Proceedings of

5th Annual Conference and National Symposium of

Indian Meat Science Association (IMSACON-V)

on

‘Emerging technological changes to meet the demands of domestic and export meat sector’

07th to 09th February, 2013

Souvenir

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MESSAGE Indian livestock sector has the distinction of standing number one and two for

buffaloes and goat population and serves as a significant source of milk and meat proteins, draught power in addition to providing biomass for enriching agricultural fields. Indian meat industry, an important component of our livestock sector is undergoing rapid changes in terms of production, processing and value addition. Considering the changing lifestyle, food habits and disposable income the demand for safe and hygienic meat products is increasing. New Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) guidelines and demand for quality meat production warrants the adoption of modern, scientific approaches and creation of state-of-the-art facilities.

India is also witnessing a fast changing retail meat sector with huge potential for catering to the millions of domestic consumers. In this backdrop, I feel immensely happy that National Research Centre on Meat, Hyderabad a constituent of Indian Council of Agricultural Research is organizing National Symposium on “Emerging technological changes to meet the demands of domestic and export meat sector” and the 5th Conference of Indian Meat Science Association from February 7 - 9, 2013.

I am confident that National Symposium will provide a platform for meat scientists, exporters, entrepreneurs and students to come together and exchange their ideas for advancing meat science knowledge and come up with pragmatic recommendations to uplift this much neglected sector which has huge potential to ensure nutritional security and employment to millions of Indians.

I wish the Symposium a great success.

(S. AYYAPPAN)

Dated the 9th January, 2013 New Delhi 

Dr S. Ayyappan Secretary & Director General Department of Agricultural Research & Education & Indian Council of Agricultural Research Ministry of Agriculture, Krishi bhawan, New Delhi

 

 

 

MESSAGE It gives me immense pleasure to note that National Research Centre on Meat,

Hyderabad is organizing National Symposium on ”Emerging technological changes to meet the demands of domestic and export meat sector” and 5th conference of Indian Meat Science Association from 07th to 09th February 2013.

As per UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), per capita consumption of meat in India is 5.0 to 5.5 kilograms which is very low as compared to Asia (27 kilograms) and the rest of the world (38 kilograms). However, FAO also recognizes that meat consumption in India will continue to rise due to rapid increase in disposable income and changing food habits. This is leading to new opportunities for meat producers and processors. Indian meat industry also faces the challenge of maintaining quality and meeting International standards. There is vast scope for improving the infrastructure and facility at the service abattoirs run by local bodies to ensure supply of quality meat to consumers. Government agencies also need to be apprised of the ground situation and take necessary steps to bring about the required changes.

I am confident that National symposium will provide opportunity for academicians, industry personnel, representatives of regulatory agencies, local bodies and line departments to come together and discuss the problems affecting the growth of the meat industry and come out with science based solutions and recommendations to solve the problems. I wish the organizers all success for the Conference.

(K. M. L. PATHAK)

Place: New Delhi Dated: 7th January, 2013

______________________________________________________________________ Phone: (O) 23381119, 2338899‐7 Extn.: 200, Fax: 0091‐11‐23097001, 23387293 

E mail: ddgas.icar@nic.in 

Dr K. M. L. Pathak Deputy Director General Indian Council of Agricultural Research Krishi bhawan, New Delhi

 

 

MESSAGE Animal protein is an important component of human diet to for health and well

being and is mainly supplied through milk, meat, fish and egg. According to a new Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) study, the rapidly growing world population will be consuming two-thirds more animal protein by 2050 than it does today. The demand for animal proteins is even higher for developing country like India. India stands first in milk production, second in fish production and third in egg production. Whereas, in meat production India stands fifth in the world, inspite of possessing highest number of livestock heads. Meat sector needs to gear up to meet the growing demand both in domestic and export sector.

In the wake of emerging global competition in domestic market in view of foreign direct investment, government policies and line departments involved in meat production need to keep close watch to explore opportunities and take care of risks. Present situation needs to tap the opportunities of selling meat through the organized chains or face the risk of losing market to International players. Hence, producing quality meat at a competitive rate is a major challenge and scientific interventions are required to achieve the same.

National Symposium on ‘Emerging technological changes to meet the demands of domestic and export meat sector’ and 5th conference of Indian Meat Science Association from 07th to 09th February 2013 is a befitting forum to discuss the aforesaid issues. I am sure that the recommendations emerging out of the discussions and deliberations in the symposium will bring about innovative ways to deal with the challenges facing the meat industry.

I convey my heartfelt wishes for grand success of the symposium.

(S. L. GOSWAMI) 

Dr S. L. Goswami Director National Academy of Agricultural Research Management, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad  

 

MESSAGE

It is a proud moment for National Research Centre on Meat, Hyderabad to host National Symposium on ‘Emerging technological changes to meet the demands of domestic and export meat sector’ and Vth conference of Indian Meat Science Association from 07th to 09th February 2013. NRC on Meat is a premier institution of meat research to solve the problems and face challenges of meat and allied sector development. It was established with a mission to develop modern organized meat sector through meat production, processing and utilization technologies and to serve the cause of meat animal producers and consumers. With its vibrant and young scientific man power centre is striving hard to solve the problems faced by Indian meat industry.

Rightfully, Indian Meat Science Association gave the responsibility of organizing the IMSACON- V to the centre and the centre is organizing this unique event. Theme of the conference i.e. ‘Emerging technological changes to meet the demands of domestic and export meat sector’ is an extremely relevant in view of increasing domestic and export demand for meat and meat products. I am pleased to find that academicians, researchers, entrepreneurs, exporters, representatives of development agencies, students and various other stakeholders of meat industry responded positively to participate in the conference. I am sure the forum provided by Indian Meat Science Association is utilized by all the participants to their maximum benefit. It will be a great opportunity for researchers to interact with industry people and understand their expectations. Also, industry people will be able to get an overview of latest developments in meat science research.

I wish the National Symposium and Vth Conference of Indian Meat Science Association a grand success.

(V. V. KULKARNI)

Place: Hyderabad Dated: 15th January, 2013

Dr V. V. Kulkarni Director National Research Centre on Meat, Chengicherla, Hyderabad

 

  

MESSAGE Indian Meat Science Association was established with the aim to bring all the stakeholders of Indian meat industry under one umbrella for bringing about meaningful interaction. It provides a channel to promote joint efforts of industry personnel, researchers, academicians, students and government agencies to deliberate on various issues related to meat industry. I am pleased that we have organized four conferences till date and the fifth conference of the association and National Symposium on ‘Emerging technological changes to meet the demands of domestic and export meat sector’ is being organized at National Research Centre on Meat, Hyderabad which is a constituent of Indian Council of Agricultural Research from 07th to 09th February 2013. The Centre is making ardent efforts to provide research support to the meat industry and is working on various frontier areas of meat science research.

Problems faced by Indian meat industry are multifarious: lack of infrastructure for clean meat production & meat processing, poor socio-economic background of meat industry personnel, unorganized meat marketing structure, religious taboos, shortage of quality meat animals etc. In spite of all these hurdles, India became the number one beef (buffalo meat) exporter in 2011 – 2012. Increasing domestic & export demand must be matched by increasing meat animal production to ensure sustainable meat production, fast changing quality regulations in both domestic & export sector require bringing paradigm shift in the way meat animals are harvested for meat and increasing income & nuclear families require more processed & ready to eat meat products. To address all the above issues and to chalk out strategies in the fast changing domestic & global environment stakeholders to join together and the fifth conference of the Indian Meat Science Association provides the appropriate platform for the same.

I am sure that the conference will be a grand success and I wish all the participants and organizers all the best.

(V. KESAVA RAO)

Place: Hyderabasd Dated: 24th January, 2013

Dr V. Kesava Rao President Indian Meat Science Association, Puducherry

 

  

From the Desk of Organising Secretary

In recent years, Indian meat industry is witnessing increasing domestic needs and huge export demand. Country needs to align its meat production, processing and distribution system in tune with rising demand. To address this issue, the theme of the symposium was chosen on “Emerging technological changes to meet the demands of domestic and export meat sector”. National Research Centre on Meat, Hyderabad is privileged to organize it along with 5th conference of Indian Meat Science Association (IMSACON-V) from 7th to 9th February 2013 at Chengicherla, Hyderabad.

The technical committee has taken great effort to formulate an innovative scientific program covering basic sciences to recent advances in ever expanding field of meat technology. I hope that with the efforts of everybody, the conference would enable the participants to update their knowledge with basic and applied field of meat science and technology with the best national speakers scheduled to address the conference. I am sure you will enjoy the flashes of expertise during their discourse and benefit with a good interaction with them. I hope the conference would meet the expectation of the delegates and all of us will have wonderful and memorable time in the days to come.

The organizing committee of IMSACON-V is very proud to host this conference and take the privilege of organizing such event in Hyderabad. We are really obliged to IMSA for giving us this opportunity and providing unstinted support in organizing this conference. I take this opportunity to thank all the sponsors for providing valuable support for organizing the conference. At the outset, I thank the Chairman, Organizing Committee for giving me this tremendous responsibility and honor to organize this conference. I am really obliged to Chairman, Co-Chairman, all Joint Secretaries, Chairman and members of various committees for providing me support to my organizational work. I hope that this conference will leave all the delegates with sweet memories of academic feast in the background of rich heritage of Hyderabad together with its tantalizing gastronomic delicacies.

I heartily welcome all the delegates and wish a pleasant stay in the Pearl City.

 

(A.R.Sen)

Place: Hyderabad Dated: 15th January, 2013

 

Dr A. R. Sen Organising Secretary IMSACON-V

 

ORGANIZING COMMITTEE

Chief Patron: DG, ICAR & Secretary, DARE

Patron: DDG (AS), ICAR Director, NAARM

Chairman: Dr.V.V.Kulkarni, Director, NRC on Meat

Co-Chairman: Dr.G.Venugopal, Principal Scientist

Dr.S.Vaithiyanathan, Principal Scientist

Dr. Y.Babji, Principal Scientist

Dr.C.Ramakrishna, Senior Scientist

Organizing Secretary: Dr.A.R.Sen, Principal Scientist

Joint Organizing Secretaries: Dr.I.Prince Devadason, Senior Scientist

Dr.B.M.Naveena, Senior Scientist

Dr.M.Muthukumar, Scientist (SS)

Dr.S.Girish Patil , Scientist (SS)

Dr P.Baswa Reddy, Scientist (SS)

FINANCE COMMITTEE TECHNICAL COMMITTEE

1. Dr. G. Venugopal -Chairman

2. Dr. I. Price Devadason-Member

3. Dr. M. Muthukumar -Member

4. AO -Member

5. JFAO –Member

1. Dr. Y. Babji-Chairman

2. Dr. I. Prince Devadason- Member

3. Dr. B.M. Naveena-Member

4. Dr. M. Muthukumar- Member

5. Dr. Girish Patil-Member

6. Dr. M. Muthulakshmi- Member

7. Dr. Pramod Nair (RA)- Member

REGISTRATION COMMITTEE INAUGURATION, VALIDECTORY FUNCTION COMMITTEE

1. Dr.I.Prince Devadason-Chairman 2. Mr.N.V.Rao-Member 3. Mrs.C.Padmaja-Member 4. Mrs.G.Prameela-Member 5. Mr.T.Devender-Member 6. Mr.S.Rukman-Member 7. Mrs.Sujatha-Member 8. Mr.Nagireddy-Member

1. Dr.P.Baswa Reddy-Chairman 2. Dr.K.H.Rao, (NAARM)-Member 3. Dr.Sushita Rajkumar-Member 4. Shri Puspesh Khulbe-Member 5. Mrs. T. Padmaja-Member

ACCOMODATION AND FOOD

COMMITTEE TRANSPORTATION AND

RECEPTION COMMITTEE1. Dr. S. Vaithiyanathan- Chairman 2. Dr. S.K. Soam (NAARM)-

Member 3. Dr.M.Muthukumar-Member 4. Dr. R.S. Rajkumar-Member 5. AAO-Member 6. Mr.Phanikumar-Member 7. Mr. Pushpesh-Member 8. Dr. Pramod Nair-Member 9. Dr. Shailesh Bagale- Member 10. Dr.M.Kiran 11. M. Srinivas

1. Dr. C. Ramakrishna- Chairman 2. Dr. P. Baswa Reddy- Member 3. Dr. Susitha Rajkumar-Member 4. Mr. B.V.D. Sreenivas Rao-

Member 5. Mr. Pushpesh-Member 6. Miss. Usha Rani (JRF)-Member 7. Dr.C.T.Chandre Gouda- Member 8. Dr.A.S.Nitin- Member 9. Dr.H.K.Bheemashankar- Member 10. Dr.K.Sunil Kumar- Member 11. Mr.Praveen- Member 12. Mr.B.Mahesh- 13. Mr.Venkatesh

EDITORIAL AND PUBLICATION COMMITTEE

PRESS AND PUBLICITY COMMITTEE

1. Dr. I. Prince Devadason-Chairman 2. Dr. B.M. Naveena-Member 3. Dr. Girish Patil-Member 4. Dr. M. Muthukumar-Member 5. Dr.P.Baswa Reddy-Member 6. Dr. R.S.Rajkumar-Member 7. Dr.Sushita Rajkumar-Member 8. Dr. Sailesh S. Bagale-Member 9. Dr.Pramod Nair-Member

1. Dr. C. Ramakrishna- Chairman 2. Mr. Vithal (PS)-Member 3. Dr.K.H.Rao (NAARM)-Member

CONTENTS

Sl. No. Title Pages 1. Messages 2. Organizers profile

National Research Centre on Meat, Hyderabad Indian Meat Science Association

1-3

KEY NOTE ADDRESSES

1. Role of environment on livestock production B. S. Prakash and K. M. L. Pathak

5-17

2. Scope and opportunities for sustainable meat production in India C. S. Prasad, A. V. Elangovan and S. Anandan

18-23

3. Indian meat exports revolution – A review C K Thota

24-35

4. Meat science research in India: Need to bring paradigm shift V. V. Kulkarni & Girish Patil, S.

36-41

5. Organized meat sector development through value addition and further processing K. Sudhakar Reddy & M. Muthukumar

42-47

LEAD PAPERS 1. Developments in ingredient and processing systems for meat products

