indigenous leafy vegetables in the upper east region of ghana

International Centre for development Centre for Biodiversity

oriented Research in Agriculture Utilisation and Development

INDIGENOUS LEAFY VEGETABLES IN THE UPPER EAST REGION OF GHANA: OPPORTUNITIES AND CONSTRAINTS FOR

CONSERVATION AND COMMERCIALISATION

Working Document Series 102 Ghana – 2002

CBUD

INDIGENOUS LEAFY VEGETABLES IN THE UPPER EAST REGION OF GHANA: OPPORTUNITIES AND CONSTRAINTS

FOR CONSERVATION AND COMMERCIALISATION

Stephen Amisah Jitendra Prasad Jaiswal

Armen Khalatyan Suzana Kiango Nikoloz Mikava

In collaboration with Victoria Adarkwa Aduasah and Joyce Bediako

This report is the product of team work with equal contribution from the authors whose names are listed in alphabetical order

International Centre for development oriented Research in Agriculture (ICRA) P.O. Box 88, 6700 AB Wageningen The Netherlands

Centre for Biodiversity Utilisation and Development (CBUD) P.O. Box UP 1106 IRNR KNUST-KUMASI, Ghana

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ABSTRACT

This study examined the conservation, utilisation and potential for commercialisation of some indigenous leafy vegetables (ILVs) in the Upper East Region of Ghana. The study was implemented through a joint field study programme by the International Centre for development oriented Research in Agriculture (ICRA) in the Netherlands and the Centre for Biodiversity Utilisation and Development (CBUD) in Kumasi, Ghana. The study was carried out in four districts in the Upper East Region namely Bolgatanga, Bongo, Bawku West and Kassena-Nankana. The study employed the ARD approach, which is demand driven and integrates the diverse perspectives of all stakeholders and beneficiaries. Participatory methods were employed to collect relevant qualitative and quantitative information. Indigenous leafy vegetables are cultivated under both rainfed and irrigated conditions in the study area. Bito (Hibiscus sabdariffa), Berese (Hibiscus cannabinus), Bento (Vigna unguiculata), Alefu (Amaranthus cruentus), Okro (Abelmuscus esculentus), Spider plant (Cleome gynandra), Luffa sp., and Sambola are the popular cultivated ILVs. Bito, Berese, Bento and Alefu, in that order, were perceived to be the cultivated species holding most potential for commercialisation. Production costs, labour requirements, and the possibility of processing ILVs for future use were perceived by the farming households to be the important factors determining potential of ILVs for commercialisation. The benefit-cost ratios for Bito, Berese and Bento were above the break-even point of 1, indicating economic viability of cultivation of ILV species, in five of the six villages studied. Collected ILVs that hold potential for commercialisation include Tokara (Adansonia digitata), Bunto, Ougla and Sanvama, in descending order. There is considerable indigenous knowledge on nutritional, medicinal, preservation and processing aspects of ILVs, and on the control of field and storage pests that affect them. The main development strategies suggested to sustain the production, commercialisation and conservation of ILVs include in situ conservation of wild/collected species of ILVs, documentation and dissemination of indigenous knowledge on ILVs. Other strategies include provision of more small, medium and large scale irrigation, use of integrated pest management (IPM) techniques, establishment of small-scale/cottage processing and packaging industries and market promotion of ILVs through mass media. Incorporating ILVs under development programmes of the Ministry of Food and Agriculture is also recommended. Researchable areas to enable interventions for the sustainable utilisation and conservation of ILVs are discussed.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The ICRA-2002 Ghana Team wishes to express its gratitude to the International Centre for development oriented Research in Agriculture (ICRA) in the Netherlands and its donor agencies for providing funding and fellowship support for this study. We also thank the Centre for Biodiversity Utilisation and Development (CBUD) of the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology in Kumasi, Ghana, for hosting the joint field study and for providing logistical support for the study. Our special thanks go to Dr. Boakye Amoako-Atta, Coordinator for CBUD, for his incredible support for the team and to Dr. Gerrit Bartels, CBUD’s Institutional Development Officer, for his sustained interest and invaluable contribution to the field study. Our sincere thanks go to Mr. E. A. Otupri, Upper Regional Director of MoFA, and his deputy, Mr. Roy Ayariga for their unflinching support and providing an enabling environment for the team to function effectively. Their contributions during our workshops are gratefully acknowledged. We acknowledge the assistance of Mr. Sam Apiiga (Regional MoFA office), Mr. Joe Ameyuri, (Director of MoFA for Navrongo District) and the Directors for Bolgatanga, Bongo and Bawku West Districts. The active participation and invaluable contributions by Dr. David Millar, Coordinator, Savannah Resource Management Project, Prof. Saa Dittoh, Pro-Vice Chancellor, UDS, Tamale; Mr. Martin Yeboah (SARI), Dr. Paul Tanzubil (SARI), Dr. Karbo (ARI), Mr Bonaventure Aligebam (SARI), Ms Rosemary (Bolga Catholic Diocese) and Mr. David Adakablah (Pwalugu farmer) during our workshop sessions are gratefully acknowledged. We also thank the farmers of the four districts without whose cooperation this study would have been impossible. The participation of TRAX, Technoserve, Catholic Diocese, World Vision, ICOUR and ACDEP in our workshops is gratefully acknowledged. We acknowledge with sincere thanks the constructive suggestions, contributions and active participation of our Reviewer, Dr. Ranjitha Puskur. Finally, we thank all ICRA staff and resource persons who helped to strengthen the capacity of the team during the knowledge acquisition phase in Wageningen in the Netherlands.

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THE GHANA ICRA TEAM

Name Specialisation Address

Dr. Stephen Amisah Watershed and Fisheries Management

Institute of Renewable Natural Resources University of Science and Technology Kumasi, Ghana Tel: +233 51 60381 Fax: +233 51 60375 E-mail: [email protected]

Jitendra Prasad Jaiswal Agronomist Gulmi-Arghakhanchi Rural Development Project (GARDP II) Ministry of Local Development Pulchowk, Lalitpur, Nepal Tel: +977 1 526207 (office) +977 46 20285 (home) Fax: +977 1 537727 E-mail: [email protected]

[email protected] Armen Khalatyan Production System Engineer United Methodist Committee on

Relief (UMCOR) 16, Karapet Ulnetsu Street, Yerevan, 375037, Armenia Tel: +3741 248141 (office) +3741 265740 (home) Fax: +3741 249215 E-mail: [email protected] [email protected]

Suzana M. Kiango Animal scientist Ministry of Agriculture and Food Security (MAFS) P.O. Box 31311 Dar-es-salaam, Tanzania Tel: +255 22 2700947 (office) +2555 22 2420557 (home) Email: [email protected]

Nikoloz Mikava Agro-Engineer Georgia State Agrarian University (GASU) 13-km., David Aghmashenebeli Alley, 380031-Tbilisi, Georgia Tel: +995 32 524906 (office) +995 32 392432 (home) Fax: +995 32 942521 E-mail: [email protected] [email protected]

Victoria Adarkwah Aduasah

Agro-forestry Centre for Biodiversity Utilisation and Development, IRNR P.O. Box UP 1106, Kumasi, Ghana Tel: +233 51 60137 Fax: +233 51 60382 Email: [email protected]

Joyce Bediako Socio-economist

University of Development Studies, P.O. Box 1350, Tamale, Ghana

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Abstract i

Acknowledgements iii The Ghana 2002 ICRA Team v Table of contents vii List of figures xi List of tables xii List of acronyms xiii Executive summary xv

1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 This report 1

1.2 Context of the study 1 1.2.1 Institutional framework 1 1.2.2 Justification for the study 2 1.2.3 Objectives of the study 3 1.3 Background 3 1.3.1 Study area 3 1.3.2 Basic features of the study area 5 1.3.3 Socio-economic and policy environment 8 1.3.4 Ethnicity and food preferences 9 1.3.5 Indigenous leafy vegetables 9 2 METHODOLOGY

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2.1 The ARD approach 11 2.2 Preparation for field work 13 2.2.1 Team organisation 13 2.2.2 Contextual analysis 13 2.2.3 Field study plan 13 2.3 Reconnaissance survey of study area in Ghana 16 2.4 Introductory workshop 16 2.5 Typology and village selection 17 2.6 Data collection process and tools/methods used 19 2.6.1 Sample size 19 2.6.2 Focus group discussions 19 2.6.3 Household survey 19 2.6.4 Matrix scoring and ranking 20 2.6.5 Benefit-cost analysis 21 2.6.6 Market survey 22 2.7 Mid-term workshop 23 2.8 Identifying and screening development strategies 23

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2.9 Identification and prioritisation of research and development options 23 2.10 Identification of potential partners for implementing research and

development options 24

2.11 Formulation of research plans and proposals 24 2.12 Final workshop 24 2.13 Seminar at host institute (CBUD) 24

2.14 Report writing and editing 25 3 INDIGENOUS LEAFY VEGETABLES OF THE UPPER EAST REGION

27

3.1 Contextual analysis 27 3.2 Definition of the system of interest 29 3.2.1 Central theme 29 3.2.2 Main components 29 3.3 Types of indigenous leafy vegetables (ILVs) 30 3.3.1 Cultivated species 31 3.3.2 Changes over time for cultivated species 31 3.3.3 Collected species 35 3.3.4 Changes over time for collected species 37 3.4 Agro-ecological features of Upper East Region 39 3.4.1 Water resources 39 3.4.2 Land resources and soil types 41 3.4.3 Trees 41 3.4.5 Crops 41 3.4.6 Livestock 44 3.5 Production systems of Upper East Region 44 3.5.1 Rainfed system 44 3.5.2 Irrigated system 47 3.6 Seasonal calendar 50 3.7 Strengths and weaknesses of the existing production systems 50 3.7.1 Rainfed system 51 3.7.2 Irrigated system 53 3.8 Livelihood systems 53 3.8.1 Role of food/cereal crops in livelihoods 53 3.8.2 Role of livestock in livelihoods 54 3.8.3 Role of indigenous leafy vegetables in livelihoods 54 3.8.4 Sources of household income 55 3.9 Economic resource flow 58 3.10 Gender role and division of labour 58 3.10.1 Labour availability 59 3.10.2 Access and control over resources 60 3.11 Agricultural Knowledge and Information System 61 3.11.1 Sources of information 61 3.11.2 Research service 62 3.11.3 Extension service 62 3.12 Social organisation 62

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3.13 Indigenous knowledge on leafy vegetables 63 3.13.1 Sources of knowledge 63 3.13.2 Knowledge on properties of ILVs 63 3.13.3 Indigenous production, processing and conservation practices 64 3.13.4 Homogeneity and extent of knowledge 66 4 COMMERCIALISATION OF INDIGENOUS LEAFY VEGETABLES

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4. 1 Identification and prioritisation of ILVs with potential for commercialisation

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4.1.1 Matrix scoring of cultivated and collected species 68 4.1.2 Benefit-cost analysis 71 4.2 The marketing of indigenous leafy vegetables 76 4.2.1 Farm level marketing methods 76 4.2.2 Market survey 77 4.2.3 Inter-market price variation 81 4.2.4 The marketing channels of ILVs 82 4.2.5 Consumer survey 84 4.2.6 Seasonal supply of ILVs in UER 85 4.2.7 Problems of ILV marketing 86 4.3 Economic viability of ILVs 87 5 STAKEHOLDER ANALYSIS

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5.1 Stakeholder interests and their perceptions about ILVs 89 5.1.1 Farmer/vegetable producer 89 5.1.2 Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MOFA) 89 5.1.3 Research institutions 90 5.1.4 Developmental institutions 90 5.2 Farmers/community stakeholder linkages 92 5. 3 Stakeholder linkages 95 5.4 Potential roles of stakeholders in promotion of indigenous leafy

vegetables 95

6 IDENTIFICATION AND SCREENING DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES

99

6.1 Constraints 99 6.1.1 Farmers’ perceptions 99 6.1.2 Stakeholders’ perceptions 100 6.2 Opportunities 103 6.3 Development strategies 104 6.3.1 Conservation strategies 105 6.3.2 Cultivation strategies 106 6.3.3 Processing strategies 108 6.3.4 Marketing strategies 109 6.4.5 Others/institutional strategies 110 6.4 Screening of development strategies 111

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7 RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT OPTIONS

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7.1 Research options 117 7.1.1 Research options for conservation strategies 117 7.1.2 Research options for cultivation strategies 118 7.1.3 Research options for processing strategies 119 7.1.4 Research options for marketing strategies 120 7.1.5 Research options for others/institutional improvement strategies 120 7.2 Development options 121 7.2.1 Development options for conservation strategies 121 7.2.2 Development options for cultivation strategies 121 7.2.3 Development options for processing strategies 122 7.2.4 Development options for marketing strategies 122 7.2.5 Development options for others/institutional improvement

strategies 122

7.3 Prioritisation of research and development options 122 7.3.1 Research options prioritisation 123 7.3.2 Development options prioritisation 125 7.4 Potential partners for implementation of prioritised Research and

Development options 127

8 CONDITIONS FOR SUSTAINABLE UTILISATION OF INDIGENOUS LEAFY

VEGETABLES 131

8.1 Sustainable conservation and cultivation 131 8.2 Status of research and development of ILVs 131 8.3 Policy environment 131 8.3.1 Agricultural policy that promotes production and utilisation of

ILVs 130

8.3.2 Promotion of in-situ conservation at wild ILV ‘hot spots’ 130 8.3.3 Promotion of ILV utilisation in Southern Ghana 130 8.3.4 Control of field and storage insect pests 130 8.3.5 Water conservation for ILV production 131 REFERENCES 135

APPENDICES 137

1 Terms of Reference (TOR) 1392 Research question related to research topic 1433 Villages proposed by introductory workshop participants for conducting in-depth

study 146

4 Checklist for Focus Group Discussion (FGD) 1485 Checklist for household survey 1496 Matrix scoring for potential species for commercialisation 1537 Local names of calculated species of indigenous leafy vegetables 1548 Local names of collected species of indigenous leafy vegetables 1559 List of cultivated species of indigenous leafy vegetables grown in Upper East

Region of Ghana 157

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10 Collected species of indigenous leafy vegetables in Upper East Region of Ghana 15811 A reflection of production constraints 15912 Matrix scores of calculated species 16013 Matrix scores of collected species 16014 Estimates of benifits and costs on an irrigated commercial farm at Pwalugu 16115 Indigenous leafy vegetables’ stakeholders’ role and responsibility 16216 Research and development options 165

LIST OF FIGURES

1.1 Map of field study area 42.1 The four phases of the ARD procedure 122.2 Flow chart of the field study plan 142.3 Farm types and selected villages for the in-depth study 182.4 Diagrammatic presentation of the tools and methods used in data collection 203.1 Rich picture 283.2 Transect of Binaba village 403.3 Agro-ecological map of Widnaba village 433.4 Seasonal calendar for labour utilisation in the Upper East Region 523.5 Sources of household cash income in the rainfed site (Sherigu village) 563.6 Sources of household cash income in the irrigated site (Bongo Central village) 563.7 Sources of household cash income (case study in Pwalugu village) 574.1 Production costs components of irrigated systems 734.2 Production costs components of rainfed systems 734.3 Estimated benefit-cost ratios 754.4 Disposal pattern of ILVs 764.5 Areas provided market survey on ILVs 784.6 Price variations between markets 824.7 Principal marketing channels of indigenous leafy vegetables in the UER 834.8 Factors affecting the consumer behaviour 844.9 Seasonal calendar of ILV supply and demand in the UER 855.1 Venn diagram showing stakeholder relationships at Bongo Central 946.1 ARD Phase III, identifying development strategies 99

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LIST OF TABLES

1.1 Irrigation in the Upper East Region 71.2 Population figures for some districts of the Upper East Region of Ghana 72.1 Selected villages for studies on indigenous leafy vegetables in the Upper East

Region 18

2.2 Criteria for ranking collected and cultivated ILV species’ potential for commercialisation

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2.3 Variables for ILVs’ costs of production and benefits 223.1 Species of ILVs cultivated in the Upper East Region of Ghana 323.2 Species of ILVs collected from the bush in Upper East Region of Ghana 363.3 Soil characteristics of the Upper East Region 423.4 Cropping pattern in the rainfed production system 463.5 Vegetables species commonly sold under the irrigation system 483.6 Cropping pattern in the irrigated production system 493.7 Percentage contribution of ILVs to the household income 553.8 Household tasks division (activity profile) 593.9 Access and control of household resources 603.10 Sources of Agricultural Knowledge and Information 614.1 Matrix ranks of ILVs 694.2 Factors affecting the commercialisation of cultivated ILV 704.3 Factors affecting the commercialisation of collected ILV species 704.4 Important cost variables identified for irrigated and rainfed systems 714.5 Comparative cost-benefit analysis of different species of ILVs at Sherigu 744.6 Gender roles in marketing 794.7 Species found in the markets 805.1 Key stakeholders working in the surveyed villages 935.2 Indigenous leafy vegetables stakeholder linkage matrix 966.1 Farmers’ perceptions on constraints in ILV production in the UER of Ghana 1006.2 Stakeholders’ perceptions on constraints in ILV production in the UER of

Ghana 101

6.3 Stakeholders’ perception on opportunities for ILV production in the UER 1036.4 Development strategies for promotion of ILVs in the UER of Ghana 1046.5 Criteria used for screening development strategies 1126.6 Matrix scoring for screening of development strategies with farmers and other

stakeholders 113

7.1 Criteria used for prioritising research and development options for promoting ILV production in the UER

123

7.2 Prioritisation of research options for screened development strategies 1247.3 Prioritisation of research options for screened development strategies 1267.4 Potential partners for implementation of research Options 1277.5 Potential partners for implementation of development Options 128

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LIST OF ACRONYMS ACDEP Association of Church Development Projects ADB Agricultural Development Bank ADRA Adventists Development and Relief Agency AES Agro – Ecological System ARC Agricultural Rehabilitation Centre for the Blind ARD Agriculture Research for Development ARI Animal Research Institute AVRDC Asian Vegetable Research and Development Centre BACH Binaba Anglican Church BIWFA Binaba Women Farmers’ Association Ca Calcium CBOs Community Based Organisations CBUD Centre for Biodiversity Utilisation and Development CECIK Centre for Cosmo vision and Indigenous Knowledge CENSUDI Centre for Sustainable Development Initiatives CRS Catholic Relief Services DCE District Chief Executive DDT Dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane EPA Environmental Protection Agency FGD Focus Group Discussion FRI Food Research Institute FSD Forest Services Division GAS Garu Agricultural Station GBC Ghana Broadcasting Corporation GDP Gross Domestic Product GNFS Ghana National Fire Service GTV Ghana Television ICOUR Irrigation Company of the Upper East Region ICRA International Centre for development oriented Research in Agriculture IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development ILV Indigenous Leafy Vegetable IPM Integrated Pest Management IRNR Institute of Renewable Natural Resources ITTU Integrated Technology Transfer Unit K Potassium KNUST Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology LACOSREP Land Conservation and Smallholder Rehabilitation Project Mg Magnesium MoFA Ministry of Food and Agriculture N Nitrogen Na Sodium NCRC Natural Conservation and Research Centre NGO Non-Governmental Organisation P Phosphorus PGRC Plant Genetic Resources Centre PRA Participatory Rural Appraisal R&D Research and Development RENARSA Renewable Natural Resources Students Association

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RUWA Rural Women Association SARI Savannah Agriculture Research Institute SRMC Savannah Research Management Centre SRI Soil Research Institute SRMP Savannah Resource Management Programme SSI Semi Structured Interview TOR Terms of Reference TZ Tuo-zafi (local name of main staple food) UDS University for Development Studies UER Upper East Region UG University of Ghana, Legon UNICEF United Nations Children’s Education Fund WIAD Women In Agricultural Development WUA Water Users Association WVI World Vision International

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Background and justification Indigenous leafy vegetables (ILVs) provide an important source of food, nutrition and medicines for both the rural and urban populations of the Upper East Region of Ghana. These vegetables provide proteins, vitamins and minerals and therefore offer opportunities to the malnourished, poor and deprived communities to maintain healthy diets. Furthermore they could make a considerable contribution to the household cash income. When village households run out of food stocks, particularly during crop failures and the long, dry seasons, ILVs provide food security and serve as hunger gap fillers. They are available nearly all year round. The ILVs are well adapted to the climatic conditions of the region. Their ease of production and low input requirements mean that even marginal lands are suitable for the cultivation of ILVs. Despite these benefits ILVs have received little or no attention from development agencies, researchers or the country’s Ministry of Food and Agriculture. Unlike some non-traditional export crops, there is no policy support for the production, export or commercialisation of this rather important commodity. Anecdotal information frequently suggests that some of these vegetables, particularly those in the wild, face the threat of extinction. Of particular significance is the threat of bush fires, bush clearing and other habitat degradation practices, which have been implicated in the disappearance of some ILV species. There also appears to be a shift to cultivate exotic vegetables, which have better chances of recovering costs of irrigation. Indigenous knowledge on ILVs remains anecdotal, fragmentary and largely undocumented and the risk of losing such vital knowledge as the aged pass away is very real indeed. It is against this background that this study was initiated as a joint programme between the Centre for Biodiversity Utilisation and Development (CBUD) based at the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology in Kumasi, Ghana, and the International Centre for development oriented research in Agriculture (ICRA) in the Netherlands. The study was carried out to identify strategies for the conservation and commercialisation of indigenous leafy vegetables in the region. It is further anticipated that lessons learned from the study will facilitate similar interventions on ILVs in other parts of the country. This study, therefore, investigated the cultivation, processing, conservation and the potential for commercialisation of indigenous leafy vegetables in the Upper East Region of Ghana. The study was carried out in four administrative districts in the Upper East Region, viz., Bawku West, Bolgatanga, Bongo and Kassena-Nankana. The objectives of the study were to: assess the extent of and trends in ILV collection and cultivation in the study area; identify ILV species produced in the study area and assess their potential for

commercialisation; describe the production systems within which ILVs are produced and analyse the

strengths and weaknesses of these systems; investigate gender roles in the production and commercialisation of ILVs and how these

roles may be affected by improved commercialisation; identify and prioritise development strategies in support of the conservation and continued

use and commercialisation of these ILVs, and

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identify and prioritise researchable areas that may be pursued to improve the production and utilisation of the identified food resources.

Research approach and farm types The study made use of the Agricultural Research for Development (ARD) approach as elaborated in Chapter 2 of this report. In this approach an interdisciplinary team applies participatory and systems approaches to integrate and analyse the diverse perspectives of stakeholders and beneficiaries. The ARD approach is demand-driven and aims at designing research that responds to the needs of clients and beneficiaries (particularly the resource-poor farmers). To target research, the research team classified the farming households into six types and at least one village was selected to represent each type and from each district for in-depth study as indicated below: Rainfed production system with subsistence scale production (Kandiga, Kassena-Nankana

District); Rainfed production system with commercial scale production having limited access to

market (Widnaba, Bawku West District); Rainfed production system with commercial scale production having easy access to the

market ( Sherigu, Bolgatanga District); Irrigated production system with commercial scale production having limited access to

market (Binaba, Bawku West District); Irrigated production system with commercial scale production having easy access to

market.( Bongo, Central Bongo District); Irrigated production system with subsistence scale production (Gaani, Kassena-Nankana

District).

Data gathering Focus group discussions and household surveys were used to gather information on ILVs. Agro-ecological mapping, time line, matrix scoring, activity profile, Venn diagram, semi structured interviews, resource flow diagrams, livelihood profiles and stakeholder analysis were among the various analytical tools used to collect relevant information. Market surveys were also conducted in the study area, Ouagadougou in Burkina Faso, Tamale in the Northern region and Kumasi in the Ashanti region. Data and information on marketing channels, production costs, packaging, consumer preferences, produce handling and management were analysed. Matrix scoring was used to rank different cultivated and collected species of ILVs. The criteria used for ranking cultivated species included production costs, labour requirements, time for maturity, ease of processing, market demand, market prices and nutritional values. For collected species the criteria included the periods of availability during the year, ease of collection, distance from community and medicinal value.

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Main findings Production systems There are broadly two main production systems for ILVs in the Upper East Region, which are the rainfed and irrigated production systems. There were no districts that operated exclusively under rainfed or irrigated conditions. Consequently, the production of ILVs was practised under both rainfed and irrigated conditions in all the districts.

Cultivated indigenous leafy vegetables There is an increasing trend in the number of households that are cultivating ILVs. This has been attributed to: increasing population and food requirements; increasing awareness of the nutritional value of ILVs; increasing market demand; ease and low cost of cultivation and quick returns. Over the past 20 years there has been no change in the species of ILVs that are grown except for the introduction of Amaranthus cruentus to Kandiga in the 1990s. Amaranthus cruentus was, however, being cultivated within 10 km in nearby Navrongo. There is an increase in cultivation under both irrigated and rainfed conditions and, also in the dry season. Provision of irrigation facilities has enhanced the cultivation of ILVs in the dry season and farmers have been able to produce in considerable marketable quantities. Species of ILVs cultivated under both irrigation and rainfed conditions that are popular among producers are: Bito (Hibiscus sabdariffa) Berese (Hibiscus cannabinus) Bento (Vigna unguiculata) Alefu (Amaranthus cruentus) Okro (Abelmuscus esculentus) Spider plant (Cleome gynandra) Calabash plant (Luffa sp.) “Sambola” The pattern of cultivation of ILVs among households is as follows: All households (100%) in both irrigated and rainfed conditions cultivated Hibiscus

sabdariffa and Hibiscus cannabinus; Between 80-90% cultivated both Vigna unguiculata and Amaranthus cruentus; About 75% cultivated Abelmuscus esculentus under both irrigated and rainfed conditions; For both Cleome gynandra and “Sambola”, the respondents growing ILVs were less than

40% in both production systems; Luffa sp. was produced by about 45% under rainfed conditions, whereas 70% of

households produced the vegetable under irrigation. ILVs produced under rainfed conditions were found to contribute to about 39% of the average annual household cash income, whereas under irrigated conditions the indigenous leafy

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vegetables contributed to about 20%. Irrespective of the production system, it is obvious that ILVs play an important role in the livelihoods of the people.

Collected/wild ILVs The study has revealed that there is a decrease in the number of households that are collecting ILVs. The reasons are as follows: increased cultivation of ILVs which has reduced the need to go to the bush to collect; limited demand for collected ILVs; changing tastes and eating habits; women (main collectors) now busier due to new enterprises of gardening; more children attending school, therefore having no time to collect, and difficulties in processing wild ILVs for consumption. The study also noted a decrease in the quantities of ILVs collected due to a progressively declining availability. The reasons have been ascribed to the following factors: bush burning; land clearing for farming; low and sporadic rainfall, and overgrazing. While no changes in species collected were recorded by the study, some species such as "Samparaga" and "Kelpomvooro" were said to be disappearing fast. The main collected species in the Upper East Region include the following: Kapok Bogosid Guwara Baobab (Adansonia digitata) Ogla Bongto Samparaga Kelpomvooro Baobab leaves are collected by 80% of the households and 50% collect Bongto. The other vegetables are collected by 10-25% of the households. Indigenous knowledge The study has demonstrated that there is considerable indigenous knowledge on the leafy vegetables of the region (Chapter 3). In particular, there is indigenous knowledge on the nutritional and medicinal aspects of ILVs. In addition there is also a wealth of indigenous knowledge available on preservation, processing and control of field insect pests.

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Potential for commercialisation of ILVs Among the cultivated species, the ILVs found to hold most potential for commercialisation are Bito, Berese, Bento and Alefu. For collected species the ILVs selected are Tokara (Adansonia digitata), Bongto, Ogla and Samvama, in descending order. Reasons for the low rating of Alefu (Amaranthus cruentus) among cultivated species, include high production costs, high labour requirements, and the inability of farmers to process Alefu (Amaranthus cruentus) for future use. Bito (Hibiscus sabdariffa), Berese (Hibiscus cannabinus) and Bento (Vigna unguiculata) on the contrary, have low labour requirements, low costs of production and can be processed and stored for use during scarcity. The benefit-cost ratio for Bito (Hibiscus sabdariffa), Berese (Hibiscus cannabinus) and Bento (Vigna unguiculata) for all farm types also indicated high economic gains to farmers. In Sherigu, Kandiga, Widnaba, Bongo Central and Gaani the benefit-cost ratios are above the break-even point of 1, indicating profits and economic viability of the ILV species. Development strategies Using the constraints and opportunities analysis and information collected from the field through in-depth study, the team designed 16 development strategies to address the constraints and exploit the opportunities, in consultation with the stakeholders. The development strategies identified by the team were then screened using three broad criteria: environmental sustainability, social equity and economic competitiveness. Sub-criteria for each of them were defined by the team and the stakeholders together for screening the strategies. Screening of the development strategies was done in two stages: first with various stakeholders representing research stations (SARI, Manga Research Station), extension (MoFA) and NGOs (SRMP, TRAX, Technoserve, Catholic Diocese) and then with farmers in two villages, each representing a specific production system(irrigated and rainfed). The 9 screened development strategies are as follows: In situ conservation of wild/collected species of ILVs Documentation and dissemination of indigenous knowledge on ILVs Provision of more small, medium and large scale irrigation schemes and diversified use of

irrigation sources Use of integrated pest management (IPM) techniques Establishment of small-scale/cottage processing and packaging industries Proper handling of ILVs to reduce post harvest losses Market promotion of commercialisation potential of ILVs through the mass media Incorporating ILVs under MoFA and other organisations development programmes Awareness creation on multipurpose uses of ILVs A detailed description of development strategies is presented in Chapter 6. The screened development strategies were taken to the next step of identifying and prioritising the research and development options.

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Research and development options Seventeen research options and 17 development options were identified for the nine development strategies, which were screened. These research and development (R&D) options were prioritised by using various criteria. Prioritisation of the R&D options was done separately for conservation, cultivation, processing, marketing and other/institutional improvement strategies. Various stakeholders representing research stations (SARI, Manga Research Station), policy-making organisation and extension (MoFA), NGOs and other organisations (SRMP, TRAX, Technoserve), University (UDS) and farmers (from four villages) participated in the prioritisation of the R&D options. The top two prioritised research and development options under each of the various aspects are presented below.

Research options Development options Conservation Identification of “hot spots” for

endangered species of ILVs Research on mode of conservation Cultivation Research on efficiency of indigenous

pest control measures A study on major insect pests and

diseases in ILVs Processing Verifying the effectiveness of

indigenous drying methods Research on the effect of

processing/solar drying on quality Marketing Survey on post-harvest losses at the farm

and in the market Research on proper packaging materials

and methods Others Research on potential use of ILV

residues as livestock feed Analysis and documentation of the

nutritional value of ILVs

Conservation Documentation of indigenous knowledge

on ILVs Intensifying awareness to control bush

burning, clearing and overgrazing Cultivation Creation of awareness on on-farm/in situ

water conservation Introduce/promote integrated pest

management Processing Training/encouraging ILV producers for

appropriate packaging and storage Introducing/demonstrating solar dryer for

processing of ILVs Marketing Education of farmers and traders on

hygienic handling of ILVs on-farm and in the market

Market promotion in terms of popularising the commercialisation potential of ILVs through the mass media

Others MoFA should include and co-ordinate

with other organisations to include ILVs under their programme.

Creating awareness on the multipurpose uses of ILVs

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Potential partners A number of organisations (both governmental and non-governmental) have been suggested as potential partners in the conservation and commercialisation of ILVs. Of special relevance are: ICOUR, ACDEP, TRAX, Technoserve, ADRA, UDS, SARI, SRMP, World Vision, Farmer groups and others. A commercial ILV farmer at Pwalugu in the Bolgatanga District, Mr. David Adakabla, could be an important partner in the commercialisation of ILVs. This study has brought into focus a commodity that has much to offer in reducing poverty and improving the livelihoods of the rural and urban populations of the Upper East Region. And yet, ILVs have been taken for granted and relegated to the background by researchers, development agencies and even by the Ministry of Food and Agriculture. This study has re-awakened interest in the ILVs of Northern Ghana in general. It is anticipated that the findings of this study will offer a starting point for further work and development interventions to improve the conservation and sustainable utilisation of indigenous leafy vegetables.

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1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 This report This report is the result of an analysis of the conservation, cultivation, processing and marketing of indigenous leafy vegetables of the Upper East Region of Ghana. It is expected that the output from this study will form the basis for research and development interventions in order to refocus attention on indigenous leafy vegetables and to enhance its commercialisation and conservation. It is also intended that these interventions will help reduce rural poverty and contribute to improve livelihoods. This report consists of eight chapters. Chapter 1 provides the background to the study and describes the main institutions involved in the study: the Centre for Biodiversity Utilisation and Development (CBUD) and the International Centre for development oriented Research in Agriculture (ICRA). The chapter describes the study area and outlines the justification and objectives of the study and, the approach used in data gathering and analysis. Chapter 2 describes in detail the methodology and the analytical tools used. Chapter 3 describes the contextual analysis, extent of and trends in indigenous leafy vegetables (ILVs) collection and cultivation in the Upper East Region of Ghana. Production practices and indigenous knowledge on nutritional, medicinal properties, processing and preservation aspects are described in the same chapter. Chapter 4 presents an in-depth analysis and marketing potential of indigenous leafy vegetables. Chapter 5 deals with the stakeholders analysis including stakeholders’ perceptions of the problematique, key stakeholders identification, their roles, interests and linkages. Chapter 6 discusses development strategies for commercialisation and conservation of indigenous leafy vegetables. Chapter 7 presents the suggested research and development options, their prioritisation and their screening for implementation. Chapter 8 summarises the conditions for sustainable utilisation of indigenous leafy vegetables. 1.2 Context of the study 1.2.1 Institutional framework The field study was conducted as a joint activity of the CBUD and the ICRA, the Netherlands. The study was hosted by CBUD in Ghana. The CBUD is a collaborative programme of the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST) in Kumasi, Ghana and the Royal Netherlands Embassy in Accra, Ghana. CBUD is based at the Institute of Renewable Natural Resources (IRNR) of the KNUST. The CBUD programme aims at the conservation and sustainable utilisation of biological resources, particularly those that are traditional or indigenous to Ghana. The CBUD programme, which started in 1998, uses an extensive network of partners in development, research, co-ordination, facilitation and promotion of the conservation and utilisation of bio-resources. In these processes, CBUD also seeks to document and conserve knowledge and information on those lesser-known indigenous biological resources that remain anecdotal and often disappear with the passing away of the ageing generation. In recent years, CBUD has demonstrated considerable interest in indigenous leafy vegetables (ILVs) and has already undertaken considerable initiatives in Southern Ghana for conservation and development of these traditional food resources. The CBUD initiative on

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indigenous leafy vegetables is now being expanded to the northern parts of the country. This initiative, it is hoped, will explore various strategies to conserve the resources while seeking to reduce poverty and improve livelihoods of the rural communities at the same time. The IRNR, which hosts CBUD, is Ghana’s leading training and research institute in renewable natural resources management. The Institute, located at the KNUST in Kumasi, has five academic departments, namely Freshwater Fisheries and Watershed Management, Silviculture and Forest Management, Wood Science and Technology Management, Wildlife and Range Management and Agroforestry. The IRNR maintains a holistic, multi-resource approach to a rational, sustainable utilisation and conservation of renewable natural resources. The institute has the mandate to offer both academic and professional training in renewable natural resources management. Since its establishment in 1982, the IRNR has acquired considerable expertise and become one of the main institutions where renewable natural resources managers in the West African sub-region are formally trained. The International Centre for development oriented Research in Agriculture (ICRA), was established in 1981 to assist in strengthening the capacity of researchers and development professionals to make meaningful contributions to agricultural development. ICRA is based in Wageningen in the Netherlands. ICRA’s mission is to provide learning opportunities, to exchange and consolidate knowledge and to develop the professional attitudes and skills necessary for the design of research relevant to resource-poor farmers and the broader needs of society. 1.2.2 Justification for the study In Northern Ghana indigenous leafy vegetables (ILVs) provide important sources of food, nutrition and medicines of both the rural and urban population of Ghana. They are important sources of proteins, vitamins and minerals and offer opportunities for malnourished, poor and deprived communities to maintain balanced diets. When village households run out of food stocks, particularly in the long dry season, ILVs serve as food security and hunger gap fillers. They are perennial and available nearly all year round. Their ease of production means that even marginal lands can be used to cultivate ILVs. Indigenous leafy vegetables play an important role in income generation and subsistence. Recent surveys carried out by the Natural Resources Institute in Cameroon (West Africa) and Uganda (East Africa) provide evidence that ILVs offer significant opportunity for the poorest people to earn a living, as producers and/or traders without requiring large capital investments (Schippers, 2000). They are important commodities for households because they are relatively affordable when compared to other food items. Despite the immense benefits of ILVs in the Upper East Region of Ghana, these important bio-resources have received little or no attention from the Ministry of Food and Agriculture, research or other development agencies. Anecdotal information frequently suggests that a number of these leafy vegetables are going out of production. The threat of habitat degradation, particularly from bush fires, has also been implicated in the disappearance of some ILV species. There also appears to be a shift to cultivation of exotic vegetables, which have better chances of recovering irrigation costs. In the Upper East Region women are known to play vital roles in production, processing and marketing of ILVs. It would therefore be interesting to investigate the social implications of commercialisation of these vegetables. There is little or no documentation of indigenous knowledge on the nutritional, medicinal or

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conservation characteristics of ILVs and the risk of losing such vital knowledge as the aged pass away is very real indeed. It is against this background that CBUD in collaboration with ICRA has found it necessary to conduct this study to address the issues raised in this section. This study seeks to investigate the cultivation, processing, conservation and the potential for commercialisation of indigenous leafy vegetables of the Upper East Region of Ghana. It is expected that the study will generate information and data useful for research and development efforts on indigenous leafy vegetables and contribute to knowledge on this subject. Above all, it is expected that the findings of this study will justify whether or not commercialisation of ILVs in the region will be economically feasible and whether it will contribute towards the reduction of poverty and the improvement of livelihoods of the rural population. 1.2.3 Objectives of the study The objectives of the study were to: assess the extent of and trends in ILV collection and cultivation in the study area; identify ILV species produced in the study area and assess their potential for

commercialisation; describe the production systems within which ILVs are produced and analyse the

strengths and weaknesses of these systems; investigate gender roles in the production and commercialisation of ILVs and how these

roles may be affected by improved commercialisation; identify and prioritise development strategies in support of the conservation and continued

use and commercialisation of these ILVs identify and prioritise research areas that may be pursued to improve the production and

utilisation of the identified food resources. 1.3 Background 1.3.1 Study area One area in Ghana where indigenous leafy vegetables are cultivated and/or collected and utilised to a considerable extent is the Upper East Region, hence the choice of this region for the study. The Upper East Region lies between latitudes 10 15´ and 11 10´ north and longitudes 1 4´ west and bounded to the north by Burkina Faso, to the east by Togo and to the south and west by the Northern and Upper West Regions respectively. The Upper East Region is divided into six administrative districts, namely Bolgatanga, Builsa, Kassena–Nankana, Bongo, Bawku West and Bawku East (Fig. 1.1). Four districts were selected for the study by the host institute, CBUD, while developing the framework and terms of reference for the study. These districts were selected because considerable farming and utilisation of ILVs was taking place in those areas. The selected districts were Bolgatanga, Kassena-Nankana, Bawku West and Bongo Districts. Although Bawku East District was an important locality for ILV production, it was beset with ethnic and tribal physical conflicts at the time. It was not considered prudent to send an international

4

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research team to such conflict-stricken areas. On the other hand, the extent of cultivation of ILVs in the Builsa District was considered to be relatively low and was therefore not included in the districts to be studied. 1.3.2 Basic features of the study area Topography The Upper East Region is generally flat-lying with gentle slopes ranging from 1% to 5%. Inselberg outcrops and a few uplands with slopes of more than 10% occur sporadically in Bongo District. Soil and soil types The soils of the Upper East Region are, mainly, savannah ochrosols and oxysols (LACOSREP, 1992; SRMP, 1998), which are characterised by low organic matter content of less than 1% in the top soil. This translates to relatively low levels of N, P, K, Mg, Na and Ca as compared to similar soils in the southern parts of the country such as the Afram plains and forest zones (LACOSREP, 1992). Soil erosion, which is rather high in the region, is attributed to the coarse-textured nature of the parent material. There is considerable variation in soil texture across the region. The upland soils have been derived largely from granite rocks and their fertility, as a consequence, is low. Rainfall and temperature The Upper East Region experiences long dry seasons which frequently lasts from November to about April or May. The north-eastern winds, originating from the Sahara desert and referred to as the harmattan, blow from November to January each year. The winds are often laden with sand and daily temperatures are usually high, frequently reaching over 40C in most places in the north of the country. Night temperatures could fall to 15C or below. The south-west monsoon also blows from the Gulf of Guinea bringing rain to most parts of the region soon after the harmattan season. Humidity during the rainy season can be high reaching up to 91% but dropping down to 15% during the dry season (Smilde, 1999). The minimum temperature within the year is approximately 15C and may go up to 45C between March and April. The average rainfall is 921 mm and ranges from 645 mm to 1250 mm. Rainfall may occur between April and October. A considerable amount of rainwater is lost through run-off and evapo-transpiration, therefore reducing soil moisture levels. The rainfall season is typically characterised by heavy thunderstorms and lightning activity with medium to strong gale force winds. The uni-modal nature of rainfall in this region means most cropping takes place during the wet season. The uncertainty in time of the onset of the planting rains coupled with the poor water-holding capacity of the soil favours the timeliness of cultivation practices. Ecological zone and vegetation The Upper East Region lies within the Guinea Savannah zone but a small area north of Bawku lies within the Sudan Savannah belt. The vegetation is characteristically grass, shrubs and a sparse distribution of trees, most of which have xerophytic characters and are generally drought-resistant. The natural vegetation of the region (savannah woodland) has come under

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intense pressure over the years as a result of bush burning and farming practices. Only trees of some economic importance have been retained which resulted in a tree population of only 10-20 trees per hectare in some areas (Quansah, 1992). The most common tree species are Butyrospermum parkii (Shea nut), Parkia filicoides (Dawadawa), and Adansonia digitata (Baobab). Among the common grasses are Andropogon gayanus, Pennisetum subangustum, Pennisetum purpureum, Hyparrhenia sp. and Heteropogon sp. Crops Agriculture constitutes the main economic activity in the region with over 60% of the people involved in agriculture (Smilde, 1999). The major crops in the rainfed areas of the region include millet, sorghum, groundnuts, maize and cowpea. Rice, tomatoes, onions and peppers may be cultivated in the flood plains and areas with access to irrigation. Most crop farms depend on rain for production and mixed cropping is a common feature of these farms. Mixed seeding is also practised in which case, different seeds are planted in a single hole. Most farmers have no mechanical implements but some use bullock ploughs. Animal manure and household rubbish may be used to fertilise the soil. Little or no fertilisers and pesticides are used on the farms. Indigenous leafy vegetables are usually also cultivated on the same field as sorghum or millet and indeed several crops may be inter-cropped. For example Kenaf may be grown as a boundary crop in a predominantly sorghum or millet farm. Irrigation The rural population in the Upper East Region depends on dams, dugouts for dry season irrigation, livestock watering and domestic purposes. There are, at least, 200 lentic water bodies in the Upper East Region alone. These include reservoirs, dams and dugouts. Under the IFAD/LACOSREP I project, 44 dams were rehabilitated. The dams assure water supplies to about 550 hectares of irrigated land (0.18% of the cultivated area in the region). Under LACOSREP II an additional 36 dams will be rehabilitated. The Irrigation Company of Upper Region (ICOUR) has irrigable areas of 2490 and 850 hectares at Vea and Tono dams respectively. The Tono and Vea irrigation projects are located in the Kassena-Nankana and Bongo districts respectively. The Vea irrigation Project covers 7 villages, partly under the jurisdiction of the divisional chief of Bolgatanga (Zaare, Yikine, Yorogo, Sumbrungu and part of Nyarega) and partly under the jurisdiction of the divisional chief of Bongo (Vea, Gowrie and part of Nyarega). The Tono irrigation project covers another 8 villages accounting for 4.5% of the cultivated area in the Kassena-Nankana District. The two projects together irrigate 1.1% of the cultivated area in the Upper East Region. Table 1.1 presents an inventory of dams and dugouts in the region. There is considerable scope for irrigation in all the districts as the irrigated land is still less than the total irrigable area (Table 1.1). Extension of the irrigated land has been proposed and this may lead to an enhancement of the area under ILV cultivation.

