGnME anI en<uMH FaGlure t< tHGnL tHat GtPs n<t all

1> N<te tHat tHe EutH:2Hr<nGc ûestG<n arGses ab<ut merel: tHe concept <F tHe M<<IE KHetHer <r n<t M<<Iness Gs an <b]ectGveE mGnI-GnIe2enIent 2r<2ert: <F tHe K<rlI Zbut es2ecGall: GF Gt GsnPtn[.

24>

Georges Rey

KGsHFul tHGnLGnME eGtHer[. F<r KHat Gs Gt tHat leaIs us t< reject 2r<2<seI anal:sesV RH: I< Ke tenI t< aMree ab<ut 2lausGble canIGIates anI als< ab<ut tHeGr GnaIeûacGesV RHat I< all <F us Ln<K ab<ut aLn<KP tHat leaIs us t< Fall F<r a]ustG! eI true belGeFP anI tHen t< a22recGate EImunI GettGerPs Z1963[ c<untereXam2lesV Or ab<ut a2erce2tG<nPE <r aKaterPE <r abrGsLetP tHat leaIs man: <F us t< aMree KGtH GrGce Z196@[E Putnam Z19e@[ anI BurMe Z19e9[ tHat Ke K<ulI IeFer t< eX2ertsV Or ab<ut amurIerP anI a2ers<nPE sucH tHat Ke unIerstanI KH:E e.M.E ab<r-tG<n anI eutHanasGa are IGF! cult casesV THat Gs t< sa:E Ke sH<ulI asL Here eXactl: tHe ûestG<n tHat CH<msL: asLeI ab<ut s:ntaX: what explains the patterns and projections in peoples’ judgments?

III.iii. Quine’s Bad Explanation

One Ka: t< a22recGate tHe r<le <F s<me LGnI <F Gnternal OsemantGcalS rules Gs t< n<tGce tHe GnaIeûacGes <F acc<unts <F tHe anal:tGc Iata tHat tr: t< IGs2ense KGtH tHem. One <F tHe earlGest anI m<st Gn" uentGal Kas kuGnePs <KnE acc<rIGnM t< KHGcH KHat Kas anal:tGc Kas sGm2l: KHat Kas centrall: <r tenacG<usl: belGeveI b: s<me<neE ca2turGnM tHe GIea tHat On< am<unt <F evGIence c<ulI reFute tHe claGm tHat bacHel<rs are unmarrGeI.S TH<uMH GtPs certaGnl: true tHat s<me ZrelatGvel: trGv-Gal[ anal:tGc trutHs are tenacG<usl: HelI Gn tHGs Ka:E tHe eX2lanatG<n I<esnPt reall: MeneralGWe. N<tGceE F<r eXam2leE tHat:

Z1[ Merel: tenacG<us belGeFs arenPt reMularl: lGnLeI t< claGms <F ab<ut s:n<n:mGesE ambGMuGtGesE ant<n:mGes anI <r tHe s2ecG! c l<MGcal entaGlments lGnMuGsts n<te.

Z2[ UnlGLe tHe IenGals <F anal:tGc claGmsE IenGals <F merel: tenacG<us belGeFs are easGl: understood b: even tHeGr m<st c<mmGtteI aIHerents. Des2Gte tHe Fact tHat IPm as unlGLel: t< belGeve an:tHGnM as I am tHat 2e<2le Have never HaI n<sesE tHe sGtuatG<n Gs 2erFectl: imaginable.

Z3[ Anal:tGc claGms are b: anI larMe innocuous Gn tHe Ka: tHat tenacG<us belGeFs are n<t: MGvGnM u2 aTHe EartH Has eXGsteI F<r man: :earsP K<ulI be 2rett: IGsru2tGve Gn a Ka:E KHere all<KGnM Female bacHel<rs K<ulI be Omerel: verbal.S

241


Z4[ TenacGt: I<esnPt beMGn t< eX2laGn tHe essentGalGstE EutH:2Hr<nGc GntuGtG<ns ab<ut c<nstGtutGve c<nIGtG<ns ass<cGateI KGtH c<nce2ts. THGsE <F c<urseE K<ulI n<t Have b<tHereI kuGneE KH< mGMHt Kell IGsmGss sucH IelGcate m<Ial ûestG<ns as HavGnM n< 2lace Gn an: ultGmate scG-ence. But Gt sH<ulI stGll b<tHer tH<se <F us KH<E Grres2ec-tGve <F tHe correctness <F s<me set <F tH<uMHtsE mGMHt stGll be GnteresteI Gn tHeGr explanation.

III.iv Fodor’s Slightly Better Account

AltH<uMH He <F c<urse I<esnPt sHare kuGnePs aversG<ns t< mGnI anI meanGnME F<I<r Z199d[ Has rGsen t< tHe IeFense <F kuGnePs sLe2tGcGsm ab<ut tHe anal:tGc. .e H<2es t< av<GI tHe cHallenMe tHat ZC[ 2resents t< a tHe<r: <F meanGnM b: res<rtGnM t< an OeXternalGstS tHe<r: <F c<n-tentE KHereb: c<ntent Gs IetermGneI not b: an: 2s:cH<l<MGcal relatG<n internal t< a mGnIE KHGcH c<ulI be cHallenMeI b: ZC[E but b: relatG<ns states <F tHe braGn bear t< eXternal 2Hen<menaE 2artGcularl: tHe LGnI <F Z2<ssGbl: unGnstantGateI[ 2r<2ertGes Ke n<teI earlGer.11

F<I<r I<es rec<MnGWeE H<KeverE tHat kuGnePs OcentralGt:S eX2lana-tG<n K<nPt ûGte suF! ce t< eX2laGn tHe anal:tGc GntuGtG<nsE12 anI s< F<l-l<Ks u2 a suMMestG<n <rGMGnall: aIvanceI b: .Glar: Putnam Z1962[: Oanal:tGc trutHsS are ]ust eXam2les <F O<ne-crGterG<nS c<nce2tsE <r c<nce2ts lGLeE e.M.E lbacHel<rmE lKGI<KmE l<2HtHalm<l<MGstmE KHere tHere 2ur2<rteIl: Ha22ens t< be <nl: <ne OKa: t< tellS KHetHer tHe: a22l:.