A. S. R. Anjaneyulu, Yogesh P. Gadekar and Girish Patil, S. 49-56

2. Food safety and standards act and its impact on meat food safety V. Sudershan Rao

57-58

3. Optimizing shelf life of meat and meat products using innovative packaging solutions B. D. Sharma and R. R. Kumar

59-71

4. Meat and meat products in healthy diet S. Biswas

72-83

5. Recent advances in processing and preservation technology of shelf-stable meat products J. Sahoo, A. K. Biswas and M. K. Chatli

84-96

6. Major genes influencing meat quality and technologies for improvement A.R.Sen and I. Prince Devadason

97-104

7. Technological advances for microbiological safety of meat foods U. K. Pal, P.K. Mandal and C.D. Das

105-112

8. Proteomics: A crossroad between animal genomics and meat sciences M. K. Chatli and J. Sahoo

113-120

9. Establishment of referral laboratory and accreditation procedure R. J. Zende and D.M. Chavhan

121-123

10. Meat consumption pattern and traditional meat products of north east region of India M. Hazarika, S. K. Laskar and D. R. Nath

124-130

11. Innovations in the rapid detection of meat-borne pathogens of public health significance Madhavaprasad C.B. and Nagappa S. Karabasanavar

131-132

12. Role of predictive microbiology as a tool for ensuring food safety A. S.Yadav

133-137

13. Bacterial cultures in processing and preservation of meat R. N. Borpuzari

138-144

14. Specialty meat products of Jammu & Kashmir – Production and scope of R&D M. Salahuddin, A. H. Malik and M. A. Pal

145-152

15. Meat production practices and challenges in export meat plants Sahaya Pratap Fonglan

153-161

16. Biotechnological application in meat science and technology R. Narendra Babu

162-166

17. Conversion of muscle into meat – Recent concepts and scientific view point S. K. Mendiratta

167-172

18. Recent advances in nutritional interventions for augmenting meat production D. Chandrasekaran, P. Vasanthakumar, M. R. Purushothaman, C. Kathirvelan and S. Senthilkumar

173-179

19. Challenges to meat safety Robinson J. J. Abraham

180-193

20. Recent innovations in the development of low fat meat products George T. Oommen

194-199

21. Animal byproducts and their value addition Sarfaraz A. Wani and Asif H. Sofi

200-207

22. Scope and Opportunities for organic and natural meat Production Mahesh Chander

208-213

23. Strategies to tackle fluctuating poultry meat marketing in India R. Narahari

214-218

24. Meat science education in India and man power requirement for the meat sector P. K. Mandal and U. K. Pal

219-231

25. Incorporation of antioxidants and dietary fibre in meat products for health improvements Divya

232-236

26. Current issues related to meat borne pathogenic bacteria: Strategies for control of pathogens Bhilegonkar K. N., Dhanze H., Rawat S., Suman Kumar M. and Kumar A.

237-240

27. Challenges and opportunities in meat sector and meat food regulations M. K. Agnihotri and N. Rana

241-257

ABSTRACTS

1. Session - I: Sustainable meat animal production 259-279

2. Session - II: Developments in fresh meat quality and byproducts utilization 281-295

3. Session – III: Innovations in value addition to meat 297-357

4. Session –IV: Recent developments in quality and safety of meat and meat products 359-389

  

Organizers Profile

National Research Centre on Meat, Hyderabad

The National Research Centre on Meat was conceptualized in the year 1986 at IVRI Campus, Izatnagar with a view to conduct research in the frontier areas of meat science and technology and to develop human resource for the fast growing meat sector. Sequel to the decision taken by the Council, the center was shifted during IX Plan from Izatnagar to Hyderabad and became operational since September 1999. The Centre has begun functioning from its sister institute of ICAR – initially Project Directorate on Poultry and subsequently from Central Research Institute for Dry land Agriculture. The Centre has developed its new campus and is functioning from the new premise located at Chengicherla, Hyderabad since 2007. Vision NRC on Meat as a premier institution of meat research to solve the problems and face challenges of meat and allied sectors development Mission Development of modern organized meat sector through meat production, processing and utilization technologies to serve the cause of meat animal producers and consumers. Mandate To conduct basic and applied research in various facets of meat science and technology

with special emphasis on understanding of quality of meat from indigenous livestock for development of a modern organized meat sector in the country.

To establish appropriate infrastructure facilities for development of relevant technologies/ processes/ practices for meat production, processing, value addition and utilization to contribute for sustained meat production and consumption.

To provide need based training for different levels of personnel in meat and allied sectors.

To establish a liaison with industry, trade, regulatory and developmental organizations operating in meat sector.

To support bilateral and international programmes.

To serve as a national repository of information in meat and allied sectors.

1

  

Indian Meat Science Association

Indian Meat Science Association was reborn in 2001 in Pondicherry with the initiative of Dr. Kesava Rao and dedicated support of Dr. U. K Pal and Dr. P. K. Mandal. In early 1990s we had a professional body in the name of “Indian Association of Meat Scientists and Technologists” at Izatnagar, which became defunct after few years. In spite of our best efforts we failed to revive it due to some technical difficulties. Then with the advice and blessings from senior colleagues we have formed a new Association named “Indian Meat Science Association” (IMSA) with the head quarter in Pondicherry to provide a common platform and to bring out a scientific Journal as Journal of Meat Science. In this regard we have received encouraging response from our professional colleagues all over the country and today we have about 300 life members. The Association is a professional and educational organization of Meat Scientists and Technologists with the objectives of advancement of all aspects of science and technology relating to production, processing and marketing of meat and meat products to serve the humanity. It is a common platform for exchange of views related to meat science and technology and for the progress of meat industry. The membership is open to degree and diploma holders in meat science, veterinary science and related discipline and to those engaged in the meat profession. The membership category and fee is given below.

Membership category Membership+admission fees

Life membership Rs.2050

Ordinary membership Rs.550

Student membership Rs.250

Corporate membership(annual) Rs.10,050

Corporate membership life time Rs. 30,000

So far four national symposiums were conducted under the banner of IMSA. We conducted the Ist Convention of IMSA (IMSACON-I) and National Symposium on 11th & 12th Dec. 2003 at Rajiv Gandhi College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Pondicherry. The first issue of the Journal of Meat Science was released on that occasion.

The IMSACON II with National Symposium was successfully conducted in Chennai in 2006 with the leadership of Prof. V. Venkataramanujam. The IMSACON III with National Symposium was successfully conducted in Bangaluru in 2006 with the leadership of Prof. Nadeem Fairoze. The IMSACON IV with National Symposium was successfully conducted in IVRI, Izatnagar in 2010 with the leadership of Dr. B. D. Sharma. Four Annual General Body meetings of IMSA were conducted during IMSACO-I (Pondicherry, 2003), IMSACON-II (Chennai, 2006), IMSACON-III (Bangaluru, 2008) and IMSACON-IV (Izatnagar, 2010). However, no election was necessary for the executive committe and the same office bearers and editorial team are continuing from the beginning

2

  

with little changes in other members. From 2003 so far 8 volumes of the Journal were published though sometime it was irregular due to paucity of manuscripts. A resolution was taken in IVth AGBM in IVRI (20.10.2010) that the new office bearers may be elected within March, 2011, to have Symposium every year and to activate the Journal work. However, election could not be conducted and the same executive committee is continuing till now, symposium could not be organized more than two years. Incidentally the first four recommendations made in the IMSACON–I (2003) viz. 1. Establishment of NMPPB, 2. Enactment of FSSA, 2006, 3. GIA for abattoir & rendering plants and 4. Strengthening of NRC Meat is a reality today. However, the 5th point (involving IMSA in policy making) is yet to be realized. The IMSA is expected to play more important role for suggesting the policy decisions related to education, research and regulations pertaining to meat and meat industry. In the present momentum of the Indian Meat Sector, it is time to rejuvenate the IMSA activities with combined effort of Academia, R&D house and Industry.

3

 

  

Keynote Addresses

4

 

  

Role of environment on livestock production

B.S. Prakash1 and K.M.L. Pathak2

1Asst. Director General (ANP), 2Deputy Director General (AS) Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), Krishi Bhawan, New Delhi-110001

Abstract

Homeothermic animals maintain their body temperature despite a wide range of environmental temperature variations. The animal responds by physiological and behavioural adjustments when exposed to stressful environmental conditions. Climate change poses a formidable challenge to the development of livestock sector all over the world and India in particular. It is likely to aggravate heat stress in livestock adversely affecting their productive and reproductive performance. Over the last 40 years climate change has become a major concern due to increased greenhouse gases emission mainly due to anthropogenic or human activities. The increased livestock population has also contributed to global warming due to methane production from enteric fermentation and manure. Environmental changes are also associated with emergence of new vector borne diseases. The paper discusses the various facets of climate change impact on livestock productivity and effective potential strategies for greenhouse gas mitigation and preparedness for climate change.

Introduction

Biotic interactions, deleterious mutations, migration and local adaptation can profoundly influence reproduction in animals. Cattle and buffaloes are homeothermic animals. At certain range of environmental temperatures, the animal maintains a normal body temperature without any involvement of thermoregulatory mechanisms and the animal feels neither cold nor hot. This range of ambient temperature is defined as zone of thermoneutrality. This is also called as comfort zone. The lower border of the zone of thermoneutrality is called the lower critical temperature and the upper boarder is called the higher critical temperature. The environmental temperatures beyond these critical levels indicate that animals are supposed to face either heat or cold stress.

Comfort zones for cattle and buffaloes:

Holstein cow 5 - 21 ºC (Worstels & Brody, 1953) Jersey & Brown Swiss 5 - 24 ºC (Johnson, 1965) Crossbred Cow (India) 15- 25 ºC (Goswami & Narain, 1962) Indian Buffaloes 13-24 ºC

Stress can be defined as any environmental changes (i.e. alteration in climate or

management) that are severe enough to elicit a behavioural or physiological response from the animal. There are two main parts of the environment to which an animal can react.

5

  

Firstly, there are physical factors such as, environmental temperature, humidity, light, wind velocity etc. and secondly social factors, such as, group size, available space etc. Any stress, either physical or social factors, leads to a cascade of events in animal system resulting in physiological and behavioural patterns in the animal. High ambient temperatures and humidity are associated with seasonal depressions in reproductive efficiency and milk production of dairy cattle (Ingraham et al. 1972; Gwazdauskas et al. 1973). Heat stress occurs when any combination of environmental conditions causes the effective temperature of the environment to become higher than the animal's comfort zone.

Dairy cows respond to heat stress in several ways: 1) reduced feed intake, 2) increased water intake 3) altered metabolic rate, 4) increased evaporated water loss, and 5) increased respiration rate, 6) altered blood hormone concentrations, 7) increased body temperature and 8) reduced uterine blood flow. In a tropical country like India, the heat stress during summer affects the animal's productivity much more than the cold stress. The high producing milk cows especially exotic cows and their crosses and buffaloes are more susceptible to heat stress during the summer months. Lactating dairy cows are susceptible to heat stress during summer because of elevated internal heat production associated with lactation. During periods of HS, milk production, feed intake, and physical activity are decreased (Faquay,1981). At the same time reproductive ability is compromised (Moberg,1975). Productive and reproductive losses associated with heat stress are economically significant. An important goal of dairy husbandry is to increase productive and reproductive efficiency. However, dairy production and reproduction are threatened by climatic factors due to too diverse and variable agro-climatic conditions of India from one region to another. Therefore, maximum production and reproduction require a balance between increased production and/or reproduction and elimination of the deleterious impacts of environmental stresses. This balance can be achieved through a better understanding of how stress affects animal production and reproduction.

Since industrialization began over a century and a half ago the emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs), most notably carbon dioxide have led to an increase in the concentration of these gases in the earth’s atmosphere. The result has been a serious interference with the world’s climate system, which has now been established through the work of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Projections for the 21st century indicate a significant increase in temperature by the year 2100 between 1.4-5.8OC. The impacts of the climate change on a country like India are likely to be severe including negative effects on agriculture, water resources, health and energy. The Fourth Assessment Report of the IPCC has reconfirmed that the global atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide, three important GHGs, have increased markedly as a result of human activities since 1750, and now far exceed pre-industrial values determined from ice cores spanning many thousands of years. The CO2, methane and nitrous oxide concentrations in atmosphere were 280 ppm, 715 ppb and 270 ppb in 1750 AD, and these increased to 379 ppm, 1,774 ppb and 319 ppb in 2005. The increase in GHGs was 70%

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between 1970 and 2005. The rate of warming has been much higher in the recent decades. Global trend is also for increased frequency of droughts, as well as heavy precipitation over most land areas. There has been a gradual decrease in the number of cold days, cold nights whereas the frequency of hot days, hot nights and heat waves has increased. For Indian region (South Asia), the IPCC has projected 0.5OC to 1.2OC rise in temperature by 2020, 0.88 to 3.16 OC by 2050 and 1.56 to 5.44 OC by 2080. The CO2 concentration increases are primarily due to fossil-fuel use and land-use change, and of methane and nitrous oxide are due to agriculture, including animal husbandry. Agriculture related activities contribute significantly to climate change through release of green house gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) and also by altering the land use pattern. Land use changes owing to deforestation and diversification, and use of fossil fuels are the major anthropogenic sources of carbon dioxide, while agriculture is the primary contributor of methane and nitrous oxide.

