Research Module2ο Σαββατοκύριακο Qualitative Research

Σοφία Μπαλαμούτσου

Learning Outcomes What is qualitative research Methods for Qualitative Research Background How to apply method on text? Limitations?

Validity, ‘Publishability’

‘The primary aim of qualitative research is to develop an understanding of

how the world is constructed’

(McLeod, 2000 p.2)

Characteristics of Qualitative Research (1)

naturalistic inquiry. Studying real-world phenomena in as unobtrusive a manner as possible, with a sense of openness regarding whatever emerges;

inductive analysis. Allowing conclusions to arise from a process of immersion in the data, rather than imposing categories or theories decided in advance;

an image of an active human subject. Research participants are viewed as actively involved in co-creating their social worlds, and are similarly engaged as active co-equals in the research process;

holistic perspective. Emphasising the reciprocal inter-relationships between phenomena, rather than attempting to create explanations solely in terms of cause-effect sequences. Keeping the larger picture in mind, rather than reducing experience to discrete variables;

qualitative data. Gathering data that is richly descriptive of the experience of informants. Data as a 'text' rather than array of numbers;

Characteristics of Qualitative Research (2)(McLeod, 2003)

cyclical nature of research. Any research study involves a cycle of active data gathering, reflective interpretation, and assessment of the accuracy of findings;

personal contact and insight. The researcher is in close contact with the people being studied. The quality of the researcher-informant relationship is of critical importance;

process orientation. Views the phenomenon being investigated as dynamic systems where change is constant and ongoing;

awareness of uniqueness. A willingness to view each individual case as special and unique. The principle of respecting the particular configuration of individual cases even when developing general conclusions;

contextual awareness. Findings can only be understood within social, cultural, historical and environmental context. Part of the task of the researcher is to consider these contextual factors;

Characteristics of Qualitative Research (3)(McLeod, 2003)

empathic neutrality. A willingness on the part of the researcher to 'bracket-off' his or her assumptions about the phenomena being studied. The application of a non-judgmental attitude to data;

design flexibility. Methods and procedures are adapted in response to new circumstances and experiences;

flexible sampling. The choice of participants in a study is determined by a range of theoretical and practical considerations, not merely by the aim of accumulating a 'representative' sub-set of the general population;

reflexivity. The idea that the researcher is her or his primary instrument, and as a result must be aware of the fantasies, expectations, and needs that his or her participation introduces to the research process.

Methods for creating qualitative texts Interviews

open-ended semi-structured individual vs. group recall interviews (IPR) think-aloud protocols

Methods for creating qualitative texts Questionnaires (open ended) Observation

participant observation (ethnographic) nonparticipant

Transcripts of naturally-occurring talk Personal documents Public documents (Newspapers, archives,

speeches, advertisements) Projective techniques Experiential/personal methods Any form of communication

Gathering Qualitative Data Unstructured interviews Semi-structured interviews Stimulated recall interviews

(Interpersonal Process Recall) open-ended questionnaires observation Personal (diaries, semi-structured

diaries) and official documents projective technique human inquiry group or co-operative

inquiry group

Examples of qualitative research methods Grounded Theory Discourse analysis Narrative analysis Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) Content Analysis (??) Ethnography Conversational analysis Hermeneutics New Paradigm research Human Inquiry – action research Feminist Research Biographical research

Grounded Theory Background 1950s and 1960s social-science research hypothetico-deductive research – Weber, Durkheim, Mead testing hypothesis

Grounded Theory - a reaction to positivism – while hermeneutic, roots in positivist values

Key issues in Grounded Theory Generation of theory rather than verification Explain and contextualise social processes Concepts and Categories emerge through the data Rigorous research resulting to a theory =

‘good’ science Bracketing – Braking through analysts’ biases

and assumptions Reflexive memo - diary Literature is read after the analysis of the

data Research question or a phenomenon of study -

keeps the researcher focused Roots in positivism Researcher as a witness

‘Stages’ in the research process (GT) Interviewing and transcribing Immersion in the text Coding: Identification of meaning units

relevant for analysis (in vivo) ‘Self-emerging’: meaning units,

subcategories, categories and core category

Constant comparative analysis Negative cases: instances that don’t

fit (refining theory) Theoretical sensitivity Theoretical sampling Theoretical saturation Notes and memos

Limitations of Grounded Theory

Blurs traditional boundaries between social and scientific methods

May be unsuitable to my question

Needs appropriate text (rich) Time consuming

References Glaser, B. G. & Strauss, A. (1967) The Discovery of

Grounded Theory: Strategies for Qualitative Research. Chicago, IL: Aldine.