F<I<r Z199dE d2[ acLn<KleIMes tHatE s< stateIE tHGs latter acc<unt K<nPt suF! ce eGtHerE sGnce tHe n<tG<n <F OcrGterGaS seems n< better <FF

11 BrGe" :E a s:mb<l S means P GF n<n-P causeI S-t<Lens Ie2enI u2<n PPs causGnM S-t<LensE but n<t vice versa. F<r Meneral eX2lGcatG<nE IeFenseE anI crGtGcGsms <F tHGs Oas:mmetrGc Ie2enIenc:S tHe<r:E see F<I<r 19deE 199>E Re: 199@E anI man: <F tHe artGcles Gn L<eKer anI Re: 1991.

12 At an: rateE He n<tes Gt I<esnPt K<rL OF<r all tHe casesES suMMestGnM Gt K<rLs F<r s<me Z199dE d6[. I actuall: I<nPt ! nI Gt K<rLs F<r an:E eXce2t as a matter <F 2ure c<GncGIenceE e.M.E cases KHere tHe term Gnv<lveI ]ust Ha22ens als< t< be central t< <ur tH<uMHtE as Gn aMaterGal <b]ects are eXtenIeI.P

242

Georges Rey

tHan Oanal:tGc.S In 2artGcularE GF tHere Kere ]ust one Ka: t< tell KHatPs KHatE tHere K<ulI seemE trGvGall:E t< be GnIe! nGte numbers <F IGFFer-ent Ka:s ` F<r eXam2leE ]ust asL s<me<ne KH< Ln<Ks tHe <ne Ka:_ <r asL s<me<ne KH< Ln<Ks s<me<ne KH< Ln<Ks_ <r o ` anI Ke K<ulI seem t< Have n< better Ka: t< sGnMle <ut KHGcH Ka: Gs OcrGterGalS tHan Ke Have t< sa: KHGcH Ka: Gs Oanal:tGc.S But Here F<I<r <FFers a 2r<m-GsGnM m<veE reI<lent <F HGs Meneral Oas:mmetrGc Ie2enIenc:S tHe<r: <F c<ntent Zsee n<te 12 ab<ve[: am<nM tHe Ka:s <F tellGnM KHatPs KHatE s<me I< anI s<me I<nPt as:mmetrGcall: Ie2enI u2<n tHe <tHers_ tHe <neZsV[ tHat don’t are tHe <nes tHat MGve rGse t< anal:tGc GntuGtG<ns. THusE tellGnM tHat s<me<ne Gs a bacHel<r b: cHecLGnM <ut HGs MenIer anI mar-Gtal status I<esnPt Ie2enI u2<n tellGnM b: asLGnM HGs FrGenIsE but tell-GnM b: asLGnM HGs FrGenIs I<es Ie2enI u2<n tellGnM b: HGs MenIer anI marGtal status_ anI s< Ke Have an eX2lanatG<n <F KH: ObacHel<rs are unmarrGeI malesS seems anal:tGc ` KGtH<ut GtPs actuall: beGnM s<.13

SucH as:mmetrGc Ie2enIence KGll OeX2laGn aKa:S tHe anal:tGcE H<KeverE <nl: GF tHe anal:tGc GsnPt neeIeI Gn an eX2lanatG<n <F sucH as:mmetrGc Ie2enIence. But GtPs HarI t< see H<K Gt K<ulInPt be. F<r n<tGce tHat n<t ]ust an: sucH as:mmetrGc Ie2enIencGes MGve rGse t< anal:tGc GntuGtG<ns: tHe <nl: Ka: I Ln<K t< tell KHetHer s<metHGnMPs an acGI <r n<t Gs t< see KHetHer Gt turns lGtmus 2a2er reI_ <tHer Ka:s ZasLGnM m: cHemGst FrGenIs[ as:mmetrGcall: Ie2enI u2<n tHat Ka:. But I HavenPt tHe slGMHtest GntuGtG<n tHat OacGIs turn lGtmus 2a2er reIS Gs anal:tGc. InIeeIE I Full: eX2ect tHat tHere areE <r c<ulI beE better Ka:s t< test acGIGt:E anI tHatPs because I belGeve aacGIP marLs a rela-tGvel: OIee2S s<rt <F tHGnME KH<se nature Gs n<t ca2tureI b: KHat tests Ha22en t< be at HanI. B: c<ntrastE I belGeve abacHel<rP marLs a su2er-! cGal LGnIE KH<se nature Gs 2rett: mucH eXHausteI b: tHe lGnMuGstGcs <F tHe matter: unlGLe tHe case <F lGtmus 2a2er anI acGIGt:E the reason that gender and marital status are the best way to tell whether someone’s a bachelor is that that’s just what ‘bachelor’ means!

On beHalF <F tHGs c<ntrastE n<te tHat sH<ulI a cHemGst 2r<2<se revGs-GnM tHe test F<r acGIs Gn tHe lGMHt <F better tHe<r:E tHGs K<ulI n<t per se

13 Actuall:E <ne mGMHt K<nIer KH: F<I<rPs 2r<2<sal Gs n<t a reIuctGve eX2lGcatG<n ratHer tHan tHe elGmGnatGve OeX2laGnGnM aKa:S <F tHe anal:tGc tHat He GntenIs. One reas<n mGMHt be tHe ver: reas<n I KGll n<K suMMest aMaGnst Gts even beGnM a successFul elGmGnatG<n.

243


c<nstGtute a cHanMe Gn tHe meanGnME KHereas sH<ulIE sa:E a FemGnGst 2r<2<seE Gn tHe lGMHt <F better 2<lGtGcsE revGsGnM abacHel<rP t< GncluIe K<menE tHGs <bvG<usl: K<ulI. In an: caseE Gt sH<ulI be clear tHat a22eals t< O<ne crGterG<nS K<nPt ansKer tHe eX2lanat<r: cHallenMe <ne mGMHt raGse F<r tHe less <bvG<us cases <F tHe c<nnectG<ns betKeenE sa:E aLn<KP anI a]ustG! eIPE aFreeI<mP anI as2<ntaneGt:PE sGnce Gn eacH <F tHese casesE altH<uMH Ke seem t< be <n t< s<me c<nnectG<nsE GtPs n<t<rG<usl: IGF! cult t< s2ecGF: even one MenuGnel: aIeûate OKa: t< tell.S