Livestock is an important source of income for the farmers and rural poor people. The growth in this sub sector is expected to contribute to poverty alleviation, as the livestock elements are largely concentrated among the marginal and small farmers in rural areas. The livestock sector of India is both expanding as well as adapting to emerging socio-economic, environmental and technological forces. India, with its large livestock population which includes 199.1 million cattle, 105.3 million buffaloes, 71.5 million sheep, 140.5 million goats, 11.3 million pigs contributing substantially to social and economic well being of the country. India is the leading producer of milk in the world with the current milk production of 112.5 million tonnes for the year 2009-2010, thereby contributing enormously to the agricultural GDP (DAHD, 2010). Additionally, the total meat production in India from sheep, goats, pigs, cattle and buffaloes is around 2 million tonnes. In addition the poultry production is a vibrant fast growing industry with an annual production of about 55 billion eggs and 2 million tonnes of chicken meat. As per the Central Statistical Organisation (CSO) estimates, the livestock sector contributed approximately 4.07% to GDP and over 27% to the agricultural GDP. Therefore, the importance of livestock in the economy is enormous and cannot be underestimated. The importance of livestock in India goes beyond the function of food production. It is also an important source of draught power, manure for crop production and fuel for domestic use.

Since livestock production is an integral part of mixed farming system practiced in the entire length and breadth of country, it is also highly vulnerable to the climate change. Climate change is likely to influence livestock productivity directly as well as indirectly through changes in availability of feed, fodder and pasture. It will also influence the type of livestock most adapted to different agro-ecological and agro-climatic zones which will also impact the animal species that can sustain rural communities. Global warming and associated climate changes like temperature increase, changes in the level and seasonal distribution of rainfall, increased wind speed and a greater incidence of extreme events like floods, droughts,

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cyclones etc. are increasingly impacting agriculture (both crops and livestock) in several ways with serious implications for the country’s food security.

Increasing water scarcity due to climate change, urbanization, industrialization, and human population expansion, land holding for fodder and forage production is day-by-day shrinking. Monoculture and wrong practices of irrigation together with wastage, overexploitation of groundwater and reclamation of indigenous water bodies have already resulted into frequent drought and crisis of water in many regions. Water scarcity does not only affect livestock drinking water resources, but it has a direct bearing on livestock feed production systems and pasture yield. Water represents about 60-70% of body weight and is essential for animals in maintaining their vital physiological functions. Livestock maintain their water requirements through drinking water, the water contained in feed stuffs and metabolic water produced through oxidation of nutrients. Rising temperatures also have an additional impact on the digestibility of plant matter. Raised temperatures increase the lignifications of plant tissues and thus reduce the digestibility and the rates of degradation of plant species. This will not only affect the health of the animal but also results in the reduction in livestock production which in turn can have an effect on food security and incomes of small livestock keepers. Also, studies have shown that dry matter intake decreases in animals subjected to high temperatures. This depression in dry matter intake can be either short term or long term depending on the length and duration of heat stress.

Direct impact of heat stress and its effect on animal productivity

Any stress, either physical or social factors, leads to a cascade of events in animal system resulting in physiological and behavioural patterns in the animal. When a body is exposed to any form of stress – which can be of short or long duration - Hans Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) comes into play. According to this syndrome any event that threatens an organism’s well-being (a stressor) leads to a three-stage bodily response viz.

Stage 1: Alarm

Upon encountering a stressor, body reacts with “fight-or-flight” response and sympathetic nervous system is activated. Hormones such as cortisol and adrenalin released into the bloodstream to meet the threat or danger and the body’s resources are mobilized.

Stage 2: Resistance

Parasympathetic nervous system returns many physiological functions to normal levels while body focuses resources against the stressor. Blood glucose levels remain high, cortisol and adrenalin continue to circulate at elevated levels, but outward appearance of organism seems normal. There is an increase in heart rate, blood pressure, and respiratory rate with the body always remaining alert to the continued stressor.

Stage 3: Exhaustion

If the stressor continues beyond body’s capacity, organism exhausts all its resources and becomes susceptible to disease and death.

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It is therefore imperative to determine the thermal comfort zones of various types/species/ breeds/strains of livestock which will provide us a way forward to modulate their environment for optimum production in light of climate change.

Bergmann’s rule

The principle named after the German biologist Karl Bergmann states that in a warm-blooded animal species having distinct geographic populations, the body size of animals living in cold climates tends to be larger than in animals of the same species living in warm climates. Animals with larger bodies generally have smaller surface areas relative to their mass, resulting in a relatively lower rate of heat radiation. In consonance with this rule, exotic cattle such as Holstein Friesian and Brown Swiss which thrive in the temperate regions are much bigger in size in comparison to zebu cattle of the tropics.

Climate change is not a new phenomena. During the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum, a 175,000-year interval of time some 56 million years ago average global temperatures rose by about 10 degrees Fahrenheit, caused by the release of vast amounts of carbon into the atmosphere and oceans. In a recent study on paleontology Secord et al. (2012) have proved that Sifrhippus, the earliest known horse which first appeared in the forests of North America around 50 million years ago weighed about 12 pounds but declined to a size of a small cat of only 8.5 pounds in the PETM's first 130,000 years and then rebounded to about 15 pounds in the final 45,000 years of the PETM as the planet cooled.

Artist's reconstruction of Sifrhippus sandrae (right) touching noses with a modern

Morgan horse (left) that stands about 5 feet high at the shoulders and weighs approximately 1,000 pounds. Sifrhippus was the size of a small house cat (about 8.5 pounds) at the beginning of the Eocene (approximately 55.8 million years ago) and is the earliest known horse. Image: Danielle Byerley, Florida Museum of Natural History

Warming (during the PETM) happened much slower, over 10,000 to 20,000 years to get 10 degrees hotter; however, a similar change in climate is expected in over only a century or two. On the basis of paleontological evidence as explained above in the case of the horse, to expect a reduction in sizes of the livestock would not be out of place.

Impact on productivity and reproduction

High ambient temperatures and humidity are associated with seasonal depressions in reproductive efficiency and milk production of dairy cattle and buffaloes (Upadhyay et al.2007;2009). Heat stress occurs when any combination of environmental conditions causes the effective temperature of the environment to become higher than the

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animal's comfort zone. Dairy cows respond to heat stress in several ways: 1) reduced feed intake, 2) increased water intake 3) altered metabolic rate, 4) increased evaporated water loss, and 5) increased respiration rate, 6) altered blood hormone concentrations, 7) increased body temperature and 8) reduced uterine blood flow. In a tropical country like India, the heat stress during summer affects the animal's productivity much more than the cold stress. The high producing milk cows especially exotic cows and their crosses and buffaloes are more susceptible to heat stress during the summer months. Lactating dairy cows are susceptible to heat stress during summer because of elevated internal heat production associated with lactation. During periods of heat stress, milk production, feed intake, and physical activity are decreased (Fuquay,1981). At the same time reproductive ability is compromised (Prakash 2002; Madan and Prakash, 2007). Productive and reproductive losses associated with heat stress are economically significant.

Sheep

India's sheep husbandry depends largely on the monsoons grasses and changing rainfall pattern would cause scarcity of grazing resources in western and central India. The dry area will become drier and wet will become wetter. There will be longer droughts in dry areas, which will subsequent affects the grazing resource and water scarcity and reduce sheep husbandry activities. However, sheep in relation to other livestock species are well adapted in many situations of climate effects and its vagaries. Sheep can escape from drought or famine affected areas to other areas by migration and withheld its adverse effect.

The heat-related diseases and stresses, extreme weather conditions, adaptation process to new environment and emergence or re-emergence of infectious diseases are critically dependent on environmental and climatic change conditions would adversely affect the sheep production in the country under climate change scenario. Most of this century is going to witness soaring temperature, erratic weather patterns with more intense monsoons, increased cyclonic activities, severe droughts, floods, melting glaciers and rise in sea levels. This will result in greater instability in sheep production and will threaten farmers’ livelihood security. Producing mutton and wool for meeting increased demand under changing climate scenario is a challenging task for sheep research. This would require increased adaptation and mitigation research, capacity-building, changes in policies, and regional as well as global co-operation.

Camel

Camels (Camelus dromedarius) are very versatile animals, well adapted to life in the desert because of their unique metabolic pathways which enable the animals to survive without food and water for a few days. Their capacity to thrive well and reproduce in semi-arid and arid areas, where other livestock hardly survive, makes them the most important domestic animal in these areas. Around the world, camels are kept for breeding, various agricultural operations, milk and meat production and transportation. Dromedary camels were in the past thought to be resistant to most of diseases commonly affecting domestic animals. Due to the climate change, new data confirmed that camels are at risk to a large number of

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viral pathogens and are also incriminated in the transmission of many viruses (OIE report of AHG on Camelids, 2010). Camel is known to produce significant camelpox disease (CP) which is host-specific and does not affect other species albeit zoonotic character was recently confirmed in three human cases in India. In addition, the species is considered as a potential pathogen carrier in the transmission of Peste des Petits Ruminants (PPR) and several vector-borne infections such as Blue tongue (BT). Prevention of infectious diseases in camelids should be based on sound biosecurity measures designed to prevent the introduction and spread of disease in a population, herd, or group of animals. Vaccination programs should be adapted to each individual farm condition for those diseases which are common among camels and other livestock.

The decline in camel population by nearly 50% over the last 40-50 years from about 1 million is a matter of serious concern. There appears to be a correlation in decline in camel population with increase in ambient temperature in arid region over the last 40-50 years. Although, one of the reasons for the decline in their population has been ascribed to greater mechanization for draught power and high cost of rearing of camel, temperature effects cannot be ruled out. Camels breed during the latter part of the year upto the following March. Consequently many camel calves are born during hotter months of the year. The calf mortality might have increased over the years due to heat stress. Physiologically, the newborn camel lacks a hump which is the storehouse of energy reserves in the camel. Also, over the decades declining rainfall trends has also led to a loss of vegetation in the arid regions with a consequent increase in desertification. The sharp decline in population of camel by more than 50% over the last 40 years is indeed a cause of concern and if the temperature change in the arid region is not arrested in this eco-fragile arid zone it may not be long before - perhaps in a few decades only - that we may find the camel becoming a rare species in the Indian subcontinent. Sincere efforts for afforestation and harnessing water resources from tube wells through solar energy are needed. Camel may very well be adapted to the arid conditions; however, increasing heat stress through rising environmental temperature impacting directly as well as indirectly through reduced feed and water intake are conditions which are detrimental for its wellbeing and survival and needs urgent attention.

Correlation of climate change with Camel population

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Camels are also found in the cold desert of Nubra valley of Ladakh. These are double humped Bactrian camel adapted to the harsh cold climate. The two humps store fat, which can be converted to energy when fodder/pastures are not available during winter months when the ground is always covered with snow. These camel, however, do not possess active sweat glands which limit their heat dissipation mechanisms if temperatures were to rise in the cold desert of the valley. Their population in Ladakh is stated to be less than 400 and steadily declining. Climate change and increasing environmental temperatures in the region threaten their very existence.

Goats

Goats are adaptable to wide range of environments. The direct effects of climate change on housed livestock are expected to be small, as management can compensate for losses in animal fitness by modifying the environment. A variety of technologies can be used to deal with the effect of short term heat waves, including shading or sprinkling to reduce excessive heat loads. The awareness and use of few technologies and the capital will determine the ability of producers to protect their flocks from the physiological stress of climate change. Intensive livestock production systems have more potential for adaptation through technological changes and this may make them relatively insensitive to climate change and allow high output breeds to be retained.

Yaks

Yaks (Poephagus grunniens or Bos grunniens) are multipurpose ruminant animal adapted for living at high altitudes 3000-4500 above msl. They even survive at 6000 m above msl. Yak was domesticated from wild Yak (Bos mutus) which is still found in remote mountains of Quinghai-Tibet plateau as well as neighboring regions. The Yak is found in very high altitudes of Himalaya’s viz, Tibetan plateau and entire Indian territory in Ladakh, Western China, Pakistan, Northern Afghanistan, Bhutan, Mongolia, Nepal and Russia. Yaks are highly valued by Himalayan people because of its contribution to human economy as meat, milk, wool, leather, dung and as pack animal. Of the 14.2 million demonstrated yaks in the world about 13.3 millions are found in China whereas of the 83,080 population of Yak in India 14,2,62 and 5 thousand are found in Arunachal Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir (Ladakh region) and Sikkim respectively (DADF, 2007). However, small populations of domesticated Yaks are also found in Uttarakhand beyond Badrinath and Kedarnath along the Tibet border (50 Nos.) and West Bengal (30 Nos.). During last few decades decline in Yak population became a cause of concern to the development authorities especially to the animal scientist. Since yak is a threatened species, Govt. of India has implemented a project on conservation of Yak in Yak rearing states of India.

Yaks are adapted to extreme cold temperature even -40ºC at high altitude with low oxygen content of air, high solar radiation, difficult terrain and inadequate nutrition during winter. The ability of the Yak to survive in harsh environment revealed that it bears special adaptive characteristics.

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Temperature is the single most important factor influencing their distribution, stocking density and indirectly the growth rate of Yak. Air temperature has also been reported as the most important environmental factor. Yaks perform adequately if the annual mean temperature is below 5ºC and average in the hottest month is not above 13ºC. However, the study conducted at NRC on Yak revealed that Yaks suffered from heat stress when ambient temperature exceeded 10ºC and cannot perform at optimum level (Krishnan et al., 2009). Above an ambient temperature of 13ºC the respiration rate of Yaks starts to rise and at 16ºC the heart rate and body temperature are increased. They have relatively thick skin. Although it contains sweat glands which are distributed in the skin over the whole body but these are not functional. The probable reason to cope with cold is by conserving heat, rather than by generating it- which would require food that are not available. Heat conservation is enhanced by a thick fleece on the whole body i.e. outer coat of long hair and an undercoat of dense layer of fine fibres. A layer of subcutaneous fat accumulated prior to winter in Yak helps in heat conservation and serves as energy reserve as well.