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Table 1.1 Irrigation in the Upper East District

District Irrigable land area (ha)

Land area presently irrigated (ha)

Proposed extension (ha)

Expected total irrigated land

Bawku** 222.5 153 59 212 Bongo 57.5 27.5 20 47.5 Bolgatanga 39 31 16 47 Kassena-Nankana

62 32 26 58

**Includes Bawku East and Bawku West Districts. Source: IFAD (1990) Livestock Farmers in the region rear livestock, which includes goats, sheep, cattle, pigs and donkeys. Guinea fowls and chickens are also reared. Cattle are usually grazed in the fields during the rainy season but may feed on crop residues after harvesting. Chickens and guinea fowl are usually kept on a free-range system. Household waste and grains form a supplementary feed for the poultry. Demographic factors The Upper East Region (UER) is sparsely populated with a population density of 103.7 persons per km2 and a population growth rate of 1.1%, which is below the national average of 2.5% (Ghana Statistical Service, 2000). The total population of the region is 917,253 and the total land area is 8842 km2 (Ghana Statistical Service, 2000). Population estimates based on the year 2000 census indicate that Bongo District has the highest population density of 204 km2, whilst Bawku West had the lowest population density of 68 persons km2 (Table 1.2). The population of Ghana is estimated at around 18 million with a density of about 75/km2. Table 1.2 Population figures for some districts of the Upper East Region of Ghana District Population Population density

(No. of persons km2.

)

Males as % of total population

Females as % of total population

Bolgatanga 225,864 105 48.1 51.9

Bongo 76,773

204 46.7 53.3

Kassena-Nankana

150,951 111 47.6 52.4

Bawku West 81,972

68 46.7 53.3

Source: Ghana Statistical Service (2000). Population and Housing Census

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In all the four districts the female population was larger than the male population (Table 1.2). This has considerable implications on any development strategies that target the people of the region. Therefore the strategies should be gender sensitive and take into account how women and their roles may be affected. 1.3.3 Socio-economic and policy environment Agriculture Ghana is predominantly an agricultural country. The performance in the agricultural sector will be an important factor in meeting the targets set for Ghana-Vision 2020 (National Development Planning Commission, 1997). Agriculture is the leading contributor to the GDP (41%), employment, government revenues (especially from cocoa), foreign exchange earnings and it provides raw materials for industries. Despite this, the sector faces considerable problems, which represent a setback to the progress of the economy. Among these problems are the absence of a comprehensive credit policy, the decline in bank support for agriculture and lack of access to insurance in agriculture. The lack of or difficulty in getting credit from financial institutions in the Upper East Region is very real and this places considerable limitations on agricultural production. Nutritional status of the population Malnutrition, to which infants, young children and pregnant women are particularly vulnerable, is found throughout the country. Household food insecurity, arising in part from seasonal variation in food production is a major factor in malnutrition. Major nutrition issues include a high prevalence of protein energy malnutrition in Northern Ghana and the lack of knowledge regarding the food and nutritional needs of household members (National Development Planning Commission, 1997). An improved nutrition status of the population will be attained through strategies that promote the consumption of balanced diets. Such programmes should target children, rural households, the urban poor and other disadvantaged groups in society. The strategy will involve the strengthening of capacities of agencies and organisations working in education, health, agriculture and sanitation. Unemployment and low labour productivity In rural areas, the major economic problem is not overt unemployment but the low labour productivity, which results in low levels of remuneration, particularly in agriculture related jobs. The rural-urban migration is mirrored by the north-south migration within Ghana. The high rates of unemployment in urban centres are a reflection of the lack of opportunities for paid employment in the rural areas. Together with poor social and economic amenities in the rural areas, these factors encourage young people in the villages to migrate to the towns in the hope of improving their living standards. One of the indicators of rural-urban and north-south disparities is the source of income. In Accra, 42% of the household income is derived from paid employment. The corresponding figure for the other urban centres is 24%; 9% for rural areas; 4% for the Upper East Region and 7% for the Upper West Region. Considering the levels of employment or unemployment and the low average incomes there is a high degree of disguised unemployment and a dearth

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of remunerative job opportunities. In the Upper East Region, migrants constitute less than 6% of the population, but 25% are returned migrants, i.e. people born in the region who tried unsuccessfully to improve their living standards elsewhere and have returned home. Rural infrastructure development The importance of developing good feeder roads is critical, as the provision of such infrastructure will facilitate movements and marketing of agricultural produce. Poor transportation networks and services between rural agricultural settlements and the urban markets lead to heavy post-harvest losses and high food prices. The UER has poor feeder roads and access to some production and marketing centres is limited. The provision of an enabling environment by the central government will be a prerequisite for rural development. 1.3.4 Ethnicity and food preferences There are several ethnic groups in the region and their food and vegetable preferences vary at some locations, although there are rather more similarities than differences. Among the various ethnic groups in the region are Kusasis, Kassenas, Nankanas and Grunis. These ethnic differences are frequently reflected in their choice of vegetables for the table, especially those indigenous vegetables collected from the wild. While kapok leaves may be gathered for food by some ethnic groups, others do not perceive it as edible. These ethnic perceptions can also affect the type of vegetables that may be cultivated for consumption. In some areas Ayoyo (Corchorus olitorius) is collected from the wild while some ethnic groups prefer to cultivate the plant. 1.3.5 Indigenous leafy vegetables There is considerable controversy on the definition of “indigenous vegetables”. To some people indigenous vegetables refer to vegetables traditionally eaten by the people or those that are native to the locality. To define what is indigenous and what is not is far from easy. It is probable that what is considered native to an area may even have its origins outside the locality. The common cultivated Amaranthus cruentus found along Africa’s warm and humid coastal regions, is usually referred to as a typical African indigenous vegetable but there is still considerable uncertainty about this assertion. In the context of this study, indigenous leafy vegetables are defined as those vegetables that are locally cultivated or collected from the wild and that are traditionally and frequently eaten by villagers in the Upper East Region but are not normally consumed by Europeans.

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2 METHODOLOGY 2.1 The ARD Approach The acronym “ARD” refers to Agricultural Research for Development. Conventional agricultural research has so far failed to successfully address the main concerns of governments, donor agencies and small and marginal farmers. Problems related to food security, poverty, environmental degradation and abuse of natural resources, particularly in the developing world, continue to escalate. Meeting the challenges of the complex modern agricultural research requires a systems approach by scientists to address the problems of poverty, food security and sustainable livelihoods within a sustainable environment. It is against this background that the International Centre for development oriented Research in Agriculture (ICRA) has designed a general procedure for identifying research needs. The procedure is based on a participatory and systems approach that integrates the diverse perspectives of relevant stakeholders to address their economic, social and environmental objectives. The systems approach integrates the different perspectives of stakeholders and disciplines in a holistic manner and culminates in improvements and/or adaptations to technology, policy and social organisation to enhance agriculture and development. ARD thrives on inter-institutional and interdisciplinary teamwork. In this regard, the strengths and perspectives of different scientific disciplines and institutions can be combining their efforts to solve the complex problems of agricultural development. The ARD approach is demand-driven and thus responds to the needs of clients and beneficiaries, especially the resource-poor farmers and contributes to poverty reduction, food security, and competitiveness of farm enterprises and sustainable resource use. The ARD procedure, designed by ICRA, has the following four phases (Fig. 2.1). Phase I: Organising teams During this phase, interdisciplinary teams are composed based on the requirements of the Terms of Reference (TOR) for the study. The team plans its own work and allocates roles and tasks among the team members on the basis of individual abilities or competencies. A team contract is formulated and the team agrees upon decision-making and conflict resolution mechanisms and rules. A common understanding of the terms of reference is established among the team members and between the team and its clients. These mechanisms are necessary to facilitate the smooth running of the team process and to enhance achievement of the desired objectives. Phase II: Defining the system of interest This phase places the problem as defined in the TOR in a broader development context and integrates the various perspectives of relevant stakeholders, actors and beneficiaries. In this process a re-definition and subsequent elaboration of the central problem or problematique may be made. The development context is clarified and stakeholders identified. This phase therefore helps in demarcating the system of interest, which needs to be analysed or studied in more detail.

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Fig. 2.1 The four phases of the ARD procedure Phase III: Identifying development strategies In this phase, analyses of the system of interest are undertaken from different disciplinary and analytical perspectives as appropriate. Such perspectives may be defined from agro-ecological systems, agricultural knowledge and information systems, livelihood systems, social systems, and commodity systems or from any other relevant perspectives. Again, such analyses are targeted to specific groups because different groups may be affected differently by the problematique. This phase also identifies the different development scenarios and driving forces through the participation of various stakeholders. The opportunities and constraints for research and development are identified. Different development strategies are then identified for further implementation. Phase IV: Formulating research plans In phase 4 of the ARD procedure the development strategies defined in phase 3, are screened with the stakeholders to examine their possible effects on environmental sustainability, social equity and economic competitiveness. The primary objective of the screening is to expose any potential problems that are likely to arise with each development scenario.

Terms of Reference

Iteration

Research Proposals

Iteration

Organising the Team

Defining the System of Interest

Formulating Research Plans

Identifying Development Strategies

I

III

II

IV

Contextual analysis Analysis of system of interest

- Agro-eco system - Farming system - Livelihood system - Commodity system - Stakeholder analysis - Knowledge system

Interdisciplinary team Team contract Field study plan

Development strategies Screening development strategies

Potential stakeholders for implementation

R&D options Prioritising R&D options

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This phase also examines the potential contributions of research to the realisation of the development scenarios that have passed the screening. As a consequence, a number of research options are identified and prioritised. Both screening and prioritisation of research options are important and take into account making effective use of limited resources available for research and development. Screening and prioritisation is achieved through a participatory approach with stakeholders using well-defined criteria. Matrix and rank scoring methods are used in the screening and prioritisation exercise. Research proposals are then formulated for research options that receive high priority. Funding may then be actively sought to carry out the research. The ARD approach was followed by the team to address the objectives of the field study as defined in the Terms of Reference (Appendix 1). This approach was applied because it is demand-driven and has an inherent capacity to respond to the needs of stakeholders or beneficiaries. The research team worked together with stakeholders at all stages of the research process resulting in a better comprehension and analysis of the problems raised in the Terms of Reference (TOR). Although all the four phases of the ARD procedure were covered during the study, the formulation of research proposals was not undertaken. The team, by its TOR, was required only to come up with prioritised research and development initiatives and identify potential partners for CBUD to work with. Proposals would be developed later by CBUD in collaboration with suitable partners in implementation. 2.2 Preparation for field work 2.2.1 Team organisation An interdisciplinary team of six scientists was constituted by ICRA in Wageningen, the Netherlands, considering the requirements of the TOR. The team spent three weeks in the Netherlands to prepare the field study. During this period, the team agreed on a team contract, procedure, working rules and decision-making mechanisms to be used during the field study. These arrangements were necessary to ensure that the team functioned with little or no conflicts and that the team’s efficiency was enhanced to achieve the desired outputs. A local researcher was contracted to join the team on its arrival in Ghana to provide socio-economic expertise to the team. 2.2.2 Contextual analysis Prior to the departure of the team to the field study location an initial contextual analysis was done and a rich picture developed. This was based on the TOR and analysis of secondary data/information. The broader context of the problem, as stated in the TOR, was elaborated upon. Further analysis resulted in a description of the system of interest (see Chapter 3). This facilitated a common understanding of the problem in the team. 2.2.3 Field study plan As part of preparation for the field study, the team designed a comprehensive fieldwork plan as shown in the schematic presentation of Fig 2.2. In this process, hypothesis and research questions were formulated and information gaps were identified. Appropriate tools, methods and expected outputs were discussed and documented for guidance in the field (Appendix 2).

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Fig. 2.2 Flow chart of the field study plan

Week Phases Activity Output W-1 Apr 15 16 17 18 19

Defining

system of

interest

W-2 Apr 22 23 24 25 26

W-3 Apr 29 30 May 1 2 3

W-4 May 6 7 8 9 10

W-5 May 13 14 15 16 17

W-6 May 20 21 22 23 24

Meeting with CBUD & secondary data collection

Reconnaissance survey

Clarifications on TOR

Basic information about field study area

Possible criteria for typology

Selection of study villages &

meeting with MOFA District

Director

Validated typology 6 villages selected

for in-depth study

Meeting with stakeholders

Data collection, in depth study in 2

villages

In depth study

data collection in 4 villages, data compilation &

analysis

Data analysis & market survey in Tamale

Stakeholders’

interview, market

ILV species in market, sources of supply, market prices & distribution channels

Costs and benefits, resource flows, timelines, AES maps, matrix scoring, indigenous knowledge, livelihood analysis, knowledge information system

Costs and benefits, resource flows, timelines, AES maps, matrix scoring, indigenous knowledge, livelihood analysis, knowledge information system analysis

Key stakeholders’ identification & interest

matrix

Introductory workshop

R E V I E W

V I S I T

Key stakeholders’ identification & interest matrix


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Week Phases Activity Output W-7 May 27 28 29 30 31

W-8 June 3 4 5 6 7

W-9 June 10 11 12 13 14

Identify Development Strategies

W-10 June 17 18 19 20 21

Formulating Research Plans

W-11 June 24 25 26 27 28

W-12 July 1 2 3 4 5

W-13 July 8 9 10 11 12 13

Meeting with stakeholders for

screening development

strategies

Data analysis & market survey in Bolgatanga Constraints & opportunities

analysis, stakeholders’ perceptions & feedback on output

Trip to Burkina Faso market survey at Guelwongo, Zebila, Senkanse Bawku & Navrongo


Formulating development strategies

Report editing and finalising & travel to Accra

Defining research & development

options

Report writing and editing workshop

invitation

List of R&D options

Final draft of report submitted to CBUD

Second draft of report

First draft of report

List of development strategies for conservation, collection, processing, marketing & institutional improvement

Mid-term workshop

Meeting with stakeholders

for prioritizing R&D options

Final workshop

R E V I E W

V I S I T

Incorporation of feedback in the report/editing

Incorporation of workshop feedback

Seminar in Kumasi

Screened development strategies

Prioritized researchable areas & development options

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2.3 Reconnaissance survey of the study area in Ghana A three-day reconnaissance survey was undertaken to give the team a general overview of the situation in the field and for collection of basic information about the area. A checklist of the issues to be observed during the survey was developed. The list included: Topographical features of the study area Natural resources including soil types, river, streams, natural vegetation and forest/trees Production systems including the production systems (irrigated or rainfed), cropping

systems, crops, fruits, vegetables and livestock systems Infrastructure like: road network, market and processing facilities and irrigation facilities

(dams, hand-dug wells) A senior officer of the Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MOFA) accompanied the team during the visit. The guided tour also clarified enquiries on socio-cultural aspects of area. The team was also given a briefing on development agencies (stakeholders) and their roles/interventions in the study area. 2.4 Introductory workshop Following the reconnaissance survey, an introductory workshop was held in Bolgatanga where the team was based. In attendance at the workshop were various stakeholders and potential stakeholders for indigenous leafy vegetables in the region. In particular, representatives of MOFA, NGOs, Universities, Research Institutions and ILV producers were present. The objectives of the introductory workshop were to: present and clarify the ICRA team’s understanding of the terms of reference to the

stakeholders; validate, through a participatory process, the selection of Bolgatanga, Bongo, Bawku

West, and Kassena-Nankana Districts as study locations for indigenous leafy vegetables (ILVs);

facilitate the selection of study villages or locations that reflect the ILV situation in the target districts through an interactive process with stakeholders;

present the proposed field study plan for feedback from the stakeholders and; identify key stakeholders, their interests and potential future roles in the promotion of

ILVs.

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2.5 Typology and village selection An initial typology was formulated by the team on the basis of secondary information available, which was verified and refined after the reconnaissance survey of the study area. The criteria used to define farm typology were: production systems (rainfed vs irrigated), scale of production (subsistence vs commercial) and access to the market (limited access vs easy access). Production system Availability of irrigation water in Upper East Region plays an important role in the production of indigenous leafy vegetables. In areas where irrigation water is available, production of indigenous leafy vegetables is done throughout the year while in rainfed areas the production is limited to the rainy season. Based on water availability, the two major production systems were categorised as rainfed and irrigated systems. Scale of production The scale of production reflects the major purpose of production (home consumption vs income generation). It is important to note here that the difference between subsistence and commercial scales of production is mainly based on the purpose of production regardless of the extent of production. The scale of production does affect decisions on input investments and labour allocation. Under subsistence production, indigenous leafy vegetables are mainly produced for home consumption. Farmers do sell part of it however, when need arises. On the other hand commercial scale production of ILVs is mainly for income generation, but part of the produce is used for home consumption. Access to the market

Market accessibility plays an important role in the promotion of ILVs to a commercial level. Regardless of the scale of production, where there is a market, people are motivated to produce for sale. Thus two farm categories were identified as those with easy access and those with limited access to the market. This typology developed was presented to various stakeholders at the introductory workshop where it was endorsed with no modification. After validation of the typology, the workshop participants were divided into four groups on the basis of their familiarity or acquaintance with the four districts targeted for the study. Each group proposed villages, which represented farm types that were presented to them. Each stakeholder group, with reasons, selected two villages that best described each farm type (Appendix 3). The participants also assisted in identifying stakeholder interests and their future roles. The six farm types identified are illustrated in Fig 2.3.

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Fig. 2.3 Farm types and selected villages for the in-depth study

For each farm type and for each district at least one village was selected by the team to reflect the best representation of the farm types. The selected villages and the justification for selection are presented in Table 2.1. Table 2.1 Selected villages for studies on indigenous leafy vegetables in the Upper

East Region Farm type Selected

Village/District Reasons for selection

1. Rainfed production system with subsistence scale production

Kandiga (Kassena-Nankana)

Rainfed, subsistence production, access road, border with Burkina Faso, other villages too remote and transport difficulties exist

2. Rainfed production system with commercial scale production having limited access to the market

Widnaba (Bawku West)

Massive production of ILVs, large virgin forest, but with limited access to the market; other villages have lower scale of production and no virgin forests.

3. Rainfed production system with commercial scale production having easy access to the market

Sherigu (Bolgatanga)

Village is close to the regional capital market and has better transport and access to the market than Pelungu, the second choice

4. Irrigated production system with commercial scale production having limited access to the market

Binaba (Bawku West)

Limited access to markets, no access to large markets, has 2 irrigation dams, produces many types of vegetables; other villages have a single dam and not easily accessible.

5. Irrigated production system with commercial scale production having easy access to the market

Bongo Central (Bongo)

Very large irrigated area, good access road and easy access to the market; other villages have less irrigated area

6. Irrigated production system with subsistence scale production

Gaani (Kassena-Nankana)

Near Navrongo market, another village Biu is further from Navrongo and road is bad.

Farm Type

Easy market accessSherigu

(Bolgatanga)

Limited market accessWidnaba

(Bawku-West)

Commercial SubsistenceKandiga

(Kassena-Nankana)

Rainfed

SubsistenceGaani

(Kassena-Nankana)

Easy market accessBongo Central

(Bongo)

Limited market accessBinaba

(Bawku-West)

Commercial

Irrigated

Farm type

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The information on indigenous leafy vegetables relating to production, processing, marketing and conservation was gathered from these selected villages. The criteria on production systems seemed to be strong in the categorisation of the farm types. Minimum variability for scale of production and accessibility to the market was observed in the field during data collection. 2.6 Data collection process and tools/methods used Different participatory methods were used in the field for data collection. A number of participatory rural appraisal (PRA) tools were used to involve as many stakeholders as possible and for a critical analysis of the system of interest. The different tools and methods used in data gathering are indicated in Fig 2.4. 2.6.1 Sample size Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) and household interviews were held in each village. The team often split into three sub-teams to undertake these activities. Each sub-team working with one focus group consisting of at least, ten farmers with approximately equal numbers of males and females. This was to ensure that gender related issues would be adequately covered and their perceptions captured. A total of 55 households were interviewed in the six villages. This included almost equal numbers of males and females. 2.6.2 Focus group discussions In each village, on the first day FGD was used to collect information (Appendix 4). During FGD, an agro-ecosystem map was drawn at each village to locate the natural resources and agro-ecological niches. A transect walk with key farmers was also undertaken to locate the various natural resources e.g. vegetation or trees, rivers, animals, crops, soil types and the general features of the physical environment including social amenities. Historical trends, the extent of cultivation and collection of ILVs were investigated using time lines, while labour utilisation during the different times of the year was captured using a seasonal calendar. Information on relevant stakeholder roles and linkages in the village was obtained by using Venn diagrams. Gender roles at the household level and household task division were investigated using activity profiles. 2.6.3 Household survey On the second day, in each village individual household surveys were organised. Information on available resources of the farmers, interactions of different components of farming systems and input-output flows was obtained using semi-structured interviews and resource flow diagrams. Semi-structured interviews (Appendix 5) were used to obtain information on indigenous knowledge on ILVs relating to importance, production practices, insects/pests and diseases control, harvesting, handling, processing and storage. Information on sources of household income, contribution of ILVs to food security and access and control over resources was obtained using Livelihood analysis.

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Fig 2.4 Diagrammatic presentation of the tools and methods used in data collection

2.6.4 Matrix scoring and ranking Matrix scoring was used for prioritisation of ILVs with a potential for commercialisation. The procedure of assigning scores for each species was introduced to the group during FGD. Using corn seeds, farmers scored the vegetable species according to their qualification on given criteria. Farmers identified their own criteria based on their knowledge of production, processing, marketing, utilisation and the conceived problems associated with the cultivated or collected species (Table 2.2). The criteria were then discussed and agreed upon before being used for matrix scoring and ranking.

Agro-eco Systems

Farming Systems

Knowledge Systems

Stakeholder Analysis

Livelihood Analysis

Commodity Systems

Resource flows Activity profiles

Seasonal calendars Access and control profiles

AES maps Transects Timelines

Reconnaissance surveys

Linkage matrix Venn diagram

Identification and Interest matrix

Benefit-cost analysis Market surveys Matrix scoring

Household surveyFocus Group

Discussions

Case study

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Table 2.2 Criteria for ranking collected and cultivated ILV species potential for commercialisation

Criteria

Description

Costsof production Low costs of production are desirable as financial capital among the communities is a limiting factor in the production

Labour requirements Low labour requirements are considered an important criterion, as labour is mainly limited to family labour.

Time of maturity Early maturing species are preferred for quick returns Processing Easy processing by indigenous method of sun drying is

considered important Market demand ILVs with high market demand are preferred Nutritional value Vegetables with high nutritional value as perceived by

farmers are preferred as they contribute to good health Market price Vegetables with high prices are desired due to their high

profit-making ability Seasonal availability of the species

Availability of collected species throughout the year is considered an important criterion

Ease of collection Vegetables that are easy to collect are desired Distance to the collection point

Vegetables that are found in proximity are preferred as that helps to save time in collection

Medicinal value Vegetable species from the bush with multi-purpose uses including medicinal value are preferred

Source: ICRA 200, Field Study.

A score of ten was assigned to each cell in the matrix. The higher the score, the better is the performance of the species. The sum totals of the scores under each criterion for each species of leafy vegetable represented the major factors affecting the cultivation or collection of the species. The grand totals were used to determine its position of priority (Appendix 6). The species were ranked based on the total score and these were used to draw final conclusions on the preference of species. 2.6.5 Benefit-cost analysis The costs of production of major cultivated ILV species was estimated by interviewing about five farmers in each village. The benefit-cost ratios were computed after estimating the gross costs and benefits. The cost and benefit variables employed in the calculation are as shown in Table 2.3. A detailed description of the variables is presented in Chapter 4. The gross costs of production include all the expenses incurred in the production process plus an opportunity cost on capital, at an interest rate of 26 % for a four week operational period, because ILV cultivation takes four weeks in the field.

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Table 2.3 Variables for ILVs costs of production and benefits

Component Variables Total costs of production Land Land preparation Nursing / Transplanting Costs of Inputs Insecticides/ Ash /botanicals,

fertiliser/manure/compost and seeds Depreciation of farm tools Costs of marketing Labour for watering, planting, weeding (first and second) and

harvesting/selling Gross costs of production Total costs of production plus opportunity costs on capital at

an interest rate of 26 % for a four week operational period Gross income Income from fresh leaves sold Income from dried leaves sold Value of fresh leaves consumed Value of dried leaves consumed Value of leaves given out for ceremonies, festivals and gifts Income derived from the sale of fibres from Berese and Bito

stems Source: ICRA 2002, Field Study 2.6.6 Market survey Market surveys were conducted to gather information from producers, traders, and consumers in the study area to facilitate an understanding of the demand and supply situation of ILVs in different localities. Information on market infrastructure, marketing channels and prices was also obtained. The market survey procedure involved focus group discussions, individual interviews, weighing and counting of ILV stems in bunches. The weights of bunches of vegetables found in the markets were calculated and standardised to units of cedis per kilogram for inter-market price comparisons. The respondents included farmers, many of whom were found selling in the markets, wholesalers and retailers who also included farmers and consumers. The markets surveyed in the study area include Bolgatanga, Navrongo, Bongo and Zebilla. They were selected due to their good patronage by ILV traders and consumers. In addition, market surveys were conducted in Tamale and Kumasi in Southern Ghana to trace marketing of ILVs from the study area to markets in that part of the country. For similar reasons, some market surveys were conducted in the capital city of the neighbouring country Burkina Faso (Ouagadougou), at the northern border with Burkina Faso (Guelwongo) and in some markets at the north-eastern border with Togo (Senkance).

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2.7 Mid-term workshop A mid-term workshop was held after seven weeks of field data collection. The objectives of the workshop were to:

present the main findings of the analysis of system of interest to stakeholders; validate through a participatory and interactive process, the findings of the team; verify that the focus of the study continued to be relevant to the stakeholders and potential

beneficiaries, and obtain the suggestions of stakeholders to focus the study during the remaining period.

Representatives from MoFA, Universities, NGOs, Research Institutes, PGRC, ICOUR and farmers participated in the workshop. In this workshop participants discussed the constraints in and opportunities for conservation, cultivation, processing and marketing of ILVs in UER. Both institutional and policy perspectives were considered. 2.8 Identifying and screening development strategies Based on the results of the in-depth study at village and household level and the analysis of constraints and opportunities, potential development strategies were identified by the team. The strategies were then presented in a stakeholder meeting where they were refined. They were then screened by the stakeholders. Screening of the development strategies was done in two stages. In the first stage the screening was done with various stakeholders representing research stations (SARI, Manga Research Station), extension (MoFA) and NGOs (SMRC, TRAX, Technoserve, Catholic Diocese). While in the second stage, a separate screening session was conducted with farmers at two villages each representing a rainfed (Sherigu) and an irrigated (Bongo Central) production system. Ten farmers, five men and five women, attended the screening exercise in each village. The development strategies were screened using the criteria of environmental sustainability, social equity and economic competitiveness. For each of these criteria, some sub-criteria were developed by the team which were further modified by the stakeholders during the screening exercise. The details of the criteria and the justification for their choice are presented in Chapter 7. Differential weights were given to the criteria on the basis of their perceived relative importance. Scoring was done for each development strategy against each criterion by using a maximum score of ten. Weighted scores were then calculated by multiplying the original score by the weight given for each criterion. The final weighted scores were compiled for all the three broad criteria and then an average from the three screening exercises was calculated, i.e., with stakeholders (other than farmers) and with farmers at irrigated and at rainfed sites. 2.9 Identification and prioritisation of research and development options Some researchable areas (research options) and development activities (development options) were identified by the team for the identified development strategies. Some of the development strategies were selected after screening, and the research and development

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(R&D) options of these selected strategies were prioritised. In a separate meeting, the criteria for prioritising research and development options proposed by the team (see Chapter 7), were refined by stakeholders representing research, extension, development organisations and farmers. Depending on their relative importance, these criteria were weighted by the stakeholders. Using a weighted scoring matrix, the research and development options were prioritised by the stakeholders with facilitation from the team. 2.10 Identification of potential partners for implementing prioritised research and

development The identification of potential partners that CBUD could work with was an important preoccupation of the team. The team invited participants at the stakeholders meeting to identify potential partners who could play a role in the implementation of the prioritised research and development options. For each research or development option, a number of institutions and organisations were identified and recorded (see Chapter 7). 2.11 Formulation of research plans and proposals The formulation and writing of research proposals on the prioritised research areas was not undertaken by the team. This activity was left to the host institute, CBUD, as it had to take into consideration project formats and requirements of its benefactors, the Royal Netherlands Embassy and available financial and human resources. 2.12 Final workshop A final workshop involving all the relevant stakeholders was held. The objective of the workshop was to: share the findings of the study with and obtain feedback from the stakeholders create a sense of ownership of the study among the stakeholders to ensure effective

follow-up Useful comments obtained from the participants were incorporated into the final draft report. 2.13 Seminar at the host institute (CBUD) A seminar was held at the host institute, CBUD in Kumasi, to present the findings of the study and to share the way forward with other stakeholders in the south of the country. The audience of the seminar was the academics in different agricultural fields and research staff of the KNUST. The seminar aimed at creating an insight on the importance of ILVs and draw more attention to the crop.

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2.14 Report writing and editing The task of report writing was shared among the team members. Report writing was progressively done, usually after some data analysis was completed. The team met frequently to monitor progress and to make the necessary corrections and/or amendments. Two team members were given the task to edit the draft. A draft copy produced after editing was presented to the team for comments. Any errors noticed were corrected or revised by the team’s editors. The corrected version was then sent to the reviewer for comments. The comments of the reviewer were incorporated into the report.

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3 INDIGENOUS LEAFY VEGETABLES IN THE UPPER EAST REGION

3.1 Contextual analysis

A diagrammatic presentation (Fig 3.1) of the broader context of the problem under study was developed on the basis of secondary information. The initial rich picture assisted the team to come to a common understanding of the problematique. This rich picture was refined during the study as more insights were gained. The conservation and continued utilisation of indigenous leafy vegetables (ILVs) in the Northern Ghana farming systems is of primary concern. The important dimensions of the context of the problem were identified i.e.: conservation, production, processing, marketing, research, policy and socio-economic environments. The importance of this crop was always underestimated. Environmental degradation, ethnic preferences, changing eating habits among others expose the crop to the danger of going out of cultivation. Farming households consider ILVs as an important component in their diet and a considerable source of food, especially in the dry season where cereals are in short supply. It is also an important source of income for farmers. Women are the major producers of ILVs for home consumption. Cultural diversity and ethnic preferences for different ILV species affect the conservation of species, with less preferred species under threat. The production of ILVs in the UER is dependent on rainfall and some external inputs. Only a few households produce ILVs under irrigated conditions. ICOUR and other NGOs like Catholic Diocese, Action Aid and ADRA who support farmers in the area, have tried to increase the area under irrigation. Due to the limited extent of irrigable area, most households do not have access to it. Under large-scale irrigation schemes like Tono and Vea a fee has to be paid for land and water use. Low-income families, therefore, have a limited access to irrigated land. Although the Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MoFA) is responsible for the development of agriculture in the area, ILVs have not been given any priority in their programmes and the production is still predominantly based on indigenous knowledge vested in the older generations. No research and extension activity is being carried out on ILVs by any of the organisations. CBUD, with a mandate for bio-diversity conservation, emphasises the need to conserve the indigenous knowledge as well as ILV diversity in the area. Financial institutions such as Rural Bank, Agricultural Development Bank and organisations like World Vision and RUWA who are offering credit for agricultural activities, are interested in supporting ILVs. They are wondering though whether farmers will be able to repay their credits for ILVs. NGOs like ADRA, Technoserve and TRAX, working in agricultural development, assist farmers in constructing bore holes that can be used for ILVs cultivation. In addition they help farmers with capacity building and strengthening farmer’s organisations.

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Women with other family responsibilities might not have sufficient time to work on more commercial production. On the other hand men might take over the production once it is commercialised. The promotion of indigenous leafy vegetables may help households in achieving food security and in improving the family income. The potential of ILVs for commercialisation needs to be assessed. Although traders are involved in ILVs marketing in local and urban markets, the financial benefits and competitiveness of the crop is under-estimated. Co-operatives and Farmers’ Associations in the area responsible for marketing of agricultural produce are so far not involved in the marketing of ILVs. The questions here might be, is there a need for networking to promote and support of the marketing of ILVs? Will good prices for ILVs motivate farmers to produce commercially? NGOs, in the region, play an important role in the improvement of farming by working closely with small-scale farmers. They provide advice on livelihood improvement of the farmers. They supply inputs, provide credit, and basic knowledge on soil and water management and insects/pests and disease control measures. They are actively involved in community empowerment with special reference to women. Research institutions in the region try to address farmers needs in a holistic manner. UDS, SARI, SRMP and IRNR have shown a keen interest in the conservation of ILV species. CBUD in collaboration with ICRA, is trying to determine the potential of commercialisation of ILVs in UER. The exploitation of their commercial potential is considered important for its sustainable utilisation. MoFA is willing to promote ILV production in UER by providing extension services. However, knowledge on ILVs production and processing is limited in comparison to indigenous knowledge. Tapping this valuable knowledge will enhance the conservation and sustainable utilisation of ILVs and thus their development. 3.2 Definition of the system of interest Following the development of the initial contextual analysis, the relevant system of interest was defined on the basis of the Terms of Reference (TOR). Defining the system of interest required, applying the systems approach taking cognisance of the complexity of the various components and interactions of the system.

3.2.1 Central theme

The central theme was derived from the Terms of Reference (TOR) agreed upon by ICRA and the Centre for Biodiversity Utilisation and Development (CBUD). The central theme for the study was defined as “Conservation and sustainable utilisation of Indigenous Leafy Vegetables (ILVs) in Northern Ghana”. . 3.2.2 Main components Four main components were considered important in characterising the system of interest i.e.: conservation, production, processing and marketing.

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Conservation of ILVs Conservation is viewed from the standpoint of conserving indigenous knowledge on the ILVs of the study area. This aspect examined the traditional production systems, medicinal values and nutritional values in particular. Environmental sustainability and conservation of the ILVs, which are going out of production or disappearing from the study area, were important considerations of the study also.

Production of ILVs

Low yield of most ILV species was identified as one of the main issues, in relation to production of ILVs in the study area. Under production aspects of ILVs the following areas were identified as major concerns of the study:

Species: Two broad categories of ILVs were identified and described as wild ILVs or cultivated ILV species. In each of the category a number of species are utilised. Production system: The production system is influenced by the rainfall pattern (rainfed production system) or by irrigation or watering during dry spells (irrigated production system). The scale of production may be subsistence or commercial. Soil fertility: Poor soil fertility has been identified as one of the major factors contributing to low yields of ILVs. The use of fertlisers, compost and manure is the main issue of concern under this problem category. Production inputs: The use of seeds, chemical fertilisers, manure, pesticides and herbicides and irrigation facilities are important aspects of the system of interest. Plant protection: This encompasses aspects of insect pests and disease control using indigenous knowledge, chemicals, natural or biological control measures.

Processing of ILVs This aspect examines existing local processing techniques, and also whether or not any modern processing techniques or processing industries of ILVs exist in the area.

Marketing of ILVs

Market related issues such as marketing channels, price, demand and supply of ILVs, source of supply, local and external markets, co-operatives and other farmers’ associations involved in marketing were identified by the team as part of the system of interest. After analysing all these aspects, some suggestions were made for conservation, commercialisation and sustainable utilisation of ILVs in UER of Ghana. 3.3 Types of Indigenous Leafy Vegetables Farmers of UER have been cultivating and collecting several types of ILVs for as far back in time as they could remember. Nineteen different species of ILVs are cultivated by farmers in UER, while 38 species of ILVs are collected by the farmers from the bush in this region. The

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team tried to find out the common names and scientific names of these cultivated and collected species but it was not possible for all the species. Therefore, the local names of these species as they are referred to in different villages are presented in Appendices 7 and 8. There could be some duplication of the same species with different local names and this was verified with the help of experienced botanists collecting samples from different villages and then identifying the species. The types of ILV species cultivated by farmers in the field and collected from the bush in different villages representing different farm types are described below. The changes that occurred over time are also presented. 3.3.1 Cultivated species Information collected through focus group discussions (FGD) in the six study villages indicated that Bito (Roselle), Berese (Kennaf), Bento (Cow pea leaves), Maana (Okro), Yogvoro (Pumpkin leaves), Alefu (Amaranthus), Neri (Sama), Ayoyo (African Sorrel) and Langina (Spiderplant) are popular species that are grown at all the sites. There are some minor differences in their popularity due to ethnic preferences. A detailed list of ILVs produced at each site with their ranking on the basis of popularity is presented in Appendix 9. The respondents from the individual household survey conducted in six villages indicate Bito as the most popular species being grown at all the sites by 100% of the households, followed by Berese (96%), Bento (93%), Alefu (82%), Maana (75%), Yogvoro (51%), Ayoyo (36%), Langina (35%) and Neri (20%) (Table 3.1). The species called Sambola (Lufah sponge) is grown in four of the six villages studied (Sherigu, Kandiga, Gaani and Bongo), whereas Kumvoro (Sherigu and Bongo) and Chimvoro (Kandiga and Gaani) are grown in two villages each. The species Nyembule, Lohit and Imbut are specific to Binaba, Benvoro to Sherigu and Saat to Widnaba. There is not much difference in choice of species between the two production systems (rainfed and irrigated) but the choice of specific species in different sites reflects the ethnic preferences. The rankings done through FGD (Appendix 9) and through the household survey (Table 3.1) differ because the former is based on the collective opinion of a group of people while, the latter is based on the opinion of 10 respondents from each village who are actually growing the particular species. 3.3.2 Changes over time for cultivated species The Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) are used to identify trends in ILVs production over more than twenty years in: the choice of species, the extent of cultivation (number of households involved and quantity of production), season of cultivation, scale of production, use of inputs, involvement of gender and age groups and the use of ILVs. The changes in these aspects of cultivated species of ILVs are described in this section.