VI. The Need for Internal Roles

IV.i. Empirical Theories of Competence

In <rIerE tHenE t< acc<unt F<r tHese s<metGmes FaGrl: r<bust anal:tGc GntuGtG<nsE Gt a22ears tHat a tHe<r: <F c<nce2ts KGll neeI t< GncluIe s<me Facts ab<ut a termPs Gnternal Ze.M.E GnFerentGal[ r<le: ls<ulm 2la:s a certaGn r<le Gn a 2ers<nPs tH<uMHtE 2ermGttGnM tHe GmaMGneI Zbut 2r<b-abl: n<t MenuGne[ 2<ssGbGlGt: <F IGsemb<IGeI eXGstence_ lM<<Im 2la:s a r<le IGFFerent Fr<m tHat <F lleMalm_ lFreeI<mm Gs tGeI t< ma:be Gm2<s-sGble claGms ab<ut s2<ntaneGt: anI m<ral res2<nsGbGlGt:_ EuclGIean l2<GntmE llGnemE lcGrclem F<rm a cluster <F Gnter-Ie! nable n<tG<ns sub]ect t< certaGn aXG<msE anI s< F<rtH.14 Al<nM lGnes suMMesteI b:E e.M.E .eGm Z19d9[ anI RecanatG Z1993[E I tHGnL <F c<nce2ts as ! lesE es2ecGall: Zbut n<t <nl:[ F<r leXGcal entrGesE KH<se s:ntactGc anI semantGc Ie2l<:ment Gs M<verneI b: rules c<ntaGneI Gn tHe ! les.

As 2ressGnM as tHe neeI ma: be F<r tHGs s<rt <F acc<unt <F c<nce2tsE tHere GsE H<KeverE tHe Gmmense IGF! cult: <F 2r<vGIGnM <ne. F<r startersE tHerePs tHe Fact tHat 2e<2le seem t< be able t< belGeve m<st an:tHGnM ` BerLele:E F<r eXam2leE belGeveI tHat trees are GIeasE P:tHaM<reans tHat ever:tHGnM Gs numbersE c<ntem2<rar: lGterar: tHe<rGsts tHat ever:tHGnMPs a teXt. M<re<verE as Ke Have n<teI tHat kuGne Z19@3b[

14 I cGte es2ecGall: tHese eXam2lesE sGnce GFE 2er n<te @ ab<veE tHere reall: are n< even possibleE n<mGc 2Hen<mena tHat c<rres2<nI t< tHem Zas arMuabl: tHere arenPt[E tHen tHe neeI <F a c<nce2tual r<le acc<unt <F tHeGr c<ntent K<ulI seem t< be m<re tHan merel: 2ressGnM_ see Re: 199@ anI F<rtHc<mGnM-b F<r IGscussG<n.

244

Georges Rey

em2HasGWeIE all belGeFs seem revisable: :<u can F<<l s<me <F tHe 2e<2le s<me <F tHe tGmeE anI tHe: can cHanMe tHeGr mGnIsE ab<ut m<st an:-tHGnME GncluIGnM even anal:ses ZKGtness Ln<KleIMe as O]ustG! eI true belGeFS[.

.<KeverE altH<uMH tHese c<nsGIeratG<ns Have been Gn" uentGalE tHe: are HarIl: IecGsGve. THGs Gs KHere Ke neeI t< Met 2ast tHe su2er! cGal-Gsm tHat HasE Gt seems t< meE I<mGnateI t<< man: <F tHese IGscus-sG<ns. THe Fact tHat Ke mGMHt revGse KHat ma: Gn Fact be Gn an anal:tGc trutH tells aMaGnst tHe eXGstence <F tHe anal:tGc <nl: GF <ur revGsG<n IGrectl: re" ects <ur unIerl:GnM lGnMuGstGc <r c<nce2tual c<m2etence. But surel: BerLele: Kas n<t lGnMuGstGcall: cHallenMeI ab<ut materGal <b]ect terms: He LneK 2erFectl: Kell tHe 2resum2tG<ns <F atableP anI acHaGrP reFerrGnM t< c<ncreta. .e ]ust HaI a theory tHat leI HGm t< assert s<metHGnM tHat at least seemeI t< M< aMaGnst tHe MraGn <F HGs lGnMuGstGc c<m2etence. .e KasnPtE aFter allE sGm2l: Gn tHe 2<sGtG<n <F a c<nFuseI F<reGMnerE KH< mGsunIerst<<IE e.M.E atableP anI acHaGrP t< reFer <nl: t< GIeas.1@

InIeeIE Gn lGne KGtH taLGnM serG<usl: CH<msL:Ps c<m2etence` 2erF<rmance IGstGnctG<nE tHere Gs n< reas<n t< tHGnL tHat tHe actual sentences Ke utter neeI acc<rI KGtH lGnMuGstGc rules.16 In tHe ! rst

1@ N<teE F<r eXam2leE tHatE unlGLe <ur c<nFuseI F<reGMnerE BerLele: I<es see tHe neeI t< brGnM Gn G<I t< ca2ture at least tHe 2resum2tG<n tHat <b]ects can eXGst un2erceGveI b: us.

16 '<e LevGne re2<rteI t< me KHat GnGtGall: a22eareI t< be a ]<Le ab<ut ]ust H<K eXtreme CH<msL: c<ulI be Gn HGs 2ublGc stances. CH<msL: HaI a22arentl: IelGv-ereI s<me <F HGs GnGtGal lectures <n tHe OmGnGmalGst 2r<MramES anI a lGnMuGst HaI 2<GnteI <ut KHat seemeI t< be s<me 2r<blems F<r Gt KGtH s<me eXam2le Fr<m RelsH. RGtH<ut mGssGnM a beatE CH<msL: a22arentl: re2lGeIE OTHat ]ust sH<Ks :<u tHat RelsH Gs n<t a natural lanMuaMeS ` anI tHenE aFter mGssGnM at m<st a beatE He aIIeIE OGn FactE GtPs a c<mm<n mGsunIerstanIGnM tHat 2e<2le s2eaL natural lanMuaMes. THerePs n<t a sHreI <F reas<n t< tHGnL s<.S AltH<uMH CH<msL: Gs MGven t< m<re tHan <ccasG<nal H:2erb<leE tHGs GsnPt an Gnstance <F Gt. IF He Gs even r<uMHl: rGMHt ab<ut tHe eXGstence <F a lGnMuGstGc c<m2etence unIerl:GnM <ur usual 2erF<rmances as tHe 2r<2er <b]ect <F lGnMuGstGc stuI:E tHen Gt K<ulI be as sur2rGsGnM tHat tHat c<m2etence Kere reMularl: IGs2la:eI Gn <ur 2erF<rmance as Gt K<ulI be F<r tHe 2lanets t< be <bserveI t< <be: pe2lerPs laKs 2erFectl:. In an: c<m2leX macr<-s:stemE 2artGcularl: <ne as GntrGcate as tHe Human mGnIE <ne eX2ects s:stematGc GnteractG<n betKeen tHe KGIe varGet: <F subs:stems.