Oxygen content of air at above 3000 msl is about 35% lower than at sea level. It has been reported that in most of the Yak rearing areas, Yak live with more than 2000 hours of sunshine and solar radiation level between 130 and 165 kcal per square centimeter (540-690 kJ per square centimeter) annually. Yaks have a larger chest (14-15 pairs of thoracic ribs), larger lungs and large heart relative to their body size. This anatomical feature makes the Yak capable of breathing rapidly and inhale in large amounts of air. Yaks lungs has relatively large surface area from which air is inhaled in order to compensate the lower oxygen content of air. Denisov (1958) observed that the alveolar area occupied 59% of the cross section area of the Yak lungs compared with 40% for Jarges cattle. Vasoconstriction commonly occurs in order to reduce blood supply to under ventilated areas of lung and maintain homeostasis. Respiration rate in Yak ranges from 20-30 /minute at air temperature below 13ºC, however it increases rapidly above that temperature. It has been observed that respiration rate in adult Yak is 80/minute at 28ºC, 49/minute at 10ºC and 25/minute at 5ºC.These showed that the respiration rate in Yaks is altered due to changing needs for oxygen and for regulating their body temperature as well. The fragile eco-system due to climate change may not only adversely affect the availability of alpine pastures for the yaks but also influence its physiological capability to withstand high temperatures.

Diseases and Livestock Health

The direct effects of climate change include higher temperatures and changing rainfall patterns, which could translate into the increased spread of existing vector-borne diseases and macroparasites, accompanied by the emergence and circulation of new diseases. Climate change has modified the dispersal, reproduction, maturation and survival rate of vector species and consequently altered disease transmission. Temperature and humidity variations could bring about a significant effect on helminth infections.

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Contribution of Livestock to Climate Change

The natural life cycle and supply chain of livestock raised for food is contributing to Greenhouse Gas Emissions (GHGs). The livestock’s climate change emissions of concern are the greenhouse gases methane and nitrous oxide. Major contributor of methane is agricultural sector yielding 68% of total methane and 59% of it is being contributed by the enteric fermentation in ruminants (IPCC, 2007). Indirect sources of GHGs from livestock systems are mainly attributable to changes in land use and deforestation to create pasture land. The animal production system, which is vulnerable to climate change, is itself a large contributor to global warming through emission of methane as a result of ‘enteric fermentation’ and ‘anaerobic fermentation of animal waste’ and the microbial processes of nitrification and de-nitrification of animal waste forming nitrous oxide, which are emitted to the atmosphere. The United Nations, Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO, 2006) report titled ‘Livestock’s Long Shadow’ (LLS) stated that 18% (approximately 7100 Tg CO2eq yr-1) of anthropogenic greenhouse gases (GHGs) are directly and indirectly related to the world’s livestock. According to this report, livestock production system is responsible for a greater proportion of anthropogenic emissions than the entire global transportation sector (which emits 4000–5200 Tg CO2-eq yr-1). Animal manure produces nitrous oxide, the most damaging green house gas (320 times more so than carbon dioxide). Animal waste contributes about 0.4 million tons of nitrogen per year, or 7 percent of the total global emissions (Bouwman et al, 1992).The emissions are most acute in developing countries, where the increase in demand is expected to be greatest, and occur at a rate faster than increases in production (FAO, 2006), and where climate change is projected to have its greatest impact.

The total global methane emissions from livestock manure management have been estimated as 9.3 Tg/year (Scheehle, 2002), of which the developed countries contribute about 52%. The sharply different manure management practices in India, as compared to the western countries, lead to much lower methane emissions from manure. Buffalo manure is extensively used in the country as fuel and is largely managed in dry systems. India’s contribution to nitrous oxide emissions from manure management in 1990 is estimated to be 0.017 Tg/year, which is projected to increase to 0.022 Tg by 2020 (Scheehle 2002).

Management of the impact of Climate Change

Population growth, technological and science breakthroughs, economic and trade liberalization have all contributed to economic growth and these growing economies boost demand for livestock products.Therefore, suitable adaptation practices are required in order to make livestock more sustainable in future. Adaptation methods are those strategies that enable the livestock and livestock keepers to cope with or adjust to the impacts of the climate in the local areas. Many adaptation strategies are available for the livestock policy planners to devise coping methods with the present and future climate change. Although the adaptation strategies are many, but their combinations in various ways will be required in any given location. The process of adaptation is very complex and dynamic and therefore depends upon

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the local and temporal conditions including resources availability. Technical options are available for mitigating emission of livestock sector such as restoring organic carbon and carbon sequestration through agro-forestry, improve livestock diets, better manure management and careful nutrient management.

Mitigating methane emission

Responding to the challenge of climate change requires formulation of appropriate adaptation and mitigation options. Several mitigation options are available for methane emissions from livestock. In India, the possibility of capturing or preventing emissions from animal manure storage is limited as it is extensively used as fuel in the form of dry dung cakes. The use of biogas technology is a way to reduce emissions from manure while increasing farm profit and providing environmental benefits. Hence, the scope of decreasing methane from livestock largely lies in improving rumen fermentation efficiency. There are a number of nutritional technologies for improvement in rumen efficiency like, diet manipulation, direct inhibitors, feed additives, propionate enhancers, methane oxidisers, probiotics, defaunation and hormones (Moss, 1994). Field experiments in India involving some of these options have shown encouraging results with reduction potential ranging from about 6 to 32%. The methane mitigation from molasses urea supplementation was 8.7% (Srivastava and Garg, 2002). Improved nutritional quality of feed can reduce methane production. Animals grazing on very poor quality pastures will produce high amounts of methane (Kirschgessner et al. 1995). The use of natural bioactive compounds like plant secondary metabolites, which are generally recognized as safe by FDA, as additives in livestock nutrition instead of chemical compounds, like antibiotics, methane analogues, ionophores, etc. could be a novel approach to inhibit methane emission by the livestock (Tedesco, 2004). Out of the several plant secondary metabolites, tannins, essential oils, saponins are some of the most common and abundantly present which could be used for modifying rumen fermentation. The livestock development strategy in the changing climate scenario should essentially focus on minimization of potential production losses resulting from climate change, on one hand, and on the other, intensify efforts for methane abatement from this sector as this would also be instrumental in increasing production of milk by reducing energy loss from the animals through methane emissions.

Genetic improvement for production and adaptation

The Indigenous breeds of India have co-evolved in the crop - livestock systems over several thousand years of domestication and have adapted to the challenges of climate and diseases. Many local breeds are already adapted to harsh living conditions. In recent time these animals are under substantial pressure due to their low productivity and land-use changes. So there is need to improve productivity traits while maintaining adaptive traits. Current animal breeding systems are not sufficient to meet this need and the improvement of breeding programs under different livestock production and marketing is required. Such programmes should include: (i) identifying and strengthening local breeds that have adapted

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to local climatic stress and feed sources, (ii) improving local genetics through cross-breeding with heat and disease tolerant breeds and iii) need to conserve the indigenous breeds in their home tracts and in other areas having similar geo-climatic conditions. Adaptation strategies should not only consider the tolerance of livestock to global warming, but also their ability to survive, grow and reproduce in conditions of poor nutrition, parasites and diseases. Biotechnological options for adaptation and mitigation of impact of climate change

Whereas the biotechnological options to cope with climate change have been extensively explored in agricultural crops, very limited studies have been carried out in livestock. In the agricultural crops, introducing genes which are able to tolerate changes to the parameters representing climate change is one of the most reliable, economically viable and easily adaptable strategies that can be practiced in the form of genetic enhancement in the crops.

In livestock species however, there is poor understanding of the adaptive traits at the molecular level. Modification in genome can also be used to improve the livestock. With the recent advancement in global expression technologies (whole genome arrays, RNA sequencing etc) it is now possible to select particular genes that control the traits related to thermo-tolerance and makes it possible to select the animal for thermal resistance without inadvertently selecting against milk yield. Therefore, by knowing the various genes responsible for thermo tolerance we can change the genetic structure of animal and drift herds toward superior thermo-tolerant ability. Some work has been initiated at NDRI and other institutions about the heat shock protein/genes to determine their role in adaptation to thermal stress. Besides these, there is need to understand the molecular basis of thermal, disease and nutritional stress responses in the livestock. It is matter of common knowledge that most of the milch breeds of Indigenous cattle and buffaloes are heat tolerant and disease resistance besides efficient convertors of low quality feed resources. Therefore, it is important to look for genes relevant to adaption amongst such populations through gene mining techniques. And once identified, such genes can be integrated into the populations using biotechnological tools such as transgenesis.

Methanogenic bacterial populations in the rumen fauna are being identified using genomic approaches so that these could be manipulated to reduce methanogenesis in the rumen during enteric fermentation process. Such populations, studied amongst the domesticated and wild bovine populations are offering promising opportunities for utilization in the quest for reducing enteric methane production.

Conclusions

Global warming is a reality. It is affecting the entire ecological system which is on the path of disruption to the detriment of mankind. Apart from perceptible heat stress effects on livestock which reduces their productivity and reproductive performance, global environmental change in terms of rising temperature, loss of vegetation, spread of vector

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borne diseases threatens to decimate the very existence of certain species in the eco-fragile zones. The contribution of livestock to global warming in terms of methane production, their increasing numbers is a matter of concern which requires urgent redress. More efficient practical techniques for feed conversion by ruminants without any detrimental reduction in productivity are to be evolved. Using biotechnological tools, genome modification studies for improvement of livestock resilient to climate change are required. Innovative ways for enhancing production of drought resistant varieties of fodder, water harvesting and shelter models for livestock housing, conservation and propagation of heat resistant livestock breeds as well as improving the heat tolerance of crossbred cattle, will go a long way in preparing ourselves and protecting our livestock from global warming.

Research trends on buffaloes and zebu and crossbred cows points out to a great role for environmental manipulations in improvement of growth, fertility, and lactation. Some of the areas where recent biotechniques need to be standardized include, enhancement of growth rate for early maturity using endocrine interventions, development of endocrine methods for set time AI, application of pregnancy proteins for fertility improvement, development of simple methods for silent estrus detection, especially during the heat stress periods. Further, greater innovations have to be introduced for improvement of management practices which could include strategic feeding and disease control regimens for control of infectious and parasitic infestations, and a reduction in environmental stresses, for example by providing ideal shelter with provision of shade and showers and possible wallowing. In general, three basic management schemes for reducing the effects of thermal stress are: 1) modification of the physical microenvironment around the animal, 2) genetic development of breed that are less sensitive to heat, and 3) manipulation of certain diet ingredients such as reducing fiber intake within limits of maintaining adequate fiber levels for proper rumen function.

Modern molecular genetic and biological methods can be used to identify and characterize genes responsible for heat resistance. The variation of these genes in natural population will also provide information on evolutionary and ecological factors that play a major role in the interaction between animals-plants and environment. The following approaches can be used for identifying genes responsible for heat resistance: 1) expression profiling of responses to heat induced stress on animals using candidate genes from cDNA libraries. The approach can also use transgenesis to alter expression of these genes and thus infer function; 2) to relate mechanisms of heat resistance to known signal transduction pathways and compare signal transduction mutants on levels of heat resistance and expression of induced genes.

(References can be collected from authors)

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Scope and opportunities for sustainable meat production in India

C. S. Prasad, A. V. Elangovan and S. Anandan

National Institute of Animal Nutrition and Physiology, Bangalore

Abstract

India has a large livestock population ranking globally first in cattle (210 million- 15%), buffalo (111 million- 57%) and goat (154 million-17%), second in sheep (74 million - 7%). In India, of the total livestock, cross bred, indigenous cattle and buffaloes comprise 6.24, 31.34 and 19.89 % as per 2007 census. Over the last census 2003-07, cattle, buffaloes, sheep, goat and poultry have recorded a positive growth rate of 1.83, 1.84, 3.87, 3.10 and 7.33 percent respectively. Overall the livestock had recorded a growth rate of 2.23% during the same period. The estimated poultry population in 2007 was 648.8 million comprising 617.7 million fowls, 27.6 million ducks and 3.5 million diversified poultry birds such as Japanese quails, turkeys, guinea fowl, emu, etc. (BAHS, 2010). In the projected figure for growth in livestock population upto 2025, cattle, buffalo,sheep and goat population would continue to increase while the poultry population would double in the same period resulting in greater pressure on feed resources (Gorti, 2012). In terms of livestock products India ranks first in milk production and fish production, second in egg production and third in broiler meat production. The increasing livestock population along with the increase in human population and their growing per capita consumption is a matter of worry.

Introduction

Sustaining the present levels of production in future will be a major challenge for the livestock sector mainly due to the shortage of feed resources. Presently the entire livestock production is coming from the feed resources available within the country without any dependency on feed imports and it is forecasted that at the current rate of the growth in the livestock sector and the demand for the livestock products in future we may have to resort to import of feed resources. Reports on the availability of feed resources vis a vis the requirements for different livestock although tends to differ with regard to the quantum of deficit, one common and consistent finding across all the studies is that there is a deficit with regard to the feed availability. Some of the major factors contributing to the feed deficit are stagnation in the area under cultivation of food crops, plateau in the productivity of food grains, low productivity, limited area under fodder cultivation (<% 5 of cropped area), burning of crop residues, diversion of resources for non feed uses, export of feed resources etc. All these factors contributes to increased demand for livestock products, feed resources and food gains which have to be essentially be produced from limited natural resources.

The information with regard to the feed resource availability vis a vis the requirements is provided below:

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Table 1. Requirements of feed and fodder:

Requirement (million tons)

Availability (million tons)

Deficit %

Crop residues 475 358 25

Greens 800 641 20

Concentrates 78 53 32 Source: Gorti (2010)

Table 2. Growth rate in estimates of Major Livestock Products

2011-12 11th Plan (2007-08 to 2011-12)

10th Plan

Milk 5.0 4.5 3.64 Egg 5.4 5.6 5.61 Meat 13.2 7.0 3.9 Wool 4.05 -1.2 -1.77 Source: BAHS (2010)

The country has witnessed the “Green” “White” and “Blue” Revolution, so we have to focus on the “Pink Revolution”. The initiation of Operation Flood in early seventies led to the White Revolution, resulting in India occupying the top position in milk production in the world with an annual production of 127.3 million tonnes in 2011-12. This also resulted in shift of priorities towards buffalo and crossbred cattle for milk production. Though India is in top positions in meat, milk and eggs production, exports are very low because of quality considerations. The livestock sector in the form of milk, eggs and meat fulfills the animal protein requirement of human population. Livestock sector plays a critical role in the welfare of India's rural population contributing nine percent to Gross Domestic Product while the GDP in agricultural sector is continuously on a decline.