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Table 3.1 Species of ILVs cultivated in the Upper East Region of Ghana S.N. Species Percentage of respondents growing ILV species

Rainfed villages Irrigated villages Average

Kandiga (1)

Widnaba (2)

Sherigu (3)

Gaani (4)

Binaba (5)

Bongo (6)

1. Bento 80 100 88 100 90 100 93 2. Berese 100 100 77 100 100 100 96 3. Bito 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 4. Maana 70 86 66 88 60 80 75 5. Alefu 50 86 100 77 80 100 82 6. Yogvoro 40 14 88 55 20 90 51 7. Ayoyo 10 71 11 11 100 10 36 8. Langina 60 43 22 22 30 30 35 9. Sambola 10 33 22 30 10. Nyembule 20 11. Lohit 10 12. Imbut 10 13. Neri 30 14 11 22 30 10 20 14. Samvebed 28 15. Lohara 14 16. Kumvoro 22 10 17. Benvoro 22 18. Saat 16 19. Chimvoro 10 22

Note: (1) = Rainfed and subsistence; (2) = Rainfed, commercial with limited access to market; (3) = Rainfed, commercial with easy access to market; (4) = Irrigated and subsistence; (5) = Irrigated, commercial with limited access to market and (6) = Irrigated, commercial with easy access to market farm types. Source: ICRA Field Study 2002, Households Survey of 55 households from six villages. Changes in species So far no species were found that were not cultivated anymore. Moreover, three species, Imbut, Alefu and Ayoyo were introduced in the UER in different years at various places and they are still under cultivation. At Widnaba and Sherigu, a total of twelve ILV species are cultivated by farmers (Table 3.1). Farmers are still growing all the species that they used to grow from before 1980. At Binaba farmers are cultivating twelve ILV species of which the same species continued across the years except Imbut, which was introduced by Bisa community (migrated from Burkina Faso) around 1990. A total of eleven species are grown by farmers at Kandiga of which nine other species were available in 1980 except Alefu and Ayoyo, which, according to respondents, were introduced in this village during 1990. Similarly, wild Alefu was cultivated in 1980 at Bongo Central, which was dark in colour and had low consumer preference. The present edible Alefu was introduced in about 1994 at Bongo Central. The other ten species, which are being cultivated at present, were also cultivated in 1980 or before. In Gaani, out of eleven species, which are grown by farmers, ten species were available in 1980 except Alefu which, was introduced in this village in 1990.

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Trends in the cultivation of ILVs

The team tried to collect quantitative data through FGD on trends in the approximate number of households involved in cultivation and the quantity of ILVs produced during the last two decades in the six study villages. However, respondents were unable to quantify the area under cultivation and the total production of ILVs. Also, no secondary data is available to provide such information. Therefore, only an indication of positive and negative trends in the number of households involved in cultivation and the quantity of ILVs produced could be elicited. The number of households involved in ILV cultivation increased from 1980 to 2002 in all the villages. With the continuously increasing population, the number of households increased correspondingly. ILVs, being an important component of diets of the people in UER, more and more households are getting into ILV production to fulfil their food requirements. Though there is no hard data to support this statement, farmers responded that increasing realisation of the nutritional importance of ILVs among the people resulted in an increased market demand for these vegetables and this encourages people to grow ILVs for income generating purposes. Moreover, ILVs are easy to cultivate and being short duration crops they give more quick results in food and returns than other crops. All these factors contribute to an increased number of households taking up ILV cultivation. The total production of ILVs in all the villages is increasing as compared to the past because of the increased number of households and a larger area under ILV cultivation. According to the respondents, as the households divide, each units also starts growing ILVs for their own family separately for food and for income and hence area under production and the total production increases accordingly. However, no evidence was available to indicate the increase in yield of ILVs. Changes in season for cultivation Currently, cultivation of ILVs in UER is mainly rainfed, from May to October with some dry season farming under irrigation in the villages having access to small, medium and large-scale irrigation schemes. Changes in the season of cultivation of ILVs observed across the years at some villages, was made possible through access to irrigation. At Kandiga ILVs is grown during the rainy season since before 1980. From 2000 onwards, however, a few people started to grow ILVs in the dry season even, using water from dug wells along the riverside. This practice is increasing year by year seeing the impact of ILVs on income generation in nearby villages under the Tono irrigation scheme. ILV production at Widnaba is still entirely rainfed since there is no access to irrigation for the farmers to grow ILVs in the dry season. At Sherigu, cultivation of ILVs is predominantly rainfed. However, about 130 households out of approximately 500 have access to a dam constructed in the village in 1963 and they are growing some ILVs in dry season near the dam since its establishment. Until 1995 farmers at Binaba cultivated ILVs only in the rainy season. Although the Binaba Dam-2 irrigation scheme was established in 1965, the people did not consider using irrigation for ILVs and used it mainly for rice. But because of the awareness created by extension, they started growing ILVs the in dry season after 1995 using irrigation from the dam. At Gaani

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since the farmers have access to irrigation, though on a limited scale from the Tono irrigation scheme, they have been producing ILVs in both rainy and dry seasons. A dam was constructed in Bongo in 1960 after which they started growing ILVs in the dry season in addition to what they produce in the rainy season. Changes in scale of production Farmers in UER produce ILVs on either subsistence or commercial scale. In subsistence production, ILVs are mainly used for home consumption but part of the produce may be sold when the need arises. In commercial production farmers grow ILVs mainly for the market to earn an income. Some changes were observed in the scale of production of ILVs at some sites with the improvement in irrigation facilities, accessibility to market and increased market demand. At Kandiga ILVs were always grown as a subsistence crop and the same trend continues with the exception of very few farmers who started growing ILVs on a commercial scale using water from dug wells along the riverside. Although farmers at Widnaba are producing for the market, because of the limited access to the market, the total production is not much and there was no change in the scale of production at this site since 1980. ILV production at Sherigu is commercialised since 1980 because of easy access to the Bolgatanga market and farmers produce a large quantity of ILVs for sale. At Gaani, farmers are producing ILVs mainly on a subsistence scale since 1980. Having gained access to irrigation canals from Tono Irrigation Project some farmers (about 20%) who can afford the water charges, started cultivating ILVs on a commercial scale since the year 2000. Binaba farmers used to grow ILVs on a subsistence scale only in the rainy season until 1995. After 1995 they started producing ILVs in the dry season near a dam on a commercial scale. According to the farmers this change occurred because of the awareness created by extension (MoFA) staff. Similarly, at Bongo farmers were producing ILVs on a subsistence scale up to 1990, but after that they started growing it on a commercial scale as they realised that ILV production creates an additional source of income. A commercial scale of production at Bongo is highly favoured by the accessibility to the irrigation dam for dry season production and easy access to the Bongo, Bolgatanga and Guelwongo (in Burkina Faso) markets. It clearly indicates that irrigation and market accessibility determine the scale of production. Changes in use of inputs Prior to 1990, farmers were using only manure and no chemical fertilisers or other chemicals. This trend continues at all rainfed sites. However, at irrigated sites such as Gaani, Binaba and Bongo Central farmers started using small quantities of chemical fertilisers for commercial scale production after 1990. The reason for using small quantities is the high costs, because of removal of fertiliser subsidy by Government in the year 1988. However, due to the limited availability of manure and declining soil fertility farmers are forced to use at least a minimum quantity of chemical fertilisers. Before the year 2000 no pesticides were used in the study area. Some farmers from Gaani and Sherigu reported that they started spraying pesticides after 2000 to control insects/pests on ILVs because of the increased attack of insects/pests and diseases.

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Changes in involvement of gender and age groups in ILV cultivation The cultivation of ILVs is generally considered to be women’s responsibility. However, men’s roles are also vital for some of the activities like land preparation, watering, weeding and manure/fertiliser application. It was observed during the field study that men are mainly interested in cash crops and once ILV production moves towards commercialisation, men tend to get involved. Similarly, the area under production also influences the involvement of men. Where the area is too large for women to handle alone, men tend to come in. FGD with farmers indicated that before the year 1990 in all the study villages the women were mainly responsible for ILVs production. Since the last decade both men and women are involved in ILV production in all the villages as the production size increased to fulfil the increased food requirements and also for income generation. Sometimes both men and women are involved in producing some ILVs but for different purposes. For instance Berese (Kennaf) is produced by women for leaves and while men are interested in the fibre. No change was observed over time in the age of people involved in ILV production. According to the respondents at Widnaba, Binaba, Sherigu and Gaani generally both men and women of age 18 years or above cultivate ILVs. Whereas, according to the farmers at Bongo Central and Kandiga, men and women are involved in ILVs production once they are 15 years of age. 3.3.3 Collected species Focus Group Discussions in six villages revealed that Tokara (Baobab) is the most popular species collected by farmers at all the sites. This species is popular because of its good taste and high nutritional value. A species called Bongto is highly preferred by people at three villages Kandiga, Gaani and Bongo and this species was ranked as the most preferred and widely collected species in these three villages. However, this species was not found in other villages, which indicates the ethnic preferences for the species. Similarly, Ogla is also one of the most popular species collected by people at four villages namely, Kandiga, Sherigu, Gaani and Bongo. Bongto and Ogla are collected both for consumption and sale. These species have good taste, are in high demand in the market and are easily available everywhere. According to Kandiga farmers, Bongto is a highly preferred cultivated species because of its tenderness like Maana. According to them, these two species can be eaten as main course with no millet or other staples required and the hunger satisfying feeling is longer. Bauda and Voa/Voba/Voong are other popular species, which are collected by people at three villages. There are some other species collected at some villages according to their ethnic preferences. A detailed list of ILVs collected at each site with their ranking based on popularity is presented in Appendix 10. Though the FGD indicated that 38 species are collected in the study area, the household survey in these villages showed that only 27 species are collected. The difference in the number of species could be the result of the sampling, reflecting the perception of the respondents. The household survey conducted also indicated Tokara (Baobab) to be the most popular species collected at all the sites by an average of 66% of the households (Table 3.2). The average of all the six sites indicated Bongto (38%) and Ogla (18%) as the other two popular species collected by people.

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There is a large variation in ethnic preferences observed in case of collected species of ILVs across the sites. The species Kelpomvoro is one of the highly preferred species at Gaani being collected by 78% of the respondents. Kapok and Bogosid are highly preferred species at Widnaba being collected by 71% of the respondents. Similarly, Guwara and Bogosid are highly preferred species at Binaba being collected by 70% of the respondents. A detailed reaction of respondents by site wise is presented in Table 3.2. Table 3.2 Species of ILVs Collected from Bush in Upper East Region of Ghana S.N. Species Percentage of respondents collecting ILVs species

Rainfed villages Irrigated villages

Kandiga (1)

Widnaba (2)

Sherigu (3)

Gaani (4)

Binaba (5)

Bongo (6)

1. Kapok 71 10 2. Bogosid 71 70 3. Bauda 22 30 4. Matingama 43 20 5. Sambema/wild ayoyo 28 11 20 6. Langenda 57 10 7. Guwara/Gowara 14 70 8. Vuara 50 9. Tokara/Baobab 60 86 44 44 100 60 10. Samveibit 57 11. Saalum 44 12. Ogla 10 44 22 30 13. Samparaga 44 30 14. Vomwama 11 10 15. Kulgonga 10 33 16. Bongto 50 100 80 17. Firikayua 10 18. Kelpomvooro 40 78 19. Tingabongto 56 20. Arvoro 11 21. Kulyogro 22 22. Virivoro 50 23. Voba 30 24. Jamasoni 11 25. Ziphoyong 10 26. Bitter leaf 10 27. Pusgavoro 11

Note: (1) = Rainfed and subsistence; (2) = Rainfed, commercial with limited access to market; (3) = Rainfed, commercial with easy access to market; (4) = Irrigated and subsistence; (5) = Irrigated, commercial with limited access to market and (6) = Irrigated, commercial with easy access to market farm types. Source: ICRA Field Study 2002, Households Surveys with 55 households from six villages.

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3.3.4 Changes over time for collected species Information on changes during the last 20 years or more in species that are collected, trends and extent of collection, season of collection, involvement of gender and age groups and consumption patterns was collected through FGD from the six villages. Changes observed with regard to these aspects are described below. Changes in species The collection of ILVs from the bush has been found to be affected by factors like ethnic and individual preferences, availability of the species, availability of alternatives, seasonality and distance from house to bush. At Kandiga people were collecting 13 different species of ILVs (Appendix 10) from the bush in 1980 and all these species are still found but the quantity collected is decreasing because people collect according to individual preferences. According to the respondents at Kandiga, Kelpomvooro is a fast disappearing species followed by Kulgonga. At Widnaba village a total of ten ILV species are collected by farmers, all of which were available in 1980 and before. However, farmers reported that the availability in terms of quantity is decreasing over the years because of a change in climate and heavy pressure on the bush. At Sherigu households currently collect nine species, which they were also collecting during 1980 and before. According to the farmers a species called Ziyongu used to be there before 1980 but it has disappeared now. The species called Samparaga is becoming scarcer fast because of low rainfall. Hence dispersal of its seed is not taking place for further propagation. Farmers were collecting a total of eleven ILV species in 1980 and before (Appendix 10) at Gaani and all these species are still available in the bush but people are mainly collecting: Bongto, Kelpomvoro, Ogla, Tingabongto and Tokara because these are the most preferred species for them. All the 14 species collected by farmers in 1980 are still found in the bush at Bongo Central but people are collecting mainly Bongto, Tokara, Ogla, Virivoro, Samparaga and Voba because these are the most preferred species. At Binaba people used to collect and eat two species called “Lalaruk-Zeuk and Zoos” before 1980 but nowadays they do not consume these anymore, though they are available, because of their poor taste compared to other collected and cultivated species available in the village. However, the other nine species continue to be collected over the years. Trends in the collection of ILVs It was almost impossible for farmers to give the exact number of households involved in the collection of ILVs and the total quantity they collect. Therefore, only an indication of positive or negative trends could be obtained. The number of households involved in collection of ILVs from the bush was found to be increasing at Widnaba. The main reason for this was the limited cultivation of ILVs at this village as an alternative source to replace the collected species for consumption. This is because of limited access to water in the dry season and poor soil fertility. Similarly, there is food scarcity especially at the end of the dry season up to the harvesting of cereals/food crops (April-July) and hence people are forced to collect ILVs from the bush to fulfil their food demand during this period. As families divide, the number of households collecting increases as they start collecting for their own family consumption.

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At other study sites the number of households involved in ILVs collection was found to be decreasing, mainly due to: most farmers started cultivating ILVs as an alternative, changing eating habits of people where they prefer cultivated species to collected species, limited demand for collected species in the market, women not having time to go for collection because they are busy in the garden

(compound farming) and the bush is far, and most children going to school and hence can not go for collection. Farmers also responded that the processing of collected species for consumption is difficult whereas, it is very easy to cook the cultivated species. This is also affecting the quantity of ILVs collected by households from the bush. Similarly, the total quantity of collected ILVs is decreasing because of: a decrease in availability of the wild species in the bush, bush burning and clearing of bush for cultivation and increased fire wood collection from

the bush and over grazing/browsing of the bush by livestock because of the shortage of pastureland and

a minimum practice of cultivating green fodder crops for livestock feeding. Sometimes the livestock from Burkina Faso border enter some villages near the border to graze. The low and erratic rainfall also causes poor growth of the wild species leading to reduced availability of collected ILVs in the bush. Changes in season for collection of ILVs Most of the ILV species are available in the bush from the beginning of the rainy season (May to October) with some exceptions. Bogosit and Goara are available in the dry season from January-March. Similarly, Samparaga, Kulgonga and Vomwame are available throughout the year and Ogla is available from April-June. There has been no change over the years in terms of season of collection of ILVs from the bush as it is dependent on the season of availability. Changes in the scale/purpose of collection of ILV ILVs are collected from the bush for both consumption and sale in the market. Ability to sell in the market depends on the market demand for particular species at a particular time of the year. At Kandiga before the year 1980 ILVs were mainly collected for consumption and not for sale. There was no market demand for these collected species because plenty of them were available and all households could collect from the bush. As the demand for some species increased, from 1980 onwards farmers start selling some species in the market like Bongto (only dried) and Kelpomvoro (fresh and dried). ILVs were collected mainly for consumption at Widnaba before 1980, but afterwards they start selling as the demand increased for ILVs. At Sherigu, the amount collected was very low, because of the cultivation of large quantities of ILVs which were preferred over collected species. There has not been any change in this trend for more than 20 years.

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At Gaani, Binaba and Bongo Central, ILVs were collected mainly for home consumption before 1990. Afterwards they also started selling some collected species as there was demand in the market. At Gaani farmers sell all the collected species in a fresh form and they also sell dried Tingabongto, Ogla, Tokara and Bongto. At Binaba as there is a good demand for Tokara, Bogosid and Goara, farmers collect these species from the bush and sell it in the market. Farmers from Bongo Central sell Bongto and Ogla in dry form, as only these two species are in demand in the market. Changes in involvement of gender and age groups for collection of ILVs Generally the collection of ILVs is considered to be a women’s responsibility. However, men and children sometimes assist women in the collection of ILVs from the bush. At Binaba, Kandiga and Bongo Central women and girls have always been collecting the ILVs and the same continues. Whereas, farmers from Widnaba, Sherigu and Gaani responded that men are involved also in ILVs collection when they work near the bush. Similarly, both boys and girls assist women in collection of ILVs from bush. This practice was there even before 1980 and is still continuing at these villages. Often boys and girls of 10 years of age or more are involved in collecting ILVs from the bush but sometimes children of about seven years age also assist in ILVs collection. This trend has been persisting for the last 20 years or more. Changes in the form of ILV consumption Some species of ILVs are collected and only consumed fresh whereas, other species are consumed both fresh and dried. The same applies to market sales. At Kandiga, people cook and consume all the collected ILV species fresh but they consume Bongto and Kelpomvoro in a dried form. Similarly, at Gaani farmers consume fresh of all the species that they collect and also consume Tingabongto, Ogla, Tokara, Bongto and Konpongvoro in a dried form. People at Widnaba, Binaba and Sherigu consume both fresh and dried forms of all the ILVs that they collect. At Bongo Central, people cook and consume all the collected ILV species fresh but they also consume Bongto, Ogla and Furkayuwa in dried from.

3.4 Agro-ecological features of Upper East Region

The agro-eco system analysis in the present study was done at village level. Transcets were used to observe agro ecological features of the villages. Transect walks facilitated the discussion on the present situation and the changes that were observed. Figure 3.2 visualises the trans section of the agro-ecological features of Binaba Village. The general agro-ecological and natural resources of the study area as represented by these six villages are discussed in this section. 3.4.1 Water resources In the study area, a number of seasonal rivers and dams are used for dry season vegetable production. Small and medium scale dams supply irrigation water for a limited period (November up to March). The large-scale dams (Tono & Vea) supply irrigation water throughout the dry season. Gaani village benefits from this and here production of rice, tomato and onion is followed by indigenous leafy vegetables up to May. In some areas (Gaani, Sherigu and Binaba) a number of dams and lakes are no longer reserving water due to

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silt deposition. Dry season production however is not restricted to areas with dams, but is also practised in villages where the groundwater table is high, through dug wells (Widnaba) or in river beds (Kandiga). Although the study area is well covered with water sources, yet water is the major constraint for development activities. Households are supplied with drinking water from boreholes provided by different organisations ranging from religious, NGOs to government organisations/projects. The dams in some cases are reserved for specific purposes like livestock watering, crop irrigation and social activities like construction of houses. Use of this water for other purposes is restricted. This limits dry season crop production. For example, in Kandiga utilisation of water from the only dam is limited to livestock watering, tree/vegetable nursery irrigation during dry season and house construction work. 3.4.2 Land resources and soil types In the study area, uniform soil types were observed. Zigi soil occurs in all the six sites, while Bonk and Yaak are also present in most of the sites with the exception of Gaani and Sherigu respectively. However Tontonbisigo and Sabuliga are not seen in Widnaba and Binaba while Sabuliga is not indicated at Gaani and Bongo Central. The differences in soil types could be due to different names given to similar soils as the team didn’t recognise much difference between soils. For example Boling and Tombisiga have more or less similar characteristics, they might be similar soils in different villages. Table 3.3 shows the soil characteristics and the crops grown on it. 3.4.3 Trees The study area is well covered by trees of different species like Baobab, Kapok, Sheanuts, Neem, Dawadawa, Acacia and Mango which have economic value as they supply vegetable, fruits, medicine, spices, nuts, cooking oil as well as animal feed. However the natural savannah woodlands in the area are depleted. The situation is being combated by the move towards afforestation whereby some areas have been protected as forest reserves as indicated in map of Widnaba (Fig 3.3). On the other hand, culture and customs of the natives contribute towards forest conservation through sacred groves where tree species are protected from harvesting and bush burning. In some areas development projects and NGOs promote tree planting. For example, ICOUR in Gaani has planted trees like cashew nuts in the project area to conserve water. 3.4.4 Crops Land holdings in the study area are getting smaller and smaller due to the increasing population pressure. Communities have access to additional land outside the villages, which contribute, to an average farm size (total) in the study area per household ranging from 3.04 acres at Bongo Central to 6.1 acres at Gaani. It is interesting to note that the two irrigated sites (Binaba and Bongo Central) have smaller average farm sizes, though in Bongo the biggest farm size was 6.125 acres. Compound farms in the area are used to produce food crops, livestock and vegetables. In these farms crops like sorghum, millet, maize, sweet potatoes, frafra potatoes, groundnuts, beans, round beans and soybeans are commonly intercropped with indigenous leafy vegetables namely: Ayoyo, Alefu, Langina, Bento, Yogvoro, Bito, Neri, Saat and Berese. Other crops that are produced are rice and watermelon. Bush farms are used to produce similar crops as those in compound farms with the exception of early millet and red sorghum.

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In areas where irrigation water is available, crops like rice, vegetables like cabbage, lettuce, pepper, tomato and onion are relayed with Berese, Langina, Bito, Alefu, Beans, Maana, Samvebed, and Ayoyo. Onion, pepper and tomatoes are mainly produced for commercial purposes whereas indigenous leafy vegetables are produced partly for commercial and partly for home consumption. Table 3.3 Soil characteristics of the Upper East Region

Soil type Characteristics Bonk Found in low land areas (marshy) with high clay content

Dark in colour Cracks during dry season and difficult to work Crops: rice, sorghum, early millet, maize and straw grass (used to

make hats) Zigi Gravelly with poor fertility

Very poor water holding capacity and as a result crops wilt fast during prolonged drought.

Supports crops when there are enough rains (soil moisture). Crops: sorghum, millet, groundnut, maize, beans, bambara beans,

soybean, ILVs (Bito, Berese, Neri and all others), sesame Boling Soft white or pale sand

Possesses characteristics of cement and is used for plastering walls Low water-holding capacity, but loose when wet Poor fertility Crops: groundnut, soybean, maize, sorghum, millet (early and late),

beans, ILVs Yaak (Clay) High clay content, sticky and cracks when dry

Colour varies from brown to deep black When pressed by hand it makes a ball High water holding capacity Used to make pots/bowls Crops: sorghum, millet, groundnut, maize, soybean, ILVs (Berese

or Bito), paddy (in low land). Tombisiga (Sandy soil)

Sandy without stones Poor water holding capacity Poor fertility, thus not good for cereals Crops: groundnut, Maana, bambara beans/cowpea, beans, ILVs

(Berese, Bito, Maana) Sabuliga (Loamy)

More water holding capacity than Tombisiga but not water logging Fertile soil Crops grow well, best for ILV production Crops: rice, sorghum, millet, Berese and other ILVs

Source: ICRA 2002 Field Study, Focus group discussions in six villages

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3.4.5 Livestock Communities rear livestock like goats, sheep, cattle, pigs, chicken, guinea fowls, rabbits, dogs and donkeys which play a vital role in soil fertilisation and draft power. Mixed farming is the major system followed in the study area. Animal management is by free grazing during dry season. In the rainy season pigs and poultry are confined while children (boys) supervise ruminants to the communal land for daytime grazing. 3.4.6 Major constraints The agro ecological constraints observed in this area include small land size, poor soil fertility due to continuous cropping, limited access to irrigation water and unreliable rainfall. There is silt deposition in many of the small and medium dams, caused by run off water and erosion. Water logging conditions on millet farms is also considered as an important constraint for food crop production. 3.5 Production systems in the Upper East Region In Upper East Region there are two distinct seasons that relate to rainfall availability, and therefore determines to a large extent the existing production systems. The two main crop production systems are the rainfed and irrigated production systems. However, there is no area in Upper East, which represents a typical production system mentioned above. The ICRA field study in 1999 in the UER found that no area was exclusively under irrigation. It is clearly shown that there is a remarkable overlapping in the production systems of the study area. Still, it is important to distinguish the two as the systems have a distinctive effect on indigenous leafy vegetable cultivation and commercialisation. 3.5.1 Rainfed system In the rainfed system, mixed farming is practised with crops, vegetables, livestock and their interactions forming the main components of the system. The production in this system is limited to the rainy season (May - September), with the rainfall pattern of the region noted to be erratic with an average annual rainfall of 1,044 mm (ICRA 1999). The two different types of farms under which agricultural production takes place are the compound and bush farms. Compound farm This is essentially a farm around the homestead with food crops and livestock. In general, the size of land holding in the study area is very small due to large population and the compound farm forms a part of it. Cereals such as early and late millet, rice and sorghum are commonly produced in all the three villages studied as part of the rainfed system. They form the main component of the diet (staple food). However maize is commonly grown in Widnaba (71% respondents) followed by Sherigu (44%) but it is not grown in Kandiga due to comparatively poor soils and drought conditions.

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There is a well-established crop and livestock interaction in the rainfed farming system. Crop residues from the compound farm are harvested and stored for dry season animal feeding. The parts that are not consumed by animals are used as bedding for animals. It is kept for one year to mix with animal manure. The compost is applied on rotational basis annually on farm plots based on the soil status of the plot, which is indicated by the crop yield. Manure is considered important as soils are poor and the communities cannot afford fertiliser. As Mr Abane Awalem (farmer at Sherigu) points out, livestock is reared for social purposes like funerals and paying dowry as well as for their manure. Bush farm As the size of compound farms in the study area is small, the strategy adopted by the people in this area is to look for farms outside the village boundary where more food crops can be produced. Bush farms are normally located at a distance from the village, which sometimes can be as far as 10 km away (ICRA 1999). Bush farms are relatively larger pieces of land (3- 6 acres) that can be acquired for farming purposes. Almost all households own a bush farm. Normally drought-resistant and low input-requiring crops are produced on bush farms. These include sorghum, late millet, soybeans, round beans and groundnuts. Indigenous leafy vegetables like Bito, Berese and Maana are grown as border crops in these farms. Production of indigenous leafy vegetables In the Upper East Region of Ghana indigenous leafy vegetables are widely produced and have great diversity within species. Mostly the production is for home consumption and contributes to a lesser extent to household income (Agamba, 2001). In the current study a total of nineteen species (Table 3.1) were found being cultivated in the area, with minor differences between the villages which could be attributed to ethnic preferences. Land preparation is initiated only after the onset of the rainy season, as it is difficult to take up any operations before this due to the compact nature of soils. The preparation starts with clearing and burning followed by tillage using either bullocks or hand hoe. The ownership of or access to bullocks is limited to a small section of the communities in the study area. For example in Widnaba, 72% of the respondents indicated limited access to bullocks, which results in delayed crop planting. In places like Kandiga, bullocks are not considered a limiting factor as their soil can easily be managed by hand tools. Mixed and intercropping are highly favoured in this production system. Seeds of the main crop, early millet are mixed with seeds of Bento and Neri while seeds of late millet and sorghum are mixed with seeds of Bento and Bito before planting. Early millet is then inter-cropped with sorghum and late millet. Small quantities of maize, soybeans, bambara beans, and groundnuts are also mixed or intercropped with indigenous leafy vegetables (Bito, Berese, Leba, Bento, Alefu, Yogovooro, Ayoyo and Neri). The mixing of different crop species in one hole might affect the crop performance. Farmers prefer to mix the crops to spread risks due to uncertain rainfall and due to limited labour availability. Indigenous leafy vegetables occupy a minor position in this production system compared to cereals and leguminous crops.

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Cropping systems followed in this system can be categorised into three: Production around the house where a small plot is separated and planted with a single

stand of Leba, Alefu or Bento while Berese and/or Bito are planted around this small plot. In the main compound farm early millet is mixed with Bento and Neri on the main ridges,

while in between the ridges sorghum mixed with Bento and Neri are intercropped. Berese, Bito and/or Maana are planted on the border.

In the bush farm, late millet and sorghum are intercropped with soybeans and bambara beans and groundnuts. Indigenous leafy vegetables, mainly Bito and Berese, are planted around the farm.

Production under the rainfed system is characterised by low input use, supplemented by farmyard manure by direct application or through animal grazing on cropland. Even with this low input level, there is no indication of poor productivity of the vegetables. Cropping pattern The sequence of crops that are grown in a year in this production system varies with the soil on which they are produce. Four different cropping patterns are followed in two of the rainfed sites (Widnaba and Kandiga) while in Sherigu only two are followed. The indigenous leafy vegetables are produced following the cropping pattern as indicated in Table 3.4. Table 3.4 Cropping patterns in the rainfed production system Rainfed commercial limited market (Widnaba)

Rainfed commercial with market (Sherigu)

Rainfed subsistence (Kandiga)

Early millet + guinea corn + ILVs – fallow

Early millet + late millet + sorghum + ILVs – fallow

Leba (may-june) + Beresi (May-Nov) + pumpkin + calabash

Sorghum + ILV – fallow Early millet + sorghum + ILVs – fallow

Early millet + sorghum + ILVs – fallow

Rice (upland) – fallow

Groundnut + bambara beans + cow pea/beans + Bito – fallow

Soybean + Maana – fallow rice + Maana + Berese – tobacco - fallow

Source: ICRA field study 2002, Focus group discussions in six villages At Widnaba the ILVs are produced around the farms and no intercropping of vegetables with other crops was observed on compound farms. The pattern could probably be explained by the limited access to the market and processing technology. On the bush farm, Maana is intercropped for fruits and not leaves. At Sherigu the ILVs are intercropped throughout the farm in every alternative ridge of main crop and some of them are produced around the farms. Although farm size is limited, farmers manage to produce more following this cropping pattern. The production is also favoured by easy market access, as the village is located at a short distance from Bolgatanga town.

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The pattern however changes at Kandiga. A small piece of land around the house is assigned to ILVs exclusively throughout the rainy season. In this plot vegetables are produced as a single stand, while others are grown around and at the corner of the plot due to their creeping nature. Pumpkin for example is grown at the corner due to its spreading nature. Few rows of ILVs are planted at certain intervals and as a border crop as well in the main farm, whereas in bush and rice farms ILVs are produced around the farms. Although the village represents the rainfed subsistence type, it seems that the extent of ILV production is high as compared to the other two villages. This can be explained by the location of Kandiga (along a main road) which suggests easy access to Navrongo and Bolgatanga markets. 3.5.2 Irrigated System In the irrigated system, farming is similar to the rainfed system except that in irrigated sites there is an additional component of dry season crop production. Therefore, only the pattern of production on irrigated farms in the dry season is explained in this section. Three villages (Binaba, Bongo central and Gaani) represent this production system in the current study. It is important to note that the rainfed system co-exists with the irrigated system even in the villages representing the rainfed system. The only difference between these two systems is the size of the irrigation scheme. The scale of irrigation is determined by the sources of irrigation water, which are large and medium scale dams, rivers, streams and dug-wells.

Large scale irrigation

There are two national projects in the UER, Tono and Vea, managed by the Irrigation Company (ICOUR). According to the study done the ICRA 1999 team, these two dams serve 16 villages covering 1.1 % of the total cultivated area in Upper East Region. Tono dam services one village (Gaani) in the current study. Land tenure under this irrigation scheme is taken care of by ICOUR and land allocation is based on the payment of a land use fee, which is used for dam maintenance. The fee varies with the type of crop produced. For example, fees of 100,000 Cedis, 130,000 Cedis and 65,000 Cedis per acre are charged for rice, tomatoes and indigenous leafy vegetables respectively. The size of land holdings varies depending on the individual capacity to pay the fee. An average holding size of 0.5 acre was observed under large-scale irrigation. Medium scale irrigation Small dams and dugouts are used for irrigation purposes in many of the villages. The ICRA field study in 1999 reports that the medium scale dams and dugouts were built some 30–45 year ago and that their condition was deteriorating. The LACOSREP I project under MoFA rehabilitated 36 dams and 8 dugouts. Yet there are a number of dams and dugouts that are still silted (4 dams in Sherigu, 2 dams in Binaba, 1 dam in Gaani and 1 dam in Sherigu). The Water Users Association (WUA) has the responsibility of allocating land to people who want to cultivate. A small fee of 5,000 Cedis is paid to the association to take care of dam maintenance. Due to high demand for land under irrigation, the holdings are very small ranging from 0.125 to 0.5 acre. Villages that are under this scale of irrigation include Bongo Central and Binaba.

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Rivers and streams A number of seasonal rivers and streams are found in the study area. In almost all villages under study there are one or two seasonal rivers. Although these rivers and streams dry up, the water table on the river floor is high which facilitates hand dug wells that are used for irrigation purposes. This is the case at Kandiga and Sherigu. The size of land holdings under irrigation is limited by the amount of water available in these rivers or dug wells. Hand dug wells Hand dug wells are constructed manually by farmers in villages where the water table is high (ICRA, 1999). In the current study, this was found in Widnaba village where only one farmer dug a well on his farm to cultivate one-eighth of an acre. Crop production Dry season production is limited to the areas where irrigation water is available, mainly from October – May. Due to the limited availability of irrigable land, the majority of the households do not benefit from the dry season production. Land holdings under this system are very small as explained in the previous section. However, land allocation (by ICOUR and WUA) is done fairly as no conflict was reported concerning land allocation in the production sites. Due to the small farm size and the cost of land, crops of high economic value such as: tomatoes, onion, rice, pepper, cabbages, lettuce and indigenous leafy vegetables are commonly produced. Production of indigenous leafy vegetables Indigenous leafy vegetables grown in this system are generally those that have market demand. Production of ILVs in this system is mainly for commercial purposes and to a lesser extent for home consumption. Eleven species are being produced under this system (rainfed and irrigated) while nine are produced under irrigation for the market with five of them being commonly sold (Table3.5).

Table 3.5 Vegetable species commonly sold under irrigation system

ILV species % respondents on vegetable sale in irrigated sites Commercial with

limited market (Binaba)

Commercial with market (Bongo

Central)

Subsistence (Gaani)

Bento 50 80 44 Bito 70 90 66 Berese 80 90 66 Maana 40 50 44 Alefu 40 80 55 Yogovooro NA 50 33 Langina 20 20 NA Ayoyo 40 NA 11

Source: ICRA Field Study 2002, Focus group discussions in six villages

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From the above table, it is clear that households sell more Bito and Berese due to their high market demand, short production time and ease of production and low pest and disease attacks. The table also reflects the effect of market access on sale of vegetables. In areas where market is easily accessible, more households sell vegetables as indicated in Bongo Central village as compared to Binaba village. Although vegetable production in Gaani is more on a subsistence scale, some respondents do sell vegetables for various reasons. Land is utilised in this system usually throughout the year. Land preparation for the dry season starts in October, hand in hand with nursery management of exotic vegetables. Depending on the scale of irrigation, tractors or bullocks are used for land tillage. As indicated in the previous section, access to bullocks affects land preparation. In Bongo Central 70% of the respondents indicated that they have limited access to bullocks for land preparation while in Binaba the hand hoe is commonly used. In Gaani, where land preparation is organised by ICOUR (as a form of credit), access to bullocks does not seem to affect land preparation (Appendix 11). Single stands, and sometimes relay cropping, is followed in this production system. After the main crops like rice, tomatoes, onion and pepper, indigenous leafy vegetables are planted in small separate beds. Input use in this production system is relatively high compared to the rainfed system due to the high cropping intensity. Nutrient recycling is limited as the farmlands are often far from the home (difficulties in transporting manure). The year round crop production limits livestock from grazing. Cropping pattern Four different cropping patterns are followed in Bongo Central, while Binaba and Gaani follow only three. The indigenous leafy vegetables are produced following the cropping pattern indicated in Table 3.6. Table 3.6 Cropping patterns in the irrigated production system S/N Irrigated commercial

limited market (Binaba)

Irrigated commercial with market (Bongo

Central)

Irrigated subsistence (Gaani)

1. Paddy – fallow Tomato – ILVs – sorghum + early millet or rice

Rice + ILVs – fallow

2. ILVs – fallow

Pepper – ILVs – sorghum + early millet or rice

Soybean + ILV – fallow

3. Onion – maize or rice Lettuce or cabbage – ILVs – sorghum + early millet or rice

ILVs or onion or tomato or pepper – maize or millet

4. ILVs – sorghum + early millet or rice

Source: ICRA Field Study 2002, Focus group discussions in six villages

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In these sites ILVs are produced under rainfed and irrigated conditions, but the explanation here is based on the irrigated farms alone, as no major differences were observed in the sites with regard to the rainfed cropping pattern. At Binaba the farm plots are divided among individual crops right from the beginning of the dry season production as the supply of irrigation water lasts within short period of dry season (Nov – March). It seems indigenous leafy vegetables receive less priority for land allocation in Binaba than in the other villages (Bongo Central and Gaani). This could be explained by the limited market access. At Bongo Central and Gaani indigenous leafy vegetables are part of all cropping systems, although the production of exotic vegetables and other crops receives more attention than indigenous leafy vegetables. The cropping pattern does not allow land to remain fallow for a long time and sometimes there is no fallow at all. There is no indication of mixing or intercropping with other crops to improve the nutrient balance. The system therefore relies on the use of external inputs for nutrient supplements. It is only in Gaani that soybeans are found in the cropping pattern. 3.6 Seasonal calendar Women seem to be occupied throughout the year, by their involvement in farming, income generating and household activities (Figure 3.4). Women have specific responsibilities like plastering houses, rainfed ILV production, trading and household activities like cooking and family care. Men are responsible for roofing, land preparation, ploughing and livestock rearing activities. Most of the activities are shared among women and men. Nevertheless, women have a higher work load, especially in the rainy season (May to December). In areas where dry season production is not practised, the workload of women is lower in March. The labour demand pattern suggests that from May to December, the communities will not be able to spare much labour for any new activities unless they give up some of the current activities or are able to hire labour. 3.7 Strengths and weaknesses of the existing production systems The strengths and weaknesses of the production systems are presented in this section. The strengths here suggest the need of maintaining these conditions for continued production while the weaknesses suggest the need to overcome these weaknesses through some interventions aimed at improving the sustainability of the systems.

“This year I had more money from Bito and Bento because there was not much competition in the market for these vegetables. I decided to produce them because I was late in planting tomato. But I would prefer to produce tomato to Bito and Bento.”- Mr Nkoo Akake “If I had a larger plot I would produce pepper because pepper gives more money than any other crop.” - Mr Abugre Azua

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3.7.1 Rainfed system Strengths The majority of the farmers produce food crops with ILVs under the rainfed production system. The strengths of this system can be summarised as follows: Diversification of food crops, which include cereals like early and late millet, sorghum,

maize, soyabeans, bambara beans, groundnuts and indigenous leafy vegetables. This minimises the risk of crop losses in bad years in terms of rain failure as well as pests and disease outbreaks in a certain crop;

Intercropping of ILVs with leguminous crops is considered important in this system as leguminous crops fix atmospheric nitrogen, a part of which can also be used by indigenous leafy vegetables and other crops;

The rainfed production is mainly on compound farms where livestock is also kept. There are well-established nutrient recycling systems where manure is applied on the crop plots where ILVs are produced. While some crop residues especially, cowpea straw is fed to livestock in fresh or dry form;

The indigenous leafy vegetables under this system have low costs of production as they mainly utilise locally available materials like manure/compost for fertilisation and materials like ash and neem leaf extracts for pest and disease control.