24@


2laceE tHere Gs <F c<urse Gr<n:E unIerstatementE Gm2lGcatureE Gm2lGcG-tureE anI acûGescence t< <nePs auIGencePs HabGtsE neeIsE anI eX2ec-tatG<ns. ButE as Gn tHe case <F BerLele: anI c<untless <tHer 2HGl<s<-2HersE tHe<r: can als< Gntervene anI leaI 2e<2le t< sa: tHGnMs tHat ma: Gn Fact vG<late lGnMuGstGc rules.1e As CH<msL: <Ften em2HasGWesE lGnMuGstGc rules inclineE but I<nPt compelE anI actual lGnMuGstGc 2ractGce ma: s<metGmes serve <tHer 2ur2<ses tHan strGct aIHerence t< tH<se rules. .ence tHe 2<ssGble Gnterest <F BerLele:Ps anI <tHersP claGms vG<latGnM KHat ma: be anal:tGc. All tHat ma: be essentGal t< c<mmu-nGcatG<n KGtH a leXGcal Gtem Gs tHat a Hearer anI s2eaLer sHare a ! le c<ntaGnGnM a certaGn ruleE even GF tHe rule Gs vG<lateI Gn tHe s2eecH eXcHanMe ZKHGcH Gs KHat IGstGnMuGsHes BerLele:Ps usaMe Fr<m tHat <F tHe c<nFuseI F<reGMner[.

IV.ii. The Analytic as Manifesting Linguistic Competence

But KHat ab<ut tHe truth <F an anal:tGc claGmV RHat entGtles us t< tHGnLE e.M.E tHat all LGllGnMs are in fact necessarGl: I:GnMsV RellE GF tHe ab<ve assGmGlatG<n <F anal:tGcGt: t< MrammatGcalGt: Gs c<rrectE tHen KHatever entGtles s2eaLers t< Ln<K certaGn LGnIs <F MrammatGcal Facts ma: entGtle tHem t< Ln<K tHe relevant semantGc <nes. C<nsGIer tHe MrammatGcal cases ! rst.

1e AnI n<t <nl: 2HGl<s<2HGcal tHe<r: can Gntervene. Subtle Gssues <F verbal nuanceE em2HasGs anI OFramGnMS can leaI 2e<2le t< a22arentl: c<ntraIGct<r: attGtuIes. At an: rateE c<nsGIer:

ZG[ In a 194> stuI:E @4 2er cent <F AmerGcans saGI Ke sH<ulI OF<rbGIS antG-Iem<c-rac: s2eecHesE KHGle e@ 2er cent saGI Ke sH<ulI On<t all<KS tHem.

ZGG[ D<ct<rs Have been F<unI m<re lGLel: t< rec<mmenI an <2eratG<n KGtH a 93 2er cent survGval rate tHan KGtH a e 2er cent m<rtalGt: rate.

ZGGG[ Pe<2le eX2ress m<re sur2rGse KHen a 1j2> tHan KHen a 1>j2>> event <ccurs.

ZGv[ Pe<2le averse t< Osm<LGnM KHGle 2ra:GnMS are n<t eûall: averse t< O2ra:GnM KHGle sm<LGnM.S

ZSee M:ers 2>>4E 12@`6E 2e9`d> F<r IGscussG<n anI reFerences.[

246

Georges Rey

THe Iata <F lGnMuGstGc GnûGr: are larMel: baseI u2<n tHe s2<ntane-<us reactG<ns <F natGve s2eaLers <F a lanMuaMe t< certaGn Z2ur2<rteI[ strGnMs <F tHat lanMuaMe. S2eaLers ! nI tHe strGnMs GntellGMGbleE 2uW-WlGnME <r unacce2tableE anI can re2<rt <n varG<us <F tHeGr 2r<2ertGesE e.M.E ambGMuGt:E ant<n:m<n:E an<mal:E 2ur2<rteI c<-reFerence. N<K 2erHa2sE as DevGtt ZF<rtHc<mGnM[ 2r<2<sesE tHe: I< tHGs <n tHe basGs <F tHe LGnI <F em2GrGcal evGIence tHat serves tHem Gn <tHer I<maGnsE F<r eXam2leE Gn learnGnM statGstGcal Facts ab<ut 2lants anI anGmalsE Facts ab<ut s<cGal HGst<r:E <r tHe LGnI <F verbal nGcetGes tauMHt Gn OMram-marS scH<<l Ze.M.E OSentences Have sub]ects anI 2reIGcates_ 2r<n<uns Have anteceIents.S[1d ButE as CH<msL: Has em2HasGWeIE tHGs seems eXtremel: unlGLel: F<r m<st <F tHe GnterestGnM Facts <F lGnMuGstGc struc-tureE KHGcH are remarLabl: abstractE subtleE anI n<t tHe <b]ects <F <rIGnar: attentG<n <r GnstructG<n ` <nl: lGnMuGstsE F<r eXam2leE KGll Have n<tGceI tHe unacce2tabGlGt: <F ZS1[`ZS3[. Pe<2lePs GntuGtG<ns seem larMel: t< be n<t em2GrGcal GnFerencesE but merel: manifestations <F tHeGr c<m2etence: s<me<nePs not ! nIGnM an:tHGnM stranMe ab<ut ZS1[`ZS3[ K<ulI be str<nM prima facie evGIence n<t F<r s<me GnFerentGal Ie! cGenc:E but ratHer tHat tHeGr c<m2etence ]ust IGverMeI Fr<m tHat <F <rIGnar: EnMlGsH s2eaLers.

OF c<urseE merel: tHat tHe GntuGtG<ns manGFest a c<m2etence I<esnPt al<ne maLe tHem knowledge: GntuGtG<ns ab<ut bG<l<MGcal LGnIs ma: manGFest an unIerl:GnM c<m2etence KGtH a F<lL bG<l<M: KGtH<ut c<unt-GnM as MenuGne bG<l<MGcal Ln<KleIMe. But Here tHe mGnI-Ie2enIence <F lanMuaMe can 2la: a crucGal r<le. Ins<Far as a lanMuaMe Z<r GIG<lect ` KHat CH<msL: calls an OI-lanMuaMeS[ Gs constituted b: a 2ers<nPs lanMuaMe Facult:E tHen tHere Gs n< Gssue <F c<rrectness GnIe2enIent <F tHe 2rGncG2les <F tHat Facult:. C<nseûentl:E GF a 2ers<nPs GntuGtG<ns Kere MenuGne manGFestatG<ns <F tHat Facult:E tHen tHe: K<ulI 2<ssess a certaGn FreeI<m Fr<m err<r n<t 2resent Gn tHe case <F c<m2etencGes reMarIGnM mGnI-GnIe2enIent I<maGns.