Though, meat output grew tremendously since eighties, still productivity of most meat producing species is low. The meat industry in India has not taken its due share. There are many reasons for the slow growth of the meat industry, attitude of public towards meat including religious and socio-political considerations. India has established a few most modern, mechanized environment friendly abattoirs-cum-meat processing plants in various states based on slaughtering buffaloes and sheep. These plants utilize all the slaughterhouse byproducts like meat-cum-bone meal, tallow, bone chips etc. and also produce value added products. They practice strict sanitary and phytosanitary measures as per International Animal Health code of O.I.E. Buffalo meat production

Buffalo meat affords an easy means of preparing low priced fast meat foods by restricting the cost of raw material. So, the focus area of research should be low cost ready to eat buffalo meat products. The other area is to design appropriate technologies to improve the

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quality of meat from spent animals. Focus on extension of shelf life of traditional buffalo meat products available in our country and making necessary efforts for patenting them. Similar to the contribution of buffalo in the White Revolution, India can also achieve the number one position in meat production. Meat production in India has been largely neglected and this is the one major area which will improve the livelihood of the farmers in the long run. Currently, expansion in India is being driven by rising incomes and a shift in industry structure toward integrated ownership which is happening in poultry production. The Government should give subsidies to start meat and by-products processing industries. In order to achieve the Pink Revolution, we have to strengthen our processing unit and strict quality control measures. There is very little processing. Only 1% of the total meat produced in the country is used for processing. The buffalo meat is used for industrial purposes in the production of sausages, patties, nuggets, corn beef, ham etc.

Certain points to be considered for successful venture in buffalo meat business are:

Superior germ plasm of animals

Balanced feeding and improving fodder production

Better disease control

Reducing the mortality rate in male buffalo calves

Improving reproductive performances

Improved levels of hygiene at meat handling

Appropriate consumer education programmes for animal protein Sheep and goat meat production

Most of the sheep and goat meat production are with the unorganized sector and for catching pace with the requirement of the expanding population, there is urgent need for expanding the farming in the integrated mode. Most meats are sold in the domestic market without proper sanitary inspection by the veterinarians. Mostly sheep, goats and pigs are slaughtered in unregistered slaughter houses in small numbers by the individual butchers and fresh meat is sold. Mutton and chevon is the major constituent of meat and contributes 70-80% of earning of the farmers in sheep and goat rearing. The demand of mutton is growing in the country especially in the J&K and southern states resulting in sharp rise of mutton price. To pace with the demand, there is urgent need to increase the body weights and feed efficiency of existing stock by breeding, feeding, heath and management. The meat production in 2010-11 was 4.2 MT. Number of sheep slaughtered during 2007-08 was 19.8 m with slaughter yield of 13 kg which amounts to 263 TT. It has increased to 22.5 m with 291 TT meat in 2008-09 and 23.3 m and 299 TT in 2009-10. With the existing sheep and goat population, growth rate and carcass yield, it would not be possible to meet the demand. As per Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) recommendation, minimum amount of 30 g of meat /day/head should be taken which makes 10.95 kg of meat /head/annum. At present availability of meat is only 5.5 kg /head / annum. The per capita availability of the meat products is low mainly due to large human population, vegetarian society and religious cause.

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The following are the challenges in meat production:

Low productivity

Shrinking grazing

Availability of quality and quantity feed

Post harvest management

Marketing and value abattoirs

The meat production by small ruminants can be enhanced by:

Upgradation of local breeds

Improvement in the fodder availability

Better disease control

Entry of big players like poultry industry in the integrated mode

Stall feeding / Scientific feeding

Marketing

Marketing is one of the key issues in meat sector as it is: a) Unorganized and inefficient leading to economic losses. b) Not covering issues related to sanitary and phyto sanitary measures The marketing strategies should be a three pronged approach to reduce post

harvest losses.

Shortening market / supply chain of intermediaries by linking primary producers to market.

Promoting processing of food commodities in production catchment to add value before marketing

Develop small scale cold chain using conventional and non conventional sources.

Broiler production

With an annual production (BAHS, 2010) of around 61.45 billion eggs (95.2% chicken, 2.5% duck and 2.3% from other species) and 2.03 metric tonnes of poultry meat, India ranks 3rd and 5th in egg and meat production, respectively, in the world. There is vast scope for growth of poultry industry in future as per capita annual availability of eggs (51 numbers) and meat (3.43 kg out of which 1.73 kg poultry meat) is much less against the requirement of 180 eggs and 11.8 kg meat. The requirement of poultry feed is around 16 million tons at present and is likely to increase to 35 million tons in 2025 assuming 6-7% growth.

The poultry industry is among the faster growing sectors rising at a rate of 8% per year. Vertical integration of poultry production and marketing has been the main reason for increased broiler production. There are few integrated poultry processing units in the country, which hold a significant share in the industry. Some top players in the meat processing industry like Venkateswara Hatcheries, Godrej Agrovet, Suguna etc., with modern state-of-

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the-art slaughter and processing plants, have taken a big step forward, although 95% of the chicken is sold fresh. Poultry meat is used for production of nuggets, sausages, patties etc., for the elite market.

The manipulation of dietary nutrients affects bird composition at various stages of maturity to enhance the meat quality. As energy level of the diet increases relative to dietary protein, fat deposition also increases, resulting in an undesirable carcass with proportionately more fat than protein. Recent studies have shown that increasing the levels of lysine or methionine above the levels required for optimal growth and feed efficiency has a positive impact on breast meat yield. Similar work with threonine, the third limiting amino acid, indicates that requirements for maximum breast meat yield are at least as high as those for optimal performance.

Pork production

Most of the pigs are indigenous and are reared by weaker section of the society under free-range scavenging system with little input. However with increased awareness on progressive organized pig farming for higher return and self employment, population of crossbred and exotic pure breeds has to increase with better feeding practices. Pig farming is mainly concentrated in North Eastern states of India. The pig population has decreased to 11.13 million with Assam having the highest (2 million 17.97%) and Uttar Pradesh having the second highest (1.35 million 12.13%) population (BAHS, 2010). The pig has got highest feed conversion efficiency except broiler chicken. The pig can utilise wide variety of feed stuffs viz. grains, forages, damaged feeds and garbage and convert them into valuable nutritious meat. They are prolific with shorter generation interval. Sows are prolific breeders, they produce 6-12 piglets in each farrowing and can farrow twice in a year. There is good demand for export market for pig products such as pork, bacon, ham, sausages, lard etc. The pig farming mainly constitutes the livelihood of rural poor of lowest socio-economic strata with no means of scientific interventions.

Export of meat and meat products

The domestic meat production increased from 2.6 million tonnes in 1980 to 6.3 million tonnes in 2010, fuelled by the growth in poultry and buffalo meat production. Buffalo meat has been the major one in Indian meat export accounting to about 23% total production and for more than 85% of total meat export mostly in frozen form (Suresh et al., 2012). The buffalo meat export industry has grown well. Having no social taboo, with buffalo slaughter, buffalo meat for export has got a tremendous scope. The potential for rapid growth is high, and since the domestic consumption is low (less than 2%), the export potential increases substantially. Buffalo meat export is restricted to countries primarily in the Middle East, with large ethnic Indian population who prefer it. The export of sheep and goat meat is of very small quantity. India’s export share of poultry produce is below 5%.

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Domestic demand for bovine meat being poor and looking into the production cost in poultry sector, India’s meat production by bovine offers big opportunities for export. From export point of view, a major concern in the food industry is safety. There is a direct link between animal-feed quality, hygiene and safety of foods of animal origin. In near future, there may be ban on the sale of live animals and only processed meat will be available at retail outlets as frozen products, hence there has to be a change in the mindset of people towards frozen food. There is a huge potential of buffaloes for meat production for the growing population because of its capacity to convert poor quality roughages into meat. India can easily double its meat production by buffalo veal production.

The following are the measures needed for export potential of our meat: • Notification of Disease Free Zones by OIE. • Upgradation of slaughter houses. • Modernizing the Quality Control laboratories. • Strict laboratory inspection of meat and meat products.

Strict ban of feed antibiotics

Scientific system of rearing. • Training programmes for hygiene and quality meat production.

Conclusions As per latest FAO’s report, land and water resources throughout world are now much

more stressed than in the past and are becoming scarcer, extra net 70 million hectares of land worldwide would have to be cultivated in 2050 to meet the additional demand for food and feeds. Further the declining per capita consumption of food grains and increasing per capita consumption of livestock products brings in additional pressure on natural resources as the production efficiency of food grains is higher than the livestock products. However the residues and byproducts of food crops can be efficiently utilized by the livestock to produce quality products with higher nutritional value. There is ample scope for better integration of the crop livestock systems to optimize the output in terms of crops and livestock products. Region specific interventions identifying the proper crop and livestock system combinations is the need of the hour. This calls for a integrated approach involving the crop and livestock scientists, developmental agencies, private industries, financial institutions and policy support

With faster global warming in the present decade, there are rising temperatures, less predictable rains, more floods, droughts, desertification and heat waves. Solution would be possible only by raising crop yields, livestock potential, slowing population growth and moderate rises in meat consumption. Generally there are problems with shortages, but Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka faced a unique problem of glut of milk so much so that it did not have the capacity to store all the milk and in Andhra Pradesh, they declared a ‘milk holiday’ once in a fortnight. This gives an indication we have to be prepared with the excess production of these perishable products with sound processing technologies, quality aspect and target our production for export market.

(References can be collected from authors)

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Indian meat exports revolution – A review

C. K. Thota Director, Allanasons Limited, Mumbai

Summary

Sustainable livestock production largely depends on production efficiency, feed supplies and costs & efficient utilization of produce including marketing, which in turn largely depends on hygienic production of meat; cost efficient meat processing technologies; creating sustained demand for the product; innovative marketing approach; better utilization of byproducts and providing positive image to the enterprise with policy support. Global market for animal products is expanding fast and is an opportunity for India to improve its presence in global market.

India has a broad spectrum of native breeds of cattle, buffalo, goats, sheep, and poultry with merits of adaptability to climate and nutrition, and resistance to diseases and stress Livestock economics, business management and market intelligence needs strengthening. In spite of huge potential, the Indian meat industry has not taken its due global share. The major constraints for the meat industry are lack of scientific approach to rearing of meat animals, unorganized nature of meat production and marketing, socio-economic taboos associated with meat consumption, inadequate infrastructure facilities and poor post-harvest management. The situation is further compounded by insistence of domestic consumers to buy freshly cut meat from the wet market, rather than processed or frozen. Productivity of meat breeds has not tapped adequately, potential of male buffalo calf for meat production is yet to realize.

1. INDIA’S BLOOMING LIVESTOCK SECTOR :

With 485 million livestock and 489 poultry, India ranks first in global livestock population. Livestock keeping has always been an integral part of the socio-economic and cultural fabric of rural India. Livestock contributes 28% of the output of the agricultural sector and the sub-sector is growing at a rate of 4.3% a year , India 2011 India’s livestock sector output value was estimated to be over USD 40 billion – more than all grains combined.

Top Countries with Buffalo stocks - 2010’ FAO :

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Share of Agriculture and livestock Sector in GDP :

Rearing of livestock has been an integral component of India’s agricultural and rural economy since time immemorial and India’s livestock sector is one of the largest in the world.

India has 56.7% of world’s buffaloes, 12.5% cattle, 20.4% small ruminants, 2.4% camel, 1.4% equine, 1.5% pigs and 3.1% poultry. The share of livestock in the agricultural GDP improved consistently from 15% in 1981-82 to 26% in 2010-11.

Year GDP Total

GDP ( Agriculture)

GDP ( Livestock sector)

Rs. Crores

% Share

Rs. Crores

% share

2006-07 3,953,276 604,672 15.3 142,695 3.6

2007-08 4,582,086 716,276 15.6 169,296 3.7

2008-09 5,303,567 806,646 15.2 200,440 3.8

2009-10 6,091,485 924,581 15.2 232,815 3.8

2010-11 7,157,412 1,093,806 15.3 260,300 3.6

Source : Ministry of statistics, Govt of India 2012.

2. INDIAN MEAT PRODUCTION GROWTH RATE :

Meat production from registered slaughter houses increased from 3.6 million tons in 1992-93 to 4.5 million tons in 2010-11 at an annual rate of around 1%. Present Meat production in India is estimated at 6.27 million tones which is 2.21% of the world’s meat production. The contribution of meat from buffalo is about 23.33 % , Cattle 17.34 %, sheep 4.61%, Goat 9.36%, pig 5.31%, poultry 36.68 % and other species 3.37 %.

Contribution of buffalo meat accounts for more than 75% of total exports of Indian meat sector.

During last decade (2001 -10), the meat yield of cattle, sheep, goat, and poultry grew at an annual rate of 1.5-2.0% and of pig 0.8%, while meat yield of buffalo remained almost constant. Poultry, small ruminants, pigs and cattle and buffalo contributed about 16, 17, 11 and 55% to the total meat output.

There are 30 export-oriented modern abattoirs and 77 meat processing plants registered with APEDA exporting raw meat ( chilled & Frozen ) to about 56 countries. India exported 5,45,731, tons bovine and 52,251 tons sheep and goat meat (2009-10) which amounted to Rs. 5436 crores and Rs.737 Crores respectively. (Ref: www.apeda.gov.in for approved abattoirs cum meat processing plants).

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Top 10 States in Buffalo Meat Production in India :

Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra and Tamilnadu contribute about half of the total poultry meat. Uttar Pradesh produces about one-third of the buffalo meat, followed by Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh. Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, Maharashtra, Bihar, Orissa and Rajasthan are important states for small ruminant meat.

3. INDIAN MEAT EXPORT SURGE– USDA’ 2012 :

Indian buffalo meat exports have grown to a record level in the last two years, making India the fourth country in the world to export more than 1 million tons of bovine meat annually. As a result, 2013 buffalo meat exports are forecast at 2.15 million tons, around 30% over 1.66 Million tons in 2012. India’s bovine herd continues to grow as a result of strong demand for dairy products, with calendar year 2013 combined stocks forecast at 327 million head and 2012 combined stocks estimated at 323.74 million head. Indian percapita consumption remains at 2 Kilograms, reflection a preference for pulses, dairy, and poultry.