Weaknesses Weaknesses of this system with a focus on ILVs are summarised as follows: Indigenous leafy vegetables are considered as a minor crop in the production system and

as a result little attention is paid to it in terms of input supply and, labour and land allocation;

Mixed seeding of ILV with cereal crops before sowing could be an obstacle to better yields of ILVs. Mixing crops with different nutrient requirement in one planting hole might have an effect on plant productivity due to nutrient competition;

Appropriate plant spacing is not followed due to the practice of mixed seeding which leads to overcrowding of crops and competition for nutrients. Where millet and indigenous leafy vegetables are mixed in this manner, it is disadvantageous to ILVs as they will not be able to compete for sunlight;

Small farm size and the high food demand results in limited crop rotation on the compound farms, which with time leads to depletion of soil fertility;

In the first half (May – August) of the rainy season where rainfall is normally high with limited sun shine, drying of vegetables becomes difficult resulting in high post harvest losses.

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Fig 3.4 Seasonal calendar for labour utilisation in the Upper East Region Activity JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC Nursery of onion of tomato, onion, cabbage, pepper and lettuce and ILVs

***

Transplanting onion of tomato, onion, cabbage, pepper, lettuce and sowing ILVs

***

Watering and weeding on irrigated farm ***

Plastering of houses and making floor Harvesting rainfed ILV ILV harvesting and drying Harvest of onion, tomato, onion, cabbage, pepper and lettuce

***

Sowing of corn, sorghum, G.nuts, millet and ILVs

***

***

Dry season ILV production Building house *** Land preparation and Ploughing *** *** Weeding of cereals and legumes *** *** ***

***

***

Harvesting of cereals and legumes ***

***

***

Weaving grass for roofing *** Cutting grass for roofing *** Weaving of Kujoto and livestock rearing *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** Fetching water for mud works Household responsibilities Trading and handicraft Note: = Women *** = Men Source: ICRA Field Study 2002, Focus group discussions in six villages

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3.7.2 Irrigated System Strengths Out of season production of vegetables and other food crops due to the availability of

irrigation water from different sources. Off-season production in the UER is important due to the rainfall pattern as well as the small farm size. This helps address the food shortages that the region experiences during the dry season;

The production of ILVs in separate plots as mono crop has implications for crop management, supply of inputs and thereby the returns from these crops. It also facilitates intensive production of ILVs for commercial purposes;

Dry season production is limited to a small section of the community, which leads to a limited supply of fresh indigenous leafy vegetable in the dry season. This offers a good market for the produce.

Weaknesses With irrigation the soil nutrient uptake by plants is high and but the leaching is high as

well, which results in poor soil fertility and calls for more inputs like chemical fertilisers. On the other hand the production under irrigation is more commercially oriented, thus pest and disease control become necessary for ensuring a quality product;

The acreage of indigenous leafy vegetable production grown under irrigated conditions is very small. Either the high demand for land or the limited capacity to pay the land usage fees limits the expansion of irrigated land for ILV production;

Limited irrigation water supply (Nov – March) in medium irrigation schemes limits the crop production.

3.8 Livelihood systems

The sustenance of the people in the Upper East Region is largely dependent on farm activities, which are affected by social, economic and cultural factors as well as the biophysical and policy environment. In this section an analysis of the livelihoods of households in the Upper East Region is presented.

3.8.1 Role of food/cereal crops in livelihoods

Agricultural production including crop, livestock and horticultural enterprises is the major component of the livelihoods in the region. While, millet and sorghum are the main cereals produced for household consumption, other crops like beans (soyabeans and bambara beans), rice and groundnuts are produced partly for household consumption and partly for the market. However farmers do sell cereals during critical conditions when money is needed in cases of: sickness, funeral performance, payment of school fees etc.

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3.8.2 Role of livestock in livelihoods Livestock are normally kept for social purposes such as dowry, as a sign of wealth, and as savings. Livestock such as cattle, sheep, goat and their products are not used for household consumption, and only used for social obligations like dowry or other rituals. Poultry is usually for home consumption as well as for sale. Livestock plays an important role in times of food shortage as well as in crop cultivation. It is sold and the money obtained is used to buy food items and farm inputs like chemical fertiliser. The magnitude of the problem or the amount of cash required determines the choice of livestock species to be sold. Manure is an important farm input as the soils in the region are poor. 3.8.3 Role of indigenous leafy vegetables in livelihoods Indigenous leafy vegetables play an important role in the livelihoods of the people in the study area, as described below. Indigenous leafy vegetables are mainly produced for home consumption and form an

important component of the diet. The local staple food is Tuo-Zafi (TZ), made from millet or sorghum and maize and served with indigenous leafy vegetable soup. It is eaten at least once a day;

Indigenous leafy vegetables provide households with a constant flow of income as they

can be sold throughout the year in either fresh or dried form. The money is used to meet other family needs;

Some indigenous leafy vegetables have medicinal value. For example, bito seeds are used to treat stomach problems and its leaves are used in case of allergic conditions. Berese is used to stimulate lactation in nursing mothers;

From May – July when the region experiences food shortages, indigenous leafy vegetables (cultivated and collected) play an important role as hunger gap fillers as they are solely eaten as a daily diet or are eaten in a large quantities with a small portion of TZ;

Indigenous leafy vegetables also play an important role in social relations especially during the first harvest of early millet where it is used as part of a sacrifice before harvesting. Furthermore, it strengthens social relations when it is given out to relatives and neighbours who are in need.

From Bito and Berese fibre rope is made, which is used for basket and hat making and weaving of roofing materials. Dried Bito, Berese and bean straw are fed to livestock in the dry season. Bean straw has high market demand and as livestock feed and can be sold for a price of up to 30,000 cedis per cartload. Traditional food storage structures are used to store food that is harvested during rain season. Indigenous leafy vegetables are sun dried and stored in sacks hanged in the house. When food reserves are exhausted, livestock may be sold and money used to buy food. Some families receive food from relatives, while old people and poor get food aid from Anglican Mission and Catholic Food Relief Service.

“Two bunches of Bito or Berese can be enough for one meal of an average family with six members. In the market, one bunch of Bito or Berese weighs approximately between 0.6 to 0.76 kg. So, the amount consumed is approximately 1.5 kg vegetable at a cost of 1000 Cedis daily.”- Mr David Adakabla

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3.8.4 Sources of household income Households in the Upper East Region are mainly involved in on-farm activities and to a lesser extent in off-farm activities for income generation. On-farm activities contributing to the income include crop, livestock and horticultural

production (both indigenous leafy and exotic vegetables); Off-farm activities contributing to the income include trading (sale of parboiled rice, shea

butter, gari, charcoal and cooked food), brewing local liquor (Pito), salaried employment, collection of firewood, off-farm labour, and handicrafts (basket and hat making).

The household interviews revealed that almost all the respondents earn their cash income from on-farm activities, though the production is mainly for subsistence. Sale of livestock (poultry) and indigenous leafy vegetables are a common source of income to a large proportion of households (ranging from 55 to 100%). In irrigated production however, exotic vegetables are produced for commercial purposes. The main vegetables produced are onion, tomatoes, pepper and to a lesser extent cabbage. Under irrigation, indigenous leafy vegetables though considered a minor crop, are also produced for commercial purposes after the main crop. Farmers know that the costs for production of exotic vegetables are higher than those for ILVs but the former fetch higher prices in the market. Although ILVs get lower prices in the market, its production is important as it gives quick returns due to the short production period. The off-farm sources of income for the households interviewed were found to be limited to trading, pito brewing, sale of firewood and off-farm labour. It should be noted that the contribution of indigenous leafy vegetables to household income and livelihood security are overlooked due to the minor position it is accorded in the farming activity. Its contribution has been grossly underestimated. A farmer indicated that he sells indigenous leafy vegetables more frequently than any other farm produce but he can not estimate how much money he makes. As he went on accounting, he realised that the contribution of ILVs to the total income was as high as 50%. In the household surveys, ten farmers who were interviewed indicated that indigenous leafy vegetables are an important source of income (Table 3.7). Table 3. 7 Percentage contribution of ILVs to household income

On-farm sources Off-farm sources Farmer Livestock Other

vegetables Grain ILV

Fire

wood Labour Handicraft Trade

1 55 NA 15 20 5 NA NA NA2 15 NA 5 55 5 NA 20 NA 3 NA 25 3 42 NA 10 15 5 4 NA NA NA 67 NA NA NA 33 5 25 50 NA 25 NA NA NA NA 6 25 NA NA 50 NA 15 NA 10 7 5 NA NA 67 10 NA 18 NA 8 15 NA NA 50 15 20 NA NA 9 50.2 NA 2.9 6.2 NA NA 40.7 NA 10 57.9 NA 8.9 7.9 2.0 NA 22.1 1.2 Average 24.8 7.6 3.5 39.1 3.8 4.6 11.6 5.0

Source: ICRA Field Study 2002, Random sample of ten farmers from three villages.

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Off-farm

20%

Cereals

22%Livestock

20%

ILVs

21%

Other Vegetables

17%

The monetary contribution of ILVs to household income varied from 6.2% to 67%. The wide range could be explained by differences in market availability and the purpose of production. Figure 3.6 and 3.7 summarise the proportions of household income from various sources for average farmers in rainfed and irrigated area respectively. On an average, the contribution of indigenous leafy vegetables to the household income seems to be very high compared to the other components in both rainfed and irrigated production systems. This might be due to the fact that not all households take up other income generating activities and this gets magnified in the average. Despite that, indigenous leafy vegetables do exhibit great potential as an important source of household income due to the possibility to sell it. Fig. 3.6 Sources of household cash income at rainfed sites (Sherigu village) Fig. 3.7 Sources of household cash income at irrigated sites (Bongo Central village)

Off-farm 25%

Cereals 4%

Livestock25%

ILVs

39%

Other Vegetables 7%

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Sources of family income at the irrigated sites show that indigenous leafy vegetables are the second important source for household income. Although the site provides other opportunities for sources of income, in Bongo Central for example one has access to large farm sizes in the bush where more cereals are produced. The production of other vegetables (onion, tomato, pepper) with relatively high market values adds up to their income sources. Yet the contribution of indigenous leafy vegetables to cash income ranked second. This may be attributed to the early maturity nature of these vegetables, which offer many production cycles and multiple harvests in one production season. When sources of income in irrigated systems are compared with those in rainfed systems, it is obvious that indigenous leafy vegetables play an important role in household income. Although livestock and cereals offer high returns when sold, they are not produced for commercial purposes. Sale of these products is in response to the household’s urgent cash needs. This makes indigenous leafy vegetables very important, as it is the only commodity that frequently brings money into the households. The above findings are confirmed the information given by a key informant (Mr David Adarkabla from Pwalugu village, Bolgatanga district) who produces ILVs as a minor crop (after exotic vegetables) for commercial purposes. On his farm ILVs rank second with a contribution of 20% (Fig. 3.8) after exotic vegetables, which contribute 32% to the total household income. Other sources of his income are fruits (16%), livestock (4%), crops (12%) and off-farm activities, which include hiring out of an irrigation pipe and a groundnut shelling machine and, trading of honey (16%). Fig. 3.8 Sources of household cash income (Case study in Pwalugu village)

The contribution of indigenous leafy vegetables to the household income, no matter how small it is in monetary terms, should not be underestimated as it plays an important role in other social functions as stated earlier.

Other Vegetables

32%ILVs20%

Livestock4%

Cereals12%

Fruits16%

Off-farm16%

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3.9 Economic resource flow In farm production the farmer’s primary objective is to ensure food security for the household. The cash income comes from sale of farm produce and off-farm activities. The household expenditure can be divided into two major categories which are investments (farm inputs) and, consumption needs and social obligations. The investments are mainly in the form of purchase of seeds of different crops, including ILVs. As many as 80% of the farmers from Bongo Central buy seeds of ILVs from the market followed by Widnaba (57%), Binaba (50%), Gaani (44%), Sherigu (33%) and Kandiga (10%). Farmers mainly buy the seeds of Bito, Berese, Langina, Alefu and cowpea. Chemical fertilisers and pesticides are also purchased but they are mainly applied to the irrigated land where more profitable crops are grown. Since indigenous leafy vegetables are inter-cropped with them, they also benefit. Almost all households interviewed indicated that they spend money on buying food items, which include cereals and cooking ingredients (spices, cooking oils and salt), followed by expenditures on health, clothing and funerals. Schooling and school uniforms in particular, is indicated by 60% of the respondents as one of the items demanding a good amount of money. Other expenditures include house maintenance, festivals and utensils. 3.10 Gender roles and division of labour Gender roles and the task division within households indicate that there is a clear overlap of tasks between men and women (see activity profile in Table 3.8). Women and men share most of the farm activities. Women are traditionally responsible for procurement of seeds and other inputs, harvesting, transporting vegetables to the market, vegetable processing, preservation and sale of ILVs. Women are responsible for the production of indigenous leafy vegetables on compound farms for home consumption. Both men and women are involved in irrigated vegetable production for commercial purposes. Men produce vegetables like tomatoes, pepper and onions, followed by indigenous leafy vegetables. But nowadays women are also producing tomatoes, peppers and onions. Women experience difficulties in getting seeds of onions because they are available from the farm input outlets in towns only and not in village markets. Though both men and women produce ILVs in the dry season for commercial purposes, women mainly do the marketing (buying and selling), as they are considered good at bargaining. The sharing of the tasks does not stop with farming activities, but is also applied to other household activities. While men and boys clean outside the house, women and girls are responsible for cleaning indoors. Washing clothes, childcare, house maintenance and fetching firewood are shared by men and women. Taking care of the elderly, cooking and carrying water is done in general by women, however.

“I buy chemical fertiliser and pesticide (DDT) for my tomato plot, but since planted together with tomato they do get pesticide during spraying.” - Mr Joseph Nyaaba

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Table 3.8 Household task division (Activity profile)

Activity Men Women Boys Girls Productive activities Procurement of seed and other inputs Land preparation Nursery * Direct sowing Transplanting Watering Weeding Disease and pest control Fertiliser/manure/compost application Harvesting Transportation of ILVs to market Processing and preservation Selling produce Hiring of labour Other activities Carrying water Cleaning house (Inside) Cleaning house (Outside) Washing clothes Cooking Childcare Elderly care Health Housing maintenance Fetching fuel wood

* Nursery management for Alefu is done by all but only men do it for other vegetables. Source: ICRA Field Study 2002, Focus group discussions in six villages. 3.10.1 Labour availability

Farming activities in general are limited to family labour as indicated by responses during the household survey. Average family labour availability in terms of the number of adult members in the family ranged from 2.4 at Gaani, 3.8 in Widnaba, 3.9 in Sherigu, 5.3 in Binaba, 6.2 in Kandiga and 6.7 at Bongo Central. In the rainfed production system only 20 – 30% of the households use hired male labour when bullocks are used. Surprisingly, in Sherigu despite the low availability of family labour, no indication was given for the need of hired labour. This is probably due to the small land holdings or the limited access to financial capital to hire labour. In Widnaba and Gaani the labour shortage is reflected by farmers (43% and 33% respectively), indicating that limited access to labour was a problem due to the lack of financial capital to hire labour. In irrigated sites the use of hired labour was slightly higher at 40 – 50%. Labour availability does not seem to be a limiting factor here but labour cost. The labour costs differ by gender as men are paid more wages than women. While

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women are paid 4000 cedis, men are paid 5000 cedis per day. In addition to the wage the labourers, both men and women, are provided with drinks and food, which increases the cost of hiring. Labour is normally hired for harvesting of groundnuts and other crops, land preparation, sowing and weeding. Farmer groups sometimes provide labour at a cheaper cost with only drink and food offered. In Widnaba and Sherigu under-utilisation of land has been observed due to limited access to labour. A number of farmers associations are organised around farming activities to help each other. Some women associations (e.g. Kandiga women association and Binaba Alamtaba) commonly produce and store sorghum, millet, groundnuts and indigenous leafy vegetables especially Bito and Berese for sale during scarcity. Reasons given for limited men’s organisation were lack of good leadership and temporary migration of men during the dry season. 3.10.2 Access and control over resources Household resources include land, irrigation water, labour, traction, livestock, manure, seeds, food crops and the market. The access to and control of these resources are presented in Table 3.9. Table 3.9 Access and control of household resources Main resource Access Control Men Women Men Women Land (farming area) Irrigation water Labour Traction Livestock Cattle, sheep and goat Poultry

Manure Food crops Cereal Vegetables

Household income Source: ICRA Field Study 2002, Focus group discussions in six villages Though women have access to resources like land, irrigation water, manure and labour they do not have control over these resources. Men have control over all these resources and hence have access as well. It has been noted that in female-headed households, women have control and access over the resources (ICRA 1999). Slightly different information was obtained at Bongo Central, Widnaba and Kandiga that even in the female-headed households, their brothers, male-in-laws or the sons have control over the resources. The lack of control over resources by women affects the production of indigenous leafy vegetables. Men, having the control over land, decide on land allocation for various crops with food crops like millet, sorghum, beans and groundnuts receiving priority. Indigenous leafy vegetables are considered a minor crop, and hence allocated to marginal lands. In production

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under irrigation, especially in medium scale irrigation schemes where women are not members of the water users association, land and water allocation affects ILV production as men take all the decisions. 3.11 Agricultural Knowledge and Information System The agricultural knowledge and information generation and sharing in the Upper East Region with regard to production of indigenous leafy vegetables are presented in this section. Information and knowledge within the communities and the way in which it is passed on from one generation to another is important for agricultural development. The sources of information on indigenous leafy vegetables were identified and are presented in Table 3.10. 3.11.1 Sources of information During household surveys farmers indicated the sources of information where knowledge about agricultural production is obtained and shared (Table 3.10). It should be noted here that farmers could not differentiate sources of knowledge on indigenous leafy vegetables from other crops. Almost all households indicated that agricultural extension officers were the most important source of information and they trust the extension service greatly. The elderly also provide indigenous knowledge on production as well as on plant protection and processing. Very few farmers (20%) from Binaba village indicated that they got agricultural information through television. This may be due to lack of electricity in the other villages. In Kandiga, Bongo Central and Gaani, around 44 to 60% of the respondents indicated that fellow farmers contribute to their agricultural knowledge. Surprisingly at Bongo Central and Gaani very few farmers (10% and 22% respective) said they get information from the elderly. This may be due to their reliance on and good relations with agricultural extension and other organisations (World Vision International and ICOUR) who advise on technical aspects of vegetable production.

Table 3.10 Sources of Agricultural Knowledge and Information

Source Widnaba

Binaba Sherigu Kandiga Bongo

Central Gani

Agricultural Extension

71 100 100 90 100 77

Elderly 71 60 77 60 10 22 NGOs * 28 NA 11 NA 60 33 Rural Radio 14 60 NA 10 NA 11 Other farmers NA NA NA 50 60 44 Television 20 Friends 20 Parents 30 Husband 20 ICOUR 60

* NGOs include Word Vision International at Bongo, World Neighbours at Gaani, ADRA and GAS at Widnaba Source: ICRA Field Study 2002, Household survey with 55 households from six villages

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3.11.2 Research service Indigenous leafy vegetables are one of the agricultural commodities in the area, which is very important for the livelihood of the farmers in terms of its contribution towards both food security and household income. However, the crop has been receiving little attention from research institutions probably due to its low market value. From the discussion held with Savannah Agricultural Research Institute (SARI), it was evident that there has been no research undertaken yet on ILVs in the region. Very little technical knowledge and information on indigenous leafy vegetables, therefore, has been generated so far. 3.11.3 Extension service The agricultural extension service has the mandate to provide technical and advisory support to farmers on crop production. However, indigenous leafy vegetables are not considered a priority crop under the agricultural development programmes of MOFA and other organisations. Therefore no information targeting indigenous leafy vegetables is passed to farmers. This does not mean that village extension officers are not addressing the crop when they provide services to the village. Extension workers do provide general knowledge and information about crop production as well as plant protection. A number of NGOs (World Vision, Catholic Diocese, ADRA, World neighbours) working in agriculture are offering extension services to farmers in agricultural production including indigenous leafy vegetables. Government institutions like Irrigation Company of Upper East offer land and irrigation services as well as agricultural technical knowledge for the improvement of the crop. 3.12 Social organisation Social organisational arrangements include a village chief who has full authority in the community and an Assemblyman. A Tindana (religious leader) is responsible for solving traditional land disputes. Community organisation is limited to group work (Susu at Sherigu) around farming activities, women associations (Towongo Association at Kandiga, Aleba at Bongo Central, Aziayire Women’s Association at Gaani) where women work together in income generating activities such as pito brewing, malt for pito, Shea butter and rice parboiling and trading. In some areas (Kandiga and Gaani) women operate milling machines. Water User Associations in places where medium irrigation schemes operate are involved in the maintenance of the dam and land allocation for dry season production. Youth Associations (Gaani, Bongo Central and Widnaba) work for youth welfare. They organise themselves for various agricultural activities such as rice, groundnut and vegetable production for income generation. It was observed that many farmer organisations are found at Gaani (Gaani Farmers’ and Traders’ Association, Gaani Farmers’ Association, Aziayire Women’s Association and Youth Association). This may be the result of the organisational support offered by ICOUR to the villages under the Tono project. These associations are mainly involved in saving and credit. They buy rice or other crops after harvest, store and sell when there is scarcity in the market. Some are involved in livestock marketing. They buy animals (goats and sheep) from Gaani and nearby villages and sell them in the Navrongo market.

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Many of the villages in the Upper East Region have a market of their own, which supports the marketing of ILVs especially in the dry season when vegetable production is limited to a few farmers who have access to irrigation water. In villages like Bongo Central and Widnaba, the village market is patronised by households from some villages on the Ghana-Burkina Faso border. At Binaba, the village market serves as an outlet of ILVs but unreliable transport and high transport costs to nearby Zebilla market limits marketability. Villages like Sherigu and Kandiga that are near towns, exploit the town markets. The dry season vegetable production, though limited due to the small size of the dam and hand dug well respectively, offers a great opportunity to the community as the village can easily access big markets. Rainfed vegetable production is therefore as important as dry season vegetable production. 3.13 Indigenous knowledge on leafy vegetables 3.13.1 Sources of knowledge Indigenous knowledge on ILVs in the Upper East region of Ghana remains largely undocumented. Little or no research has been conducted to study this rather important aspect. The information on indigenous knowledge remains fragmentary and anecdotal. The elderly constitute the main source of indigenous knowledge and the channel along which such knowledge can be gradually disseminated to posterity. This section therefore seeks to bring into focus some of the issues related to indigenous knowledge and how such knowledge has been applied in resolving problems related to nutrition, medical problems, preservation, insect and pest control, cultivation and conservation of ILVs. The various aspects of indigenous knowledge on ILVs in the Upper East region are described below. 3.13.2 Knowledge on properties of ILVs Nutritional aspects There is ample evidence to suggest that natives in the study area and farmers of ILVs are aware of the nutritional benefits of these food resources. Such knowledge has been passed on from earlier generations, peers, or from parents to their children. Information on indigenous knowledge gathered during this study suggests that indigenous leafy vegetables are important sources of Vitamin A and B. For example, Hibiscus cannabinus, locally called “Berese”, is said to improve night blindness and to provide a healthy, rash-free skin. These findings were particularly interesting because conventional science confirms that vegetables remain an important source of Vitamin A. The Vitamin B content of the vegetables also agrees with results of studies by the Asian Vegetable Research and Development Centre (AVRDC) which screened over 100 tropical vegetables for their folate content in the year 2000. Results showed that Amaranthus, Abelmuscus esculentus and Asparagus among others were the best sources of folate (B vitamin). It has been demonstrated that a deficiency of folate is a leading cause of birth defects and infant mortality. Other indigenous knowledge related to nutrition has been described as follows: ILVs promote good health and replenish energy cowpeas; ILVs treat anaemic conditions (perhaps they contain iron and other related nutrients for

blood formation). Indeed, Hibiscus sabdariffa, (locally referred to as “Bito”, also

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commonly called Roselle) and Luffa aegyptica have iron contents of 1.5 and 11.5 mg per 100g edible portion respectively (Agamba, 2001);

Both Vigna unguiculata or cowpeas leaves and Hibiscus sabdariffa contain body building substances or protein;

Both Roselle or Bito (Hibiscus sabdariffa) and Kennaf, or Berese (Hibiscus cannabinus) promote lactation in nursing mothers. They are therefore used in soups for nursing mothers;

ILVs improve appetite in convalescing patients, especially Bito (Hibiscus sabdariffa) soups;

Improves resistance to disease; e.g. Alefu (Amaranthus cruentus). Regular consumption of Amaranthus cruentus promotes health and avoids falling sick;

ILVs give strength and vitality to men; e.g. Bito-Neri admixture soups improve strength and vitality to cope with sexual demands of men after a hard day’s work.

Medicinal aspects Considerable indigenous knowledge on the medicinal properties of ILVs is present among the population. The following ILVs were mentioned as being useful in treatments of diseases or improving health conditions: Maana leaves (Abelmuscus esculentus) and seeds homogenised with the bark of

mahogany can be applied to treat boils on the skin; Ayoyo (Corchorus olitorius) leaves macerated and homogenised in water can be used to

de-worm animals; Boiled concoctions of leaves of Bito (Hibiscus sabdariffa), Abelmuscus esculentus and

Kennaf or Berese (Hibiscus cannabinus) can cure malaria fever while the soup of the latter can also improve appetite for food;

Langina (Cleome gynandra), Amaranthus cruentus, Hibiscus cannabinus and Hibiscus sabdariffa treats an anaemic condition in patients.Hibiscus sabdariffa leaves boiled in water and cooled can be used for de-worming livestock or farm animals;

Homogenised leaf extracts of Hibiscus sabdariffa can be used for treating abrasions and cuts;

Cowpea leaves can be ground into a paste or macerated and the sap used to treat fresh wounds;

Hibiscus cannabinus may be used to treat dysentery, stomach upsets, bloated stomach, anaemia and diarrhoea. Bito (Hibiscus sabdariffa) can also be used to treat diarrhoea;

The leaves of Baobab (Adansonia digitata) are used to prepare a delicious and vitamin-rich sauce and as a medicine to treat dysentery, fever, asthma, and stomach ailments.

Rural industry The roots of Adansonia digitata may be crushed to make a dye for textiles and paints. 3.13.3 Indigenous production, processing, and conservation practices

Although modern agricultural technology for production has been given considerable publicity by past governments, there are still in practice several indigenous practices. The sections that follow describe these.

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Cultivation practices Use of bullocks in ploughing: this was preferred to tractor-mounted ploughs because it

was thought to minimise erosion of their soils. However, it may well be that the use of tractors was rather expensive and not affordable;

Boundary cropping with ILVs to demarcate boundaries and possibly to maximise the use of land on the farm;

Broadcasting seeds instead of nursing and transplanting; e.g. Ayoyo (Corchorus olitorius) Corchorus olitorius seeds are known to survive in soil for several years. Broadcasting therefore facilitates dispersal and conservation.

Harvesting Knowledge on when and how to harvest, periodic pruning; e.g. start of flower bud formation, branches formation, tendril formation, onset of creeping of stems, enlargement of leaves to maximum size etc. Such knowledge is known for each vegetable and is passed on to younger generations either deliberately or fortuitously. For example the beginning of the first harvest for Cucurbita pepo is when tendrils form or when the stem of the plants creep. During this time the rooting system of the plant is well established and harvesting by plucking the leaves does not kill the plant; so it can be harvested again later. Processing techniques Sun-drying: whole leaves or sliced leaves Shade-drying to maintain nutrient value Parboiling to soften thick, hard parts of the vegetables to enhance the drying process Powdered or ground leaves for ease of food preparation Storage techniques for processed ILVs Processed ILVs may be stored in the following ways: In gourds/calabashes with covers or lids to keep out insects and with tight-fitting lids. In earthen pots that are securely covered In water-repellent and insect-resistant sacks or bags

Control of insects pests: Wood ashes sprinkled on leafy vegetables each morning Neem (Azacdiracta indica) leaves extracts are sprayed against insect attacks Neem leaves and pepper fruit extracts also serve the same function as above

Control of insects pests in storage: Cow dung application on storage containers to keep insect pests out Immersion of seeds in organic solvents: Prior to storage seeds are immersed briefly in

kerosene and dried. This provides insecticidal and larvicidal properties that keep out the pests

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Seed preservation and conservation Preservation and conservation of ILVs remain an important pre-occupation of the farmers in the study area. There is considerable knowledge passed from generation to generation. The knowledge on seed preservation has, undoubtedly, contributed to the conservation efforts of the farmers and farming communities. Seed preservation may be achieved by the following processes: Heat shock/heat sterilisation: this may involve a quick immersion of seeds in hot, melted

shea butter or hot water for a very brief period prior to storage. These processes kill all insect pests and their eggs or larvae prior to storage for the next growing season and prevent re-infestation by the insects;

Seeds kept in bags, tied up and hanging from the ceiling or wooden rafters; Seeds in pods hanging from tree branches; Storage of seeds in baskets with cow dung smeared on the outside; Storage of seeds in stopped bottles. Conservation strategies Information/knowledge passed from parents to progeny and from generation to generation

or through peer group interactions. This process could be deliberate but informal or by chance.

Continuous cultivation of the ILVs facilitates conservation and bio-diversity utilisation Seed banking for subsequent farming enhances bio-diversity conservation Observation of traditional norms and taboos; eg rules governing protection of sacred

groves 3.13.4 Homogeneity and extent of knowledge The most striking observation in the survey on indigenous knowledge was the enormous similarity in the knowledge that was exhibited. The knowledge on nutrition, medicinal properties, preservation and processing was strikingly similar in the whole study area and in the defined typology for all the respondents. Although ethnic differences exist between the four districts, the similarity in the indigenous knowledge cuts across these barriers and, indeed, in most cases the same information was repeated again and again. This observation may be explained by the fact that the people live in close proximity and interact frequently. Therefore the exchange of ideas or knowledge would be expected to create knowledge that is similar or the same for all. Indigenous knowledge on the use of Baobab leaves for dyeing textiles was shown by a participant from the Catholic Diocese (Bolgatanga) during the mid-term workshop. The indigenous knowledge on ILVs is real and there is considerable evidence that gives further credence to this knowledge base. It would be a good idea to investigate the use of ILVs in nutritional, pharmaceutical, industrial and medical research to improve the commercial potential of the vegetables and promote conservation efforts.

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CHAPTER 4 COMMERCIALISATION OF INDIGENOUS LEAFY VEGETABLES

Due to the absence of literature on the commercial aspects of indigenous leafy vegetable production, the team at the start of the study relied on informal personal communication from various sources. The impression gathered from these sources was that are would be areas or villages which are purely or exclusively subsistence, with other areas practicing purely commercial systems of production. Based on this impression, the criteria of scale of production was used to define the farm typology of the study area. Thus under the rainfed or irrigated systems of production, study areas fell under one of the following types. Subsistence, with limited or easy access to market, where production is mainly for home

consumption, and farmers sell surpluses only after meeting consumption needs. Commercial, with limited or easy access to market, where production is large-scale and

earmarked for sale. The study revealed that nowhere in the region an exclusive commercial or subsistence system exists. The two types were found to exist both in all the villages studied. The factor of accessibility to markets was found to have far reaching consequences on revenues derived from production, with commercial producers in the study area and in particular the irrigated areas with limited access to market making operational losses. The indication and hypothesis is that the sustainability of scale of production is dependent on market availability. One major factor uncovered by the study is the incapability of farmers in all the systems to cultivate ILVs throughout the year. ILV production in the irrigated areas is hindered because of flooding or it is replaced by rice and other crops in the raining season, thereby confining production to the rainfed areas. The production in rainfed areas only lasts as long as there is rain. The introduction of micro-irrigation systems depending on household wastewater for instance, may help to sustain production for a longer period in the rainfed areas. We were reliably informed, that portable and affordable micro-irrigation systems have been successfully introduced to vegetable farmers in Tanzania and Nepal for dry season gardening. This chapter discusses among others, the identification and prioritisation of ILVs with potential for commercialisation and for household food security, the marketing of ILVs, and the problems associated with the marketing of indigenous leafy vegetables. 4.1 Identification and prioritisation of ILVs with potential for commercialisation To accomplish the above objectives the team adopted the following methods: Matrix scoring and ranking for both cultivated and collected species, using focus group

discussions. Benefit-cost analysis, for identifying and prioritising the cultivated species according to

their economic viability. Market survey to identify the species, processed forms and prices of ILVs that are

marketed.

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4.1.1 Matrix scoring of cultivated and collected species Criteria used for scoring were developed from factors that influence participants’ decision- making on the cultivation, collection, processing, marketing and utilisation of each species of leafy vegetables involved. Different sets of criteria were developed for the cultivated and collected species. Criteria for cultivated species High production costs This refers to the costs involved in financing the production of a specific species. Farmers observed that the production expenses they had to make on labour, through payments for tractor services or animal traction used for land preparation, and expenses on planting, nursing and transplanting, weeding, the purchase and application of inputs and, harvesting and selling were higher for some leafy vegetables than others. The scores signify the level of expense attached to each ILV. High labour requirements The drudgery involved in ILV cultivation varies with species. Labour intensive activities like nursing, transplanting or thinning were involved in the cultivation of some ILVs, making their production more labour intensive than others. It implies that such drudgeries increased the energy, expenses and time that had to be devoted to some ILVs, thereby, making their production more difficult than others. Early maturing The Upper East Region of Ghana is among the regions with the longest dry season. By the onset of the rains when planting begins, food supply in households is low and many families incorporate the early maturing ILVs into the little cereal left in preparing food for the family while waiting to harvest the new cereals, grains and legumes. Those ILVs, which mature early, are said to bridge the hunger gap, which occurs between the food shortage and the harvesting periods. This criterion helped to identify those ILVs, which serve these important functions for farmers. Easy to process The main processing method observed during the survey was sun drying. In addition some wild species of ILVs had to be parboiled before sun drying. From farmers’ point of view, ILVs that dried fastest in the sun or in the shade made processing easy in the rainy season. The peak harvesting period of ILVs coincides with the period of highest rainfall. Post harvest loses are reduced by fast drying characteristics. High demand and high price In addition to their use as food by households many farmers derive income from the cultivation of ILVs. The two criteria helped farmers to score and identify those ILVs that attracted many buyers and those for which buyers were prepared to pay high prices. High nutritional value Farmers have over the years derived micronutrients of high nutritional value from the consumption of ILVs. Their definition of high nutritional value was, “ Good blood and good

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health”. The criteria was used to identify ILVs , which from the farmers experiences were high sources of energy and body building micro-nutrients which gives good health for both adults and children. The hypothesis is that ILVs with high nutritional value will have high market value. Criteria for wild/collected species Availability of species most of the year With the exception of Baobab and Samvama leaves, which were common in processed forms, a greater number of the wild species, are preferred fresh. The processed forms of most wild species, are said to lose their essential nutrients and hence were not used for food preparation. Those who collected such wild species for sale could only sell the leaves in fresh form. Farmers therefore felt the need to have the wild species available in the bush in fresh forms for long periods of the year. Ease of collection Women and girls typically do the harvesting of wild ILV species. The criterion was used to identify those species which women and girls find difficult to pick. Short distance from home The criterion signified the convenience of having wild species close to the house. Elderly members of the group recounted the days when many wild species were found close by and one did not have to walk long distances to go looking for them. Medicinal value This criterion was used to identify wild species, which were used to cure ailments in the communities. For their medicinal values such ILVs provide high income. Preferences for ILV species The total score from the six study villages was calculated and used to draw final conclusions for the cultivated and collected species (Appendix 12 and 13). The ILVs found to be preferred most for commercialization among the cultivated species are Bito, Berese, Bento and Alefu in that order The collected species selected are Tokara, Bongto, Ogla and Samvama (Table 4.1). Table 4.1 Matrix ranks of ILVs

Species/Rank 1st 2nd 3rd 4th Cultivated Bito Berese Bento Alefu Collected Tokara Bongto Ogla Samvama

(Wild Ayoyo) Source: ICRA 2002, Field survey Reasons for the low rating of Alefu, include high production costs, high labour requirements, and the inability of farmers to process Alefu for future use. These problems discourage many farmers from cultivating Alefu on a large scale even though it was rated as the ILV most in demand and with the highest price (Table 4.2). Bito, Berese and Bento on the contrary, have low labour requirements, low costs of production and can be processed and stored for use during scarcity.

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Table 4.2 Factors affecting the commercialisation of cultivated ILV species Criteria ILVs identified Production, processing, marketing and

utilization characteristics. High production costs Alefu

Bento High fertilizer and insecticide requirementsHigh costs of seed

High labour requirements

Alefu Maana

Requires nursing and transplanting or broadcasting and thinning. Spines on plant prick the skin during weeding resulting in painful cultivation

Early maturing Bento, Berese and Ayoyo

Matures early to help bridge the hunger gap after planting.

Easy to process Bito and Berese Low water content and dry quickly High demand Alefu, Bito and

BereseMost highly consumed in the Region.

High nutritional value Bito, Berese, Alefu and eggplant leaves.

Give good health

High price Alefu and Leba (local Alefu)

Highly priced and provide high income

Not processed Maana and Alefu Loss of nutritional value(micro-nutrients) after sun drying

Source: ICRA 2002, Field survey For the collected species, Baobab leaves known locally as Tokara, ranked the highest (Table 4.1). They are easy to collect, always close to the homes of farmers, available most of the year in fresh or dried forms, have high demand and provides a relatively high income and is medicinal with other economic values. Bongto is easy to collect, can be found at short distances from their homes, has high demand and is also medicinal, while Ogla is highly demanded and nutritious (Table 4.2). Table 4. 3 Factors affecting the commercialisation of collected ILV species Factors Available

most of the year

Easy to collect

Short distance from home

High demand

Medicinal properties

High Nutritional Value

Collected species

Tokara Kampomvoro Sowaka

Bongto Samvama Jamasoni Tokara

Tokara Bongto Jamasoni Samvama Kafrikayoa

Tokara Ogla Samvama Sowaka Bongto

Tokara Bongto Sowaka Jamasoni

Sowaka Ogla

Source: ICRA 2002, Field survey

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4.1.2 Benefit-cost analysis A benefit-cost analysis was used to determine the economic viability of the cultivated ILVs in selected farming systems. Benefit-cost ratios of the operations were estimated for large-scale farmers in each system. An economic verification of the operations of a farmer was conducted at Pwalugu to provide further insight into the economic viability of ILVs under commercial management. The species of ILVs studied on this commercial farm are Bito, Alefu and Ayoyo (Appendix 14). The ratios were estimated from production costs and benefits of farmers for the 2001/2002 operational season. Factors of production

For the costing of inputs all factors involved in the production of leafy vegetables in the different systems were considered. Differences in the use of inputs depended mainly on water application in each system, with higher quantities of chemical fertilizers and insecticides applied in the irrigated areas. Family and hired labour inputs were relatively high in the rainfed systems while tractor services were used more in the irrigated areas (Table 4.4). Table 4.4 Important cost variables identified for irrigated and rainfed systems Cost Variables Farm type / observations Irrigated system Rainfed system Land Farmers pay annually for

irrigated land at Gaani Mainly Free

Land preparation Tractor, animal traction, family and hired labour

Mainly animal traction, family and hired labour.

Seeds Mainly purchased Purchased and own seeds Nursing /transplanting Performed on all irrigated farms

for Alefu and Ayoyo Mainly broadcasting and thinning

Planting Planting of Bito, Berese, Bento and others

Planting of Bito, Berese, Bento and others

Fertilizer/manure/ compost

Fertilizer and manure Manure and compost

Costs of insecticides/ash/ botanicals

Insecticides Ash and botanicals

1st weeding Applicable Applicable2nd weeding Applicable Applicable Cost of watering Applicable Not applicable Depreciation of farm tools

Comprise holes, cutlasses, watering cans and water pumps

Comprise holes and cutlasses

Costs of harvesting/ selling

More on-farm selling More market selling and drying

Cost of marketing Transportation by donkey cart, trucks, bicycles and head portage

Mainly by head portage, bicycles and donkey cart

Labour Used mainly for nursing, water application, planting, transplanting, weeding and harvesting

Mainly for land preparation, manure application, planting, thinning, weeding, harvesting and selling


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Benefits from ILVs The following components accounted for the revenues generated by ILV production:. Proceeds from sale of fresh and processed ILVs Value of ILVs consumed in fresh and in dried form Value of ILVs given as gifts, for festivals and ceremonies Proceeds from sale of fiber and other by-products of ILVs (from Bito and Berese)

Farmers were unable to estimate quantities of ILVs spoiled. Cost components Proportions of the important production cost components in relation to the total costs were estimated (Fig. 4.1 and 4.2). The main costs for producing ILVs in the two farming systems consisted of costs on labour, marketing, tractor and animal traction services, manure and compost, chemical fertilisers and insecticides, land in some irrigated areas and other inputs like seed and depreciation of farm implements. The labour costs are a high proportion of the total costs in both farming systems. Farmers in the rainfed systems paid more for labour, accounting for 71 percent of the total costs while those in the irrigated areas spend 44 percent of the total costs of production on labour. The value of family labour, which is used extensively, was calculated and added to the costs of labour, thus increasing the total labour costs in the rainfed areas. The use of tractor services and animal traction is higher in the irrigated areas, amounting to 11 percent whereas it is against 3 percent for the rainfed areas. Land charges in the irrigated areas consisted of annual association fees and payments for land to chiefs as loyalties and to irrigation authorities. Irrigated systems were found to be making higher use of fertilizer and insecticides. These amounted to 19 percent as compared to only 1 percent of the total cost in the rainfed areas where compost and manure as well as ash, cow dung and botanicals were used on a higher scale than in the irrigated areas. Marketing costs were higher in the rainfed areas where selling was done in the markets by women using head portage as a means of conveying ILVs to the markets. In the irrigated areas the concentration of farmers in one area attracted traders who bought the produce in bulk for some of the farmers and thus reduced their total marketing cost. Land was found to be free in all the rainfed areas visited, while farmers in some irrigated areas paid for land or maintenance charges.