One mGMHt K<rr: ab<ut tHe I<maGn <F lanMuaMe beGnM Gtems Gn s2ace anI tGme. But Gt Gs 2art anI 2arcel <F tHe c<nce2tG<n <F I-lanMuaMe

1d TH<uMH I IGsaMree KGtH DevGtt m<st em2HatGcall: <n tHGs GssueE I am mucH GnIebteI t< HGm F<r IGscussG<ns <F Gt anIE GnIeeI Zc<unter-suMMestGble as I am[ F<r s<me <F tHe stGmulatG<n t< tHe vGeK IeFenIeI Here.

24e


tHat CH<msL: 2r<2<ses tHat tHe Gtems Gt c<ncerns ZK<rIsE sentencesE 2H<nesE 2H<netGc Features[ are n<t eXternal t< tHe aMent. 'ust KHat tHe Gtems are Gs n<t entGrel: clear. CH<msL: Z2>>>E 2>>3[ suMMests tHat tHe: are sGm2l: OGnternal FeaturesS <F tHe mGnIjbraGn. In Re: Z2>>3[E I Have arMueI tHat tHGs Gs Gm2lausGbleE anI tHat tHe sub]ect matter <F at least c<m2utatG<naljre2resentatG<nal tHe<rGes tHat lGnMuGsts cHarac-terGstGcall: 2r<2<se Gs m<re a22r<2rGatel: reMarIeI as tHe intentional content <F re2resentatG<ns 2r<cesseI Gn tHe lanMuaMe Facult:. An Gntu-GtG<nE F<r eXam2leE tHat Gn ZS3[ aHeP cann<t be a'<HnP Gs n<t an GntuGtG<n ab<ut mGnI-GnIe2enIent OK<rIsES but sGm2l: an GntuGtG<n KGtH tHe GntentG<nal c<ntent Zt< a ! rst a22r<XGmatG<n[ lIn a.e H<2es '<Hn KGll KGnP He cann<t be '<Hnm.19 .avGnM tHe GntuGtG<n ab<ut tHe sentence Has r<uMHl: tHe same status as HavGnM an GntuGtG<n tHat blue l<<Ls cl<ser t< Mreen tHan t< <ranMeE <r tHat tHe lGnes Gn tHe M~ller-L:er GllusG<n l<<L IGFFerent lenMtHs. 'ust as tHe latter 2resumabl: manGFest Facts ab<ut tHe GntentG<nal c<ntent <F <ur 2erce2tual s:stemE s< I< lGnMuGstGc Gntu-GtG<ns manGFest Facts ab<ut tHe GntentG<nal c<ntent <F <ur <Kn I-lan-MuaMe. THe: mGMHtE <F c<urseE be mGstaLen ` but <nl: GF tHe: arenPt Gn Fact tHe manGFestatG<ns tHe: a22ear t< be.

T< maLe tHGs a lGttle m<re 2recGseE su22<seE al<nM tHe lGnes <F m: earlGer su22<sGtG<n <F a l<MGc m<IuleE tHat a 2ers<n Gs als< enI<KeI KGtH a lanMuaMe Facult:E KH<se nature Gs c<nstGtuteI b: certaGn 2rGn-cG2les tHat Zlet us su22<se[ are eX2lGcGtl: re2resenteI Gn tHat Facult:E anI tHat a lGnMuGstGc GntuGtG<n Gs actuall: arrGveI at b: beGnM deduced Fr<m tH<se 2rGncG2les.2> IF Gt KereE anI tHe 2rGncG2les Kere c<nstGtutGve <F tHe lanMuaMe Facult:E tHen tHat K<ulI seem a c<nclusGve reas<n t<

19 THe K<rIsE sentencesE 2H<nemes 2r<]ecteI Fr<m tHGs c<ntent I<nPt tHemselves eXGst ZanI I<nPt neeI t<[E eGtHer Gn tHe eXternal K<rlI <F tHe ac<ustGc streamE <r tHe Gnternal K<rlI <F tHe braGn. I IGscuss tHGs Gssue at lenMtH Gn m: ZF<rtHc<mGnM a anI b[.

2> MGcHael DevGtt ZF<rtHc<mGnM[ Has unc<vereI suMMestG<ns al<nM tHese lGnes Gn tHe c<MnGtGve scGence lGteratureE e.M.E Gn CH<msL: 19d6E 2e>_ DK:er anI PGetr<sLG 1996E 342_ Lars<n anI SeMal 199@E 1>. IPm s:m2atHetGc t< DevGttPs ZF<rtHc<mGnM[ c<m2laGnt tHat tHe em2GrGcal evGIence as :et I<esnPt rem<tel: establGsH tHe trutH <F sucH a m<IelE but I I<ubt tHat Gts 2r<2<nents actuall: tHGnL Gt I<es. I sus2ect tHe: GntenI GtE as I< IE as a suMMestG<n <F sGm2l: <ne 2<ssGble m<Iel <F tHe 2r<IuctG<n <F GntuGtG<ns.