Glaser, B. G. (1992). Emergence vs Forcing: Basics of grounded theory analysis. Mill Valley, CA: The Sociological Press.

Strauss, A. & Corbin, J. (1990). Basics of Qualitative Research: Grounded Theory Procedures and Techniques. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Strauss, A. & Corbin, J. (1997) Grounded Theory in Practice. London: Sage.

Pigeon, N. & Henwood, K. (1997) Using grounded theory in psychological research. In N. Hayes (ed.) Doing qualitative analysis in psychology. Hove: Psychology Press.

Rennie, D. L. (1992). Qualitative analysis of the client's experience of psychotherapy: the unfolding of reflexivity. In S.G. Toukmanian and D. L. Rennie (Eds), Psychotherapy Process Research: Paradigmatic and Narrative Approaches. London: Sage (211-233).

Two methods of Discourse Analysis Discursive Psychology

Potter and Wetherell (1987) Ethnomethodology / Conversation Analysis Discourse as performance Action orientation of talk Limitations

Foucauldian Discourse Analysis Michel Foucault and post-structuralism Role of language in social / psychological

life Discourse as enabling and restricting Cultural context Institutions in wider society

Stages in Discourse Analysis (Willig, 2001)

1. Discursive Constructions: How is the discoursive object constructed?

2. Discourses: What is the wider discourse?

3. Action Orientation: What is gained by constructing the object in this way? (functions of text)

4. Positionings: What are the rights and duties for users of discourse?

5. Practice: Ways in which discursive constructions and subject positions open up or close down options for action.

6. Subjectivity: Ways for seeing and being in world.

Limitations of Discourse Analysis

May be unsuitable to my question Needs appropriate text (rich) Time consuming Focus on language Vs. Focus on narrator

Can subjectivity be theorised on the basis of discourse alone?

References Edwards, D., & Potter, J. (1992). Discursive

psychology. London: Sage. Fairclough, N. (1995). Critical discourse analysis: The

critical study of language. London: Longman. McLeod, J. (2003). Doing Counselling Research. Sage. Parker, I., & Bolton Discourse Network. (1999).

Critical textwork: An introduction to varieties of discourse and analysis. Buckingham, UK: Open University Press.

Potter, J. (1997). Discourse analysis as a way of analysing naturally occurring talk. In D. Silverman (Ed.), Qualitative research: Theory, method and practice. London: Sage.

Willig, C. (1999). Applied discourse analysis: Social and psychological interventions. Buckingham, UK: Open University Press.

Willig, C. (2001). Introduction qualitative research in psychology: adventures in theory and method. Buckingham, UK: Open University Press.

Narrative Analysis Backgound Interdisciplinary in the social sciences (e.g. sociology, anthropology, critical psychology, feminist studies, family therapy)

A reaction to natural science methods for the understanding of social life

Key Issues in Narrative Analysis Story telling is what we do with our

research materials and what out informants do with us.

How individuals recount their stories […] shape what individuals claim about their own lives. Personal stories are not merely a way of telling someone (or oneself) about one’s life; they are the means by which identities may be fashioned (Rosenwald & Ochberg, 1992, p.1).

Participants are culturally and socially situated

PHASE 1: Preliminary analysis: finding structure and meaning in the text as a whole

Transcribing of tapes Reading and immersion Identification of stories Identification of topics Summarising stories and sequences

Constructing a representation of the case/session as a whole

PHASE 2: Micro-analysis: developing an understanding of specific therapeutic events and processes

Selecting text segments for micro-analysis

Transformation of text into stanzas Separation of client and therapist

narratives Identification of voices Identifying figurative use of language Story structure analysis Identifying cultural narratives:

metanarrative, macronarrative

PHASE 3: Communicating what has been found

Construction of summary representation

Theoretical interpretation Writing Throughout: use of reflexivity; use of other readers

Limitations of Narrative Analysis Good for oral first person accounts Crisis of representation (writing up)

Methods are slow Not suitable for large numbers of participants

Not suitable for researchers who seek easy unobtrusive view into participants’ lives

References Josselson, R. and Lieblich, A. (eds) (1995)

Interpreting Experience: the Narrative Study of Lives, Vol. 3. London: Sage.