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Fig. 4.1 Production cost components of irrigated systems

Land7%

Marketing 8%

Chemicals and fertilizer

19%

Tractor services and animal traction

11%

Labour44%

Other inputs(seed, depreciation)

6%

Manure and compost5%

Fig. 4.2 Production cost components of rainfed systems

Labour71%

Other inputs5%

Marketing11%

Land0%

Manure and compost9%

Tractor services animal traction

3%

Chemicals and fertilizer

1%

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Benefit-cost ratios The benefit cost analysis for Sherigu, a rainfed system with easy access to the market, is presented in Table 4.5. Table 4.5 Comparative cost-benefit analysis of different species of indigenous leafy

vegetables at Sherigu in the Bolgatanga District of UER of Ghana (in thousands of Cedis)

Local name of ILV Berese Bito AlefuProduction inputs (in 1,000 Cedis/acre) Cost of land 0.00 0.00 0.00Fencing of land 0.00 0.00 0.00Land preparation: - hired /family labour 264.00 414.83 467.62 - animal traction 0.00 0.00 0.00 - tractor services 0.00 0.00 0.00Seed 40.00 35.29 30.58Fertilizer 0.00 0.00 0.00Manure 96.00 17.64 14.70Compost 0.00 15.29 0.00Chemicals 0.00 0.00 0.00Water 0.00 0.00 0.00Association dues 0.00 0.00 0.00Depreciation of working tools 9.60 12.94 4.70Donkey cart to market 0.00 0.00 0.00Truck service to market 0.00 5.88 17.64Human portage to market 48.00 7.05 9.41

Bicycle to market 0.00 0.00 0.00Transport costs of farmer 32.00 10.58 5.29

Total costs 489.60 519.50 549.94Opportunity costs of capital/annum (at 26 %) 153.29 135.46 143Opportunity costs of capital/operational period 12.77 11.28 11.91

Gross costs of operation 502.37 530.78 561.85Output/revenues per acre Sales fresh 1200 641.18 692.65sales dried 176.00 155.29 0.00Consumption fresh 320 35.29 49.41Consumption dried 99.20 12.71 0.00Ceremonies/festival/gifts 160.00 27.06 25.88

Total revenues acre 1955.20 871.53 767.94Net benefits 1452.82 340.75 206.09

Benefit/cost ratio 3.89 1.64 1.36 Source: ICRA 2002, Field survey

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The resulting ratios for all farm types show high economic gains to farmers for the species studied. In Sherigu, Kandiga, Widnaba, Bongo Central and Gaani (Fig 4.3 ) the benefit-cost ratios indicate profits and economic viability of the ILV species. The ratios for all the leaves in Binaba, an irrigated commercial system with limited access to the market, were found to be below the breakeven point of one. Indeed, Binaba was the only study area where bundles of ILVs were selling for 200 Cedis. The lowest price of ILVs bundles of varying sizes at all other villages and towns visited in the region was 500 Cedis per bundle. That means farmers in Binaba are losing around 60 percent of their income as a result of low demand. Farmers at Binaba complained about the long distance to the nearest big market center. Since it is too far, they are forced to sell the leaves on their farms to any available customer at low prices, hence the inability to break even. Fig. 4. 3 Estimated benefit-cost ratios

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

Widnaba Sherigu Kandiga Binaba BongoCentral

Gaani Pwalugu

Name of village

Rat

io

Berese

bito

Alefu

Langena

Ayoyo

Source: ICRA 2002, Field Survey Pattern of disposal of ILVs The study identified the proportions in which ILVs produced were allocated to the two systems of production. According to the information made available farmers allocated the quantities of ILVs harvested into the following categories: for sale, consumption and other uses (Fig.4.4).

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Fig. 4.4 Disposal pattern of ILVs

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Sales f

resh

Sales d

ried

Consu

mpt

ion fr

esh

Consu

mpt

ion d

ried

Cerem

onies

/festi

val/g

ifts

Sales o

f fibr

e

Sales composition

Per

cen

tag

e

Rain-fed system

Irrigated System

Source: ICRA 2002, Field survey The results indicate that farmers under both systems sell larger quantities of their produce in the fresh form. However, farmers in the irrigated areas sold more of the fresh forms than farmers in the rainfed systems during the period under study. Farmers in the rainfed systems on the contrary, sold and consumed more of the dried forms of ILVs than farmers in the irrigated areas. Similarly farmers in the rainfed areas gave out more of the harvests for ceremonies and as gifts to relatives and neighbours. The relatively small quantities consumed and given out in both systems confirm the assertion by both male and female farmers that ILVs consumed at home were normally harvested from other sources made up of wild species and the backyard and border farms. Some farmers in the rainfed systems gained extra income from the sale of fiber from Berese and Bito. 4. 2 The marketing of indigenous leafy vegetables 4.2.1 Farm level marketing methods In view of the fast growing and early maturity characteristic of ILVs, the ability to dispose off the produce soon after it matures is essential in order to free land for the next crop. The maximisation of seasonal returns is subject to the number of successful ILV cultivations made

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per season. The preferred number of cultivations per crop in the dry season is four and with the limitation of land, early marketing of matured leaves is essential for a successful cropping season. Farmers have in consequence devised ways of enhancing the early marketing of matured crops. Three of the methods identified during the survey are discussed below.

Negotiated sale of life crop By this method the crops are sold in rows of ridges at negotiated prices to traders. The farm or plot of ILV could also be sold in whole. Farmers use the opportunity to free capital for the next cultivation. In a farmer’s own words “ we leave the harvesting problem to the trader”. The method was found to be very popular with male farmers at Bongo and Gaani. On the spot sales at farm-gate

The method enables farmers to sell the leaves as harvesting and packaging proceeds. Traders sometimes assist in the harvesting and use the opportunity to sort and select on the spot the better quality leaves. This practice is to the disadvantage of farmers. The limited access to the market by farmers at Binaba predisposes them to high on-farm post harvest losses caused by these differential purchases. Sales in the market

Selling in the market is the most prevalent method of disposing of leafy vegetables by farmers in all the farming systems. Ninety-two percent of the women interviewed carry ILVs on their heads over long distances to nearby markets to sell for themselves and their husbands. This method of selling leafy vegetables was most prevalent in the rainfed systems, where men depended almost exclusively on women for the disposal of leaves through the market. At Widnaba men were heard remarking that only bachelors sold leaves. The situation was different in the irrigated areas. At Gaani twelve percent of the men interviewed sold their own leaves in sacks transported in trucks, donkey carts or on bicycles to Navrongo and Bolgatanga markets. 4.2.2. Market survey

General observations The team conducted a survey of markets in Ghana and two neighbouring countries, namely Burkina Faso and Togo (Fig. 4.5). In addition to collecting information on prices, species. types and forms of ILVs, and selling procedures in these markets general information was gathered on other related factors in the markets also (Table 4.7). The survey procedure involved focus group discussions, individual interviews, weighing and counting of ILV stems in bunches. The respondents included farmers of whom many were found selling in the markets, wholesalers, retailers and consumers. In all the markets visited, women were found to dominate in the selling of indigenous leafy vegetables. The only exceptions were Navrongo and Bolgataga markets where male farmers were seen selling large quantities of ILVs harvested from their own farms.

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Table 4.6 Gender roles in marketing

Market Activity and types of traders Units of measure Navrongo Male farmers selling from donkey

carts and large polythene bags. Their targeted customers were large quantity buyers like wholesalers, retailers and institutions but also serve consumers

Many female farmers retailing Female traders retailing Female wholesalers purchasing for

Bolgatanga, Paga, Sandema, Wa, Tumu, Kandiga and Naga markets

Six bundle units @ 2000 Cedis to large quantity buyers

One bundle unit @ 500 Cedis each to single unit buyers

Bolgatanga Male and female farmers selling to retailers and consumers

Only women traders as retailers

Five bundle units @ 2000 Cedis to large quantity buyers

One bundle units @ 500 Cedis to consumers

Bawku Women farmers retailing Bundle @ 500 Cedis each Zebilla Women farmers retailing Bundle @ 500 Cedis each Tamale Women farmers retailing Bundle @ 500 Cedis each Kumasi Women retailers Bundle @ 500 Cedis each Ouagadougou Dassasgo

Women retailers Heaps of single leaves @ 270 Cedis and 540 Cedis

Ouagadougou Larlé

Women farmers and traders wholesaling and retailing

Heaps of single leaves @ 270 Cedis and 540 Cedis

Guelwongo (Burkina Faso)

Ghanaian women farmers retailing Bundles @ 500 Cedis each.

Senkanse (Togo)

Ghanaian women farmers retailing Bundles @ 500 Cedis each.

Source: ICRA 2002, Market surveys Apart from Ouagadougou where only the CFA was the accepted currency, Ghanaian currency, the Cedi, is also used alongside the local currencies (CFA) in Senkanse and Guelwongo, which are across the border markets in neighbouring Togo and Burkina Faso, respectively. Both markets are less than a kilometer away from the respective Ghana borders. Contrary to situations in all other markets, ILVs in Ouagadougou are sold without stems indicating a different harvesting method, and more favourable sales terms for consumers. At Guelwongo and Senkanse all ILVs sellers in the markets were Ghanaian women from Bongo and Bawku East villages around the border. Women farmers were found retailing ILVs from their own farms alongside retailers in all the markets visited with the exception of Kumasi where the leaves were bought from male farmers in city gardens and nearby villages.

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ILV species available in markets. In addition to exotic species, which were found in big market centers, indigenous leafy vegetables were found in all the markets visited during the study. Apart from dried Bito which was found in eight of the markets visited, the other leaves found in dried forms are Tokara (Baobab leaves), also known as kooka in crushed form, and Samvama (Wild Ayoyo) (Table 4.8). Only small quantities of the dried forms in relation to fresh leaves were found in the markets, indicating higher consumer preference for the fresh forms. Table 4.7 ILV species found in the markets Market Species of ILVs Supply sources Processed forms Navrongo

Alefu, Bito, Berese. Egg plant, Bitter leaf, Maana, Ayoyo, Bento

Pungu, Bonia, Saboro, Nawognia Gaani

Dried Bito

Bolga

Alefu, Bito, Berese, Langina, Pumpkin, Bitter leaf, Bento, Langina, Ayoyo – Round green leaf, Serated green leaf, Pinkish elongated Samvama

Navrongo Zaare, Vea, Bongo, Balungo Yoruko Tongo, Kwalugu, Dorungu, Sherigu

Dried Bito

Bongo central Bito, Ayoyo, Langina, Alefu Bongo Dried Bito Zebilla Bito, Berese , Bento

Alefu Tanga Sakom Widnaba (2.5 Km)

Dried Bito

Bawku

Tokara, Alefu, Bito Berese, Bento Ayoyo, Langina, Niri

Dera and surrounding villages; Water from dug out wells

NA

Tamale

Ayoyo, Berese (Bra), Bito, Alefu, Bento

Dam sites Dried Bito

Kumasi Water leaf, Alefu, Ayoyo, Bento, Kontombire, Pumpkin leaves

along streams and water bodies and in villages

Dried Bito, sliced fresh Ayoyo, dried powdered Tokara (Kooka)

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Market Species of ILVs Supply sources Processed forms Burkina Faso 1. Ouagadougou (large whole sale market)

Matured Bito, Bito shoots, Berese (Berenge), Langina, Alefu, Leba (local Alefu), Tokara (Baobab), Bento

Lumbile (25 km) Sector 27 (3km)

NA

Burkina Faso 2. Dassasgo (retail evening market)

Matured Bito, Bito shoots, Langina, Alefu, Tokara (Baobab)

Larlé and urban agriculture gardens

Dried Samvama (Ayoyo)

Burkina Faso 3. Guelwongo 0.5 km from Ghana border at Namoo in UER

Bito Bongo and Nyariga in UER of Ghana

Togo Sinkanse

Bito, Ayoyo Bento Alefu, Tokara (Baobab leaves)

All leave sellers came from villages in the Bawku East district of Ghana

Bito

Source: ICRA 2002, Field survey.

4.2.3 Inter-market price variation The preliminary market survey revealed that wholesaling of ILVs forms a very small component of the ILV trade. With the exception of Navrongo where wholesalers were found buying from the market, most retailers prefer buying direct from the farms. Moreover, in the majority of cases, farmers practised vertical integration by producing and selling ILVs themselves. The survey showed that price variations between markets determine the flow of ILVs from one market to the other. For instance retailers in Bolgatanga market, informed the team that ILVs flow into Bolga market from Bawku in December and from Navrongo market between March and June. It becomes, therefore, necessary to study the price variations in the markets as a first step to an in-depth margin analysis. Generally, prices of ILVs in the Ghanaian markets were relatively stable with minimal differences between markets at the time of the study (Fig. 4.6). The position of Navrongo as the wholesaler to the other markets at this time of the year (April to June), as presented by the traders, was clearly manifested by lower ILV prices in Navrongo market for all the major species. The position of Alefu as the highest income earner for farmers was also proved in all the Ghanaian markets. With the exception of Bento, which was very high in Sinkanse Togo, the prices of Bito, Berese and Langina demonstrated their roles as providers of household food security with relatively affordable prices in all the markets in Ghana and even in Togo and Burkina Faso. The situation for collected leaves was different in Sinkanse and Ouagadougou. The

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price of Tokara (Baobab leaves) was high in Ouagadougou and Sinkanse in comparison to the price prevailing at Bawku. Fig. 4.6 Price variations between markets

Source: ICRA 2002, Market surveys

4.2.4 The marketing channels of ILVs The team identified simple marketing channels for ILVs in which the majority of consumers enjoy a close relationship with producers many of who practice vertical integration (Fig. 4.7). Producers Many farmers practice vertical integration by joining traders to sell ILVs to all categories of customers, namely, wholesalers, retailers and ultimate consumers. Apart from the big towns like Bolgatanga, Navrongo, and Bawku, where few retailers were found playing a permanent day-to-day role in the markets, selling side by side with the farmers, customers in ILV markets generally buy directly from farmers many of them women, who come every market day to sell. The situation was not different in Burkina Faso and Togo. This opportunity offers farmers the chance for maximising returns, as there are no middlemen involved in this process. Many farmers including men, from villages close to market centers take advantage of the situation.

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

3500

4000

Navrongo BongoCentral

Bolga Zebilla Bawku BF Quaga BFYeliwongo

TogoCinkase

Name of market

Pricesincedis

Bito Alefu

Berese Bento

langena Tokara

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Wholesalers

These consisted of women traders who were found selling ILVs to retailers in Bolgatanga market. The leaves were sold in bunches of five bundles for 2000 Cedis. Women wholesalers were found making purchases in Navrongo market. In comparison to other crops, the number of wholesalers found in the ILV markets were few since many retailers prefer buying straight from farmers. Fig 4. 7 Principal marketing channels of indigenous leafy vegetable in the UER of

Ghana

Large and small scale producers

Wholesalers mainly farmers and few traders

Consumers mainly households and institutions

Retailers mainly farmers and few traders in big towns

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4.2.5 Consumer survey A survey of consumers was conducted in the Bolgatanga and Kumasi markets. The results of the survey in Kumasi indicated that people of other ethnic groups in the country do not know nor use ILVs from Northern Ghana. All the consumers purchasing ILVs from Northern Ghana said they were northerners. The consumers expressed their desire for fresh and wholesome leaves, complaining about holes made by insects in some leaves. In the Bolgatanga market all the respondents interviewed come from UER. Consumers of different socio-economic backgrounds were found in both markets even though all the respondents were women and girls. The pattern of ILV purchase and consumption behaviour was found to be affected by factors shown in Fig 4.8. Fig. 4.8 Factors affecting ILV consumers behaviour Socio-cultural factors All the consumers interviewed were citizens of the Upper East Region but they come from different social and religious backgrounds. Many students, for instance, were among the consumers purchasing ILVs in the market. Culturally these consumers make extensive use of ILVs because it happens to be their traditional food and most of the meals include ILVs. Personal factors Many of the consumers interviewed were mainly housewives of different occupations and age groups ranging between 17 and 65 years of age. Many of the consumers admitted eating ILVs because they had been told that the leaves give good health.

Socio-Cultural factors

Psychological factors

Personal factors

Buying behaviour

Commercial factors

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Psychological factors

The main motivation to buy ILVs is to have a balanced daily diet. Consequently the frequency of buying ILVs is very high: each market day and sometimes in between market days. The perception of freshness and good quality of ILVs is affecting consumer behaviour.

Commercial factors Many respondents come from the low income group, but a significant number were also found to belong to the middle and high income groups. Some restaurant operators and local food vendors were among the consumers. 4.2.6 Seasonal supply of ILVs in UER. Unlike the past when leafy vegetables were grown mainly under rainfed systems, fresh forms of ILVs were available in all markets visited in June when planting for the main cropping season had just started. Fig.4.9 shows the annual supply sources and levels of ILV supply to Bolgatanga the regional market of UER. Fig. 4. 9 Seasonal calendar of ILV supply and demand in UER Mar April May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Relative abundance High supply period Critical shortage Supply

The period of peak supply of ILVs is between July and November when every household is harvesting all types of leafy vegetables for sale and for home use. The number of people buying the leaves is reduced to restaurants and schools and those who have no farms. Large amounts of ILVs are left in the markets unsold and many ILV sellers are said to abandon the trade for other more lucrative opportunities. Farmers are forced to dry most of the leaves for sale later as prices fall to uneconomic levels. During this period the regional capital receives ILVs from villages in the vicinity like Tongo and Sherigu, since it becomes unprofitable for traders to bring leaves over long distances at the prevailing low prices.

Villages around Bolga

and Tongo

Navrongo, Bongo, Balungu, Yorungo, Vea, Zaare

Bawku, Pwalugu Vea Dorungu

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The critically low supply period lasts from November to February just after harvesting during the harmatan season, when vegetation starts drying up. The dam sites during this period are still wet and many farmers at the site are still harvesting their rice and land preparation for dry season cropping is initiated in a few places. The prices of ILVs are at the highest reaching as high as 1000 Cedis per bunch during this period. According to traders ILVs are brought to Boltatanga by traders from Bawku and Pwalugu during this period. The period of balanced economic activity is from March to June when ILVs start arriving from the irrigated and dugout well sites. Prices are intermediate and supply is balanced, creating a more lucrative business situation for all stakeholders. The leaves at this time are supplied to many markets from Navrongo, Bongo, Vea, Zaare, Balungu and Yorungu among others. 4.2.7 Problems of ILV marketing. The following problems were identified during the course of the study: Gluts and low prices Gluts and low prices for ILVs were said to be the normal features of the rainy season (June - September). This is because all farmers grow ILVs during this period, which they have to sell under pressure to minimize spoilage. Unfortunately, ILV farmers are not organized well enough to co-ordinate their production activities to ensure adequate management of large yields. Perishability of ILVs and the incapability for long storage The main problem in the marketing of ILVs is the short storage period after it has been harvested. Farmers and traders cannot keep or store harvested ILVs for more than two or three days. As a result the price of ILVs can fall by 30 to 50 percent by the end of a day. This problem results in high losses by spoilage for both farmers and traders even though they were not able to quantify these loses. When large quantities of ILVs are harvested between July and September, farmers have problems drying the leaves. Many of the farmers and traders interviewed have no adequate knowledge of solar dryers. The few who know about solar dryers said they could not afford to buy solar dryers at the prevailing prices. They are however prepared to buy and use solar dryers if portable and affordable ones could be made available to suit their purposes. Poor handling and hygiene The general conditions under which ILVs are marketed were found to be unhygienic. The selling of ILVs is done in old metallic containers or on pieces of cloth on the ground in all the markets visited. The problem is mainly due to poor market infrastructure and the lack of, or poorly enforced public health regulations in the markets. This problem of poor health standards in the market could lead to the transmission of diseases through ILVs to consumers.

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Improper packaging and lack of sorting Traders and farmers were found pressing large quantities of ILVs into sacks or polythene bags, a practice that we felt contributed to the short shelf life of the leaves in the markets. In addition to the problem of packaging, no grading of leaves was done and all sizes and qualities of ILVs were bundled together for sale making them unattractive to consumers. Lack of market promotion A study of consumer types revealed that a great percentage of the people who utilise ILVs belong to the northern regions. This aggravates the problem of low demand for ILVs particularly during the high production period. Similarly, the team was made to believe that people in the other parts of the country are not aware of the numerous nutritional and medicinal values of ILVs. The use of ILVs was limited to local methods of preparation like soups and stews only. It implies the need to create different recipes to make leafy vegetables more palatable to consumers in other parts of the country. Improper methods and conditions for ILV processing The method of sun drying of fresh or parboiled ILVs results in discolouration, which make the leaves unattractive particularly to the youth and consumers of high socio-economic backgrounds. It was also speculated that this processing method leads to the loss of essential nutrients from the leaves. 4.3 Economic viability of ILVs In conclusion, the study has revealed that ILV cultivation is economically viable, but needs to be further assessed for its competitiveness in relation to other crops. The cultivated species found to be holding most promise for commercialization are Alefu, Bito, Berese and Bento. The constraints in cultivation, marketing and processing these ILVs need to be overcome to make this possible. The consumption of wild ILV species is still widespread, which calls for efforts for their conservation. There does not appear much promise in terms of cross-border or external markets at the moment. More surveys are however needed to assess the situation in surrounding towns and at different periods of the year. Though the prices were relatively attractive in Senkanse in Togo, further studies are required in the regional capitals of Togo. The processing and sale of collected species seemed limited to Tokara and Samvama, whose potential for commercialization should be assessed. November to February is the most critical shortage period. If improved processing methods are available to provide ILVs during this period it would facilitate commercialisation. It is important to systematically assess the commercialisation potential of processed forms before embarking upon any efforts given the consumer preference for fresh forms.

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Most producers and market intermediaries of ILVs are women. Commercialisation will offer a potential for additional income generation to benefit women. People in Southern Ghana who form the greater percentage off the Ghanaian population are not aware of the nutritional benefits of ILVs from Northern Ghana. Educating them through market promotion to use these ILVs could create a big demand for producers up north.

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CHAPTER 5 STAKEHOLDER ANALYSIS 5.1 Stakeholder interests and their perceptions about ILVs Stakeholder identification began with understanding the problematique. On the basis of the Terms of Reference and secondary information about the problem, an initial list of stakeholders was identified. Stakeholders at the introductory workshop validated the list. Thirty stakeholders in total were identified and their roles were defined through visits and interactions with them. Based on their mandate and common interests, the list was harmonised and reduced to 16, taking cognisance of similarities in either technical aspects of agricultural production, research or development and support to the sector as indicated hereunder. 5.1.1. Farmer/vegetable producer The farmer is considered a primary key stakeholder and beneficiary of the programme on indigenous leafy vegetable development. The main interest of the farmer is to produce vegetables for the household to enhance food security. The farmer may also produce for commercial reasons. Vegetables may be processed and stored for later use or sale. Farmers may conserve vegetable species through continued production and may also accumulate indigenous knowledge on production and processing. 5.1.2 Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MoFA) The Ministry of Food and Agriculture was found to be the key stakeholder in the development of indigenous leafy vegetables as it has mandate of providing policy, technical and advisory services to the farmer. MoFA is responsible for assisting farmers in general agricultural production, including leafy vegetable production. MoFA trains extension workers and farmers to facilitate the transfer of technology and to link farmers to credit institutions. It also assists farmers in the formation of groups/co-operatives. The Ministry of Food and Agriculture runs a number of projects that have mandate on specific aspects of agricultural development. WIAD, one of them, works with women farmers on production, processing and storage of indigenous leafy vegetables by using solar dryers. LACOSREP II focuses on dam rehabilitation and organises farmers’ associations in sustainable water use, offers credit to farmers and carries out extension and demonstration on aspects of production, processing and utilisation. The agricultural development strategies support crops of high economic value and those that are considered important for food security (staples). Indigenous leafy vegetables, as one of the agricultural commodities in the area, have been receiving little or no attention due to its present status of having low market value. According to MoFA, there has been very little or no research on ILVs. MoFA at Bongo perceives that production under large-scale irrigation conditions as in the Tono and Vea areas is less likely to favour women farmers as far as accessibility of land and irrigation water are concerned. MoFA sees that the promotion of ILVs might have an effect on the role of gender, as there will be considerable income accruing from it. This, it is expected, will motivate men to take over the production of ILVs from women.

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5.1.3 Research institutions The Savannah Agricultural Research Institute (SARI) has a mandate to provide new technology, knowledge and information for crop production in all the three northern regions through their substations. Manga substation of SARI in the Upper East Region is responsible for vegetable breeding programmes. Manga works with farmers adopting a farming systems research and conducts farmer field schools on vegetables. However, little has been done so far with regard to indigenous leafy vegetables. They see the potential for commercialisation especially for Bito, Berese, Alefu and Ayoyo, which have considerable market demand in the country. SARI has done preliminary surveys on the nutritional aspects of indigenous leafy vegetables. Although the institute has a mandate in developing horticultural crops, the emphasis is on exotic vegetables, which have a relatively high market value, thus marginalising ILVs. The Animal Research Institute (ARI) has a mandate for livestock feed development. ARI is working on the use of fodder/silage from leafy vegetables in animal feeding. They are also involved in the research on identification of indigenous leafy vegetables, which are also forage/fodder crops for farm animals. ARI also works on forage/browse agronomy research, feed development, livestock system research and development, forage/browse preference studies and crop residues and by-products utilisation. The Institute perceives indigenous leafy vegetables, such as Bento (cowpeas) and herbaceous species that are collected like molinga and bitter leaves, as a potential livestock feed for small ruminants and poultry. The importance of indigenous leafy vegetables as livestock feed is already established, as straws of these vegetables are sold in the market for feeding animals. There is a potential market for ILV straw especially in the urban livestock industry, which is growing very fast. The ARI perceives that some of the collected, wild multipurpose tree species are endangered and need to be conserved. The measures that are suggested include establishment of propagation materials and a garden for germplasm storage. The University for Development Studies has a mandate to train agricultural scientists, and conducts research as part of the training. Research covers aspects on production and marketing of crops and vegetables in general. The food and nutrition security unit of UDS is involved in micro nutrient studies and training on the use of improved solar drying technologies in vegetable processing. The Savannah Resource Management Centre (SRMC) has a mandate on natural resource management with conservation of endangered species being a priority. The institute has conducted studies on the status of indigenous leafy vegetables in the 3 regions of Northern Ghana and documented the endangered species/varieties for further conservation. 5.1.4 Developmental institutions Development institutions that contribute to agricultural development in the UER through the provision of extension, infrastructure development, input supply service, training of farmers on agribusiness, and facilitating farmer groups/associations were contacted and their interests were noted. ICOUR (Irrigation Company of Upper East Region) is a government institution under MoFA mandated to construct and manage dams and to provide irrigation facilities to farmers to

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support dry season production of food crops ánd leafy vegetables for income generation. The company facilitates the organisation of farmers/producers into marketing units, provides seeds and offers inputs, credit, technical advice and disease control. Currently, ICOUR is managing two large-scale irrigation projects at Tono and Vea. The projects support 6000 farmers with land, irrigation water, training on appropriate technology as well as extension services. Agricultural production in these irrigation schemes is consisting mainly of food crops including some exotic vegetables and a limited amount of ILVs. The production of the ILVs is characterised by a short production cycle and low costs of production. They are seasonally produced with supply surpassing demand during the rainy season while in the dry season, the market demand is higher than the supply. Farmers are not organised for the marketing of ILVs, since the production is for subsistence mainly. Other organisations that support infrastructure development, especially dam construction includes ADRA, Catholic Diocese and Action Aid Ghana. World Vision International working at Bongo District is involved in the provision of extension and other services by organising training programs for leafy vegetable farmers on the safe use of agro-chemicals, integrated pest and crop management, the supply of vegetable seeds and a credit facility to farmers. Action Aid Ghana supports agriculture through their credit programs, provision of infrastructure (storage structures), input supply and the provision of animal traction facilities. TRAX Program Support, Catholic Diocese and ADRA are working on farmer’s education by raising awareness about the importance of large scale vegetable production and organic farming. Furthermore they provide training on soil and water conservation technologies to indigenous leafy vegetable farmers. TRAX believes that the future of rural communities in sub-Saharan Africa lies in low cost techniques of managing natural resources, which can be sustained by the communities themselves. TRAX believes in responding to the community needs rather than imposing ideas. It is the perception of TRAX that ILV farming is important for several reasons, e.g.: nutritional and medicinal importance of ILVs ability to adapt and suitability to the environment because they tolerate the long dry

seasons and the short rainy seasons short production time, which makes 3-4 yields per season possible income generation provision of employment throughout the year for a few people. ADRA, RUWA (Rural Women Association) and Catholic Diocese are involved in supporting farmers especially women by providing credit for income generating activities, including indigenous leafy vegetable production. RUWA is an association aiming at promoting women to engage themselves in all kinds of agricultural activities. Their emphasis is towards income generating activities such as processing, dry season vegetable production and livestock production. As part of the programme, they also offer training on different topics like health and environmental sustainability. The main component of their assistance to women farmer groups is to provide credit for income generating activities supported by training and encouraging savings. RUWA sees the potential of ILVs for commercialisation particularly in the dry season, as the demand is high. Their assessment was based on the repayment capacity of these farmers. According to

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RUWA the women who receive credit for indigenous leafy vegetables are able to repay in time. The Centre for Sustainable Development Initiatives (CENSUDI) is one of the NGOs whose vision is to address gender imbalances existing in all aspects of public life. The Centre strives to promote and strengthen practical strategies that actively mobilise women to participate in decision-making and opt for leadership positions. CENSUDI focuses on five main areas, which include violence against women, girl child education, women in public life, poverty reduction, and gender training. CENSUDI believes that the socio-economic and political equality of women is a major prerequisite for the development of a healthy and diversified civil society. The Centre therefore aims at providing women with the opportunity to acquire knowledge, skills, and confidence necessary to play a full part in the development process and to take charge of their lives and futures. Although CENSUDI is not at present involved in agricultural ventures they did help to create family wood-lot projects at Bongo Soe and Namoo. CENSUDI believes that the cultivation and commercial production of ILVs is relevant to their aspiration to reduce poverty and promote sustainable livelihoods among women. CENSUDI believes that the promotion of ILVs could assist in providing some employment for women who are the main stakeholders of ILV farming. Technoserve is working in a number of agricultural production lines that have a business orientation such as, vegetable and spices. Indigenous leafy vegetables are not included in this group however, due to its low commercial status. Technoserve would be interested to support indigenous leafy vegetable production if they see any business potential in it. 5.2 Farmers/community stakeholder linkages The result of the stakeholder analysis conducted at village level shows that a number of organisations are working at grass roots level (Table 5.1). A minimum of four organisations was observed at Widnaba and Sherigu, followed by 6 at Gaani and 7 at Binaba and Kandiga. A maximum of 11 was observed at Bongo Central. The large number of organisations recorded at Bongo Central might be due to upgrading the village to district status. NGOs and other institutions are interested in development and improvement of the food situation in order to fulfil the needs of a growing district. Every organisation has its specific area of interest which is ranging from helping disadvantaged groups (widow, orphans, old aged and disabled), providing support on agricultural technical matters, offering credit, advisory services on health and sanitation, provision of drinking water, education, agricultural input supply, agro-forestry and environmental conservation. The discussion in this section will concentrate on the relationship between the community and the stakeholders, as perceived by the farmers. In the Venn diagram (Fig 5.1) the distance between the circles represents the proximity between stakeholders and the community which is determined often by the frequency of contact, while their importance is reflected by the size of the circle. The bigger the circle the more important the organisation as indicated in the example of Bongo Central village.

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Table 5.1 Key stakeholders working in the surveyed villages

Village Key stakeholder Rainfed commercial with a limited market (Widnaba)

MoFA Garu Agricultural Station (GAS) ADRA Anglican Mission.

Rainfed commercial with access to the market (Sherigu)

MoFA Catholic Church IFAD Agricultural Bank (ADB).

Rainfed subsistence (Kandiga) MoFA Roman Catholic Rural Aid (IFAD) Kandiga Women Association (TOWONGO) CENSUDI Peace Corps Navrongo Health Research Centre

Irrigated commercial with a limited market (Binaba)

MoFA BACH (an Anglican Church NGO) Agricultural Rehabilitation Centre for the Blind

(ARC) Binaba Women Farmers’ Association (BIWFA) Ministry of Education, Ministry of Health.

Irrigated commercial with access to the market (Bongo Central)

MoFA World Vision Catholic Mission Rural Aid (IFAD) Chief Tindana Fire Service

Irrigated subsistence (Gaani) MoFA ICOUR Women Association Roman Catholic Navrongo Health Research Centre

Source: ICRA 2002, Stakeholder analysis Eleven stakeholders are working in collaboration with Bongo Central community. From the diagram, stakeholders like Word Vision, MoFA, schools and the hospital seem to be very important to the community and their relation with the community is strong. World Vision International is working in the area of education (building schools), farmer training on plant protection and agribusiness. They also provide credit for agricultural activities. Likewise MoFA provides agricultural technical training especially in manure application, water protection and animal health and they provide credit to the community in the form of bullocks and ploughs. These two organisations have a very strong relationship with the community.

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This could be due to their involvement in agricultural training and credit support to farmers who depend on farming as their main source of income. School for providing education is important as the community places a high value on education and stresses the importance by saying, “it is through education that all the intellectuals are developed”. The hospital was important as the health status determines the ability to undertake farming activities. To quote them, “you can only work at the farm if you are healthy, and that is why for us the hospital is very important”. Fig 5.1 Venn Diagram showing stakeholder relationships at Bongo Central Village Chiefs and Tindanas are important because they help to solve social disputes and land problems and they are performing the ceremonies for attracting rain. They also help the community by lobbying for development projects. The Catholic Mission and CRS are important because they provide food to the needy and old and, build schools. They provide clothing to children in schools and help families to pay school fees. In the area of agriculture, they provide seeds especially for groundnuts. Rural Aid provided them with hand dug wells and bore holes, which helped women in reducing the time spent to fetch drinking water. They have more time now to work on their farms.

BONGO CENTRAL

World Vision

Catholic Mission

CRS

Police

MoFA

School

Hospital

Chief

Tindana

Fire Service

Rural Aid

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The Fire Service created awareness on bush burning, tree cutting (deforestation) and offers training on conservation of natural resources. They also report fire hazards to obtain support from the disaster office while the police help the community in peace keeping. MoFA is important in supporting agricultural activities in the villages. However, its relationship varies between the different villages. Weak relations were reported at Kandiga, Widnaba and Binaba due to infrequent visits by MoFA officers. There is a reduction in MoFA supplying inputs to the community. In villages like Sherigu, Bongo Central and Gaani the relationship between MoFA and the village is valued as strong due to their technical support through training and the linkage mechanism they offer to farmers access to financial institutions for credit. In Gaani, the relationship with the extension worker was valued more than with the ministry itself. Other organisations supporting agriculture in technical matters are ICOUR at Gaani and World Vision at Bongo Central. There are more organisations supporting agriculture in diverse ways. For example, Navrongo Health Research Centre at Kandiga and Gaani offers advice to households on the nutritional importance of leafy vegetables and this motivates farmers to produce them. CENSUDI at Kandiga offers credit for income generating activities including leafy vegetable production. The Peace Corps at Kandiga and the Tindanas are concerned with environmental conservation in terms of soil conservation and tree planting. 5. 3 Stakeholder linkages Stakeholder linkages and their relations were analysed by individual stakeholders with reference to other organisations (Table 5.2). MoFA expressed that it has good linkages with World Vision International, Action Aid, SARI, ARI, SRMC and UDS. The linkage was either through collaboration in research activities or collaboration in agricultural technical training. The strong linkage between MoFA and ICOUR is due to the fact that they belong to the same ministry. ICOUR collaborates with SARI in research and provides inputs to Action Aid clients. World Vision International and Action Aid perceive MoFA as a source of resource persons for their own programs. World Vision International indicated that its linkage with SRMC and ICOUR is moderate, as it is indirect. Action Aid on the other hand views its linkages with ICOUR and TRAX as very good as they receive technical support on dam construction, canal maintenance and soil and water conservation. According to Techhnoserve’s perception, its linkages with MoFA, TRAX and ICOUR are mainly directed at agricultural information sharing. A moderate linkage is observed between some stakeholders, which was attributed to a difference in working sites, operational areas and clients. 5.4 Potential roles of stakeholders in promotion of ILVs The stakeholders indicated their potential roles with regard to the promotion of indigenous leafy vegetables (Appendix 15). Stakeholders showed interest in areas like improvement of vegetable production through farmer schools. MoFA, TRAX, RUWA and SARI pointed out

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Table 5.2 Indigenous leafy vegetables stakeholder linkage matrix

Linkage

Key stakeholder

Veg

etab

le

prod

ucer

MoF

A

SA

RI

AR

I

UD

S

SR

MC

WV

I

Act

ion

Aid

TR

AX

TE

CH

OS

ER

VE

RU

WA

ICO

UR

AD

RA

Cat

holic

Dio

cese

Rur

al A

id I

FA

D

1. Vegetable producer +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ ++ +++ +++

2. MoFA +++ +++ +++ ++ +++ +++ ++ +++

3. SARI +++ +++

4. ARI +++

5. UDS +++ ++

6. SRMC +++ + +++

7. WVI +++ ++ ++

8. Action Aid +++ +++ +

9. TRAX ++ +++ +++ + +

10. TECHOSERVE + ++ + +

11. RUWA ++

12. ICOUR +++ + +++ +++ ++

13. ADRA +

14. Catholic Diocese

15. Rural Aid IFAD

Index: +++ Very Good, ++ Good, + Moderate, NA: No Linkage, – Bad Source: ICRA 2002, Stakeholder analysis

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their interest in extension on organic farming. Farmers want to expand the area under ILVs and lift production to a commercial level, and this is supported by Action Aid, ICOUR, UDS, TRAX, MoFA, Technoserve and Catholic Diocese. Support for infrastructure development and irrigation facilities, e.g. construction of dams and hand-dug wells is seen as crucial in the promotion of indigenous leafy vegetables. Two organisations, ICOUR and Rural Aid are interested in infrastructure development to support indigenous leafy vegetables. The Nutrition Department at UDS and ARI focus on research on the nutritional and medicinal uses of indigenous leafy vegetables and the potential use of their residues as livestock feed and fibre. Development and promotion of processing techniques for indigenous leafy vegetables to improve the quality and shelf life of vegetables have the support of Technoserve, ICOUR and Catholic diocese. SARI, MoFA, ICOUR and Catholic Diocese expressed interest in seed multiplication either on-station or on-farm for the improvement of seed quality and supply. SRMC and ARI indicated conservation of indigenous species through identification of “hot spots” and protection of species as areas of interest. World Vision, Technoserve and RUWA are interested in poverty reduction through supporting income generation activities and provision of credit to farmers, especially women. These organisations are also willing to support indigenous leafy vegetable producers by providing them with credit. MoFA and Rural Aid on the other hand are willing to facilitate linkages between farmers and credit institutions.

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CHAPTER 6 IDENTIFICATION AND SCREENING OF DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES

Identifying development strategies is one of the important steps in the ARD procedure. After organising the team and defining the system of interest, the third phase of the ARD procedure starts with the targeting of research to specific groups. This phase analyses the system of interest from various analytical and disciplinary perspectives, which include livelihood systems, agro-ecosystems/farming systems, knowledge and information systems and, commodity systems. These analyses are done in relation to their relevance to the system of interest and the problematique. The analysis, finally, leads to formulation of development strategies with various stakeholders (Fig.6.1). Fig 6.1 ARD Phase III, Identifying development strategies Source: ICRA 6.1 Constraints There are several technological, socio-economic and institutional problems associated with conservation, cultivation, processing and marketing of ILVs in UER that limit their cultivation on a commercial scale. The perceptions of farmers and other stakeholders on the major constraints in ILV conservation, cultivation, processing and marketing were gathered. These perceptions are presented in the sections that follow. 6.1.1 Farmers’ perceptions Farmers’ perceptions on constraints in ILV production were collected through individual household surveys. A total of 55 households from six villages were surveyed (Table 6.1).