In 2013 Indian buffalo Meat production is forecast to raise to a record 4.16 million tons, up 10 % from 2012. In 2012 buffalo meat production is estimated at 3.64 million

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tons ( up 12% from 2011), and 2011 production has been slightly revised up to 3.24 million tons.

India now accounts for nearly a quarter on world beef trade compared to a mere 8 % in 2009, while Brazil, Australia & US could made only marginal increase in Volume. This rapid expansion is fuelled by demand for low cost product in many smaller, emerging and price sensitive markets (Middle East, Africa, Southeast Asia)

Expanding markets for processed Halal meat product provide a real opportunity for Indian meat export.

4. INDIAN MEAT PRODUCTION CHALLENGE :

Indian meat production has a gigantic task to meet the demand of 81 % of non-vegetarians, to 1 billion Indian population and the growing global meat demand from India.

Global Population , FAO’ 2011 :

According to the FAO report “World Livestock 2011”, an expanded world population will be consuming “two-thirds more animal protein than it does today, populations and income growth are fueling an ongoing trend towards greater per capita consumption of animal protein in developing countries.

The FAO indicates that livestock products today supply 12.9% of calories consumed worldwide — 20.3% in developed countries and its contribution to protein consumption is estimated at 27.9% worldwide and 47.8% in developed countries.

“Global Meat consumption is projected to rise by 73% by 2030; dairy consumption will grow 58 percent over current levels,” FAO

FAO forecasts the world human population to reach 8.9 billion by 2050, and that daily per capita calorie intake will also rise to 3130 calories. Meat consumption is also projected to increase sharply to 89kg and 37kg per person a year in the rich and developing world respectively.

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Global Meat consumption varies enormously from region to region, and large differences are visible within regions The USA leads by far with over 322 grams of meat consumption per person per day (120 kg per year), with Australia and New Zealand close behind. Europeans consume slightly more than 200 grams of meat (76 kg per year); almost as much as do South Americans (especially in Argentina, Brazil and Venezuela).

Although Asia’s meat consumption is only 25 per cent of the U.S. average (84 grams per day, 31 kg per year), there are large differences, for example, between the two most populous countries: China consumes 160 grams per day, India only 12 grams per day. The average meat consumption globally is 115 grams per day (42 kg per year).

Meat consumption around the world : (kg/capita/year) (FAO 2012)

Based On Existing Knowledge & Technology - FAO suggests :

• Increase in meat production has to come from improvements in the efficiency of livestock rearing systems in converting natural resources into food with reduced wastage.

• This will require capital investment and a supporting policy and regulatory environment, future demand for livestock production particularly in the world’s burgeoning countries will be met by large-scale, intensive animal-rearing operations.

• Reduction of the level of pollution generated from waste and greenhouse gases. reduction of the input of water and grain needed for each output of livestock protein; recycling agro-industrial by-products

Today the meat production in India in the Govt managed set-ups is far behind the developed countries. The potential for rapid growth is high, particularly if a specific time bound plan of action between the various wings of the government and the meat export industry is drawn up.

5. CHALLENGES IN PERISHABLE CARGO HANDLING :

Huge foreign Investments in India : India is a fast developing country with the population’s disposable income increasing rapidly. Demand for consumer goods and fresh

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produce is on the raise, estimates place India’s retail market at USD 425 Billion in 2010 and that it would be the 3rd Largest retail market in the world in the next decade. Currently Indians spend 61 % of the income on food products. In recent years India has gone through a Green & White revolution both are synonymous for success in agriculture and Dairy sector respectively.

Contribution of buffalo in bringing about the White Revolution in India is well known. India is now poised to achieve the Pink Revolution through buffalo.

At the moment 900 million tons of cargo is handled in Indian ports and the country has plans to double in next 10 yrs, though India is the largest export of bovine meat in the world shipping 1.5 million tons mostly through reefer containers, yet there is not a single dedicated perishables gateway or fast tract corridor for perishable cargoes in the country.

India has a track record of 44 yrs in the export of deboned and deglanded meat. All of the meat exported from India is in the Raw form & this is a highly perishable product, susceptible to deterioration, particularly in the hot & humid environment in India. Thus the need for the hygienic slaughter operations & maintenance of the cold chain throughout the food chain is of paramount importance.

6. INDIAN MEAT INDUSTRY AND GLOBAL TRADE CHALLENGES :

The changing global production and processing scenario under prevailing WTO regime, both production and processing need to develop the products conforming to national and international standards by adhering to SPS and TBT regulation for smooth trade must meet the quality requirements prescribed by the Codex, EC or USDA, which are internationally recognized and accepted.

Recent initiative taken by the Government on India for establishing the Food Safety and Standards authority of India (FSSAI) Act and Food safety bill might improve the local standards to the level of International Standards, taking into consideration the technological developments in meat processing and changing international trade scenario. This could bridge the gap to face emerging challenge in the export of Indian meat and meat products.

7. CHALLENGES IN SECURING SOPHISTICATED MARKET ACCESS :

The meat from export industry in India contributes nearly two billion dollars in foreign exchange earnings, provides a lucrative outlet for the rural livestock producers, supplies affordably priced raw hides for the leather industry and employees over fifty thousand people besides supporting ancillary units & service providers.

Market access for livestock products, especially bovine meat is a very sensitive matter and requires the potential exporting nations authorities approval for which private sector need to have a deep knowledge of the issues, commitment to follow up &

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develop the confidence in the systems relating to livestock health, inspection & certification processes, besides leveraging the experience and expertise of the export oriented meat complex management.

There is urgent need to take advantage of liberalized world trade to benefit the Indian meat industry by harmonization of standards, incentive to farmer for quality livestock production, stringent quality control measures, develop long-term strategy for exports, popularize and develop traditional products technology, regular monitoring for chemical residues and microbial quality in compliance to SPS measures.

There is a need for the govt to consider the efforts to convince the importing country authorities in a sophisticated new market that Indian meat products are safe & risk free for import and it would be appreciated if a policy on market access issues is framed, whereby the industry could embark upon the initiative to allocate the time & resources for sustained growth, diversification, investment & value addition.

There is a need for the govt to consider the efforts to convince the importing country authorities in a sophisticated new market that Indian meat products are safe & risk free for import and it would be appreciated if a policy on market access issues is framed, whereby the industry could embark upon the initiative to allocate the time & resources for sustained growth, diversification, investment & value addition.

8. CHALLENGES WITH UNORGANIZED SECTOR :

Presently the integrated meat export abattoirs in India are facing cut throat competition from the unorganised sector who by their reckless business practices & putting at risk the efforts of the committed & serious meat exporters. Merchant exporters are free to source their requirements from authorized abattoirs. DGFT / APEDA have already banned exports from unregistered units.

In the Indian context, meat production & even its consumption is a rather sensitive matter. Majority of the population does not consume red meat due to religious perspective of several faiths, slaughtering of livestock is taboo & on most important festivals the abattoirs are forced to suspend operations. A vocal & organised movement exists against the production of meat even for the domestic market.

Therefore in such a unique & potentially controversial situation, it is all the more important for the regulating agencies to ensure that there is no admixture of meat from the prohibited species.

Preparation of meat at registered & authorised abattoirs would ensure that there is traceability & verification of the livestock species, volumes & quality of the meat exported.

The current notification by the Ministry of Commerce & the DGFT is a step in the right direction & addresses several overdue issues which could perhaps contribute to the orderly & sustained growth of the Indian meat for export sector.

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9. CHALLENGES WITH ANIMAL DISEASE & TRADE RESTRICTIONS :

The meat and livestock export sector of India including by-products, recognize the laudable achievement in OIE recognition of India’s BSE status in the safest category of “ Negligible BSE Risk”. However, exports remain constrained by limited access to many key markets due to disease restrictions. Though Indian Govt control Foot & mouth disease (FMD) through FMD-CP control progrmme India do not maintain a FMD status classification with the OIE and strives to establishment of one or more clearly defined Zones to attain Freedom with vaccination Status by 2020.

The biggest impediment to growth of the livestock sector is the prevalence of Foot and Mouth Disease in the country after Rinderpest. This adversely affects the performance of the animals, resulting into direct economic losses, to the tune of Rs.20,000 crores per annum.

Recent International conference convened at Delhi by ICAR & Ministry of Agriculture on FMD / Transboundry diseases has appreciated the excellent measures put in place in India for FMD control and many recommendations have come up to improve further. 10. MALE BUFFALO CALF SALVAGING :-

AN OPPORTUNITY :

Due to the profitability of meat production in India, farmers now have an incentive to salvage and sell buffalo male calves which were neglected to die. The practice of Fattening calves for slaughter is still uncommon and Indian slaughter yields remain low compared to other countries. Salvaging the male calves has tremendous economic potential to farmer, to the meat industry & its direct service providers, besides the opportunity offer generating employment & earning foreign exchange, but it is unfortunate that the prevailing rules related to slaughter do not permit the utilization of fattened animals which it is a very natural practice in the developed countries.

The Government of India (GOI) launched The Salvaging and Rearing of Male Buffalo Calves Scheme (SRMBC) and The Utilization of Fallen Animals Scheme (UFA) under the 11th Five Year Plan (2007-2012)

The SRMBC promotes the rearing of buffalo bull calves for meat production and develops linkages with export-oriented slaughterhouses – which is a good opportunity

11. MINISTRY OF FOOD PROCESSING INDUSTRY INITIATIVES – AN

OPPORTUNITY :

Globalization and rapid expansion in the food & agriculture sectors and industries across the globe are investing hugely in India. Ministry of Food Processing Industries (MOFPI) approved project with EFRAC ( Edward Food Research & Analysis Centre Limited) for setting up / upgradation of quality control / food testing laboratories. With an investment of Rs.35 crores.

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The Ministry of Food Processing Industries (MOFPI) launched the comprehensive financial scheme, Modernization of Existing Abattoirs, under the 11thFive Year Plan. The program is expected to continue in the 12th Five Year Plan period (2012-2017). MOFPI is also administering another scheme for technology upgrading, establishment and modernization of processing plants.

(please refer http://www.mofpi.nic.in/images/ar10-11.pdf.)

Slaughter and meat processing are now regulated by the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) through The Food Safety and Standards Rules and Regulation, 2011 (FSSR). On August 5, 2011, FSSR replaced the Meat and Meat Products Order, 1973. The FSSR contains standards and regulations for meat and meat products and requires registration and licensing of meat processors and other food operators in the meat value chain.

(please refer http://fssai.gov.in/GazettedNotifications.aspx)

12. INDIAN BUFFALO MEAT EXPORTS - Explore New Market Opportunities :

After the release of a global beef exports forecast by the USDA predicting India to overtake Brazil, Australia and the US it is interesting to look at where Indian beef has been exported in recent years. For 2011-12, Indian Buffalo meat exports surged 40 per cent year-on-year, reaching 1.068 million tonnes cwt according to the Global Trade Atlas (GTA), reports Meat and Livestock Australia.

According to GTA statistics, Vietnam was India’s largest export destination in 2011-12, totalling 302,516 tonnes cwt – up 137 per cent year-on-year. Exports also surged 16 per cent to Malaysia (103,906 tonnes cwt), supported by lower prices and growing demand for red meat.

Rounding off the top five Indian Buffalo Meat export destinations for the year ending June 2012 were Jordan (up 47 per cent, to 74,686 tonnes cwt), Saudi Arabia (up 30 per cent, to 72,597 tonnes cwt) and Egypt (down 9 per cent, to 72,155 tonnes cwt). As Indian meat is cheaper, we have the competitive advantage in the Middle East.

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Top ten markets for Indian Buffalo meat in 2011-12 were Algeria (53,733 tonnes cwt), the Philippines (47,452 tonnes cwt), the United Arab Emirates (45,291 tonnes cwt), Iran (33,982 tonnes cwt) and Thailand (29,935 tonnes cwt). Other markets for Indian beef include numerous African countries, including Angola (25,730 tonnes cwt), the Congo (15,117 tonnes cwt) and Gabon (7,225 tonnes cwt).

Australia’s largest export markets, Japan, Korea, the US and Taiwan are yet not accessed by India.

Indian Beef production is not from cattle (which are sacred), rather it is from buffalo bovines (carabeef). Indian beef production has expanded by almost 1.7 million MT in the past decade, much of that growth going into export markets. Indian beef exports for 2012 are forecast at 1.525 million MT, 25% higher than the previous year and an almost three fold increase in the past 10 years

13. POSITIVE ATTRIBUTES OF INDIAN BUFFALO MEAT – AN

OPPORTUNITY :

World’s 3rd largest exporter of bovine meat

largest exporter of Halal bovine meat to the Islamic world.

Second largest muslim population in the world (146.4 million) after Indonesia (201.9 million)

Established internationally approved Halal meat preparation practices.

The livestock in India is reared on green pastures and agricultural crop residues

There is no practice of using hormones, anitbiotics or any other chemicals to promote growth and fattening of livestock.

The Indian livestock is free from the dreaded Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (Mad Cow Disease)

The Indian Buffalo meat is 93% chemically lean, since the fat is sold / utilized domestically within India

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Indian meat is free from radiations

The animals are slaughtered strictly according to Islamic requirements, hence the meat is genuinely Halal

Indian frozen Buffalo meat is competitively priced

Our products are well accepted by the buyers and the consumers of over 64 countries.

14. SAFETY OF INDIAN MEAT - AN OPPORTUNITY :

Inspection by the accredited abattoirs' Veterinarians and Microbiologists

Tests by State and Central Govt. Laboratories for Certification.

Additional inspection by an internationally accredited agency like SGS, when mandated by importing countries.

Multiple agency inspection on arrival of the goods at destination (importing country)

Deboned and deglanded meat, prepared in conformance with OIE Article 8.5.23 (2008 edition of Terrestrial Animal Health Code)

Indian livestock free from BSE (mad cow disease); free from Rinderpest since 1995 and no Contagious Bovine Pleuro Pneumonia (CBPP) in India during the previous 17 years.