24d

Georges Rey

reMarI tHe GntuGtG<ns tHemselves as Ln<Kn a priori: aFter allE GF s<me 2r<cess Gs Gn Fact a MenuGne IerGvatG<n b: abs<lutel: relGable rules Fr<m 2rGncG2les tHat c<nstGtute tHe domain <F tHe 2rGncG2lesE tHen Gt c<ulInPt possibly M< Kr<nM. InIeeIE as Ke <bserveI Gn tHe case <F l<MGcE tHe GntuGtG<ns K<ulI be IerGveI Fr<m 2rGncG2les tHat Kere tHe truth-makers <F tHe I<maGn: KHat makes Gt true tHat he canPt be John Gn SectG<n III Gs tHat tHat Gs ]ust H<K tHe lanMuaMe Facult: Gs structureI. S< Gns<Far as s<me<nePs ]uIMment manGFests tHat structureE tHe: Ln<K tHGs Fact GnIe2enIentl: <F eX2erGence anIE as Gn tHe case <F l<MGcE Gn a FasHG<n tHat Gs abs<lutel: relGable ZrelatGveE <F c<urseE t< Gts HavGnM Gn Fact been 2r<IuceI Gn tHGs Ka:[.21 THGnL <F H<K <ne K<ulI ansKer tHe ûes-tG<nE OS< KH: I< :<u tHGnL LGllGnMs Gnv<lve I:GnMsVS It K<ulI surel: be en<uMH t< sa: sGm2l:E OTHatPs ]ust KHat aLGllGnMP anI aI:GnMP mean F<r me Z<F c<urseE I I<nPt s2eaL Here F<r <tHer s2eaLers[.S T< be sureE <ne c<ulI be wrong ab<ut <neselF ` <ne mGMHt Have <verHearI s<me mGstaLen lGnMuGstGc 2r<n<uncements ab<ut <neselFE <r Have bec<me <tHerKGse c<nFuseI ` but GF tHe GntuGtG<n HaI Gn Fact been IeIuceI b: abs<lutel: trutH-2reservGnM rules Fr<m I<maGn-c<nstGtutGnM 2rGn-cG2lesE tHen necessarGl: Gt K<ulI be c<rrect.

THe anal:tGcE tHenE K<ulI sGm2l: be a s2ecGal case <F tHGs s<rt <F Ln<KleIMe <F <nePs lanMuaMe. IF tHe ! le F<r aLGllGnMP Kere t< Gnv<lve a I:GnME anI s<me<ne Kere t< sa: OpGllGnMs Gnv<lve I:GnMsS as a result <F IeIucGnM Gt Fr<m tHe c<ntent <F tHat ! leE tHen tHe: K<ulI be ]ustG-! eI Gn belGevGnM Gt t< be true Gn a Ka: tHat Gs abs<lutel: relGableE anI Gn a Ka: tHat I<es n<t Ie2enI u2<n eX2erGence.22 C<nseûentl:E tHe: K<ulI seem t< Have a priori Ln<KleIMe <F tHe anal:tGc trutH tHat LGll-GnMs Gnv<lve I:GnMs.

AMaGnE I stress tHat I am n<t 2ur2<rtGnM t< sH<K tHat Ke I< GnIeeI Have a priori Ln<KleIMe <F anal:tGc trutHs_ <nl: tHat Gt Gs serG<usl: pos-

21 I I<nPt mean t< suMMest tHat tHe actual mecHanGsms b: KHGcH Ke manGFestE anI Gn tHGs Ka: <Ften c<me t< Ln<KE <ur <Kn attGtuIes Gs Gn tHe least <bvG<us <r Kell-unIerst<<I. IPm rel:GnM <nl: <n tHe Fact tHat Gt seems <Ften t< be relGableE anI tHat GF tHGs relGabGlGt: Kere Iue t< tHe c<ntents <F a Facult: tHat c<nstGtutes Gts <Kn I<maGnE tHen Gt K<ulI be a s<urce <F a priori Ln<KleIMe.

22 EX2erGenceE <F c<urseE mGMHt Have been necessar: F<r tHe trGMMerGnM <F ZtHe creatG<n <F a ! le F<r[ tHe c<nce2t. THe 2<Gnt Gs tHatE Gns<Far as s<me<ne has tHe c<nce2tE GntuGtG<ns manGFestGnM Gts c<ntents are n<t IerGveI Fr<m eX2erGence.

249


sible tHat Ke I<E al<nM tHe lGnes <F tHe m<Iel <F a lanMuaMe Facult: tHat I Have sLetcHeI. SH<KGnM tHat Human beGnMs actuall: satGsF: tHat m<Iel GsE H<KeverE a F<rmGIable em2GrGcal ûestG<nE n<t settleI b: eGtHer tHe anal:tGc Iata <r OratG<nal GntuGtG<nsS al<ne. I taLe Gt tHat Gt Gs sGm2l: n<t :et unIerst<<I H<K leXGcal Gtems Have tHe c<nstraGnts tHe: seem t< 2<ssess ` ]ust H<KE F<r eXam2leE tHe ! le F<r asuGcGIeP Gnv<lves taLGnM <nePs <Kn lGFeE <r tHat F<r abacHel<rPE beGnM male. It K<ulI n<t be tHe ! rst tGme tHat a sGm2le anI <bvG<us Fact 2r<veI IGF! cult t< eX2laGn. THe Iata anI GntuGtG<ns 2r<vGIe us reas<n t< suspect tHere are s2ecGal FacultGes <F l<MGc anI lanMuaMe tHat are abs<lutel: relGable Gn tHe Ka:s I Have suMMesteIE but tHe: are HarIl: c<nclusGve. PerHa2s Gt KGll turn <ut tHatE at least F<r semantGcsE Ke are seamless kuGnean macHGnes aFter all. ButE I submGtE Ke Have :et t< be 2resenteI KGtH an acc<unt <F H<K sucH a kuGnean macHGne K<ulI MGve rGse t< tHese anal:tGc GntuGtG<ns.

In an: caseE KHat Gs reûGreI Gs an e2GstemGc OtK<-ste2S: <ne ste2 bacL t< tHe meta-level at KHGcH Ke tHe<rGWe em2GrGcall: ab<ut <ur c<M-nGtGve anI lGnMuGstGc abGlGtGesE anI tHenE sH<ulI tHat tHe<rGWGnM c<n! rm tHe eXGstence <F sucH IGstGnctGve abGlGtGes al<nM tHe ab<ve lGnesE <ne ste2 F<rKarI t< assertE tHenE tHat 2e<2le Have a priori Ln<KleIMe b<tH <F l<MGc anI <F anal:tGc trutHsE aFter all.