Targeting research to specific groups

Identifying development strategy

Analyzing the system from different disciplinary

perspectives

Phase IV

Phase II

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Table 6.1 Farmers’ perceptions on constraints in ILV production in UER of Ghana

S.N Constraints Percentage of respondents

Rainfed villages Irrigated villages Average

Kandiga (1)

Widnaba (2)

Sherigu (3)

Gaani (4)

Binaba(5)

Bongo (6)

1. Limited access to financial capital/credit

80 86 77 77 80 80 80

2. Poor soil fertility 20 43 11 11 60 50 33 3. High cost of fertiliser 40 27 44 77 60 80 55 4. Pest and disease

infestation 45 43 22 33 50 70 44

5. Limited access to labour

20 43 11 33 20 20 25

6. Limited access to bullocks

10 72 44 11 20 70 38

7. Limited market demand for ILV

20 14 33 44 40 30 30

8. Erratic rains 30 100 99 22 100 10 60 N.B: (1) = Rainfed and subsistence; (2) = Rainfed, commercial with limited access to market; (3) = Rainfed, commercial with easy access to market; (4) = Irrigated and subsistence; (5) = Irrigated, commercial with limited access to market and (6) = Irrigated, commercial with easy access to market. Source: ICRA Field Study 2002, Household survey of 55 households from six villages. A majority of farmers (80%) responds that limited access to credit is one of the most important constraints limiting the purchase and application of inputs for ILV cultivation. Other important constraints are erratic rainfall (60%), insects/pests and disease infestation (44%), and high cost of buying or hiring bullocks (38%). Poor soil fertility (33%), low market demand of ILVs (30%) and limited access to labour due to non-affordability (25%) are other constraints limiting the production of ILVs. High costs of chemical fertilisers was the major concern of farmers producing under irrigated conditions (72%) as they are forced to apply chemical fertilisers for ILVs production because of the limited availability of manure. Farmers under rainfed conditions, usually, do not apply chemical fertilisers and hence they are less concerned about this (37%). Farmers at Binaba and Bongo produce large quantities of ILVs under irrigated conditions. They experience a high level of insect/pest and disease problems, possibly due to lack of alternative plant hosts for the pests. 6.1.2 Stakeholders’ perceptions Stakeholders’ perceptions on the major constraints related to ILVs conservation, cultivation, processing and marketing were collected through a group exercise with various stakeholders during the mid-term workshop and during interviews with them. The major constraints as indicated by the stakeholders are summarised in Table 6.2.

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Table 6.2 Stakeholders’ perceptions on constraints in ILV production in UER of Ghana

Aspects Main constraints Conservation Limited number of institutions involved in conservation of ILVs

No policy priority for ILVs Inadequate knowledge on importance of conservation of ILVs Lack of funding for conservation of ILVs Inadequate empirical data on ILVs No research on mode of conservation of ILVs Negative perception of people towards ILVs (the higher the

income/education level, the lower the preference for ILVs) Cultivation Almost no modern technologies developed for cultivation of ILVs

No formal breeding programs on ILVs Marginal land allocation for ILVs Competition from exotic vegetable species Lack of credit/funding Limited preference of people for ILVs Limited awareness of nutritional values of ILVs Perception of people towards ILVs as minor crops Highly perishable nature of the ILVs

Processing Difficulty in processing Limited processing techniques available

Marketing Limited markets No market research Changing tastes of people Lack of industrial usage Lack of market promotion Low local prices of ILVs Inappropriate transportation and packaging Limited distribution channels

Source: ICRA Field study 2002, Group exercise during Mid-term Workshop It was observed that ILVs received little attention due to low market value. No research was done on ILVs in this region. The Savana Agricultural Research Institute (SARI), having the research mandate on agricultural commodities, expressed that their proposal for research on ILVs was not accepted since there was no adequate justification of the problems. Very limited documentation has, so far, been produced on ILVs. The main reason for this could be that ILVs are not a priority under the agricultural development programs of MoFA and other organisations. According to MoFA in Kassena-Nankana District, one of the main problems associated with the cultivation of indigenous leafy vegetables is the use of poor quality seed by farmers. These are usually reserved from previous harvests. Seeds are not produced under proper conditions. Most of the time, various insect pests and diseases infest crops. The poor seed storage facilities also contribute to the post-harvest losses of seed.

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The unfavourable climatic conditions affect production, collection and eventually consumption of ILVs. The rains are either too much or too little and affect production. Poor soil fertility and low input application are the other factors contributing to the low ILV production. The presence of small to large-scale irrigation schemes contributes to the production of ILVs. The ILV production is limited by the size of the irrigation scheme. In small and medium scale schemes, utilisation of the dam for irrigation goes up to March. The production of exotic vegetables such as onions, tomatoes and peppers in this period attracts higher profits and hence farmers are more inclined to produce these vegetables. ILVs are considered as minor crops and receive little or no priority the current production system. Environmental degradation, which is caused by bush burning, contributes to the disappearance of the wild or collected ILV species. The cultural factors or ethnic tastes and preferences in the communities affect the type of ILV species that may be cultivated or collected. Educational background affects the choice of vegetables for food. The well-educated and perhaps privileged in society do not prefer ILVs because eating exotic vegetable is associated with a higher social status than eating ILVs. MoFA at Bongo perceives that ILVs contribute substantially to the household food security especially during dry seasons. Due to the poor soil fertility, less food is produced in the dry season and most of the food reserves are used up during customary funeral celebrations during this period. This leaves the households with little or no food. During May and July therefore, ILVs become important components of the diet. Despite this crucial role of ILVs in ensuring food security, the production of ILVs is not given adequate prominence in the cropping system. ILVs are produced on the compound and as a border crop in main crop farms. During rainy seasons large quantities of ILVs are produced in every household, resulting in low market demand. Reduced or limited sunshine hours in the rainy seasons mean poor drying conditions and spoilage of the leafy vegetables. The major processing technology used is sun drying. Currently, the WIAD project is trying to improve the processing technology by introducing solar dryers and training women farmers in solar drying. The Rural Women Association (RUWA), an NGO based at Navrongo, sees the level of technical know-how among women farmers as limited, especially on the use of chemical fertilisers and pesticides. The poor storage and processing facilities during the rainy season contribute to post harvest losses of the ILVs. RUWA is of the opinion that the possibilities for marketing processed ILVs are limited as many people prefer fresh vegetables. But they are willing to support these women with more credit for buying solar dryers if they can prove that their main constraint is money. The Irrigation Company of Upper East Region (ICOUR) is of the opinion that indigenous knowledge is disappearing rather than the species themselves. ICOUR suggests that, if possible, indigenous knowledge should be documented for future reference. The production of the ILVs is easy. They are characterised by a short production cycle and low costs of production. They are seasonally produced, with supply exceeding demand in the rainy season. In the dry season, market demand is higher than supply due to reduced production of ILVs at that time. Farmers are not organised for marketing of ILVs as the production is mainly at subsistence scale. According to ICOUR, production of ILVs has commercial potential for women who lack financial assistance and have limited technical know-how. ICOUR would offer support on plant protection, processing technology, land expansion,

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improvement/construction of small-scale dams, facilitate marketing organisation and improvement of infrastructure. Action Aid considers the water issue as the main constraint limiting ILV production in the UER. Other problems include insect/pests, inappropriate storage and low market prices. Catholic Diocese and Adventists Development and Relief Agency (ADRA), think the lack of consciousness of people towards ILVs, low income from ILVs, small farm holdings, unorganised market and problem of drying ILVs in the rainy season are the major problems associated with the promotion of ILVs in UER. 6.2 Opportunities There are several opportunities for ILV production in UER that can be exploited for promoting commercialisation of ILV cultivation in this region. The perceptions of stakeholders on the possible opportunities for promoting ILV conservation, cultivation, processing and marketing were collected during the mid-term workshop. The major opportunities as indicated by stakeholders are summarised in Table 6.3. Table 6.3 Stakeholders’ perceptions on opportunities for ILV production in UER

Aspects Main opportunities Conservation Growing interest for consumption

Increased use for medicinal purposes e.g child nutrition Increasing knowledge Improving perception and attitude Increased donor support Increased intellectual interest

Cultivation Income generating No gender barriers Increase in production Decreasing medical bills (medicinal values) Available water sources Indigenous knowledge is available Well adapted Low input and labour requirements Little technology required Early maturity Multiple harvests

Processing Availability of solar dryers Limitless sunshine Large quantity of produce

Marketing Income generating Viable local markets Potential external markets

Source: ICRA Ghana 2002, Group exercise during Mid-term Workshop

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6.3 Development strategies Considering the constraints and opportunities analysis results together with the analysis of information collected during the in-depth study in different villages, the team proposed some development strategies to overcome the constraints and exploit the opportunities. The strategies were presented and discussed at a stakeholders’ meeting, resulting in some modifications. A list of development strategies along with the farm types they are appropriate for is presented in Table 6.4. Table 6.4 Development strategies for promotion of ILVs in UER of Ghana S.N. Development strategies Farm types Conservation 1.

Germ plasm collection, evaluation and seed bank establishment

All farm types

2. Documentation and dissemination of indigenous knowledge on ILVs

All farm types

3. In situ conservation of wild/collected species of ILVs

Rainfed subsistence and rainfed commercial limited/easy access to market

Cultivation

4. Including ILVs in seed multiplication program

Rainfed and irrigated commercial limited/easy access to market

5. Improvement in cropping system. All farm types

6. Balanced use of manure/compost and chemical fertilisers for ILVs cultivation

All farm types

7. Use of integrated pest management (IPM) techniques

All farm types

8. Provision of more small, medium and large scale irrigation schemes and diversified use of irrigation sources

All farm types

Processing

9. Establishment of small-scale/cottage processing and packaging industries

All farm types

Marketing

10. Promotion of commercialisation potential of ILVs through mass media

All farm types

11. Mobilisation of farmers association or co-operatives for production, processing and marketing of ILVs

All farm types

12. Proper handling of ILVs to reduce post harvest losses

All farm types

Others/institutional improvement

13. Awareness creation on multipurpose use of ILVs

All farm types

14. Incorporating ILVs under MOFA and other organisations’ development programs

All farm types

15. Encouragement of credit institutions to provide credit to ILVs producer’s group

Rainfed and irrigated commercial with easy access to market

16. Improvement in market facilities All farm types Source: ICRA 2002, Stakeholders meeting

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6.3.1 Conservation strategies Conservation strategies have to encompass not just the cultivated and collected species of ILVs, but also the indigenous knowledge that farmers possess. Three strategies proposed for the conservation of ILV species and indigenous knowledge are described below. Germplasm collection, evaluation and seed bank establishment Because of the various constraints and problems associated with ILVs, farmers in some areas are motivated to continue production of ILVs. Farmers in irrigated areas prefer to grow more marketable and lucrative exotic vegetable species. Though there is no evidence that any of the cultivated species of ILV are going out of cultivation, there is a need to maintain all the species that are being grown in the region. Bush clearing, bush burning, overgrazing/browsing by livestock and low rainfall contribute to the gradual disappearance of collected species of ILVs and a loss of bio-diversity in this area. There is an urgent need to collect germplasm of all the ILVs available in the area and maintain them through establishment of a seed/gene bank. This strategy will benefit all the farm types under both rainfed and irrigated conditions. Maintaining the germplasm and establishment of a seed/gene bank can be done at some farms or research stations or in farmers’ fields under intensive guidance and management by researchers. This strategy will not only help conserve the species but can also supply seeds in case of crop failure. Documentation and dissemination of indigenous knowledge on ILVs Farmers have been growing ILVs for many decades in the study area using their indigenous technologies, which are well adapted to the local conditions. They have acquired much indigenous knowledge from the older generations and through experience. Since no research is being undertaken to generate new technologies on ILV cultivation and processing, indigenous knowledge is under such circumstances very important. The gradual passing away of the older generation and migration of people to urban areas are major threats for maintaining indigenous knowledge. Therefore, collecting and documenting the indigenous knowledge available, is very important in order to promote the continuous production and commercialisation of ILVs. Although this study has collected some indigenous knowledge on nutrition, medicinal properties, cultivation techniques, use of indigenous materials for insects/pests and disease control, processing and storage techniques (Chapter 3), there is a need to do more intensive exercises to cover a wider area. The collected indigenous knowledge should be documented and published in very simple language and should be made available to the various institutions and farmers’ groups involved in promoting ILVs. Simply documenting the indigenous knowledge does not achieve anything unless it is passed on to a wider population. Therefore, formalising the dissemination of this knowledge to farmers through the training programs of MoFA and other organisations is very important. Farmer groups can also be mobilised to facilitate farmer to farmer transfer of this knowledge. Simultaneously, research institutes should verify the effectiveness of indigenous techniques and suggest, if necessary, refinements and adaptations to improve their effectiveness in changing circumstances.

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In situ conservation of wild/collected species of ILVs As discussed in Chapter 3, the quantity of collected ILVs is declining due to decreasing availability of the wild species in the bush. Factors such as bush burning and clearing of bush for cultivation, increased fire wood collection and overgrazing/browsing on by livestock are contributing to the reduced availability and disappearance of some ILV species from the bush. Lack of awareness of the importance of conservation is one factor leading to this. Therefore, awareness creation of the importance of conservation and appropriate methods of collection of different ILV species becomes relevant. 6.3.2 Cultivation strategies Five different development strategies have been proposed to overcome constraints in cultivation and these are:

seed multiplication improvement in cropping systems integrated nutrient management integrated pest management establishment of irrigation systems.

Inclusion of ILVs in the seed multiplication program The cultivation of ILVs in UER mainly depends on seeds reserved from previous harvests of farmers (83%). Some farmers (17%) also receive seeds from neighbours and relatives and others (38%) buy seeds from local markets. These seeds are of poor quality and there is no seed multiplication program on ILVs. Farmers produce their seeds without maintaining isolation distances, adopting rogueing, and other pre and post harvest quality control measures. They also do not follow the minimum seed quality standards such as germination percentage, moisture content, maximum foreign materials in seed etc. The use of poor quality seeds limits the productivity of crops. Therefore, there is a need to improve the quality of ILV seeds through formal seed multiplication programs that ensure all the pre and post harvest quality measures. It is important to include ILVs under the seed multiplication programs of MoFA and other organisations. As there is not much information available on seed production of ILVs, research on seed production techniques of ILVs should be conducted to guide the seed multiplication program. This strategy can be implemented especially in areas where ILVs are grown on commercial scale under both irrigated and rainfed systems. Improvement in cropping systems Under rainfed conditions, ILVs are mainly grown mixed with other crops (74%). About 26% of the farmers grow them as single stand crop but on a very small scale in compound farms around the houses. Farmers mix seeds of two or more crops together and plant in one hole. Similarly, they do not maintain proper plant spacing or the appropriate plant density. This might be attributed to scarcity of land. In order to maximise the utilisation of land and reduce the risk of crop failure, farmers cultivate several crops. Farmers also lack the knowledge on crop compatibility, spacing, and effectiveness of mixed cropping or mixed seeding.

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Under irrigated conditions farmers grow various crops throughout the year, which allows all types of insects to survive for longer period because of the availability of different host plants. Similarly, ILVs are grown under mono cropping systems (100%) however, 19% are also grown as mixed crops with cereals where ILVs are planted as boundary crop. Farmers continue to grow the same crop on a particular piece of land for several years. This increases the chances on various diseases and insects/pests and nematode infestations specific to the crop. Therefore, there is a need to improve the cropping systems under both rainfed and irrigated conditions. As there are a limited number of technologies available on these aspects, research on appropriate combinations of crops for mixed cropping, mixed seeding and on appropriate plant spacing appears necessary. It is also important to follow crop rotation with different of crops under irrigated conditions. Balanced use of manure/compost and chemical fertilisers In the rainfed area of the farmers growing leafy vegetables only 59% are using manure. However, 41% of the respondents indicated that they apply chemical fertilisers to other crops grown on the same plot as ILVs. As the cost of fertilisers is very high, most farmers cannot afford them. Farmers cannot make much profit out of rainfed farming of ILVs and hence they think it is uneconomical to use chemical fertilisers. However, due to the limited availability of manure, they can not apply sufficient quantities of this either. Under this condition the soil can not supply the required nutrients to the crops and hence the productivity remains low. Under irrigated conditions farmers usually do not apply manure but rather apply chemical fertilisers (52%) to ILVs though in small quantities. Farmers who are growing ILVs on a commercial scale under irrigated conditions and making a profit can afford to apply chemical fertilisers as the investment made will be paid back. However, application of chemical fertilisers alone without manure or compost has a negative effect on soil structure. Therefore, the balanced use of manure/compost and chemical fertilisers is important for all the farm types to supply the required nutrients to plants without destroying the soil structure. Research on the appropriate ratio of manure/compost and chemical fertilisers and their time of application is required. Use of integrated pest management (IPM) techniques Insects/pests and diseases attacks on ILVs are one of the major constraints of leafy vegetable production. The household survey conducted in six villages indicated that 22 to 70% respondents perceived the problem of insects/pests and disease attack as a major constraint for ILVs production (Table 6.1). Some farmers do not take any measures to control as the production is done on a small scale. The majority of farmers (75%) do not apply any chemicals to control insects/pests or diseases of ILVs. Most of the farmers use wood ash (71%) or neem leaves extracts (19%) to control the insect/pests. As farmers earn a very small income from the sale of ILVs, they cannot afford to buy the expensive chemicals. However, in irrigated conditions, under dry season commercial scale farming some farmers (19%) use some chemicals to control insect/pests and diseases. Spraying of chemicals on leafy vegetables has, no doubt, an adverse effect on consumers’ health, as the possibility of large residues on the leaves exist. The use of integrated pest management (IPM) techniques is important to control insects/pests and diseases of ILVs. IPM refers to the minimum and safe use of chemicals and increased use

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of biological agents and organic materials for pest control. The use of locally available botanicals like neem and local materials like wood ash are the cheapest and easiest options for farmers to use. IPM could be very expensive if high cost biological agents are used. Therefore, research on the use of locally available botanicals for plant protection and effectiveness of different indigenous pest control measures is necessary. Provision of more small, medium and large scale irrigation schemes and diversified use of irrigation sources In UER though some important irrigation facilities have been established, these can only serve to a small portion of arable land. The two National projects in this region i.e. Tono and Vea together provide irrigation to 1.1 % of the cultivated area in UER (ICRA Ghana, 1999). There are 228 dams and dugouts in the whole UER (Dery, 1998 as cited by ICRA Ghana, 1999) which are not meant for irrigation purposes but for livestock watering and domestic purposes. Most of the dams are very old and their water storage capacity is reduced by siltation, breaches of and damage to their spillways. Under LACOSREP I, a total of 36 dams and 8 dugouts were rehabilitated which provide irrigation to 0.18 % of the total cultivated area in the region. Similarly, there are some hand-dug wells, which also support cultivation of vegetables, but on a very small scale. There might be more dams and dugouts constructed after the year 1999 of which no data are available. This indicates that a very small proportion of cultivated land in UER is under irrigation and that very few farmers have access to irrigation for ILVs cultivation. There is a need to establish more small-scale dugouts, small water harvesting ponds and boreholes. In addition, provision should be made to diversify the use of these water sources i.e. for livestock watering, domestic purpose and use for small-scale irrigation. Similarly, some more medium and large scale dams should be constructed to cover a larger area. Maintenance of the existing irrigation structures is also very important for their effective use. 6.3.3 Processing strategies Establishment of small-scale/cottage processing and packaging industries A large proportion of ILVs produced in UER comes from rainfed farming during the rainy season (May to Sep/Oct). In this season almost all households in the villages produce ILVs, mainly for their own consumption. There is comparatively low demand for ILVs in the market during this period because most of the households produce. Farmers dry some ILVs and store it for consumption and sale in the dry season. During this season (Oct to April) very few households, having access to irrigation water, can produce ILVs and hence most of the farmers have to depend on stored dry vegetables until the rains start. This situation forces farmers to process ILVs during the rainy season. In the household survey, it was found that the majority of the respondents who process ILVs (81%) use the direct sun drying method. Direct exposure to sunlight destroys colour, vitamins and flavour in the food (Kordylas, 1990; Agamba, 2001). During drying vitamins A and ascorbic acid contents are also greatly reduced. Other problems experienced by farmers using this method are that vegetables get contaminated with dust and they blown away by winds. Furthermore, rainfall many times disrupts the drying process and when there is not enough sunlight it is difficult to dry.

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The proposed strategy focuses on establishing small-scale/cottage industries for processing of ILVs, which includes introduction of solar dryer and in the long term canning of processed vegetables. A solar dryer does not need intensive sunlight and vegetables do not get exposed to direct sun light, dust, wind and rain and retain more or less its original colour. It could be a good alternative technology for processing ILVs. Though efforts are being made by MoFA, WIAD, RUWA and some other organisations to improve the processing technique by introducing solar dryers and providing training to women farmers in solar drying, some extra effort is needed to demonstrate and promote different types of solar dryers in the region. It was observed that the solar dryer is very expensive (about 250,000 Cedis) and hence, most of the farmers can not afford to buy it personally. Therefore, farmers’ Groups/Associations or co-operatives should be encouraged to buy solar dryers. In addition, the possibilities for some other processing methods for ILVs should be explored through research. 6.3.4 Marketing strategies Promotion of the commercialisation potential of ILVs through mass media Despite having high nutritional and medicinal values and being an important source of food, the market demand for ILVs is still low. This could be attributed to limited awareness of the importance of ILVs. On the other hand, ILVs are not able to compete with exotic vegetables like tomatoes, cabbages, lettuce and pepper. ILV growers do not get as much profit as in exotic vegetables mainly because of the low demand and low prices of ILVs. This study showed that some ILV species such as Alefu, Bito, Berese and Bento have very good potential for commercialisation, and could compete with the exotic species. The proposed strategy suggests that the market promotion of such vegetable crops should be done through publicising the importance of ILVs to increase their market demand. Such publicity can be done through mass media such as television, radio, posters and pamphlets. Mobilisation of farmers’ associations or co-operatives in production, processing and marketing of ILVs During the study it was observed that there are several village based Community Organisations (Susu at Sherigu), Women Associations (Kandiga, Bongo Central, Gaani), Water Users Associations (Bongo, Binaba and Sherigu), Youth Associations (Gaani, Bongo Central and Widnaba) and a Farmers’ and Traders’ Associations (Gaani) in the villages in UER. The roles of these associations/organisations mainly include promoting income generating activities for women (pito making, rice parboiling, shea nut butter trading), dam maintenance, other agricultural activities like rice, groundnut and exotic vegetable production, saving and credit, and trading of agricultural commodities. These associations/organisations are specific to some villages and none of them are involved in ILV cultivation, processing or marketing. Farmers’ groups/associations and co-operatives can play an important role in co-ordinating the ILVs production in the region if they are well organised. Therefore, formation of farmers/consumers associations or co-operatives that mobilise all the new and existing associations to co-ordinate cultivation, input supply, processing and marketing is very important. Training on co-operative management should be provided to the people involved in such associations and co-operatives to build capacity for their effective management.

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Proper handling of fresh ILVs to reduce post harvest losses The ILVs produced by farmers are not completely harvested and that part which is harvested is not fully utilised. There are always some losses occurring at different stages of production, harvesting, handling, sorting, packaging, and transporting. After harvesting, ILVs are mostly carried to the markets in sacks, polythene bags and metallic basins and no proper care is taken in packaging and handling of the produce while taking to the market. The poor roads and unreliable transportation most often delay carrying the produce to the market resulting in deterioration of product quality. Similarly, if the harvest is abundant and could not be sold in the market it gets spoiled because ILVs are highly perishable. Therefore, technologies on suitable packaging materials and packaging methods for safe transport of the produce to the market should be developed and disseminated. Training to producers and traders for safe handling of fresh ILVs should be organised to reduce the post harvest losses. 6.3.5 Others/institutional strategies Awareness creation on multipurpose use of ILVs Indigenous leafy vegetables (ILVs) are rich sources of vitamins, minerals, proteins and fibres, which are essential for the growth and development of human health (Chapter 3). These crops are important providers of vitamins and micro-nutrients in the diets of the people in UER. ILVs also have some important medicinal values. These vegetables are used in either fresh or dried form to cook for making stew or soup. With some species like Berese (Kennaf) and Bito after several harvests of leaves, plants are left for fibre production. The fibre is used for making ropes. Similarly the residues of leafy vegetables can also be used for livestock feed. Such multipurpose use of ILVs should be explored further and people should be made aware of them. For this purpose mass media such as television, radio, posters, pamphlets could be used. MoFA and other organisations should organise different training programs for village based organisations or farmers’ groups which can further help in disseminating the information to wider audiences. The health centres should also pass the message on nutritional and medicinal importance of ILVs to people. This will encourage people to grow and use ILVs and consequently the market demand for ILVs will increase. Incorporating ILVs under MoFA and other organisations’ development programs Cultivation of indigenous leafy vegetables in UER has so far been based on farmers’ initiatives. Most of the technologies with regard to the conservation, cultivation and processing of ILVs are based on farmers’ indigenous knowledge being passed from generation to generation. Almost no attention has been paid by any research and development organisations to the promotion of ILVs in this region. MoFA being responsible for overall agricultural development in the region also does not seem to have ILVs under their priority crops. Similarly, other development organisations do not have any special program on ILVs. Though some organisations are indirectly supporting ILVs through providing irrigation support (ICOUR, Action-Aid, Catholic Diocese, LACOSREP under MoFA), credit support (RUWA, Mata-N-Tudu, ICOUR) and training on integrated pest management (MoFA, World Vision, ICOUR), these programs are for general crop/vegetable production and not specially meant for ILVs. As a result very little documentation was done on ILVs so far.

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In order to promote the commercialisation of ILV cultivation, these crops should also get priority under agricultural development and poverty alleviation programs. MOFA should include and collaborate with other organisations to incorporate ILVs under their programs as priority crops. Encouragement of credit institutions to provide credit to ILV producer groups There are many organisations in the region supporting farmers in crop production, inputs supply and income generation activities by providing credit. Agricultural Development Bank (ADB), World Vision, Action Aid, ADRA, RUWA, Catholic Diocese, Maata-N-Tudu, ICOUR and LACOSREP (under MoFA) are providing credit support to farmers for different agricultural and income generating activities. However, they do not have any program focussed especially on ILVs. Households interviews indicated limited access to credit as the most important constraint (80%) in ILV production. Farmers expressed a need for credit for buying inputs, hiring bullocks and buying solar dryers (in groups). As cultivation of ILVs does not require much expensive inputs like other exotic vegetables, a micro-credit scheme could be appropriate for ILV production. Therefore, proper co-ordination of potential credit supply institutions is needed to encourage them to provide micro-credit to ILV producers and farmers/consumers associations or co-operatives for cultivation. MoFA could take the lead in addressing this issue. Improvement in market facilities Indigenous leafy vegetables are highly perishable and can spoil quickly if not handled properly. Direct exposure to sunlight may cause bleaching and scorching of the produce (Christiane, 1996 as cited by Yeboah 2001). It also causes loss of moisture from the leaves resulting in wrinkling and wilting of the leaves ultimately destroying the leaf quality. Consumers prefer leaves that look fresh and attractive. In the interest of hygiene they should be free from dust particles and other types of contamination. This could be possible if the leaves are sold in clean sheds or stalls. The team visited many markets where ILVs were being sold in open places, placed on the ground where there is the possibility of the above mentioned factors prevailing, which will destroy the quality of leaves and could affect health. Therefore, improvement in market facilities in terms of establishing appropriate stalls or sheds is necessary. 6.4 Screening of development strategies The above-explained development strategies were screened for their anticipated effect on the natural resource sustainability, social equity and economic competitiveness. This helps in detecting the potential problems that may arise in implementing the strategies and based on the outcomes, decisions can be made to address the problems or to refine/modify a strategy appropriately if possible. The sixteen development strategies identified by the team were screened using three broad criteria: environmental sustainability, social equity and economic competitiveness. For each of these criteria, some sub-criteria were developed by the team which were presented to the stakeholders during a meeting and based on their suggestions refined (Table 6.5).

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Table 6.5 Criteria used for screening development strategies

Criteria Sub-criteria Environmental sustainability Soil conservation

Bio-diversity conservation Air pollution control Water conservation/pollution control

Social equity Equal benefits for men and women Equal benefits for small and large farmers Acceptability to different ethnic groups Equal benefits for producers, traders and consumers Equal benefits for different age groups

Economic competitiveness Potential for income generation Enhancement of food security Low labour requirements Low capital requirements

Each sub-criteria was given a weight by the stakeholders using pair-wise ranking and then each criteria was given a weight by compiling the scores. The stakeholders considered environmental sustainability as the most important criterion followed by economic competitiveness and social equity and gave weights of 0.6 (0.5 at Sherigu), 0.3 and 0.1 (0.2 at Sherigu) respectively to these criteria. Screening of the development strategies was done at two different stages using the above-mentioned criteria. In the first stage, the screening was done with various stakeholders representing research stations (SARI, Manga Research Station), extension (MoFA) and NGOs (SRMP, TRAX, Technoserve, Catholic Diocese). While in the second stage, screening was done with farmers at the two of villages Bongo Central and Sherigu representing irrigated and rainfed production systems respectively. A matrix scoring method was used for screening where each cell was given a score out of a total score of ten, which was then multiplied by the weight to get weighted scores. The compiled results of the screening exercise are presented in Table 6.6. Based on the feedback received from stakeholders, the strategies for conservation, cultivation, processing, marketing and institutional improvement aspects were considered separately. At least two top-scoring strategies for each component, were used for the formulation of research and development options. The only strategy for processing was selected and further developed. Farmers at Sherigu and other stakeholders see in situ conservation as having a very positive impact on the environment, benefiting all social categories of people and it does not require much labour and capital to materialise. Farmers from Bongo Central think that it will have a positive impact on the environment but expect it will favour more women than men and only those capable of collecting leaves from the bush will benefit economically. Documentation and dissemination of indigenous knowledge on ILVs was accepted as a very important strategy for farmers but, other stakeholders feel that it will not have much impact on environmental sustainability (soil conservation, air pollution control and water conservation) and on income generation.

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Table 6.6 Matrix scoring for screening of development strategies with farmers and other stakeholders

S.N.

Criteria Strategies

Stakeholders (other than farmers)

Farmers at the irrigated site (Bongo)

Farmers at the rainfed site (Sherigu)

Average score

Overall ranking

Conservation 1. In situ conservation of

wild/collected species of ILVs 7.48

8.7

9.7

8.63

I III

2. Documentation and dissemination of Indigenous Knowledge on ILVs

5.39

9.5

9.5

8.13 II

VIII

3. Germplasm collection, evaluation and seed bank establishment

5.13

9.4

8.7

7.74

X

Cultivation 4. Provision of more small, medium

and large scale irrigation schemes and diversified use of irrigation sources

6.46

9.6

10.0

8.69 I

I

5. Use of integrated pest management (IPM) techniques

7.32

10.0

8.7

8.67 II

II

6. Improvement in cropping system 8.21 8.6 8.6 8.47 IV 7. Balanced use of manure/compost

and chemical fertilisers for ILVs cultivation

7.79

8.7

8.1

8.20 VI

8. Including ILVs in seed multiplication program

6.65

9.0

8.9

8.18 VII

Processing 9. Establishment of small-

scale/cottage processing and packaging industries

3.51

8.0

7.5

6.34 I

XVI

Marketing 10. Proper handling of ILVs to reduce

post harvest losses 4.35

9.1

8.6

7.35

I XI

11. Promotion of commercialisation potential of ILVs through mass media

4.16

7.5

9.3

6.99 II

XII

12. Mobilisation of farmers associations or co-operatives in production, processing and marketing of ILVs

3.9

9.1

6.9

6.63 XV

Others/institutional improvement 13. Incorporating ILVs under MoFA

and other organisations’ development programs

7.17

8.5

9.1

8.26 I

V

14. Awareness creation on multipurpose use of ILVs

6.45

8.9

8.9

8.08 II

IX

15. Encouragement of credit institutions to provide credit to ILVs producers

3.43

7.8

9.1

6.78 XIII

16. Improvement in market facilities 3.96 8.0 8.3 6.75 XIV

Source: ICRA 2002, Field study

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Provision of more small, medium and large scale irrigation schemes and diversified use of irrigation sources and the use of integrated pest management (IPM) techniques obtained top scores under the cultivation strategies. These two strategies even obtained the highest scores among all the strategies across the components. Farmers from both sites felt that irrigation is a critical requirement for promoting ILVs. Other stakeholders feel that it will not make a great contribution to environmental sustainability, water conservation excepted, it will require high capital and labour inputs and will only benefit those who have access to or can afford irrigation water. For the use of IPM technologies, both Bongo and Sherigu farmers think that this will safeguard the environment. People will benefit, as it is cheap and the use of local materials is encouraged. Society will be able to eat toxic-free food and it will help increase the productivity, and thereby farmers’ income. Other stakeholders think that though it is environmentally safe and socially acceptable for all, it will require more labour and capital. The strategy for processing was thought important by farmers and stakeholders though it ranked the last. The stakeholders do not see it contributing positively towards environmental sustainability but to the contrary they saw it as a pollution risk if a processing factory is established. A solar dryer will not adversely affect the environment. As the solar dryer is expensive, not many can afford it. Nevertheless, its importance was realised as it will maintain the quality (colour, flavour and nutritional value) of dried ILVs and make them available throughout the year. Stakeholders (other than farmers) gave a low score to this strategy as they think enabling year-round production of ILVs should be preferred as the market demand for fresh vegetables is higher than for the dried. Processing at this point in time was therefore thought premature unless there is surplus production. They perceive that it will demand high labour and capital inputs. Proper handling of ILVs to reduce post-harvest losses and promotion of the commercialisation potential of ILVs were the two strategies selected for further consideration. According to the farmers from both Bongo Central and Sherigu, proper handling of ILVs will protect the environment by preventing rotting and spoilage of ILVs. They felt women and those selling in large quantities would benefit most. As it will improve the quality of ILVs, it will fetch higher market prices and promote income generation. Other stakeholders think it will not have any impact on the environment but requires more labour and capital. They realise that all categories of people will benefit from this strategy. Market promotion according to all the stakeholders has little to do with environment. Socially women and people who are selling ILVs will benefit and it will have a positive effect on income generation and food security due to increased market demand. According to the stakeholders (other than farmers) the mobilisation of farmers’ associations or co-operatives will not have any effect on the environment and it does not create much potential for income generation and food security and therefore they did not attach much importance to this strategy. Under institutional aspects, incorporating ILVs under MoFA and other organisations’ development programs and awareness creation on multipurpose use of ILVs ranked high. For both the strategies all stakeholders agree that they will target all the categories of people in society and that they will help in income generation and food security. Farmers feel that the area under ILVs could increase, if MoFA and other organisations will promote ILV cultivation and create awareness about the opportunities. The other stakeholders do not see the direct effect of these strategies on the environment.

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Although during individual household interviews the majority of the farmers expressed lack of financial capital/credit as the most important constraint in ILV production, other stakeholders did not see this as the most limiting factor because the cultivation of ILVs does not require a lot of capital. Similarly, they don’t see any impact of this strategy on environmental sustainability, and feel that this will be biased towards male, large farmers and producers and traders (not consumers) and consequently they gave a low score to this strategy. Nine development strategies were taken to the next step of prioritising the research and development options. This does not discount the importance of other strategies. A description of all the strategies and their scoring on the basis of importance were presented in this chapter. Similarly, research and development options for all the sixteen strategies were developed which are presented in the following chapter. This facilitates any institutions/organisations to pick up strategies according to their mandate and interest for further implementation.

116

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CHAPTER 7 RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT OPTIONS The next step in the fourth phase of the ARD procedure, following the screening of the development strategies in Chapter 6, deals with assessing and prioritising research and development options. In this step the possible contributions of research and development are defined that can facilitate the realisation of development strategies that have passed the screening. The team designed sixteen development strategies, which were discussed in Chapter 6. The screening exercise resulted in the selection of nine development strategies for further action. The strategies were selected to cover all aspects/components of the study i.e. two strategies each on: conservation, cultivation, marketing and others/institutional improvement. Since there was only one development strategy formulated on processing, it was selected as one of the screened strategies. To implement these strategies, some new technologies or information might be required. These gaps in knowledge call for some research and these researchable areas are referred to as research options in the description that follows. Development options are those interventions, which can make use of available knowledge, but they might have some financial implications or require explicit policy support. Some researchable areas (research options) and development activities (development options) were identified for the sixteen development strategies (Appendix 16) designed for improving and sustaining the production of indigenous leafy vegetables. Only the research and development options corresponding to the nine screened strategies are discussed here. The options with their justification and their prioritisation are presented in this chapter. The stakeholders who could be partners in the implementation of the prioritised research and development options are also highlighted. 7.1 Research options Seventeen research options were identified for the nine screened development strategies and they are described briefly in the following sections. It is proposed that the suggested research employs a farmer participatory approach and ensures that the developed technologies/interventions fit in the existing indigenous knowledge system. 7.1.1 Research options for conservation strategies Identification of hot spots for endangered species of ILVs There are some places in UER where some of the species, especially collected species, are fast disappearing due to various reasons. For instance a species called Samparaga does not survive well in low rainfall areas and is fast disappearing at Sherigu village because of this. Similarly at Kandiga, Kelpomvoro and Kulgonga species are disappearing fast. Therefore, a study is required to identify the hot spots where some species are endangered. This will facilitate implementing in situ conservation programs. Research on modes of conservation Conservation of wild/collected species can be done either by protecting the species in the forest where they exist i.e. wild modes of conservation or by replanting and maintaining the

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species elsewhere i.e. gardening. Some research is proposed to find out the effectiveness of these different modes of conservation. Research on modes of collection of ILVs from the bush ILVs from the bush are mainly collected in two ways: by uprooting the whole plant (for small plants) by pruning/plucking leaves and twigs from the plants (for comparatively big

plants/trees). Uprooting the whole plant could have a negative effect on conservation as it may facilitate the faster disappearance of the species by preventing the dispersal of seeds. Therefore, a study needs to be undertaken to find out the appropriate methods to collect wild species. 7.1.2 Research options for cultivation strategies A study on major insect pests and diseases of ILVs The insects/pests and disease problem was identified by the farmers (44% of the respondents) as one of the important constraints in ILV production. However, identification of the insects/pests and diseases was difficult for the farmers. Not much literature is available since very little work has been done so far. Due to this, farmers are using chemicals haphazardly, whether or not they are appropriate. Therefore, a study on identification of major insects/pests and diseases is proposed so that appropriate control measures could be identified and recommended. Research on efficiency and efficacy of different indigenous pest control measures Farmers use several indigenous methods to control insects/pests and diseases, e.g.: wood ash, Neem leaf extract, cattle dung, kerosene oil. The farmers who are using these technologies vouch for their effectiveness against insects/pests. Their efficiency and efficacy need to be verified so that they could be popularised and recommended in other areas. Research on use of botanicals in plant protection (pest control) Integrated pest management (IPM) is considered to be a very effective and environmentally safe approach to control different insects/pests and diseases in crops. This approach emphasises the use of plant materials and other biological agents and minimum and safe use of chemicals in pest control. The use of expensive biological agents, which are locally not available, could be difficult for farmers to afford. Moreover, use of such technologies by a single farmer to control insects/pests on his/her farm is not effective and requires a mass campaign at the community level. The Neem plant, omnipresent in this region, is used by farmers (19% of the respondents) to control various field and storage pests. There are many other locally available plants, which could effectively be used to control pests in ILVs. The use of locally available materials is cheaper and thus more attractive to the farmers as it can contribute to lowering the production costs. Research is necessary to explore the potential of various locally available plants to be used for insects/pests and disease control in ILVs. In addition, a study needs to be undertaken to explore whether the IPM approach is feasible both in terms of community initiative and affordability.

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Research on the effect of chemical residues used for ILVs on human health About 27% of the respondents in the household interviews were using chemicals to control insects/pests and diseases in ILVs. More farmers are interested in applying chemicals but can not afford it. Due to lack of knowledge, farmers sometimes use chemicals on ILVs that are intended for other crops and may not be appropriate for ILVs and may be detrimental to human health. ILVs are multi-harvest crops and fresh leaves are harvested for either consumption or sale. Once consumers eat ILVs with residues of chemicals, it may create health hazards. Research on the effects of these residual chemicals on human health was therefore proposed. Farmers will exercise caution in employing hazardous chemicals if such awareness is created. A feasibility study on the use of a small scale drip irrigation system Drip irrigation facilitates the economic use of water. A large-scale drip irrigation system could be very expensive and labour intensive. But the use of small-scale drip irrigation sets, with a poly-drum/tank with few meters of polythene pipes, can be very effective to meet needs of small-scale farmers. In Nepal, small scale drip irrigation sets (for 125 m2, 250 m2 and 500 m2 area) used by small-scale vegetable growing farmers in the dry season have been found to be very effective. Hence, a feasibility study on the use of such small-scale drip irrigation systems should be conducted to assess their effectiveness for ILV cultivation in the dry season. 7.1.3 Research options for processing strategies Testing various solar dryers Use of solar dryer is one of the alternative methods for processing ILVs. Since this method does not expose the vegetables to direct sunlight and air, the quality of the leaves is maintained. Different types of solar dryers are available at different places, manufactured by different agencies. Therefore, testing and verifying the different types of solar dryers is important to assess their effectiveness in maintaining the quality of processed vegetables. Verifying the effectiveness of indigenous sun drying and solar drying methods Sun drying is the most popular indigenous method used by farmers in UER to process ILVs. According to farmers, there are various problems associated with this method as it deteriorates the leaf quality. There is also the danger of the leaves being blown away by winds during drying or the process being disrupted by rain. In spite of these problems, farmers still use this method because of non-availability of alternatives. As described in Chapter 6, drying of the leafy vegetables may affect the colour, flavour and nutritional value. It may also have an effect on the taste, bio-chemical properties and shelf life (storability). The proposed research will analyse and compare the effect of different processing methods on these quality aspects of ILVs.