Large States in India like Maharashtra and Uttar Pradesh are FMD free since November 2003

Naturally reared, small manageable herds, exclusively fed on natural pastures and agricultural crop residues

No Meat and Bone Meal administered, no hormones and growth promoters given

World class state of the art abattoirs

Meat processed strictly in accordance with Codex standards

All plants compulsorily implement HACCP and ISO Standards.

Compulsory licensing of abattoirs / meat processing plants and periodic / annual inspection by Federal Government Authority, APEDA

Compulsory ante-mortem and post-mortem by Government Veterinary Doctors; International Health Certificates issued for each consignment after undertaking compulsory tests

CONCLUSION :

Though fast growing, yet the level of processing in the meat industry is still not very impressive as compared to other countries. The key challenges of meat sector remain in terms of meeting global quality standards, regulatory bottlenecks and higher number of unorganized

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market players and establishing Disease-Free Zones for rearing of animals & traceability are the main concern today.

The challenges and gaps are known. This is the time to mend them and tackle the issues as India has started getting hold now on International market. There needs to be an integrated view of development of meat sector.

Readers may please refer my earlier report for more information on this topic which I covered during IMSACON – IV.

Efforts and support by government to Indian players to meet global quality standards, hygienic and scientific meat processing in addition to the optimum utilization of by products is very much essential to sustain market competition & increasing production overheads.

We look forward to work with NRCM, NMPPB, MOFPI, APEDA, FSSAI, ICAR for the growth, development & streamlining of meat Industry and focus on backward linkage with the livestock farmer who is the back bone to the sector.

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Meat science research in India: Need to bring paradigm shift

V. V. Kulkarni and Girish Patil, S. National Research Centre on Meat, Chengicherla, Hyderabad

1.0 Introduction

Research is a formal work undertaken systematically to increase the stock of knowledge and the use of this stock of knowledge to devise new applications. Increasing the stock of knowledge can be called ‘basic research’ and applying the stock of knowledge can be called ‘applied research’. In India, most of the meat production, processing and marketing continues to be done in unorganized way by following traditional methods. Establishing the meat sector on ‘scientific line’ is the basic requirement for realizing organized meat industry. Challenges in meat sector are numerous: Enhancing meat production to meet domestic & export requirements when land and water available for agriculture are decreasing, producing hygienic meat as per Food Safety & Standards Act, 2006 when no proper infrastructure is available, need to do away with wet marketing of meat with no assured power supply etc. Although, entrepreneurs with business acumen are entering in to meat production and processing, most of the labour force comprises population who form base of the economic pyramid.

Meat science researchers need to provide solutions to prevailing problems of the industry through their research endeavours. Meat science research in India is being undertaken by academicians & researchers from different Veterinary Colleges & Research Institutes across the country. This article is an effort to introspect the research efforts in India in the background of ground realities of the sector. It aims to flag the issues related to research planning and provide food for thought to participants of the conference to make them think regarding the utility of ongoing research projects.

2.0 Overview of ongoing meat research in India

Broadly, research undertaken in different Institutions can be classified under five major categories: meat animal production, fresh meat technology, animal byproducts utilization, processed meat technology & meat food safety. Indian Meat Science Association is providing a platform for meat scientists to converge, present & discuss research findings through its conferences. By taking the research abstracts submitted to different conferences of IMSA as representative of Indian meat science research, an attempt was made to get insights into focus of current meat science research in the country.

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Table 1: Distribution of research abstracts in different areas of research in different IMSA conferences

Number of research abstracts

Sl No

Areas of research

IMSACON I Pondicherry

(2003)

IMSACON II Chennai

(2006)

IMSACON III

Bangalore (2008)

IMSACON IV IVRI

(2010)

IMSACON V

Hyderabad (2013)

TOTAL

1 Meat animal production

15 21 15 05 36 92

2 Fresh meat technology

12 11 14 23 14 74

3 Animal byproducts utilization

04 13 3 08 9 40

4 Processed meat technology

26 51 30 21 104 232

5 Meat hygiene & quality control

11 6 35 18 52 122

Total number of abstracts

68 102 97 75 215 560

As seen from table 1, major share of the research finding contribution is coming in the area of meat processing. Least amount of work is being done in the area of animal byproducts utilization. Research on quality control is increasing with time. Focus on fresh meat technology research is minimal. Overall, an urgent need was felt to induce innovativeness and novelty in to meat science research programs to make them align to industry requirements.

3.0 Need to bring paradigm shift in meat science research

Scope for meat science research is more than ever before. Researchers need to think on nations requirements and take up relevant research programs. Some of the changes required to make research programs beneficial to society are as follows:

3.1 Identification and prioritization of the researchable issues In the last decade, with the intervention of Veterinary Council of India, Department of Livestock Products Technology has been established in most of the Veterinary colleges. Qualified staff is being recruited and more colleges are giving post graduate courses in LPT. Every department is encouraged by the colleges to undertake a research project and post graduate students are contributing to valuable research outputs of every Institution. Often research topics are chosen based on review of literature or availability of facilities. Although availability of facility is a primary requirement there is a scope for undertaking innovative and novel research work within the available facility and funds.

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Identification of researchable issues: Every unit planning to undertake research must work on identification of problems in their state or locality. All problems of industry need not be researchable. After identification of problems, researchable issues must be short listed and must be taken as base for conceptualizing new projects. Some issues do not require research rather they may require policy interventions. Such issues must be communicated to concerned departments for initiating action. Prioritization of research: Once researchable issues have been shortlisted, issues need to be arranged based on urgency of the intervention required. Accordingly, researchable issues can be prioritized and facilities can be planned and created over a period of time. Steps in problem identification and prioritization Identification of stakeholders in the area (butchers, retailers, restaurateurs, consumers,

meat animal producers etc)

Preparation of the questionnaire for each group of stakeholders with an exclusive question on problems faced

Compilation of problems faced by different stakeholders

Short listing of researchable problems

Noting down probable interventions required to solve the problems

Undertaking review of literature in the researchable areas and conceptualize research projects in the area wherein no reports available

In the problems where solutions are available in literature, extension efforts need to boosted

It must be noted that arbitrary identification of problems will not only lead to wastage

of public funds, it will also make the discipline irrelevant in national scenario. Focused research on the burning problems and providing solutions to problems can drastically increase the importance of the discipline among other disciplines of Veterinary & Animal Science.

3.2 Collaborative research: Collaboration is the collective work of two or more individuals where the work is undertaken with a sense of shared purpose and direction that is attentive and responsive to the environment. As meat is a final product of animal production, meat science departments need to collaborate with clinical and production departments to achieve in-depth study of any problem.

Indians are often considered poor collaborators. Some of the qualities required for collaborative research are as follows:

Acceptance and appreciation for diversity and importance of different areas of research

Strong communication

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Effective leadership

Collective commitment to the goal

Keeping organizational requirement above the individual requirements

3.3 Private participation

Whenever possible, private industries or entrepreneurs must be made as part of the research project, even without fund involvement. Every Institution must arrange meetings of academicians with entrepreneurs as frequently as possible. Over a period of time, frequent interactions with industry will bring change in the mindset of researchers and will create urge to undertake relevant research topics. In developed countries, significant portion of the research funding is provided by private industry. By focusing on relevant research, private participation can be increased to promote meat science research.

3.4 Avoiding duplications and repetitions

Researchers must be encouraged to undertake small work which has some novel approach or innovation to solve a problem rather than voluminous repetitive work. Duplications and repetitive projects are an avoidable exercise in resource constraint scenario. Taking novel research programs though pose difficulties initially, provide lasting happiness and recognition in the long run.

3.5 Studying financial viability of developed technologies

Economic evaluation of product or process developed is often neglected by Scientists. To make the research outputs reach the stakeholders economic evaluation and developing as a business proposal is imperative. ‘Money’ is the single most important factor driving an entrepreneur. It is in the ‘language of money’ that the entrepreneurs wish to understand technology. Economic evaluation is a great enabler to make technologies to come out of the lab and reach the stakeholders.

4.0 Dilemmas of Indian meat science research

a) Technology pull Vs Technology push: Researchers often try to push the technologies to field. Researchers must understand

that unless the technology is packaged as a business proposal there will be few takers. It requires significant knowledge of business to transform technology to business models. Scientists must be weaned away from urge to stop the research after getting scientific data and/or a publication in a journal. Relevant technology or knowledge does not require push they will be pulled by societal forces. However, effectively communicating the research innovations in media can create a technology pull.

b) Research Vs Extension

Indian meat industry at present requires significant extension efforts to bring in visible changes rather than investment on research. From researcher point of view ‘publish or perish’ was taken as unwritten rule. In recent years, ICAR is giving more focus to extension

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and transfer of technology rather than publications. It needs to be emulated by Universities and strong extension infrastructure which is accessible to stakeholders must be created.

c) Basic Vs Applied research

Strong foundation of basic research is must for undertaking applied research. There is an urgent need to divert significant funds and manpower towards basic research which have potential to throw light and deepen our understanding of meat science. However, applied research aimed at customizing basic science for field application for supporting the meat sector must be given priority. Scientists are often lured by to employ high end technologies due to peer pressure. ‘Need of the hour’ must be the focal point for every research effort.

d) Requirement Vs Actual demand

Actual demand is closely linked with affordability and cultural ethos. Hence, assuming requirement based on total population often leads to abnormal projections. Theoretically, India needs to augment its meat production to cater to per capita requirement of the population. But huge production going unsold is also a common scenario leading to announcements of ‘chick holidays’ by poultry industry to cope with fall in prices. Hence, host of factors determining actual demand must be understood before projecting requirements.

5.0 Areas requiring renewed focus to meet the challenges of Indian meat industry

Review of the works presented in previous conferences reveals that some of the important requirements of the meat industry are missing. Some of the areas which require immediate attention are as follows:

Low cost equipments for harvesting of animals and meat processing

Bio degradable packaging material in view of ban on non degradable packaging material by local bodies

Understanding the modus of marketing of meat and meat products

Developing traceability models for meat industry

Production of organic meat

Preservation technologies for fresh meat retailing

Simple methods for effluent treatment from meat plants

Platform tests for evaluation of meat and meat product quality

Alternative approaches for utilizing animal byproducts

6.0 Funding opportunities for meat science research

Adequate funding is the basic requirement for implementing an idea or a research project. Some of the agencies which provide funding for meat science research are as follows:

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Ministry of Food Processing Industries (MoFPI)

Department of Science & Technology (DST)

National Bank for Agricultural & Rural Development (NABARD)

Agricultural & Processed Food Products Export Development Authority (APEDA)

Indian Council of Agricultural Research

Private Industries

7.0 Conclusion

Public scrutiny of output and outcome of the research projects are increasing day by day. Impact made against the money invested on research project is also coming under the scientific audit of different organizations. To increase the relevance of meat science research on the industry, researchers need to review their projects and make necessary changes from time to time. IMSA conference is an occasion which will help every researcher to understand significance of his/her research with reference to work done by other groups. It must be noted that social scientists are already expressing scepticism about the outcome of scientific meetings/ conferences, with one sociologist describing Indian Science Congress as ‘effete organization where scientists looked forward to arranging marriages’. IMSA Conference must be used for effective cross learning and to understand depth of the meat science research being undertaken in the country to make it a fruitful exercise.

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Organized meat sector development through value addition and further processing

K. Sudhakar Reddy1 and M. Muthukumar2

1College of Veterinary Science, Hyderabad 2NRC on Meat, Hyderabad

Meat foods play a very imperative role in human health by providing all essential nutrients needed for growth and maintenance. Buffalo, sheep, goat, pig and poultry are most important meat producing animals. India produces about 6.3 million tones of meat annually from all species comprising buffalo meat (1.5 million tones), beef (1.28 million tones), chicken (2.20 million tones), duck meat (0.07 million tones), goat meat (0.53 million tones), sheep meat (0.24 million tones) and pig meat (0.50 million tones). According to estimates of the Central Statistics Office (CSO), the value of output from meat group (including skin and hides) at current prices in 2010-11 was Rs. 72,444.22 crore. Further, in 2011-12, India earned Rs. 139 billion by exporting 0.98 million metric tones of buffalo meat and 0.01 million tones of mutton.

Even though the economic contribution from meat production is increasing over years, the meat sector in India could be described largely unorganized as the infrastructure for meat animal marketing, slaughter and processing is inadequate and exploitation by middlemen compounds the prospects of this sector. Meat for domestic requirement is met through 3,600 licensed slaughterhouses owned by local bodies and about 26,000 unregistered locations. Most of these slaughterhouses lack basic facilities for hygienic slaughter and utilization of byproducts efficiently. Similarly, majority of the retail meat shops have little or no basic facilities for hygienic handling meat and in aesthetic manner where the present day modern quality conscious consumer could buy meat willingly. In case of chicken, live birds are slaughtered in front of consumer and marketed through retail shops located in the residential areas. The meat, mainly buffalo, little sheep and chicken meant for export trade are produced from privately owned modern integrated abattoirs.

Sustainable animal production with efficient processing and marketing of meat and meat products, protecting farmers interests, meeting the consumer requirements, limited depletion of natural resources, cost efficient and environment friendly waste disposal and positive public image are some of the important characteristics of organized meat industry. Research and developmental programmes in the areas of augmenting meat production, clean meat production for domestic market, export promotion, processed meat sector development, byproducts utilization and waste disposal are needed to develop organized meat sector in this country. This paper addresses the ways and mean for the development of organised meat sector through value addition and further processing. Augmenting meat animal production: Realizing full production potential of food animals is important in order to sustain their production. Though the livestock numbers are large in India but meat production is lower due to lower average carcass yield and lack of scientific approaches in meat animal production. It is estimated that about 10-12 million male buffalo calves are removed from the production system due to non-remunerative cost of raising them.