V. ConclusionSu22<se lGnMuGstGcs were t< succeeI Gn IelGneatGnM a class <F anal:tGc sentences tHat GncluIeI man: <F tHe eXam2les 2HGl<s<2Hers Have IGs-cusseIE 2erHa2s even tHe claGms <F l<MGc anI Zs<me <F[ matHematGcs. R<ulI tHat 2r<vGIe tHe basGs F<r a priori Ln<KleIMe <F claGms Gn tHese areas tHat 2HGl<s<2Hers Have s<uMHtV

Yes anI n<. It K<ulI certaGnl: a22ear t< 2r<vGIe us KGtH an GnsGMHt Gnt< tHe c<nce2ts Ke <rIGnarGl: Ie2l<:E at least KHen Ke are s2eaL-GnM a natural lanMuaMe. THGs ma: n<t be unGnterestGnME sGnce man: <F tHe crucGal ûestG<ns tHat 2HGl<s<2Hers asL c<ncern tHe 2r<2er unIerstanIGnM <F <rIGnar: n<tG<ns sucH as material object, event, personE action, freedom, coercionE KH<se meanGnM ma: Kell be GllumGnateI b: a semantGc tHe<r: <F natural lanMuaMe. But s<me 2HGl<s<2Hers ma: Kant m<re. THe:PI lGLe t< Ln<K n<t merel: ab<ut tHe c<nce2ts Ke Ie2l<:E KHGcH ma: <r ma: n<t c<rres2<nI t< real 2Hen<mena Gn tHe

2@>

Georges Rey

K<rlIE but about the real phenomena in the world themselves. But Gt Gs ]ust sucH a K<nIerFul c<GncGIence betKeen <ur c<nce2ts anI tHe actual 2Hen<mena <F tHe K<rlI tHat a lGnMuGstGc semantGcs al<ne Gs n<t lGLel: t< ensure. It Gs <nl: GF Ke can 2erF<rm an e2GstemGc tK<-ste2E anIE ste22GnM bacLE sH<K <n ûGte Meneral Mr<unIs b<tH

ZG[ Kell establGsHeI em2GrGcal tHe<rGes ab<ut tHe structure <F s2ecG! c m<IularGWeI Ze.M.E leXGcal[ c<nce2tsE

anI

ZGG[ an GnIe2enIent reas<n t< belGeve tH<se c<nce2ts K<ulI a22l: t< a22l: Gn all meta2H:sGcall: 2<ssGble K<rlIs

tHat Ke c<ulI tHen ste2 F<rKarI aMaGn anI Have reas<n t< taLe tHeGr anal:tGc entaGlments as 2r<vGIGnM us KGtH a priori Ln<KleIMe <F tHe K<rlI. Present tHe<rGes suMMest Zal<nM tHe lGnes I mentG<neI[ tHat Ke Have sucH reas<ns <nl: Gn tHe case <F l<MGc anI ma:be s<me 2arts <F matHematGcs. IF pant Kere rGMHtE Ke c<ulI Have s<me Gn tHe case <F as2ects <F tHe structure <F s2aceE tGmeE anI causatG<n. ButE last tGme I l<<LeIE pant IGInPt Met Gt ûGte rGMHt. PerHa2s s<me<ne else HasE <r KGll.

C<nseûentl:E a22eals t< tHe anal:tGc cann<t b: tHemselves eX2laGn <ur Ln<KleIMe <F tHe trutHs <F l<MGcal anI matHematGcs Gn tHe IGrect Ka: tHat tHe P<sGtGvGsts H<2eI anI tHat kuGne Ie2l<reI. kuGte as B<n]<ur Z2>>1E 6d3`d4[ Fears Zsee n<te 3[E anal:tGc trutHs b: tHemselves 2r<vGIe us <nl: Ln<KleIMe <F <urselves ` s2ecG! call:E <ur c<nce2ts ` n<t Ln<KleIMe <F tHe K<rlI t< KHGcH tH<se c<nce2ts ma: turn <ut n<t t< a22l:.

N<r can a22eals t< tHe anal:tGc trum2 em2GrGcal researcH Gn tHe Ka: tHat s<me 2HGl<s<2Hers seemeI t< Have H<2eI. ScGentG! c researcH can be reMarIeI as Gnv<lvGnM a s2ecG! c 2raMmatGc use <F lanMuaMe ` anI <tHer n<n-natural s:mb<lGc s:stems ` t< IescrGbe anI eX2laGn tHe K<rlI GnIe2enIentl: <F <ur vacGllatGnM Human c<nce2ts anI c<n-cerns. As prG2Le anI Putnam Have em2HasGWeIE Ke ma: use <ur <rIG-nar: c<nce2ts t< ! X tHe reFerence <F KHat KePre talLGnM ab<utE but n<t be c<n! neI t< tH<se c<nce2ts anI tHeGr 2resum2tG<ns KHen Ke settle u2<n <ur ultGmate acc<unt. THusE mucH <F <ur <rIGnar: use <F

2@1


aKaterPE anI 2erHa2s tHe c<nce2t Gt eX2ressesE ma: Gnv<lve a lGûGI Full <F Gm2urGtGesE but Gt can be GllumGnatGnM t< ! nI <ut tHat Gt Gs .2OE GF Ke Kant t< Ln<K KHat tHe real stuFFE waterE GsE GnIe2enIentl: <F tHGs <rIG-nar: use.23 It mGMHt Have been GllumGnatGnM t< ! nI <ut tHat materGal <b]ects are GIeas. OrE t< taLe a m<re 2ressGnM eXam2leE Gt Has been suM-MesteI Ze.M.E b: RGttMensteGn 19@3E �3@9`6>E tGFF 19@9[E tHat GtPs anal:tGc tHat a tHGnLGnM tHGnM must be alGve. Su22<se tHGs claGm Kere sustaGneI b: lGnMuGstGc tHe<r:E sH<KGnM tHat tHe <rIGnar: n<tG<n eX2resseI b: atHGnLGnMP GsE GnIeeIE c<rrectl: a22lGeI <nl: t< lGvGnM tHGnMsE anI n<t t< artGFactual c<m2uters. SH<ulI tHGs reall: satGsF: tHe 2ers<n K<rrGeI ab<ut tHe 2<ssGbGlGt: <F artG! cGal tH<uMHtV ItPs HarI t< see KH:. THe serG<us ûestG<n tHat c<ncerns 2e<2le K<rrGeI ab<ut KHetHer artG-Facts c<ulI tHGnL c<ncerns KHetHer tH<se artGFacts c<ulI Gn Fact sHare the real, theoretically interesting, explanatory properties of being a thinking thing. Re ma: Kell Have n< reas<n t< su22<se tHat beGnM alGve actuall: ! Mures am<nM tHese ` s< mucH tHe K<rse F<r <ur <rIGnar:E eXcessGvel: cHauvGnGstGc c<nce2tG<n <F OtH<uMHt.S