Angus, L. E. & McLeod, J. (2004). The Handbook of Narrative and Psychotherapy: Practice, Theory, and Research London: Sage.

Mishler, E.G. (1995) 'Models of narrative analysis: a typology', Journal of Narrative and Life History, 5: 87-123.

Riessman, C.K. (1992) Narrative Analysis. London: Sage.

Riessman, C. K. (1989) Life events, meaning and narrative: the case of infidelity and divorce. Social Science and Medicine, 29 (6), 743-751.

Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis How can one take the idiographic

commitment further? What levels of interpretation are consonant with IPA?

What patterns are emerging in the types of studies conducted using IPA?

How can we extend the range of participant groups taking part in IPA studies?

What data collection methods are suitable for IPA?

Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis Idiographic Inductive Interrogative Levels of interpretation

IPA An inductive approach (bottom up) Explain meanings Participants are experts Researchers reduce data complexity

through rigorous systematic analysis Distinct (idiographic) and Shared

are valued Results: interpretive, transparent

and plausible Reflexivity

Why IPA Practical Accessible Clear guidelines Empirical studies of psychological topics

References

http://www.bbk.ac.uk/psychology/our-staff/academic/jonathan-smith/publications

Content Analysis A research tool to identify whether

words or concepts are present in text/s Researchers count and analyse meanings

and relationships of words or concepts and then interpret texts

Text is coded or divided into manageable categories (word, word sense, phrase, sentence, or theme)

Analysis: Conceptual analysis: existence and

frequency Relational analysis: also relation to

surrounding words

Limitations of Content Analysis

• Many do not consider it a qualitative approach

• Limited theoretical grounding• Reduce to numerical rather than

meaningful insights

Content analysis Krippendorff, K. (2003). Content Analysis: An Introduction to Its Methodology. London: Sage.

http://writing.colostate.edu/references/research/content/pop2f.cfm

1) Triangulation: multiple perspectives (e.g. data sources, methods, theories or interpretations)

2) Coherence: It's is the ability of the author to make sense in a meaningful and convincing way.

3) Uncovering/self-evidence: obtaining an answer to our question/s

4) Testimonial validity. Checking the findings against the participants by asking them to comments on findings.

5) Catalytic validity: Empowering for the participants

6) Consensus among researchers/replication: Small numbers, findings are relevant

7) Reflexive validity/ Reflexivity: What is 'ours' and what emerges from the research process (reflexive diary, self disclosure of the researcher's role in the study)

Validity in Qualitative Research (Stiles, 1993)

PUBLISHABILITY GUIDELINES IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Owning one’s own perspective Situating the sample Grounding in examples Providing credibility checks Coherence Accomplishing general vs specific

research tasks Resonating with reader

(Elliot, Fisher & Rennie, 1999).

References for Validity Elliot, R., Fischer, C.T. & Rennie, D.L.

(1999). Evolving guidelines for publication of qualitative research studies in psychology and related fields. British Journal of Clinical Psychology 38 215-229.

Morrow, S. L. (2005) Quality and trustworthiness in qualitative research in counselling psychology. Journal of Counselling Psychology. 52 (2) 250-260

Stiles, W.B. (1993). Evaluating qualitative research. Evidence Based Mental Health, 2 (4) 99-101

Summary Quantitative vs Qualitative Characteristics of Qualitative

Research Grounded Theory Discourse Analysis Narrative Analysis Interpretative Phenomenological

Analysis Content Analysis Validity issues, ‘Publishability’ in

Qualitative Research

References-Further Reading

Banister, P., Burman, E., Parker, I. Taylor, M. & Tindall, C. (Eds) (1997). Qualitative methods in psychology: A research guide. Buckingham: Open University Press

Denzin, N. & Lincoln, Y. (Eds) (2005) Handbook of qualitative research. London: Sage

Hayes, N. (Ed) (1997). Doing qualitative analysis in psychology. Hove, East Sussex: Psychology Press.

McLeod, J. (2003). Doing counselling research. Sage. McLeod, J. (2000). Qualitative research in counselling and

psychotherapy. London: Sage. Smith, J. A. (2003). Qualitative psychology

A practical guide to research methods London: Sage.

Willig, C. (2001). Introduction qualitative research in psychology: adventures in theory and method. Buckingham, UK: Open University Press.