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7.1.4 Research options for marketing strategies Research on in-country and export markets of ILVs Success of ILV production on a commercial scale largely depends on the market demand. Demand for ILVs in local markets in the region is not enough to absorb the supply of the produce. Though this team did a survey of local markets and some markets in Burkina Faso and Togo, the emphasis was mainly on identifying types of vegetables sold in market, their prices and the sources of supply. A more intensive and methodological/scientific study within the country and abroad would be useful to explore the commercialisation potential of ILVs for local sale and export. Survey on post harvest losses on-farm and in-market During the field study, farmers reported that some losses occur on-farm, during transportation to the market and also in the market itself (Chapter 5). However, the extent of this loss is not known. A survey on post harvest losses at different stages in the chain during transportation and in the market is important to establish the extent of the losses. Research on packaging materials and methods for safe handling/transportation of the produce to the market ILVs are carried to the markets stuffed in sacs, poly-bags and metal basins. This deteriorates the quality of the leaves which is ultimately affecting the price. Therefore, research on appropriate proper packaging materials and packaging methods is needed to facilitate safe transport of the leaves to the market without losing quality. 7.1.5 Research options for others/institutional improvement strategies Research on the potential use of ILV residues as livestock feed ILVs are mainly utilised for human consumption, either in fresh or dried form. Leaves are harvested either by pruning/plucking leaves (Pumpkin, Maana, Alefu, Berese, Bito and Bento)

or by uprooting the whole plant (Alefu, Bito and Berese) when they are young. The left over part of the plant after multiple harvesting of the leaves, the poor quality leaves after sorting for the market and the spoiled leaves left over from the market and not suitable for consumption, can be fed to livestock. Research to explore the multipurpose uses of ILVs especially as livestock feed and assess the trade-off in value added if it is used as food or fodder should be conducted. Analysis and documentation of the nutritional value of fresh and dried ILVs As mentioned previously (Chapters 3 and 6), ILVs are a rich source of vitamins, minerals, proteins and fibres. Though the nutrient content of some of the ILVs (Alefu, Ayoyo and Bito) has been analysed and documented (Timpo and Dzisi, 2002), analysis and documentation of the nutrient content of other ILVs in both fresh and dried forms is required to justify the nutritional importance of ILVs.

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Research on medicinal value of ILVs Farmers’ indigenous knowledge (Chapter 3) indicates that some ILVs have medicinal properties, which can be used to cure some diseases. Scientific verification of the medicinal importance of these ILVs and documenting it, is important to justify their production and to use them properly. 7.2 Development options Seventeen development options covering conservation, cultivation, processing, marketing and institutional improvement, were identified as important for the screened development strategies for implementation. Most of the development options presented hereunder are self-explanatory and their justification and importance was described in Chapter 6 on development strategies. Therefore, the development options are presented only briefly in this section. 7.2.1 Development options for conservation strategies Documentation of indigenous knowledge of farmers on nutritional and medicinal

importance of ILV, conservation strategies and cultivation, insects/pests control, processing and utilisation technique. Publishing the collected indigenous knowledge in simple and readable form.

Formalising the dissemination of indigenous knowledge from one generation to another through training by MOFA and other organisations and, also through farmers’ groups. MOFA should play a co-ordinating role and create a platform for learning and sharing of the indigenous knowledge. In the mean time some new dissemination ways should be explored, as the conventional systems do not seem to be effective.

Awareness campaigns to control bush burning, clearing and overgrazing/browsing to facilitate in situ conservation of wild species of ILVs.

Creating awareness on the importance of conservation of ILV species through training programs and information campaigns.

7.2.2 Development options for cultivation strategies Introducing and promoting integrated pest management (IPM) techniques through training

programs by MOFA and other organisations to control insects/pests and diseases of ILVs. Encouraging farmers to establish small-scale dugouts and bore holes for providing

irrigation to ILVs. Creating awareness about on-farm/in situ water conservation by farm/field bunding and

constructing low cost water-harvesting ponds. Maintenance of the existing irrigation system to retain their capacity by preventing

siltation and breaches of and damage to their spillways. Provisions for the diversified use of water from irrigation sources for vegetables, livestock

watering and domestic use. Establishment of more medium and large-scale irrigation schemes in the areas where no

irrigation facilities exist to facilitate ILVs production in dry season.

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7.2.3 Development options for processing strategies Introducing and demonstrating solar dryers for processing ILVs and providing training on

its use. Training and encouraging ILV producers in appropriate packaging and storage of

processed ILVs. Introduce/promote establishment of small-scale/cottage processing industries and explore

possibilities for pickling or other processed products from ILVs. 7.2.4 Development options for marketing strategies Market promotion in terms of popularising the commercialisation potential of some

promising ILV species like Alefu, Bito, Berese and Bento through mass media as television, radio, posters and pamphlets.

Provide education/training to farmers and traders on hygienic handling of ILVs on-farm and in-market.

7.2.5 Development options for others/institutional improvement strategies Creating awareness on the multipurpose use of ILVs (nutritional and medicinal values,

diverse recipes and as source of livestock feed) through extension services and through the use of mass media like television, radio, posters and pamphlets.

MOFA should include and take a lead to co-ordinate with other organisations to include ILVs under their agricultural development, income generation and poverty alleviation programs.

7.3 Prioritisation of research and development options Research and development (R&D) options developed for the screened development strategies were prioritised. This was done separately for research and development options under conservation, cultivation, processing, marketing and other/institutional improvement strategies. A workshop was organised with various stakeholders representing research stations (SARI, Manga Research Station), policy and extension (MoFA), NGOs and other organisations (SRMP, TRAX, Technoserve), University (UDS) and farmers (from four villages) for prioritisation of R&D options. A set of seven criteria for prioritising research options and five for prioritising development options were identified by the team and presented to the stakeholders who modified them. Each criterion was given a weight based on its importance (Table 7.1). For prioritising research options, all the stakeholders considered ease of developing technologies with farmers as the most important criterion, followed by necessity of the research options. For development options participants felt that necessity of the development option and probability of success are the most important criteria followed by the availability of manpower to implement the option.

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Table 7.1 Criteria used for prioritising research and development options for promoting ILV production in UER

Research and development options

Criteria Weight

Research options Necessity of research options Ease of developing technologies with farmers Affordability by farmers Probability of success Availability of manpower to implement Availability of physical facilities Costs of research project

0.2 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1

Development options Necessity of development options Probability of success Availability of manpower to implement Availability of physical facilities Cost of development project

0.3 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.1

All the research and development options were prioritised by stakeholders using these criteria. A score was assigned to each cell, with a maximum of ten, and then weighted scores were obtained. The results of the prioritisation of research and development options are presented in Tables 7.2 and 7.3 respectively. 7.3.1 Research options prioritisation Prioritisation of research options on conservation placed the option “identification of hot spots for endangered species of ILVs” at the top followed by “research on modes of conservation” (Table 7.2). The first option, according to the participants, can easily be afforded by farmers, and manpower and physical facilities are available to conduct the research. Under the cultivation component, the option “research on the efficiency of different indigenous pest control measures” ranked as the most important followed by “a study on major insects/pests and diseases of ILVs”. The former option was found to comply with most of the criteria when compared to the other options. The only problem is that the physical facilities available to conduct this research are not sufficient and it may be costly to bring them up to the requirements. The option “research on the effect of residual chemicals on human health” will be difficult in terms of developing the technology with farmers, availability of manpower and physical facilities, high cost requirements and less probability of being successful. Therefore, it was ranked as the least important option under cultivation. “Verifying the effectiveness of indigenous drying methods” ranked first under the processing component because the participants think this option fits well with most of the criteria except that it may be costly. Under the marketing component, “the survey on post harvest losses on-farm and in-market” ranked first because they think it is most necessary, all the facilities required are available, it is not very costly and can be afforded and adopted by farmers. The option “research on potential use of ILV residues as livestock feed and on the trade off in value added between food and fodder” was not seen as being really necessary, in comparison to the other two options under the other/institutional improvement component. It fitted best under all other criteria and accordingly ranked first. Analysis and documentation of nutritional and medicinal values of ILVs was considered almost equally important, with a marginal difference in score.

124

Table 7.2 Prioritisation of research options for screened development strategies

Criteria Research options

Scores

Nec

essi

ty o

f re

sear

ch

opti

ons

Eas

e of

de

velo

ping

tech

. w

ith f

arm

ers

Aff

orda

bili

ty b

y fa

rmer

s

Pro

babi

lity

of s

ucce

ss

Ava

ilabi

lity

of

man

pow

er

Ava

ilab

ility

of

phys

ical

fac

iliti

es

Cos

ts o

f th

e re

sear

ch p

roje

ct

Tot

al w

eigh

ted

scor

es

Weight 0.2 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 Conservation Identification of hot spots for endangered species of ILVs

7

8

9

7

8

9

7

7.8 I

Research on modes of conservation

9

9

5

9

4

5

5

7.3 II

Research on modes of collection

5

4

2

5

2

2

2

3.5 III

Cultivation Research on use of botanicals on plant protection

8

4

5

6

5

3

5

5.0 III

Research on effect of residual chemicals on human health

7

1

3

2

1

1

1

2.5 V

Research on efficiency of indigenous pest control measures

9

9

8

8

8

6

7

8.2 I

A study on major insect/pests and diseases on ILVs

9

9

6

5

7

5

6

7.4 II

A feasibility study on the use of a small drip irrigation system

9

4

2

3

3

3

5

4.5 IV

Processing Testing various solar dryer technologies

5

7

3

8

7

4

4

5.6 III

Verifying the effectiveness of indigenous drying methods

8

8

7

9

8

8

6

7.8 I

Research on the effect of processing/solar drying on quality

9

9

5

7

8

5

4

6.4 II

Marketing Research on in-country and export markets of ILVs

8

2

1

5

6

6

4

4.4 III

Research on appropriate pack-aging materials and methods

9

7

5

5

4

5

5

5.6 II

Survey on post harvest losses on-farm and in market

9

7

7

7

7

8

7

6.8 I

Others/institutional improvement Research on potential use of ILV residues as livestock feed

6

8

9

9

9

9

8

8.0 I

Analysis and documentation of the nutritional value of ILVs

9

7

6

8

7

6

5

7.1 II

Research on medicinal value of ILVs

9

8

5

7

6

4

4

6.8 III

Source: ICRA Ghana 2002, Field study

125

When taking all the components (conservation, cultivation etc) into consideration, “research on efficiency of indigenous pest control measures” turns out to be the most important research option followed by “research on the potential use of ILV residues as livestock feed” (Table 7.2). It is important to first identify the major insects/pests and diseases of ILVs, before testing the efficiency of indigenous pest control measures. The research options “identification of hot spots for endangered species of ILVs” and “verifying the effectiveness of indigenous drying methods” were equally important on the basis of scores received but the former is considered of relative more importance. The research options under the marketing and processing component, received less importance overall, mainly because of the current low production levels. Nevertheless, the market study/research on in-country and export markets for ILVs is essential in promoting commercial ILV production in future. 7.3.2 Development options prioritisation The development options for conservation, cultivation and processing were prioritised using different criteria. The results are presented in Table 7.3. Since there were only two development options, for development strategies screened under the marketing and other/institutional components they were not prioritised. The prioritisation of options on conservation indicated that “documentation of indigenous knowledge on ILVs” was the most important option followed by “intensifying awareness to control bush burning, clearing and overgrazing/browsing”. The former option scores well for most of the criteria, except that high costs are required for implementation. With the latter option participants feel that the probability of success is low and implementation will be costly. “Creating awareness on on-farm/in situ water conservation” scored highest under the cultivation component because it is very necessary to implement, has a high probability of success, the manpower and physical facilities for the implementation are available and no high costs are required. “Introduction and promotion of IPM technologies” was the second option that meets most of the relevant criteria. However, the general perception is that the cost of implementing this option will be high. “Establishment of more medium and large scale irrigation schemes”, according to participants, will require very high costs, the physical facilities and manpower for implementing this option are limited and it has less probability of being successful. Hence this option was considered least important when compared to others under the cultivation component. “Providing training to and encouraging ILV producers for proper packaging and storage of the processed produce” was ranked as the most important option under processing because it fits well with the criteria. “Introducing/demonstrating solar dryer technology for ILV processing” was thought to be important but it was realised that it may be expensive to implement. When reviewing the various options across all the components, “creating awareness on on-farm/in situ water conservation through bunding and construction of low cost water harvesting ponds” was the option with the highest score. “Documentation of indigenous knowledge on ILVs” was the second most important development option. The team feels that this option in itself will not accomplish much if no efforts are made for the knowledge to be disseminated widely and from generation to generation. For the development strategies under the other/institutional improvement component, the team feels that MoFA should take immediate initiatives to include ILVs under their program and co-ordinate with other

126

Table 7.3 Prioritisation of development options for screened development strategies

Criteria Development options

Scores

Nec

essi

ty o

f de

velo

pmen

t opt

ions

Pro

babi

lity

of

succ

ess

Ava

ilab

ilit

y of

m

anpo

wer

t

Ava

ilab

ilit

y of

phy

sica

l fa

cili

ties

Cos

ts o

f de

velo

pmen

t pro

ject

Wei

ghte

d sc

ores

Weight 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.1 Conservation Documentation of indigenous knowledge on ILVs

9

9

8

8

5

8.3 I

Formalising the dissemination of indigenous knowledge

7

5

7

7

3

6.0 III

Intensifying awareness to control bush burning, clearing and overgrazing

9

4

8

8

6

6.9 II

Creating awareness on importance of conservation

8

6

2

3

2

5.1 IV

Cultivation Introduce/promote integrated pest management

8

7

8

6

4

7.1 II

Establishment of more small scale irrigation schemes

7

7

7

7

5

6.8 III

Creation of awareness on on-farm/in situ water conservation

10

8

8

8

8

8.6 I

Maintenance of the existing irrigation systems

8

2

8

4

2

5.2 V

Provision for diversified use of irrigation sources

6

4

8

5

8

5.9 IV

Establishment of medium and large-scale irrigation schemes

9

2

3

1

1

4.1 VI

Processing Introducing/demonstrating solar dryers for processing of ILVs

7

8

8

8

5

7.4 II

Training/encouraging ILV producers for appropriate packaging and storage

9

8

7

9

7

8.1 I

Introduce/promote establishment of processing industries

6

5

4

3

4

4.8 III

Marketing Education to farmers and traders on hygienic handling of ILVs on farm and in market

Not prioritised*

Market promotion in terms of popularising the commercialisation potential of ILVs through mass media

Not prioritised*

Others/institutional improvement MoFA should co-ordinate to include ILVs under their program

Not prioritised*

Creating awareness on multipurpose use of ILVs

Not prioritised*

Note: * not prioritised as there was only one option under each strategy, which was scored during screening. Source: ICRA Ghana 2002, Field study

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organisations in the promotion of ILVs. Similarly, market promotion in terms of popularising the commercialisation potential of ILVs through mass media and creating awareness on multipurpose use of ILVs are important options which need immediate attention 7.4 Potential partners for implementation of prioritised research and development

options The team interacted with most of the identified key stakeholders to explore their potential roles according to their mandates and interests, with regard to the development of the indigenous leafy vegetables (Appendix 15). After prioritisation of the research and development (R&D) options, a discussion was held with stakeholders to identify potential partners for the implementation of the prioritised options. The outcomes are presented in Tables 7.4 and 7.5. Some of the stakeholders in these tables participated in the discussion and indicated an interest in being a partner in the implementation of the respective R&D options. Table 7.4 Potential partners for implementation of research options S.N.

Research options Potential stakeholders

Conservation 1. Identification of “hot spots” for endangered

species ACDEP, PGRC, SARI, SRMP, UDS, IRNR

2. Research on modes of conservation UDS, SRMP (Bio. Division), SARI, PGRC, ACDEP, NCRC, SRI, IRNR

Cultivation 1. Research on efficiency of different

indigenous pest control measures MOFA, SARI, ACDEP

2. A study on major insects/pests and diseases on ILVs

SARI, UDS, MOFA

Processing 1. Verifying the effectiveness of indigenous

drying methods UDS, MOFA, FRI, ACDEP

2. Research on the effects of processing/solar drying on taste and colour, nutritional and biochemical properties and storage or shelf life

FRI, KNUST (Biochemistry), UG, UDSNOGUCHI MEMORIAL, MOFA, World Vision

Marketing 1. Survey on post harvest losses on-farm and

in-market UDS, ACDEP, MOFA, SARI, TECHNOSERVE

2. Research on packaging materials and methods for safe transport of the produce to the market

AGRIC.ENG (KNUST), ITTU, FRI, TECHNOSERVE

Others 1. Research on the potential use of ILV

residues as livestock feed and on the trade off in value added if it is used as food or fodder

ARI, MOFA, UDS

2. Analysis and documentation of the nutritional value of fresh and dried ILVs

UDS, FRI, KNUST (Biochemistry), University of Benin (Dept. of Human Nutrition), NOGHUCHI MEMORIAL

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MoFA for example is willing to take the lead in all development options and they are also willing to collaborate with research institutions for implementing the research options. Research areas for which MoFA offers collaboration include: the assessment of potential use of ILVs residues as livestock feed and the trade off in value added between food and fodder; efficiency of different indigenous pest control measures; and supporting a study on major insect/pest and diseases on ILVs. MoFA can also collaborate with research organisations to conduct surveys on post harvest losses on-farm and in-market, research on the effect of processing/solar drying on taste and colour, nutritional and biochemical properties as well as storage or shelf life. Table 7.5 Potential partners for implementation of development options S.N.

Research options Potential stakeholders

Conservation 1. Documentation of indigenous

knowledge on ILVs CECIK, SRMP, MOFA, KNUST (Horticulture Dept.)

2. Intensifying awareness to control bush burning, bush clearing and overgrazing/browsing

MoFA, RENARSA, Volunteer Groups, EPA, FSD, District Assemblies, Traditional Councils, GNFS, ACDEP, SRI, TRAX, Action Aid

Cultivation 1. Creation of awareness on on farm/in situ

water conservation MoFA, IRNR, SRMP, ACDEP, SRI, TRAX, UDS, GIDALEGON (UG)

2.. Introduce/promote integrated pest management (IPM) technologies

MoFA, SARI, UDS, ACDEP, GIDALEGON (UG), ICOUR

Processing 1. Training and encouraging ILV

producers for proper packaging and storage of processed ILVs

MoFA, AGRIC.ENG (ITTU), TECHOSERVE, FRI, KNUST (Horticulture Dept.), UNICEF

2. Introducing/demonstrating solar dryers for processing ILVs

MoFA, ACDEP, UNICEF, World Vision

Marketing 1. Market promotion to popularise the

commercialisation potential of ILVs through mass media (TV, radio, posters and pamphlets)

MoFA, URA RADIO, GBC TV, Non-traditional Export GRNP, Export Promotion Council, Information HUB (UDS), AMEX International, GTV

2. Education for farmers and traders on hygienic handling of ILVs on-farm and in-market

MoFA (WIFAD), ICOUR, Presbyterian Primary Health Care, CFR, GTV

Others/institutional improvement 1. Creating awareness on multipurpose use

of ILVs MoFA, ACDEP, GBC

2. MOFA should take the lead to co-ordinate with other organisations to include ILVs under their program

MoFA, NGOs, CBOs, Civil Society Organisations (MoFA to identify specific groups in each category)

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From the experience of the team it is clear that MoFA, having the responsibility for overall agricultural development in the region, is the most important stakeholder. The organisation can provide policy support, technical assistance, training and dissemination of technologies to ILV producers. Furthermore it can co-ordinate the activities related to ILVs with other organisations. Based on the result of the stakeholder analysis, the team thinks that MoFA has the mandate, manpower and appropriate approaches to work with farmers. For exploration of the commercialisation potential, stakeholders like Technoserve, TRAX, ICOUR and Catholic Diocese, who are already working on market promotion and processing though for other crops, were identified to be potential organisations. TRAX and Technoserve in particular are organisations that could link ILV producers to marketing channels. They are potential partners for implementing the suggested R&D options in their respective area of interest and therefore and they should be involved in the ILVs promotion program in UER. A progressive farmer (Mr. David Adakabla) from Pwalugu village, Bolga District, who is producing ILVs on a commercial scale, can be considered as a resource person to motivate and train other farmers in ILV production and marketing. SARI and SRMC are willing to work in the area of conservation by identification of “hot spots” for endangered species and documentation of indigenous knowledge on ILVs. In addition to that they are also interested on creating awareness on on-farm/in situ water conservation and the team perceives these institutions to be capable of contributing in this area. ICOUR is an important stakeholder, which can provide irrigation support to ILV producers, allocate more land for ILV production in its command area, mobilise farmers’ organisations for marketing of ILVs and provide technical and credit support to farmers for ILV production. SRMP is interested in conservation aspects of ILVs like the identification of hot spots for disappearing species, documentation of endangered species and promoting in situ conservation. SARI is a potential organisation to undertake research on various aspects of ILV production. Action Aid, ADRA and Catholic Diocese are important stakeholders, which can provide irrigation support (construction of dams), technical support and credit facilities (for input supply) to ILV producers. World Vision, operating only in Bongo District, also seems to be an important stakeholder, which can provide training to farmers on the safe use of agro-chemicals and IPM technologies in addition to providing credit support. RUWA is active in Kassena-Nankana District and provides credit support to women farmers for ILV production. The role of District Assemblies in implementing the development interventions in the districts is very vital. They are the government body having authority for overall development in the districts. They can introduce some policies favourable for implementing the proposed R&D options. In addition to this they can create an enabling environment for research and development and can influence the organisations to take part in such activities according to their mandates. They can also influence the funding agencies to support some of the researchable areas and development interventions. The presence of two District Chief Executives (Bongo and Bawku West Districts) in the Final Workshop was very important and they pledged their support for implementing the R&D options for promoting ILVs in the UER.

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There are some other stakeholders appearing in Tables 7.4 and 7.5 operating outside the region, with whom the team had no opportunity to interact due to time constraints. The team suggests that there is a need to explore and assess the capacity and capability of these stakeholders to address the R&D options. In addition to this, it is proposed that an ILV Co-ordination Committee (ILVCC) be created for the UER with a representation from policy makers, extension, research, credit, input supply, marketing and ILV producers to plan and co-ordinate the implementation of the suggested research and development options.

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CHAPTER 8 CONDITIONS FOR SUSTAINABLE UTILISATION OF

INDIGENOUS LEAFY VEGETABLES The fact that indigenous leafy vegetables have been consumed for centuries and continue to be consumed suggests that these food resources constitute a valuable resource to the people of the Upper East Region. The potential for commercialisation of these resources has, however, been underestimated and this is reflected in the lack of interest by researchers, policy makers and development agencies in these resources. The ILVs in the study area have so far not received any priority in the national agricultural policies. It is therefore interesting to examine the conditions for sustainable utilisation of these indigenous leafy vegetables. 8.1 Sustainable conservation and cultivation The sustainable conservation of indigenous leafy vegetables in Northern Ghana will depend to a considerable degree on the benefits that may be derived from their conservation. The ability of ILVs to promote and sustain livelihoods of the rural poor will be an important hallmark that will generate further interest in the cultivation and conservation of these food resources. Farmers’ willingness to produce indigenous leafy vegetables for household food security purposes, ensures the continued cultivation of ILVs. The promotion of the production to a commercial level will anyhow increase the utilisation of the vegetables. Special attention is required for species that are not favored in the market in order to safeguard their conservation. 8.2 Status of research and development of ILVs Although vast indigenous knowledge exists, there is a need for upgrading the knowledge base and for mechanisms to disseminate existing and newly acquired knowledge. For the continued utilisation of these vegetables, research on the various production aspects of should be put in place. Functional research on: improving the production systems, seed production techniques, pest and disease control may advance the existing situation. The current study brought into focus the need for research and development activities on indigenous leafy vegetables not only for the Upper East Region but also for the rest of the Ghana. Research on and development of ILVs in Ghana appears to be something of a novelty. The collaborative study by ICRA and CBUD in this area has therefore served as an impetus and will generate considerable interest among researchers and development professionals. From farmers’ point of view there is no doubt that ILVs will continue to be utilised in the study area. These crops are valued as food and for their nutritional and medicinal properties. 8.3 Policy environment Indigenous leafy vegetables have so far not been on the priority list of the national or agricultural policies of the country. Recent export drives for non-traditional export crops have not included ILVs. The sustainable production and utilisation of ILVs can be enhanced if these crops are given similar attention as other crops.

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8.3.1 Agricultural policy that promotes production and utilisation of ILVs The willingness of the Ministry of Agriculture and Food to provide policy support to the development of the indigenous leafy vegetables is considered important for sustainable utilisation. In the Upper East Region however, MoFA should take the lead in co-ordinating the development organisations working in agriculture supporting efforts towards indigenous leafy vegetable development. Market development of these vegetables will increase their opportunity for sustainability. Local and in-country market exploitation by improving infrastructure and customer awareness on the nutritional benefits will ensure market demand, which will promote sustainable production, utilisation and thus conservation of the species. The availability of transport and access roads will ensure that ILVs produced can reach the market fresh and in good condition. The provision of these facilities by local or regional authorities will help to create the platform for sustainable production as well as utilisation. 8.3.2 Promotion of in situ conservation at wild ILV hotspots Frequent and uncontrolled bush burning constitute a major risk to collected species of ILVs. The seed banks are on or in the soil and may be completely destroyed by bush fires. Intensification of public awareness on the hazards caused by bush fires will be one important condition to enable the sustainable utilisation of ILVs. Enforcement of environmental protection regulations will ensure in situ conservation of these species. The sustainable use of wild and collected ILVs will depend on their availability. Therefore there is a need to carry out in situ conservation of these threatened species. 8.3.3 Promotion of ILV utilisation in Southern Ghana In Southern Ghana, ILVs appear to be consumed mainly by people of northern origin and most people in the south do not know what to do with them. The nutritional benefits of these ILVs are quite well known to the northerners and there is a need to promote these food resources in Southern Ghana. Such promotional drives will create some awareness in the south and encourage consumption and utilisation. Some local food sellers and “chop bars”, particularly in Kumasi, are beginning to serve ILVs on their menu. The use of television and mass media will help popularise ILVs and boost its consumption and utilisation outside the Northern Region. With the market expanding farmers will be motivated to produce more, thus enhancing utilisation. 8.3.4 Control of field and storage insect pests One of the major threats to ILV production, storage and utilisation is the problem of insect pests and disease outbreaks. For sustainable utilisation of ILVs therefore, the need to control these pests cannot be over-emphasised. An integrated pest management approach has been recommended for the control of pests. However, the implementation of this control measure has to be on community level. This has a dual advantage of helping to reduce costs of production and improving the quality of the produce.

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8.3.5 Water conservation for ILV production The availability of water remains an important factor in ILV production and utilisation. Cultural practices that promote water conservation and sustainable use of water should be seen as an important condition for sustainable production and utilisation of ILVs. The culture of maintaining water sources should be intensified to ensure high water conservation capacity in dams throughout the year. The assurance of water availability will motivate farmers to produce throughout the year to enhance their income.

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REFERENCES

Agamba, A. M. 2001. Indigenous leafy vegetables in Upper East Region. BSc Dissertation,

July 2002, School of Agriculture, University of Cape Coast, Ghana. 62 pp. Dery, A. B. 1998. Financial services, needs assessment of farming communities in the

Kassena-Nankana, Bolgatanga and Bawku East Districts of the Upper East Region. Survey Report for ISODEC, January 1998.

Ghana Statistical Service. 2000. Population and Housing Census. Electoral Commission of

Ghana. ICRA, 1999. Towards sustainable agricultural development: Research and development

options for improved integration of crop-livestock-fishery systems in irrigated and rainfed agricultural areas of the Upper East Region of Ghana. International Centre for development-oriented research in Agriculture: Working Document Series 77, 121 pp.

IFAD, 1990. Upper East region Land Conservation and smallholder Rehabilitation project

Appraisal report. Vol. 2; Working Papers Kordylas, M.J. 1990. Processing and preservation of tropical and sub-tropical foods. Mcgraw

Hill, 199 pp. LACOSREP, 1992. Upper East region land conservation and smallholder rehabilitation

appraisal report. Working Papers No. 0244-GH. National Development Planning Commission 1997a: National Economic Forum on the theme

“Achieving National Consensus on Policy Measures for Accelerated Economic growth within the framework of the Ghana Vision 2020. Accra, 2-3 Sept 1997; 108 pp.

National Development Planning Commission 1997b: Ghana Vision 2020: The first medium

term development plan (1997-2000). 292 pp. Quansah, C. 1992. Soil erosion and conservation in the Northern and Upper regions of Ghana.

Topics in Applied Resource Management 2, 135-157. Schippers, R. R. 2000. African Indigenous vegetables: An overview of the cultivated species.

DFID/ICTA/NRI. 214 pp. Yeboah, M. A., Bapule, J. S., Bediako, J., Naab, J. B. 2001. Report on dry season vegetable

production in the Upper West region of Ghana. 69 pp.

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APPENDICES

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APPENDIX 1: TERMS OF REFERENCE

Institutional framework

The field study will be a joint activity of the Centre for Biodiversity Utilisation and Development (CBUD) and the International Centre for development oriented Research in Agriculture (ICRA). CBUD will host the study. CBUD CBUD is a collaborative programme of the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology in Kumasi and the Royal Netherlands Embassy in Accra based at the Institute of Renewable Natural Resources (IRNR) (see below). The programme is aimed at the conservation and continued utilisation of traditional food resources in Ghana that are gradually disappearing as a result of environmental degradation and other socio-economic pressures. Aware of the loss of important information in regard to these resources, CBUD seeks to tap and document the knowledge and information on these indigenous resources that still exists among the ageing rural population. At the same time, the Centre tries to regenerate interest in these lesser-known foodstuffs in order to increase their demand, which eventually will allow farmers to keep up their continued production. The CBUD programme started in 1998. Using an extensive network of partners in development, research or business, it does not only promote and co-ordinate the process of identifying promising commodities from among Ghana's many biological resources, but also facilitates their production, processing and marketing. Within its given means, CBUD is expected to co-ordinate and support this process of product development until either these activities are being independently sustained by these partners or till such support appears to be unsuccessful in a technical or commercial sense. At present, CBUD works towards the conservation and utilisation of a total of five animal and plant products, one of, which is a group known as the indigenous leafy vegetables (ILVs). IRNR The Institute of Renewable Natural Resources (IRNR) is part of the Faculty of Agriculture of the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST). The institute has conducted surveys relating to people’s uses of several plants, particularly tree crops. Nursery and agro-forestry studies have been conducted on many of these plants. The institute is the leading training and research institute in natural resource management and agro-forestry in the country. Based on its mandate for, and expertise relating to, the renewable natural resources including forests, wildlife, rangelands, freshwater, and wetlands, the IRNR maintains a holistic, multi-resource approach to ecosystem management and utilisation of components of biological diversity. ICRA ICRA is an international organisation founded on the initiative of European members of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) to assist in strengthening the capacity of researchers and development professionals working in Latin America, Africa and Asia to contribute effectively to agricultural development. ICRA provides participating scientists with an opportunity to acquire new concepts and skills, and to apply them in a professional assignment with partner research institutes in the South. The core part of the ICRA Programme consists of a three-month intensive field study in rural areas of the developing countries. The scope and dimension of this study are based on the terms of reference (TOR) that are subject of the present document.

Period

The field study will take place from 12 April until 12 July 2002. This period will cover an introductory workshop dealing with the methodology to be used in the study, actual data collection, data processing and analysis, and the presentation of the results in two additional workshops. It also encompasses obtaining feedback from and verification of outcomes by stakeholders and the drafting of the final report.

Topic of the study

Indigenous Leafy Vegetables in Northern Ghana: past, present and future. A study into the conservation, cultivation, processing and marketing of these important food resources Justification ILVs have played and are still playing an important role in the crop and food systems of Ghana, in particular in the country's three Northern Regions. They are important providers of vitamins and micronutrients in areas where otherwise diets are frequently high in carbohydrates and seriously deficient in these essential nutrients. Moreover, at the end of the dry season and the beginning of a new growing season, when households tend to run out of food stocks, a number of ephemerals among

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these plants play an important food security role as hunger gap fillers. In other cases, these crops contribute directly to household income when surplus production is marketed. These crops are also valued for their relative ease of production. Compared to other exotic vegetables, ILVs do not require the same high levels of plant protection and other inputs. They may even produce under conditions that are too marginal for other crops. Some ILVs are said to have medicinal properties. Despite their local importance in the Upper East Region and the fact that these vegetables are exported to other parts of the country, these crops have received very little attention from research and development organisations. It now appears that at least a number of these crops are gradually going out of production. The introduction into the Region of large-scale commercial irrigation schemes may have put pressure on the cultivation of these ILVs. With the requirement to pay for irrigation water, farmers may have decided to replace the cultivation of ILVs with more marketable and lucrative exotic vegetable species or other crops. Nevertheless, there are pockets where these ILVs are still grown. In order to promote these species successfully, it is important to establish under which particular set of physical and socio-economic conditions their production takes place and why people do or don't cultivate and patronise them. In addition, much more information is needed about the commercialisation of these crops and the levels of profitability achieved in their production and marketing. As the production, processing and trade in these crops are principally a "woman's affair," the conservation and continued production of these crops are matters that affect not only health and income generation at the farm household level, but are also of relevance to the role of women in society. It is of particular interest to investigate which effects improved commercialisation of these crops may have on this role. With the gradual passing away of the older generation, the risk is high that specific knowledge with regard to the nutritional and medicinal values of these crops, as well as their traditional production and processing techniques, is being lost forever. The rural to urban drift of people is another cause of concern as it may also lead to the loss of important local knowledge. This threat to these crops is the major reason why CBUD has taken a keen interest in the ILVs. So far it has catalogued over thirty native plants that are being used as a vegetable. It has concentrated its activities mainly in the southern Regions, but now that its mandate is going to be expanded to the northern half of the country as well, an in-depth study of the cultivation and commercialisation of these plants with all their ramifications is urgently needed. Geographical area and target population The field study will be conducted in the Upper East region (UER) of Ghana, more specifically in the following districts: Bawku West, Bolgatanga, Bongo, and Kassena-Nankani. These districts are all within a 50 km radius from Bolgatanga, the town where the team will be based. Other districts (Builsa and Bwaku East) may serve to verify and sharpen the findings of the study team. In these Districts the cultivation and consumption of ILVs is widespread. The intensity of production is high and it is well diversified with farmers using a large number of ILV species. The cultivation of the ILVs is found in both irrigation and rainfed systems and this is done on a commercial and subsistence basis. Ethnic preferences are reflected in the production as well as the processing, marketing and consumption of these plants. Within these four districts, the team will select a number of representative villages on which to focus its data collection activities. Selection may be tied to the presence or absence of irrigation schemes, the size of such schemes, the presence of markets and processing units, cultural diversity, etc. Target groups for the study team include the producers and collectors of ILVs, processors of these vegetables (as far as they are not the same people), as well as traders in and consumers of these vegetables. It is expected that gender will play a very important role in defining the target groups since much of the production and trade appears to be the domain of women. Within these groups of producers and consumers, the team may decide to make subdivisions based on the access households have to resources and production inputs. For consumption and marketing purposes, the team is expected to make distinctions between production for home consumption, for local markets and for "export from the zone " to larger urban markets in Ghana or even neighbouring countries. Particularly while it attempts to verify and describe marketing channels for ILVs, the team is expected to travel outside the UER.

Team composition

The team will be composed of two Ghanaian researchers, a natural resource manager with specialisation in fresh water fisheries and a forestry specialist, and four expatriates with professional backgrounds and/or experience in agronomy, vegetable production, food processing and marketing.

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Objectives of the study

The following objectives for the field study have been formulated: a. In selected districts of the UER, determine the extent to which ILVs are being collected and/or cultivated and assess the

existing trends in these activities. b. Identify the various species of ILVs produced in the Region and assess which of these have the highest potential

(prioritisation) for commercial production. c. Describe in detail the production practices of prioritised ILVs encountered in the study area and the production systems

these ILVs are part of, and analyse the strengths and weaknesses of these production systems in regard to ILV production.

d. Investigate gender roles in the production and commercialisation of these vegetables and describe how these roles may be affected by either the disappearance of these crops or by improved opportunities for commercialisation.

e. Identify and prioritise development opportunities in support of the conservation and continued use and commercialisation of these ILVs.

f. Formulate in conjunction with local stakeholders’ activities and research proposals aimed at improving the production and utilisation of the identified food resources in the study area.

The emphasis of the study will be on: (1) the documentation of local knowledge with respect to the production and processing of the ILVs in the study area; and (2) the potential for continued production of these ILVs, based on favourable prospects as a household food resource and/or

for commercialisation of at least a number of them.

Main guiding questions

Guiding questions Clarifying development context, identifying stakeholders and defining system of interest What is the broader development and systems context of the central theme? Who are the stakeholders concerned with ILV production and commercialisation and what are their interventions and

linkages in the overall system? Within this broader context, what is the relevant system of interest that the team will study in detail? How can it be demarcated? Analysing the system of interest and identify development strategies

What are the traditional forms of ILV collection/production, processing and marketing? Is it possible to delineate different ILV production practices? What are the constraints and opportunities for ILV in the production systems they are part of? How do biophysical and socio-economic factors as well as hydrological infrastructure shape ILV production? What

role do markets play in this respect? What are the economic viabilities of ILV production? Has the ILV production and the production systems they are part of changed over time and, if so, in which way? Has the relative importance of ILV species changed? How? What have been the consequences of these changes at the farm household level (food security, choice of species in

production, health, household income, decision-making, gender issues, etc.)? What changes are likely to occur in the future? What role can research and development play in buttressing and/or harnessing certain elements of these developments? What type of institutional support is available at present to those engaged in the production and trade of these ILVs? What options are available to stakeholders to safeguard the sustainability of ILV production in the study area? Do different ILV production and trading practices require different forms of R&D intervention? What type of support

is needed in each case?

Screening development strategies and prioritising R & D options

How are these interventions to be prioritised? What criteria will be used for such a prioritisation? Which stakeholders are well placed to support such interventions in this and neighbouring Regions? What is their

present level of collaboration and co-ordination? Formulating research and development proposals

What overall development strategy should be used to ensure the continued availability of ILVs from the UER? What roles do choice of species and marketing approach play in such a strategy?

What is the best way to implement such a strategy? Which stakeholders ought to be involved?

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Form of the final product

Before leaving Ghana, the study team will produce and hand over a report with an executive summary, an abstract and a main text of not more than a hundred pages including figures and tables. In the report, maximum use will be made of visualisation. To be of common use, the report will be structured in such a way that non-scientists also can easily understand the main results of the study.

Other outputs/results from the field study

Through workshops and frequent interactions between the team and stakeholders within and outside the study area, the field study is expected to stimulate feedback between the stakeholders, increase the dissemination of the study's findings and increase the sense of ownership of the results of the field study because of the joint effort.

Relevant stakeholder institutions

Besides the host of this study -CBUD-, other institutions and organisations have an interest in the conservation, production and product chain development of ILVs. These include research institutions such as the University of Development Studies (UDS) and the Savanna Agricultural Research Institute (SARI), governmental and non-governmental development organisations such as the Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MOFA), the Savanna Resource Management Centre (SRMC), and various NGOs and religious organisations operating in the Region, as well as established programmes in the area such as the Irrigation Company of the Upper Regions (ICOUR). It is expected that all these institutions can contribute greatly to the data collection process of the study team and will be direct beneficiaries of the eventual results of the study.

Field study process

Upon arrival in Ghana, the team will, following a brief reconnaissance of the study area, present its field study research and work plans to all interested stakeholders at an introductory workshop at Bolgatanga. Purpose of this presentation is to obtain feedback from these stakeholders on the proposed methodology and to receive recommendations for the execution of the study. A second workshop will be held halfway through the study period, at which time the team will present its early findings and its views on potential research and development strategies. The final results of the study will be presented in the form of a draft of the final report, which the stakeholders will have a chance to comment on in a final workshop. Timing of this workshop will be such that useful comments can still be incorporated into the final version of the report.