THere Gs a 2raMmatGc HeurGstGc em2l<:eI b: scGentGsts tHat ma: <bscure tHe Gssues Here: 2erHa2s Gn 2r<2<sGnM s<me H:2<tHesGsE e.M.E tHat macHGnes c<ulI tHGnLE a scGentGst mGMHt use a K<rI Gn a Ka: tHat vG<lates s<me Feature <F Gts leXGcal meanGnM. IF HGs usaMe bec<mes suF-! cGentl: entrencHeIE tHe K<rI mGMHt c<me t< be useI without tHat Fea-tureE anI s<E strGctl: s2eaLGnM Fr<m tHe 2<Gnt <F vGeK <F lGnMuGstGcsE tHe K<rI K<ulI n< l<nMer mean KHat Gt useI t< mean. RH: I<esnPt tHGs b<tHer tHe scGentGst ` <r even tHe la:2ers<n KH< ma: be K<nIer-GnM KHetHer <r n<t macHGnes c<ulI tHGnLV I submGt GtPs because tHe scGentGst anI tHe la:2ers<n asLGnM sucH scGentG! c ûestG<ns Gm2lGcGtl: unIerstanI tHe 2raMmatGc 2ur2<se at HanIE anI realGWe tHat tHere Gs n< reas<n t< tGe <ur Ka:s <F talL t< <ur lGnMuGstGc Facult: tHat Ke ma: use t< ! X reFerence. Re can tHr<K aKa: tHe laIIerE unsur2rGseI tHat tHe K<rlI FaGleI t< c<nF<rm t< <ur <rIGnar: c<nce2tG<ns <F Gt.

PerHa2s all tHGs secures an anal:tGc anI tHe a priori tHat neGtHer tHe RatG<nalGst n<r tHe Em2GrGcGst K<ulI tHGnL K<rtH HavGnM. FGne. THat K<ulI ]ust sH<K tHat n<t <nl: Kere tHe: rasH Gn tHeGr assum2tG<ns

23 I leave as a IelGcateE as :et unsettleI em2GrGcal Gssue t< KHat eXtent <ur <rIGnar: c<nce2t lKaterm GtselF c<untenances tHGs 2<ssGbGlGt:.

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Georges Rey

ab<ut tHe avaGlabGlGt: <F tHese cateM<rGesE but als< ab<ut KHat tHe: H<2eI c<ulI be acHGeveI KGtH tHem.24

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24 VersG<ns <F tHGs 2a2er Have been IelGvereI at tHe Ie2artment <F 2HGl<s<2H: at tHe OHG< State UnGversGt: Gn C<lumbusE tHe annual CanaIGan PHGl<s<2HGcal Ass<cGatG<n meetGnM Gn kuebec CGt:E Carlet<n UnGversGt: Gn OttaKaE lPEc<le N<rmale Su2wrGeure Gn ParGsE anI at tHe c<nce2ts c<nFerence at tHe UnGversGt: <F B<l<MnaE Dec. 2>>1. I am GnIebteI t< tH<se auIGencesE but es2ecGall: t< Paul PGetr<sLG anI MGcHael DevGttE F<r man: stGmulatGnM IGscussG<ns <F tHe Gssues. S<me 2assaMes Have als< a22eareI Gn m: 1993E 2>>1aE anI 2>>4.

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qqq. 199d. Concepts: Where Cognitive Science Went Wrong. OXF<rI: OXF<rI UnGversGt: Press.

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and KnowingE eI. R.'. SKartW. NeK Y<rL: D<ubleIa:..eGmE .. 19d9. The Semantics of De! nite and Inde! nite Noun Phrases in English.

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phy of Mind. CambrGIMe: .arvarI UnGversGt: Press.patWE '. 19e2. Semantic Theory. NeK Y<rL: .ar2er r R<K.qqq. 19d1. Language and Other Abstract Objects. T<t<KaE N': R<Kman anI

LGttle! elI.qqq. 199d. A Realistic Rationalism. CambrGIMeE MA: MIT Press.Lars<nE R. anI SeMalE G. 199@. Knowledge of Meaning. CambrGIMeE MA: MIT

Press.L<eKerE B. anI Re:E G.E eIs. 1991. Meaning in Mind. OXF<rI: BlacLKell.McGGnnE C. 1991. The Problem of Consciousness. OXF<rI: BlacLKell.M:ersE D. 2>>4. Intuition. NeK .aven: Yale UnGversGt: Press.Peac<cLeE C. 1992. A Study of Concepts. CambrGIMeE MA: MIT Press.qqq. 1996. OCan P<ssessG<n C<nIGtG<ns InIGvGIuate C<nce2tsVS Philoso-

phy and Phenomenological Research @6: 433`6>.qqq. 199d. OIm2lGcGt C<nce2tG<nsE UnIerstanIGnM anI RatG<nalGt:.S In

ConceptsE eI. E. VGllanuevaE 43`dd. AtascaIer<: RGIMevGeK.PutnamE .. 1962je@. OTHe Anal:tGc anI tHe S:ntHetGc.S In Philosophical Papers

V<l. IIE 33-69. CambrGIMe: CambrGIMe UnGversGt: Press.qqq. 19e@. Mathematics, Matter and Method: Philosophical Papers. V<l. I.

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Other EssaysE 1`19. NeK Y<rL: .ar2er anI R<K.qqq. 19@3b. OTK< D<Mmas <F Em2GrGcGsmS. In From a Logical Point of View

and Other EssaysE 2>`46. NeK Y<rL: .ar2er anI R<K.qqq. 196>. Word and Object. CambrGIMeE MA: MIT Press.qqq. 19e>. Philosophy of Logic. EnMleK<<I ClGFFs: PrentGce-.all.qqq. 19d6. ORe2l: t< .enr:L SL<lGm<KsLG.S In The Philosophy of W.V.

QuineE eI. L. .aHn anI P. ScHGl22E 492`93. La SalleE IL: O2en C<urt.

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kuGneE R. anI UllGanE '. 19e>jed. The Web of Belief. NeK Y<rL: RanI<m .<use.

RecanatGE F. 1993. Direct Reference. OXF<rI: BlacLKell.Re:E G. 1993. OTHe UnavaGlabGlGt: <F RHat Re Mean: a Re2l: t< kuGneE F<I<r

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sGum <n C. Peac<cLeE A StuI: <F C<nce2ts. Philosophy and Phenomenologi-cal Research LVI Z2[: 419`24. Re2rGnteI Gn Concepts: Core ReadingsE eI. E. MarM<lGs anI S. Laurence. CambrGIMeE MA: MIT PressE 1999.

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Mental Concepts as Natural Kind Concepts