Field study responsibility

The team is collectively responsible to CBUD and ICRA for executing the study in accordance with these terms of reference (TOR). The team will remain in regular contact with CBUD. CBUD's agricultural officer will act as the liaison officer for the host institution and the second Ghanaian member will act as the team's liaison officer to all institutions of interest. The team is responsible for its own internal management. Within the limits specified by these TORs and by the budget, the team is free to decide its own approach, methodology, tools and work plan. Important questions arising during the implementation of the field study will be immediately clarified in a discussion with the contact group (see MOU).

Means

CBUD and ICRA are responsible for the provision to the team of the means specified in the Memorandum of Understanding.

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APPENDIX 2 RESEARCH QUESTIONS RELATED TO RESEARCH TOPIC Topics Research Questions Information Needed Tools to be used to collect

information Expected Output

Clarifying development context, identifying stakeholders and defining system of interest

What are the various factors influencing conservation and sustainable utilisation of ILVs in UER of Ghana?

Technical/agro-ecological factors Socio-economic factors Environmental factors Institutional/policy factors Indigenous knowledge

Analysis of secondary data Initial Contextual analysis. NB: To be verified during first workshop in the field with host institution and stakeholders.

A refined contextual analysis of the problematique.

Who are the relevant stakeholders and what role do they play in relation to ILVs?

The different types of stakeholders involved in ILV production, conservation, processing and marketing including collectors, women and farmers; also those that use irrigation and those that practise rain-fed cultivation; researchers.

Perceptions and interest of different stakeholders towards the central problem?

Secondary data TOR Stakeholder identification and

role/interest/objectives matrix. Stakeholder linkage matrix.

A list of relevant stakeholders with their interest/role/objective/perceptions.

Analysing the system of Interest and Identify Development Strategies

Are there differences in household types involved in collection/production, processing and marketing?

Criteria for typology. Secondary data (TOR) Zonation Typology SSI with stakeholders and key

informants.

Different zones and farm types identified to be targeted in the study.

What are the traditional forms of ILVs conservation, collection, production, processing and marketing?

Indigenous knowledge on traditional forms of conservation, collection, production and processing of ILVs.

Information on availability of processing industries and market facilities available (local, external and export).

Semi-structured Interview (SSI) with key informants/farmers from one village each in four districts.

Secondary data analysis Knowledge/Information system

analysis.

A model of the flow of information and knowledge.

Who does the collection, production, processing and marketing of ILVs?

Intra-households/Inter-household task division.

SSI with representative households.

A matrix of various works related with ILVs production with responsibility.

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Which species and how much of ILVs do they collect and produce?

Species of ILVs collected and produced. The quantity of ILVs that they collect

and produce.

Semi-structured Interview (SSI) with representative households.

Secondary data analysis KIS analysis.

K & I flow model Written text on these

aspects.

Which ILV species are important for the households?

Importance of different ILV species in the community.

Reasons for preference.

Semi-structured Interview (SSI) with key informants/farmers from one village each in four district.

A matrix of ILV species prioritised by community.

Has there been any change in species, quantities and gender roles in ILV collection, production, processing and marketing? Why?

Changes in the species, quantities and gender roles with regards to the collection, production, processing and marketing of ILVs. Reasons for those changes.

Secondary data analysis SSI with representative

households. Time line.

A trend diagram and text on comparative changes over time.

What have been the consequences of these changes at the farm household level (food security, choice of species in production, health, household income, decision-making, gender issues, etc.)?

The effect and impact of the changes on food security, health, income level, gender involvement, decision making and choice of species.

Secondary data analysis Livelihood system analysis SSI with key informants/

farmers. Visioning.

Livelihood system diagram showing the effect of changes in importance of ILVs on livelihood of people.

What is the economic viability of ILV production? What are the factors affecting the profitability of ILV species?

Cost of production and market prices. Cost of processing and marketing. Problems related to improve the

profitability of ILVs production.

SSI with key informants/ farmers

Cost Benefit analysis for some major ILV species.

Commodity system analysis

A cost benefit analysis table.

An assessment of the main constraints to the profitability of ILVs.

Which ILV species have the potential for commercialisation?

Market demand, prices, infrastructure and improved technologies availability.

SSI with key informants/ farmers/Traders

Market survey.

A written text including all these aspects.

What could be the effect of commercialisation of ILVs on conservation and gender roles?

Possible effect of commercialisation on conservation and genders’ roles.

SSI with key informants/ households/farmers

A written text on effect of commercialisation on gender roles.

Screening development strategies and prioritising R & D options.

What role can research and development play in commercialisation of ILV species?

Researchers’, extension workers’ and other stakeholders’ perception on the possible role of research and development in strengthening and supporting the commercialisation of ILVs.

SSI with farmers and key stakeholders.

Stakeholders’ objectives/role matrix

Possible research roles of research and development identified.

145

What options are available to stakeholders to sustain ILV production in the study area?

Stakeholders’ opinion on the availability of options to sustain ILV production in future the study area.

Secondary data SSI with relevant stakeholders.

A matrix of stakeholders’ view on options available.

Do different ILV production and trading practices require different forms of R&D intervention?

Team and different stakeholders’ perceptions on types of interventions required for different ILV production.

SSI with relevant stakeholders. List of R&D interventions required for different ILV production systems.

What are the most likely development scenarios and the driving forces that may influence them?

Future trends of driving forces, livelihood strategies and vision of stakeholders for the future.

SSI Visioning development

scenarios by farmers and other stakeholders

List of internal and external driving forces

Different important development scenario developed.

What are the development strategies that may be pursued to address the problems/constraints of the identified target group?

Stakeholders’ problems and perception of how problem may be resolved. Perceptions of the target groups about strategies that may be pursued.

SSI Stakeholder analysis.

A list of development strategies.

Which development strategies will do best under different scenarios?

Current and future scenario anticipated from interaction with stakeholders.

SSI with involvement of stakeholders, particularly ILV farmers

Ranking matrix for identified strategies with stakeholders.

Selection of the best development strategies for different scenarios.

Which of the identified development strategies are most appropriate?

Criteria for environmental sustainability, economic competitivity and social equity.

Key indicators for sustainability.

Actor pay-off matrix. Score/Matrix scoring Checklist grid.

A list of prioritised and screened development strategies.

Which stakeholders have to be involved to support the prioritised development strategies in the study area and possibly in other areas of the country?

Stakeholders activities in relation to the ILV problem

Stakeholders’ human and logistic resources

Links and collaboration with other stakeholders

Research interests of stakeholder institutions.

Secondary data SSI of key persons in

stakeholder institutions and with farmers

An identification of the roles for the different stakeholders in different proposed development actions.

Formulating Research and development proposals.

What research options are needed to enable commercialisation of ILV species and their conservation?

Criteria for prioritising research options. SSI with farmers and researchers

Scoring/Ranking matrix

List of the research options prioritised for each of the selected development strategies.

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APPENDIX 3 VILLAGES PROPOSED BY INTRODUCTORY WORKSHOP PARTICIPANTS FOR CONDUCTING IN DEPTH STUDY PRIORITY Village REASONS FOR SELECTION OF VILLAGE BONGO DISTRICT FARM TYPE: IRRIGATED PRODUCTION SYSTEM WITH COMMERCIAL SCALE PRODUCTION HAVING EASY ACCESS TO MARKET 1 Bongo Central Road accessibility, access to market, irrigable area is very big 2 Dua Road accessibility and essay access to market. Irrigable area is

less than that at Bongo central FARM TYPE: RAIN-FED PRODUCTION SYSTEM WITH SUBSISTENCE SCALE PRODUCTION PRIORITY Village REASONS FOR SELECTION OF VILLAGE 1 Bungu No access road, no irrigable area, have a dam but used for

livestock watering 2 Goo No access road, no irrigable area, have a dam but used for

livestock watering KASSENA-NANKANA DISTRICT FARM TYPE: RAIN-FED PRODUCTION SYSTEM WITH COMMERCIAL SCALE PRODUCTION HAVING LIMITED ACCESS TO MARKET 1 Naga Rainfed, commercial with limited access to market. Access to

transport is a problem. Fertile soils2 Katio Rain-fed, commercial, limited access to markets, less fertile

soils. FARM TYPE: RAIN-FED PRODUCTION SYSTEM WITH SUBSISTENCE SCALE PRODUCTION 1 Kandiga Rain-fed, subsistence, accessible road, border with Burkina

Faso for international trade 2 Chiana Rain-fed and subsistence production FARM TYPE: IRRIGATED PRODUCTION SYSTEM WITH SUBSISTENCE SCALE PRODUCTION 1 Gani Nearer a big market (Navrongo market) 2 Biu Further from big markets FARM TYPE: RAIN-FED PRODUCTION SYSTEM WITH COMMERCIAL SCALE PRODUCTION HAVING EASY ACCESS TO MARKET1 Vonania Has market days, nearness to major roads.2 Biu No market, nearest market is Navrongo FARM TYPE: IRRIGATED PRODUCTION SYSTEM WITH COMMERCIAL SCALE PRODUCTION HAVING EASY ACCESS TO MARKET 1 Bania Access to 3 big markets. 2 Paga Large water body (Tono) FARM TYPE: IRRIGATED PRODUCTION SYSTEM WITH COMMERCIAL SCALE PRODUCTION HAVING LIMITED ACCESS TO MARKET 1 Pungu Nearer to market but only on market days 2 Nakolo Far from Navrongo, the main commercial centre BAWKU-WEST DISTRICT FARM TYPE: RAIN-FED PRODUCTION SYSTEM WITH COMMERCIAL SCALE PRODUCTION HAVING LIMITED ACCESS TO MARKET 1 Widnaba Large virgin forest, large scale production of vegetables, limited

access to markets 2 Kasongo Limited access to markets, fertile soils, large scale production of

vegetables FARM TYPE: RAIN-FED PRODUCTION WITH COMMERCIAL SCALE PRODUCTION AND EASY ACCESS TO MARKET 1 Teshie Rural area, access to market, shares borders with Burkina Faso-

inter-border trade 2 Binaba Rural area, has markets patronised by outsiders, many farmers

producing vegetables FARM TYPE: IRRIGATED PRODUCTION SYSTEM WITH COMMERCIAL SCALE PRODUCTION HAVING LIMITED ACCESS TO MARKET

147

1 Binaba Have 2 dams for irrigation, produces all types of vegetables, no access to large markets

2 Kamega One dam for irrigation, limited access to markets, no good access roads

FARM TYPE: IRRIGATED PRODUCTION SYSTEM WITH COMMERCIAL SCALE PRODUCTION HAVING EASY ACCESS TO MARKET 1 Zebilla Have dams for irrigation, access to markets, large scale

production of vegetables2 Saka Have a dam, easy access to markets produce large quantities of

vegetables BOLGATANGA DISTRICT FARM TYPE: RAIN-FED PRODUCTION WITH COMMERCIAL SCALE PRODUCTION AND EASY ACCESS TO MARKET 1 Pelungu There is an important market in which vegetables can be sold 2 Sherigu Village close to Bolgatanga, an urban area. Vegetables

transported as head loads to Bolgatanga market FARM TYPE: IRRIGATED PRODUCTION SYSTEM WITH COMMERCIAL SCALE PRODUCTION HAVING LIMITED ACCESS TO MARKET 1 Santeng Very remote with limited access 2 Zanlerigu No dams, do gardening without a dam FARM TYPE IRRIGATED PRODUCTION SYSTEM WITH COMMERCIAL SCALE PRODUCTION HAVING EASY ACCESS TO MARKET 1 Pwalugu Located on major trunk road, there is a market. 2 Yikini/Bolga-Nyarigu Close to Bolgatanga FARM TYPE: RAIN-FED PRODUCTION SYSTEM WITH SUBSISTENCE SCALE PRODUCTION 1 Nyeogbare A very remote village in the Nabdam area, everybody produces

and frequently none is sold2 Agushie (near

Sumbrungu) Very remote area with little contact with markets

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APPENDIX 4 CHECK LIST FOR FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSIONS

Type of production system/Farm Type…………………………………………….

1.1 District………………………………….. 1.2 Date of visit……………….. 1.3 Village…………………………………… 1.4 Size of group………………….. Composition of group members: 1.5 Number of males…………………1.6 Number of females…………………………. 1.7 Literacy level of group members Primary ……………. Secondary……………… Post secondary…………………….. Middle school/ JSS……………………………. Tertiary education………………… Checklist (for SSI):

1. LOCAL PRODUCERS ORGANISATIONS

What Organized Groups/Associations do you have for vegetable growers in this village? What are the roles of the association?………………………………………………… Has the association ever received assistance from any organization?……………….. If yes how did the individual member benefit from the assistance?…………………. Does the association have institutions to whom you sell your produce as a group or as individuals?…………………………………………………………………………… Does the association assist in the marketing of your produce?………………………. Do the farmers purchase farm inputs as a group through the association? Are you in linkage with any government organization or NGO? How do individuals obtain land for farming here? What measure of land do members possess? What do you pay for land?…………………………………………….. How many of you have land for the expansion of ILVs……………… Is your land near the dam?……………………………………………. Is your land far from the dam?………………………………………….. Do you have any other cooperatives?…………………………………….. Name then and explain their roles?………………………………………….

2. FUTURE DEVELOPMENT OF ILV ENTERPRISE

How many of you are willing to expand your ILV production? Is it possible to acquire a bigger land to increase production? Who will give you the land? Can you obtain financial credit to expand your farms? Name the sources of your financial assistance. Is it possible to acquire more inputs for expanding ILV production? Will you be able to produce ILVs during the raining season? 3. MARKETING What problem do you experience in the marketing of your ILVs.? Has the marketing of ILVs changed over the years? Explain the old and the new methods of selling ILVs?

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APPENDIX 5 CHECK LIST FOR HOUSEHOLD SURVEY

Type of production system/Farm Type………………………………………………… District………………………………….. Date of visit……………….. Enumerator…………………………….. Village/……………………. 1.0 General information 1.1 Name of respondent……………………………………………………… 1.2 Age…………………………… 1.3 Sex Male 1 Female 2 1.4 Literacy status of respondents Literate 1 Non-literate 2 Non-formal 3 1.5 If literate, what level of education did you reach? [ ] Primary [ ] Secondary [ ] Post secondary [ ] Middle school/ JSS [ ] Tertiary education Check List: 1. How do the farmer generally carry out the sale of produce? (Through middlemen, direct sales to market, exchange and other) 2. Does the farmer sell to any of the following institutions? (Hospitals, Prisons, Schools, Churches, Hotel and restaurants). 3. If yes what is the total amount you sold to them this season?………………………... 4. How do you package your produce for sale…………………………………………… 5. What is the number of plant stands or branches in each package?…………………… 6. What is the weight of a unit package?……………………………………………….. 7. Are you able to sell the whole harvest for each day? 8. If not what do you do with the remainder? 9. How much do you loss through spoilage per harvest………..per season?………… 10. Major problems encountered in marketing. COST OF PRODUCTION Type of crop………………………… Production Cost Items in cedis

1st Cropping 2nd Cropping 3rd Cropping 4th Cropping

5th Cropping

Land area Cost of land (In kind or cash)

Cost of fencing of land

Cost of land preparation

Cost of seed Cost of nursing Cost of transplanting

Cost of Fertilizer Cost of manure Cost of compost Cost of chemicals Cost of 1st weeding

150

Cost of 2nd weeding

Cost of harvesting Cost of watering Charges paid for water usage

Other production expenses made

Cost of transportation Name of market

Distance from farm

Mode of conveyance

Charge per load

Transport cost for farmer

Transport. Charge per unit of package

Price per unit of produce on farm

Number of packages harvested per unit of cropping area and cost elements? Type of ILV 1 2 3 4 5 1st harvest Price obtained per unit 2nd harvest Price obtained per unit 3rd harvest Price obtained per unit 4th harvest Price obtained per unit 5th harvest Price obtained per unit 6th harvest Price obtained per unit PRODUCE MAMAGEMENT Type of ILV Qty. of harvest Qty. sold Total revenue obtained Qty used at home Qty. stored Form of storage Processing method used Method of storage Amount of revenue from stored produce Depreciation for inputs Qty. used for gifts, ceremonies festivals

151

QUESTIONNAIRE ON INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE AND OTHERS

1. IMPORTANCE Type of ILV 1.1 Nutritional value of ILV

species

1.2 Medicinal value of ILV species.

2. PRODUCTION PRACTICES Type of ILV 2.1 What are the sources of your ILV seeds? 2.2 Where do you store your seeds? 2.3 Do you encounter any problems in the storage of your seeds?

2.4 If yes state the problem(s) 2.5 Are your seeds treated before planting? 2.6 If yes state the type of treatment 2.7 How do you prepare your land before planting? 2.8 Do you apply manure and fertilizers during land preparation or before planting?

2.9 If yes, what type of manure and fertilizers and how much? 2.10 Do you nurse or broadcst your seed when planting? 2.11 If you nurse how long does it take before you transplant? 2.12 If any disease/pest appears in nursery how do you control? (Any indigenous measure?)

2.13 When there are no rains how do you irrigate ILVs? 2.14 How many times do you water the plants in a day? 2.15How do you apply the water? 2.16 What production problems do you encounter? 2.17 Do you apply fertilizer, manure or compost in main crop of ILV?

2.18 If any disease and insect/pest appear in the crop of ILV, do you use any indigenous measures for controlling them?

2.19 Do you spray any chemical if yes, what chemical do you use for what disease and pest?

2.20 How long does it take to mature (ready to first harvest)? 2.21 What opportunities encourage you to cultivate these ILVs? 2.22 Do you grow the ILV as a main crop or as a mixed crop? Why?

2.23 If you grow as a mixed crop, which crops do you cultivate with ILVs? Why?

3.0 HARVESTING, HANDLING, PROCESSING AND STORAGE Type of ILV 3.1 What signs do you use to determine when to start harvest? 3.2 What time of the day do you harvest? 3.3 What is the reason for the choice of time? 3.4 How do you harvest the leaf? 3.5 Do you harvest on market days, a day before market days or any day at all?

3.6 Do you do any sorting after harvest before selling?

152

3.7 Why do you sort? 3.8 Do you count the leaf in a group before tying? 3.9 Do you weigh the bunch of leaf before tying? 3.10 If you do not count or weigh give reasons why? 3.11 Do you process any of your produce before marketing? 3.12 If yes describe the method of processing? 3.13 What processing problems do you encounter? 3.14 Do you store any of your produce? 3.15 If yes, describe the method of storage for each type of leaf. 3.16 State any problems of post harvest losses? 3.17 What storage problems do you encounter?

153

APPENDIX 6 MATRIX SCORING FOR POTENTIAL SPECIES FOR COMMERCIALISATION (a) Matrix scoring for Cultivated species

CRITERIA Low production cost

High labour Requirement

Early maturing

High demand

High price

Easy to dry

Nutri- tious

Total Rank Name of vegetable

1 Alefu 1 6 6 10 10 0 7 40 4 2 Bito 4 9 8 6 4 10 10 51 2 3 Berese 4 10 8 10 8 10 8 58 1 4 Maana 2 5 3 2 1 0 1 14 6

5 Bento 8 8 10 8 6 1 6 47 3 6 Yogvoro 10 9 2 4 3 8 3 39 5

(b) Matrix scoring for Collected / wild species

CRITERIA Available most of the time

Easy to collect

Short distance from home

High dd Medicinal Score Rank Name of vegetable

1 Baobab 10 8 10 7 10 45 2 2 Bunto 8 10 10 10 10 48 1 3 Kamponvonro 10 1 1 8 8 28 5 4 Jamasoni 6 10 10 8 9 43 3 5 Ayoyo 1 10 10 9 8 38 4 6 Kafrikayoa 1 8 10 0 8 27 6 7 Ogla 1 1 4 10 0 16 7 8 Bongabisigo 1 1 10 0 0 12 8

154

APPENDIX 7 CULTIVATED SPECIES OF ILVS IN STUDY AREA

SN ILV species

Local names of ILV species at different places

Rain-fed sites Irrigated sites

Kandiga Widnaba Sherigu Gani

Binaba

Bongo Central

Ethnicity Kassena-Nankani

Kusasi Fra-fra Kassena-Nankani

Kusasi Fra-fra

Local name Scientific name Common name 1. Okro Abelmoschus

esculentus Okro leaves Mana Okro Maana Mana Okro Mana

2. Berese Hibiscus cannabinus Kenaf Beresi Berges Berese Berese Barisit Beresi 3. Bito Hibiscus sabdariffa Roselle or Sorre Beto Bito Bito Bito Bito(Beet) Bito 4. Yogvoro Cucurbita pepo Pumpkin Pumpkin

leaves Pumpkin

leaves Yogvoro Yogvoro Pumpkin

leaves Yogvooro

5. Neri Tamarindus indica Tamarind Neri Neri Sama Neri leaves 6. Saat Saat 7. Bento Vigna unguiculata Bean leaves Bento Bean

leaves Bento Bento Bean leaves Bento

8. Lohora Cowpea(leaves) Lohora 9. Ayoyo Corchorus olitorius Jews mallow or

African Sorrel Ayoyo Ayoyo Bungbhama Ayoyo

10. Alefu Amaranthus cruentus African spinach Alefu Alefu Alefu Alefu11. Langina Cleome gynandra Cat’s Whiskers Langina Langina Nangina 12. Lohit Lohit 13. Imbut Imbut 14. Sambola Luffa aegyptica Loofah Sponge Zambole Sambola Sambola Sambola 15. Komworo Solanum macrocarpon African egg

plant Komworo Konvoro

16. Leba Cleome gynandra Leba Leba Leba 17. Chimvoro Chimvoro

155

APPENDIX 8 COLLECTED SPECIES OF ILVS IN STUDY AREA

S.N.

IlV species

Local names of ILV species at different places

Rain-fed sites Irrigated sites

Kandiga Widnaba Sherigu Gani

Binaba

Bongo Central

Ethnicity Kassena-Nankani

Kusasi Fra-fra Kassena-Nankani

Kusasi Fra-fra

Local name Scientific name Common name 1. Kapok Ceiba pentendra Kapok or silk

cotton Kapok

2. Voong (Voa)

Voong

3. Bogosid Bogosid Bougosit 4. Bauda Bauda Baura 5. Matingama Matingama Matimgama 6. Samvama Sambema Samvama 7. Langenda Cleome gynandra Langenda 8. Guwara Guwara Goara 9. Tokara Adansonia digitata Baobab leaves Baobab Tokara Tokara Teakara 10. Samveibit Samveibit 11. Kuorunbit Kuorunbit 12. Saalum Saalum 13. Ogola Ogola Ogla Ogla 14. Samparaga Samparaga 15. Vomwama Vomwama 16. Kulgonga Kulgunga Kulgonga 17. Bongto Bungto Bongto Bomto Bongto 18. Firikayua Firikayua Furkayu

wa 19. Kelpomvoor

o Kelpom vooro Konpongvoro

20. Lemkoligo Lemkoligo 21. Kuliyoko Kuliyoko

156

22. Bungabisgo Bungabisgo Bungabisgo

23. Sasinga Sinkam

Arachis hypogea Groundnut Sasinga Sinkam

24. Pigitaligsi Pigitaligsi 25. Tinga bonto Tinga bonto 26. Manbrola Manbrola 27. Arvoro Arvoro 28. Gumantusi Gumantusi 29. Bonleyaba Bonleyab

a30. Kulyogro Kulyogro 31. Kunbuo Kunbuo 32. Buwa Tenga Buwa

Tenga 33. Kinkalinka Kinkalin

ka 34. Virivoro Virivoro 35. Voba 36. Jamasoni Cassia obtusifolia Cassia tora 37. Kafrikayoya

157

APPENDIX 9 LIST OF CULTIVATED SPECIES OF ILVs GROWN IN UPPER EAST REGION OF GHANA.

S.N.

Species Ranking of the Species by Popularity

Rain-fed villages

Irrigated villages

Kandiga (1)

Widnaba (2)

Sherigu (3)

Gaani (4)

Binaba(5)

Bongo(6)

1. Okro/Mana III VII VII IV IX VI

2. Berges/Barisit/Berese II II II II I II

3. Bito I I I I II I

4. Yogvoro (Pumpkin leaves)

IV VIII III IX VII III

5. Niri/Sama VIII IX XI XII VIII XI

6. Saat X

7. Bento (cow-pea leaves) V III VI III V IV

8. Lohora XI

9. Ayoyo VII V X X III IX

10. Alefu VI VI V V VI VIII

11. Langina/Nangina/Leba XI IV IV XI IV VII

12. Lohit XI

13. Imbut X

14. Sambola/Zambole X VIII VIII V

15. Komvoro/Konvoro IX X

16. Nyembule VI XII

17. Samvebed XII

18. Benvoro XII

19. Chimvoro XII VII

Note: (1) = Rain-fed and subsistence; (2) = Rain-fed, commercial with limited access to market; (3) = Rain-fed, commercial with easy access to market; (4) = Irrigated and subsistence; (5) = Irrigated, commercial with limited access to market and (6) = Irrigated, commercial with easy access to market farm types. Source: ICRA Field Study 2002, Focus Group Discussions in six villages.

158

APPENDIX 10 COLLECTED SPECIES OF ILVs IN UPPER EAST REGION OF

GHANA .

S.N.

Species Ranking of the Species by Popularity

Rain-fed villages Irrigated villages

Kandiga(1)

Widnaba (2)

Sherigu (3)

Gaani (4)

Binaba (5)

Bongo(6)

1. Kapok III VII 2. Voong/Voa/Voba IV IX V 3. Bogosid/Bougosit II III 4. Bauda VI VI VIII 5. Matingama/Matimgama V V 6. Sambema/Samvama VIII VII 7. Langenda VII IX 8. Guwara/Gowara IX II 9. Teakara/Tokara/Baobab III I I II I VIII 10. Samveibit X IV 11. Kuorunbit VI 12. Saalum II 13. Ogola XI III VI II 14. Samparaga IV VI 15. Vomwama V 16. Kulgonga X VIII 17. Bongto I I I 18. Firikayua/Furkayuwa VI III 19. Kelpomvooro II III 20. Lemkoligo VII 21. Kuliyoko IV VIII 22. Bungabisgo V VIII 23. Sasinga Sinkam VIII 24. Pigitaligsi IX 25. Tingabongto IV 26. Arvoro V 27. Gumantusi VII 28. Bonleyaba VIII 29. Kulyogro VIII 30. Kunbuo VIII31. Buwa Tenga VIII 32. Kinkalinka VIII 33. Virivoro IV 34. Jamasoni X 35. Kafrikayoya XII IX 36. Ziphoyong XIII 37. Bitter leaf 38. Pusgavoro XI

Note: (1) = Rain-fed and subsistence; (2) = Rain-fed, commercial with limited access to market; (3) = Rain-fed, commercial with easy access to market; (4) = Irrigated and subsistence; (5) = Irrigated, commercial with limited access to market and (6) = Irrigated, commercial with easy access to market farm types. Source: ICRA Field Study 2002, Focus Group Discussions in six villages.

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APPENDIX 11 A REFLECTION OF PRODUCTION CONSTRAINTS

Constraints Percent respondent

Widnaba Binaba Sherigu

Kandiga Bongo Central

Gaani

Limited access to financial capital/Credit

86 80 77 80 80 77

Poor soil fertility 43 60 11 20 50 11 Soil erosion 50 High transport cost to market

14 20 55

Long distance to farm 10 Destruction by livestock 20 High cost of fertilizer 20 30 66 Limited access to fertiliser 28 60 44 20 50 11 Pest and disease 43 50 22 60 70 33 Limited access to labour 43 20 11 20 20 33 Food shortage in April – July

20

Limited sources of income 10 Limited access to Bullock 72 20 44 10 70 11 Post harvest losses 10 22 Poor seed quality 10 10 44 Low market prices 30 10 Limited market demand of ILVs

14 10 33 10 30 44

Destruction by grass cutter 10 Limited knowledge on manure processing into composting

10

Limited access to seed 43 11 22 (HC)

Limited access to pesticides 33 20 22 (HC)

Poor seed storage facility 28 33 Erratic rains 100 100 100 30 10 22 High population 60 55 Limited irrigation water 14 11 80 10 22 Small land size 20 10 Deforestation 10 Limited land availability in canal site

11

Limited access to animal health service.

20

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APPENDIX 12 MATRIX SCORING OF CULTIVATED SPECIES.

CRITERIA Low produc- Tion cost

Low labour Requi- rement

Early maturing

High demand

High price

Easy To process

Nutri- tious

Total Rank Name of vegetable

1 Alefu 9 22 40 60 60 0 40 231 4 2 Berese 24 58 51 39 37 60 60 329 2 3 Bito 28 55 56 58 38 60 52 347 1 4 Maana 9 35 17 11 6 0 7 85 6 5 Vigna

(Bento) 50

47

60

49

38

8

39

291

3

6 Pumpkin leaves (Yorvonro)

57

54

10

17

30

36

18

222

5

Source: ICRA 2002, Field survey APPENDIX 13 MATRIX SCORING OF COLLECTED SPECIES

CRITERIA Available Most of the time

Easy to collect

Short Distance from home

High demand

Medi- cinal

High nutritional value

Score Rank Name of vegetable

1 Baobab (Tokara)

51

47

60

52

60

24

294

1

2 Jamasoni 8 10 60 10 58 52 154 6 3 Kanponvonro 10 6 6 48 48 22 140 84 Bunto 12 56 55 48 54 43 262 25 Ougla 13 60 60 54 48 32 260 3 6 Samvama( wild

Ayoyo)

32

60

54

45

12

27

230 4

7 Kafrikayoa 6 6 24 60 0 55 152 7 8 Sowoka 28 42 20 22 60 51 221 5


161

APPENDIX 14 ESTIMATES OF BENEFITS AND COSTS ON AN IRRIGATED COMMERCIAL FARM AT PWALUGU (BOLGATANGA DISTRICT) 1,000 Cedis/acre

Local Name of ILV Bito Alefu AyoyoProduction Cost / acre Land 5.00 12.50 10.00Fencing of Land 0.00 0.00 0.00Land preparation -Hired Labour 285.59 502.50 686.40 - Animal traction 0.00 0.00 0.00 -Tractor services 64.71 100.00 200.00Seed 20.59 10.00 50.00Fertilizer 22.50 22.50 22.50Manure 30.00 30.00 30.00Compost 0.00 0.00 0.00Chemicals 6.40 6.40 6.40Water 0.00 0.00 0.00Association dues 0.00 0.00 0.00Depreciation of working tools 150.00 185.00 300.00Donkey cart to market 0.00 0.00 0.00Truck service to market 0.00 0.00 0.00Human portage to market 0.00 0.00 0.00Bicycle to market 0.00 0.00 0.00Transport cost of farmer 0.00 0.00 0.00Selling Cost (Taxi) 17.64 75.00 150.00Total cost per acre 602.43 943.90 1455.30Opportunity Cost of capital per annum 156.63 245.41 378.39

Opportunity cost of capital/operation period (26% interest) 13.05 20.45 31.53Gross cost of operation 615.48 964.35 1486.83Output/Revenue per acre 0.00Sales fresh 2770.59 4850.00 2450.00Sales dried 0.00 0.00 0.00Consumption fresh 7.41 135.00 0.00Consumption dried 0.00 0.00 0.00Ceremonies/festival/gifts 29.41 250.00 0.00Total Revenue/ acre 2807.41 5235.00 2450.00Net benefit 2191.93 4270.65 963.17Benefit/Cost ratio 4.56 5.43 1.65

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APPENDIX 15 INDIGENOUS LEAFY VEGETABLE STAKEHOLDER ROLE AND RESPONSIBILITY

INSTITUTION ROLE/RESPONSIBILITY POTENTIAL ROLE 1. Farmer/ Vegetable producer Key stakeholder and beneficiary

Production, preservation & storage of vegetables

Conserve vegetable species through continued production

Posses indigenous knowledge on production and processing of ILVs

Increase production to a commercial scale of production

2. Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MOFA) Assist farmers in agricultural production, which includes crops and as well as leafy vegetable.

Capacity building through training of extension worker and farmers

Facilitate transfer of technology Link farmers with credit institutions Facilitate farmer groups/co-operatives

formation Training of Agricultural Extension Agencies

and farmers on processing, preservation & storage of vegetables

Assist farmers in production, processing & storage of local vegetables both in the raining & dry seasons using solar dryer

Construction of dams for dry season gardening Credit from project funds Demonstration on production, processing &

utilisation of vegetables Inspection and certifying vegetable seeds

To establish farmer field training through demonstration plot of ILVs

To link farmers with Agricultural Development Bank & NGOs for financial assistance

To link farmers with credit institutions for expansion of ILVs production to a commercial scale

To encourage farmers to use the solar dryer to improve the quality of the vegetables

Promote the production of selected/recommended ILVs in the UER

Identify farmers to produce seeds

3. Savannah Agricultural Research Institute (SARI ) and Manga Research Station (UER)

Vegetable breeding programme Follow farming system research approach Conduct farmer field schools on vegetables Research on crop/vegetable production

Work on adaptable leafy vegetable varieties Seed multiplication, production, packaging &

sale Farmers field school on leafy vegetables Research on inter-cropping of leafy vegetables

163

Research on indigenous leafy vegetable 4. Animal Research Institute (ARI) Fodder/Silage from leafy vegetable in animal

feeding To identify ILVs, which also serve as

forage/fodder Forage/Browse agronomy research & feed

development Livestock system research & development Crop residues & by-products utilisation

Leafy vegetables residues preference studies Crop-residues treatment for animal

supplementary feed (beans straw) Establish market link for vegetable straw with

urban livestock producer

5. University for Development Studies Research on production & marketing of crops and vegetables in general

The food & nutrition security unit of UDS is involved in micro nutrient studies & training on the use of improved solar drying technologies

Promotion of vegetable utilisation for household consumption in the southern parts of the country

Promotion of commercial vegetable production in various parts of Northern Ghana

6. Savannah Resource Management Centre (SRMC)

Studies on the status of indigenous crop species in the 3 regions of Northern Ghana.

Documentation of endangered crop species/varieties

Identification of hot spots for disappearing species/varieties

Promotion of the local varieties

7. World Vision International (Bongo only) Organising training programs for leafy vegetable farmers on safe use of agro chemicals and integrated pest and crop management.

Credit facility for farmers Supply of seeds to vegetable farmers

Increase number of credit beneficiaries to enhance production of leafy vegetables.

8. Action Aid Ghana Provision of credit Provision of infrastructure i.e. dams, storage

structures, input etc Provision of animal traction facilities

Support farmers in ILV production

9. TRAX Program Support Train farmers on the importance of large scale vegetable production

Promoting organic farming To offer training on soil & water conservation

technologies to ILV farmers

To link leafy vegetables producers to market access promotion network (MAARONET) for fair trade

To offer capacity building training Promoting organic farming

10. TECHNOSERVE GHANA Promoting processing of tomato Train tomato and onion farmers on agribusiness

Explore commercialisation potential of ILVs Explore value addition/processing

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Support farmers on market linkage opportunities Providing management and marketing

support/linkage to ILV farmers Provide credit linkage to ILV farmers.

11. RUWA (Rural Women Association) in Navrongo

Provide credit to women for income generating activities ILV production is one of the activities

Provide credit to women involved in ILV Commercial production.

Organise technical training in ILV production and processing

12. ICOUR (Irrigation Company of Upper East Region)

Provision of irrigation facilities for production of leafy vegetables

Organisation of farmers/producers into marketing units

Provision of seeds & inputs credit Provision of technical advise & disease control

Promotion of processing & marketing of indigenous leafy vegetables in urban areas.

Encouraging farmers to diversify into ILV production

Increasing the acreage allocated to farmers for ILV production

Developing strategies for seed production & storage

13. ADRA Organise technical training on crop production Credit support to buy farm inputs Natural resource management Create awareness on importance of ILVs as a

source of nutrition.

ADRA will be willing to partner in efforts to promote indigenous leafy vegetables.

14. Catholic Diocese Construction of dams for irrigation Promote income generating activities (Rice

parboiling, dawadawa processing, pito making) Provide technical assistance/training to farmers

on composting and local methods of insect control

Promote vegetable production (Tomato and Onion)

Agro-forestry (Bongo Agro-forestry).

Seed production of local Alefu (Leba). Promotion of processing and marketing of

ILVs.

15. Rural Aid (IFAD) Assist communities to construct hand dug wells for household use

Undertake community development activities

Assist communities to construct hand dug wells for irrigation purposes

Assist communities to access funds for income generating activities

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APPENDIX 16 DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES, RESEARCH OPTIONS AND DEVELOPMENT OPTIONS FOR PROMOTING INDIGENOUS LEAFY VEGETABLES IN UPPER EAST REGION OF GHANA

S.N DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY RESEARCH OPTIONS DEVELOPMENT OPTIONS CONSERVATION 1. Germplasm collection & seed bank establishment Collection of germ-plasm of ILVs (collected &

cultivated) & establishment of seed bank 2. Documentation & dissemination of indigenous

knowledge on ILVs Documentation of indigenous knowledge on

ILVs (published materials) Formalising the dissemination of indigenous

knowledge from one generation to another (through training by MOFA and other organisations and also through farmers’ groups).

3. In situ conservation of wild/collected species of ILVs

Identification of hot spots for endangered species of ILVs.

Intensifying awareness to control bush burning, clearing & overgrazing/ browsing

Research on mode of conservation eg. Gardening or wild mode of conservation.

Creating awareness on importance of conservation.

Research on mode of collection of ILV species from bush eg. Pruning vs. uprooting.

CALTIVATION 4. Include ILVs in seed multiplication programme Research on seed production techniques in ILVs Including ILVs under seed multiplication

programme of MOFA and other organisations 5. Improvement in cropping systems Research on appropriate crop combination for

mixed/inter-cropping Practising appropriate crop rotation in irrigated

production system Research on effectiveness of mix seeding Continue incorporating leguminous crops in

cropping pattern Research on appropriate crop spacing for mixed/inter-cropping

6. Balanced use of manure/compost & chemical fertilizers for ILV cultivation

Research on Integrated Nutrient Management (appropriate ratio of manure/compost and chemical fertilizers and time of application)

Training farmers on composting techniques

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7. Use of integrated pest and disease management

(IPDM) techniques Research on use of botanicals in plant protection

(pest control) Introduce/promote integrated pest & disease

management (IPDM) techniques Research on effect of chemical residues on ILVs

on human health

Research on efficiency of different indigenous pest control measures

A study on major insects, pests & diseases on ILVs

8. Establishment of more small, medium & large scale irrigation schemes

A feasibility study on the use of a small scale drip irrigation system

Establishment of more small scale (dug well, low cost water harvesting ponds and bore hole) irrigation schemes

Creating awareness on on-farm/in situ water conservation

Maintenance of the existing irrigation system

Provision for diversified use of irrigation sources for ILVs production

Establishment of medium & large scale irrigation schemes

PROCESSING 9. Establishment of small-scale/cottage processing &

packaging industries Testing various solar drier techniques. Verifying the effectiveness of indigenous drying

methods Research on effect of processing/solar drying on:

- taste and colour, - nutritional and biochemical properties - storage or shelf life.

Introducing/demonstrating solar dryer for drying of ILVs

Training & encouraging ILV producers for proper packaging & storage of processed ILVs

Introduce/promote establishment of processing industries

MARKETING 10. Market promotion of ILVs through mass media

Research on in-country & export markets of ILVs Market promotion in terms of popularising commercialisation potential of ILVs through mass media (TV, radio, posters and pamphlets)

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11. Mobilisation of farmers associations or co-

operatives for production, processing & marketing of ILVs

Feasibility study on appropriate size and operational mechanisms of co-operatives.

Formation & mobilisation of farmers associations or co-operatives for input supply, cultivation, processing & marketing of ILVs

Provide support for capacity building for farmers association on ILVs through training on co-operative management

12. Proper handling of fresh ILVs to reduce post harvest losses

Research on packaging materials and methods for transporting the produce to market

Education to farmers and traders on hygienic handling of ILVs on the farm and in market.

Survey on post harvest losses on farm and in market

OTHERS 13. Awareness creation on multipurpose use of ILVs Research on potential use of ILV residues as

livestock feed and on the trade off in value added if it is used as food or fodder

Creating awareness on multipurpose use of ILVs (nutritional & medicinal values, various recipes & as a livestock feed)

Analysis and documentation of the nutritional value of fresh & dried ILVs

Research on medicinal value of ILVs

14.

Incorporating ILVs under MOFA and other organisations development programmes

MOFA should take a lead and co-ordinate with other organisations to include ILVs under their programme.

15.

Encouragement of credit institutions to provide credit to ILV producer’s group

Study on requirements of credit to design an appropriate credit package to help ILV producers.

Co-ordination of credit institutions to provide micro credit to ILVs producer groups

16.

Improvement in market facility Improving market facility (selling stalls for ILVs).

Documents

indigenous leafy vegetables in the upper east region of ghana