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Salvaging these calves from early death and growing them to larger weights of 250 kg live weight would result in production of one million metric tones of boneless buffalo meat of high quality. Meat from such animals is tender, lean and juicy. The Government of India (GOI) launched the Salvaging and Rearing of Male Buffalo Calves Scheme (SRMBC) under the XI five year plan. The SRMBC promotes the rearing of male buffalo calves for meat production and develops linkages with export-oriented slaughterhouses. Backward integration should be established with farmers for raising these animals by providing health, feeding and extension management services at their doorsteps. The meat plant should buyback them at remunerative prices. In case of sheep and goat also, young lambs and kids could be grown for larger weights of about 20 -25 kg live weight to increase mutton and goat meat substantially. The present demand and higher prices would sustain modern methods of production with input costs. Broiler production is another area where growing to larger market weights of above 2 kg live weight would not only enhance quantity of poultry meat production at lower costs but also contribute for better quality meat for processed meat sector development. Pork production away from nomadic production system has yet to gain momentum with fast changing socio-economic changes. A major requirement for augmenting meat production by raising meat animals to larger weights is the availability of adequate feed supplies. Development of balanced feeds from crop residues would be an important development to meet the feed supplies for augmented meat production.

Improvement of slaughterhouses and clean meat production: Clean meat production is the most important requirement of organized meat industry. Though the scheme for improving slaughterhouses was initiated as early as 1950s, satisfactory progress could not be achieved due to the controversies associated with meat sector. Difficulty in finding suitable location, low priority given by the local bodies for investments in slaughterhouses, requirement of higher level of investments, non-availability of high quality machineries in the local markets and very costly imported machineries are some of the important constraints observed for the slow progress in the implementation of the schemes.

Establishing organized production and marketing structures: Dairy and poultry industry in last three decades have shown how organized production and marketing practices can help in augmenting production and to increase the profitability to producers. Setting up the meat production on organized framework can help significantly enhance the meat production to meet the increasing domestic and export demands. It should be made mandatory for each local body to include place for slaughterhouse in the master plan. Further, financial assistant should be provided to local bodies for improvement/modernization of existing slaughterhouses with basic facilities. Similarly, private entrepreneurs need to be facilitated to take up slaughter and meat production activities for domestic and export market. Promotion of rural slaughterhouse at the animal production area will bring more remuneration without much interference of intermediaries. Feasibility and implications of rural meat production centers need to be worked out and supported for popularization in view of the constraints faced in locating slaughterhouses in urban areas.

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Lack post harvest processing and storage structure is rampant especially in meat production and processing. This is resulting in wastage of valuable animal meat and byproducts. Due to lack of proper cold storage facilities meat is forced to sell on the day of production, many times at lower price at the end of the day. Providing post harvest processing structures and storage facility can help in strengthening the marketing chains and will reduce post harvest losses.

By products utilization and waste disposal: In the slaughterhouses regulated by local bodies, though byproducts are being collected by some agencies for processing to products but waste such as blood and rumenal contents are getting accumulated in the premises and result odour and pollution problems affecting image of the meat sector. Organized facilities for small scale processing of some of the byproducts such as fat rendering, casings processing, bile processing etc should be provided.

Value addition and further processing: Value addition and further processing is aimed to provide increased convenience to consumer through decreasing preparation time, minimizing preparation steps, allowing use of specific parts and taking risks out of kitchen. Processes such as portioning, deboning, size reduction, seasoning, emulsion preparation, battering, breading and different cooking methods like frying, grilling, tandoor, baking, barbequing are utilized to produce a variety of value added products. The range of value added products largely include cut up parts, retail cuts, whole meat products, curried intact meats or minced meats, canned or retort pouch processed, shelf stable products, etc. Increasing urbanization and urbanization, family dynamics, rising income, increasing exposure to various mass media and changing food habits greatly enhance the demand for fresh or frozen and nutritionally superior value added products.

Need for value addition and further processing: Processed meat sector development is an important feature of organized meat sector. Converting meat into further processed meat products is necessary to provide variety of meat products, increase demand and marketability, utilize different carcasses beneficially and to utilize different byproducts, combine and compliment different meats with advantage, incorporate non-meat ingredients for quality and economy, preserve, transport and distribute to larger populations, facilitate export of meat products and compete with imports and promote entrepreneur ventures and employment. The growth of processed meat products industry assures the farmers a regular off take of their produce at reasonable prices and market price fluctuations are minimized. This is more so in poultry sector, when the market prices fall due to excess supply and low consumption due to social reasons in some seasons. Surplus meat could be processed, stored and released into market at an appropriate time. The products should be developed and marketed to the needs, expectations and acceptance of as large a population as possible. Bottlenecks in development of processed meat sector: In current Indian situation, there are a number of issues and concerns to be considered in the efforts to develop processed meat sector. There are also challenges to develop and make available to large number of consumers safe and quality meat products. The unorganized nature of meat production and processing, low per capita consumption, constraints in availability of good quality machinery

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in local market, fear of adulteration and safety, poor awareness among consumers for a variety of meat products, higher cost of products and inadequate cold chain facilities are the important constraints in achieving development in processed meat sector development in the country. Scope of processed meat sector development: Though the meat production is about 6.3 million tones, at present only about 2 percent of total meat is processed into products for trade. The proportion of further processed meat in developed countries is above 60 percent. A very large proportion of meat animals particularly buffaloes, sheep and goat are spent (aged) animals and whose meat is generally tough and less palatable but more suitable for processing to products both on economic and quality considerations. With the rapid growth in poultry industry availability of layer and broiler hens as culls has also increased which could be beneficially utilized for products processing to the benefit of producer and consumer. Also, it is necessary to produce quality value added meat products to meet the requirements in the post WTO period for effectively facing global competition both to check large scale imports to the detriment of domestic sector and to promote exports. Packaging and branding of meat: The main purpose of packaging is to retard or prevent the deteriorative changes and make the products available to the consumers in the most attractive form. Meat and meat products need a specialized package profile depending upon the type of processing, condition of storage and distribution. Proper packing of high value meat cuts like breast fillets, drumsticks and tenders of chicken, tenderloin of beef, chops of mutton will fetch better price. Over wraps, tray over wraps, shrink film over wraps are important packaging techniques available for packing whole dressed chicken, cut up parts, etc. Many kind of plastic films with high resistance to gases and water vapour with perfect seals and good mechanical strength are available for packing meat and meat products. Vacuum and modified atmospheric packing could be used to extend the shelf-life and minimize lipid oxidation of fresh meat and ready to eat meat products. Value added meat products: Emulsion meat products, restructured, cured and smoked, enrobed are some of categories of meat products. Development of emulsion based meat products facilitates better utilization of meat and byproducts from different spent animals. A large variety of palatable products such as sausages, patties, nuggets, kababs, meat balls, etc could be produced from the same emulsion. Emulsion technology is more relevant in Indian situation with availability of tough meat and desire to incorporate a number of spices, condiments and non meat extenders such as eggs, milk solids, potato, soya and pulses etc in the formulation with cost and nutrition advantage. The emulsion technology also help to compliment and supplement qualities and availability of different meats and their byproducts to produce value added products. Blends of mutton, chicken or chicken byproducts (fat, skin, gizzard and heart) or fish provide a variety of products with complimentary benefits of taste, texture and costs.

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Some strategies for development of processed meat sector: Appropriate quality raw materials, correct formulation, optimum processing, right packaging, storage stability, flavour and colour changes, nutritional value, labeling requirements, product specifications and regulations etc are important factors in the success of processed meat products.

a. Promotion of large number of small scale units: Simple and relevant technologies have immense potential in Indian situation for production of value added products. Large numbers of small scale units across the country are required to meet the demand for products from a large number of consumers of varying socio-economic status and ethnic preferences. However, large scale processing of meat products with automatic processing equipment would find relevance to market products in metropolitan cities and for exports.

b. Satellite processing units: Countrywide development of processed meat products sector is possible only through promotion of small scale entrepreneur activities both to produce hygienic meat and value added products. Centrally located slaughtering and primary processing modern plants with number of strategically located associated plants/centres to cover conveniently a very large proportion of consumers would be appropriate in Indian situation.

c. Periurban meat processing: As meat processing is labour intensive, the possibility of pei urban meat processing units need to be explored. It could be established by a rural entrepreneur or collectively by the farmers of a village or group of villages as the viability demands. Many a times it could be a supplementary activity for some people. Marketing of meat would be easier and costs and losses of transportation would be minimal. By-products could be gainfully utilized and effluent treatment costs would be minimal in view of land availability. Rural population would have accessibility for meat products for better nutrition, convenience and satisfaction. Rural meat processing units also enhance the employment and better utilization of local resources. Under employment is a common feature in Indian situation and complimentary utilization of such spare labour would go a long way in economizing cost of production of meat products. Deboned chicken frames, bones and other byproducts could also be given towards payment for labour in kind. Housewives could utilize their spare time in these activities beneficially. The developmental schemes available for setting up processing units from Ministry of Food processing Industries (MFPI), Department of Animal Husbandry and dairying, Ministry of Agriculture (GOI) and entrepreneur schemes from different departments of GOI, State Governments and other organizations may be utilized for enhancing financial prospects of processed meat products ventures.

d. Ready to cook semi-convenience products: Consumers want to have a satisfactory eating experience at home, but many don't necessarily have the cooking skills or time to prepare some type of marinated meat for dinner. Development in semi-convenience products and preparation of convenience products in consumer households with scope for incorporation of additional ingredients for better consumer satisfaction would be more ideal in the present situation with yet to develop consumer popularity of value added convenience

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products. Chilled or frozen minced meat, meat emulsion, marinated meat cuts, etc are some of the ready to cook value added meat products.

e. Traditional ethnic meat products: Rich heritage of Indian culinary practices could be appropriately utilized to produce a very large variety of value added products. Evaluation of rich traditional meat cooking practices to select products and processes of better promise to promote to the present day consumers with advantage.

f. Shelf stable meat products: In the absence of refrigeration, present practices result in high post-slaughter losses and possible health hazards as without refrigeration, fresh meat cannot be stored for more than 24 hours. Meat could be processed into low cost, shelf-stable products, which would also be affordable for the lower income sections of the population within these countries and this will result in a considerable improvement in the dietary conditions.

g. Health foods: Incorporation of seasonal vegetables such as cabbage, cauliflower, carrot, bottle guard, pumpkin etc in meat products not only reduce cost of meat products, but also provide fiber and flavonoids in meat products, facilitate consumption of vegetables and provide balanced and healthful diet meat products. Meat products added with vegetables may find wide popularity among health conscious consumers and elderly population. Production of organic and neutra-ceutical products would also find avenue both for domestic and export market.

h. Low cost meat products: Highly acceptable and nutritiously superior meat products at affordable cost could be prepared by incorporating a large variety of non-meat ingredients such as vegetables, eggs, milk proteins, cereal flours, gram flours, bread crumbs, milk solids, soya products etc. Availability of adequate raw materials at reasonable cost and distribution and marketing at minimum costs contribute favorably to the economics. The cost of production could be reduced by the selection of appropriate formulation, processing conditions and infrastructure facilities.

Conclusion:

Organized development of processed meat sector is important to realize full benefits from meat animal and contribute for sustained animal production. The whole area of product development and further processing is highly dynamic in terms of technical development and response to changing food purchasing habits, markets and consumer demands and expectations. In the post WTO era, where the consumers are easily accessible to array of global products, production of value added products in required quantity and quality within the country to meet the growing consumer demand is imminent. Development of formulations and appropriate processes and technologies for a range of meat products that would find acceptability in Indian situation are important for achieving growth in meat sector. Further, availability of cheaper, durable and simple meat processing machineries in the local market is a prerequisite for the development of processed meat sector. Relevant and low cost technologies for small scale production of meat products need to be developed to initiate a large number of entrepreneurs to processed meat sector.

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Lead Papers

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01. Developments in ingredient and processing systems for meat products

A. S. R. Anjaneyulu, Yogesh P. Gadekar1 and Girish Patil, S.

National Research Centre on Meat, Chengicherla, Hyderabad 1Central Sheep and Wool Research Institute, Avikanagar, Rajasthan

Introduction

Processing of meat into value added meat products helps in enhancement of nutritive value, keeping quality and in development of convenience meat products. Meat processing has traditionally been associated with addition of nonmeat ingredients for the purpose of altering the color, flavor, safety, and shelf-life characteristics, which makes these products unique in taste and quality. Today, meat products are processed to meet the consumer demands for products that have unique sensory characteristics, health benefits and convenience attributes. The meat processing industry is driven by increasing consumers demand for healthier meat products which includes enriched products with fibre and omega-3 fatty acids and reduced level of fat, cholesterol, sodium and nitrite as there is increased awareness about effect of food on human health in terms of incidences of coronary heart diseases, hypertension, and cancer. The recent trends in utilization of ingredients for development of functional and healthier meat products and processing systems are discussed.

A) Advances in ingredients for meat processing

Many of the ingredients used during processing of meat products are to improve the functional value of the meat products and to make them healthier. The conventional ingredients are replaced with suitable replacer partially or fully in meat product formulations.

1. Fat replacers

Fat contributes key sensory and physiological benefits. Reduction of fat in comminuted meat products causes rubbery and dry textured products and poses problems in terms of flavor and texture. Fat replacers consist of two groups: fat mimetics and fat substitutes. Fat mimetics imitate physical and organoleptic characteristics of triglycerides and are mainly carbohydrates and proteins in nature. These cannot replace the fat on a 1:1 basis. Advantage of fat mimetic is reduced food caloric content. Drawback is i) at high temperatures fat mimetics undergo caramelization and denaturalization; ii) they have soluble but not lipidic flavors. Whey and egg protein based fat mimetics Simplesse® , Dairylo® are used. Similarly Oatrim (Beta-TrimTM, TrimChoice) which is derived from oat can be used for reduction in fat content of meat products.

Fat substitutes resemble triglycerides and can be used as fat substitutes in a 1:1 proportion. Animal fat substitutes made from vegetal oils are of two types: liquids and plastics. Liquid fats are basically vegetable oils and have a positive impact on nutritional aspects in the form of reduced cholesterol content and improved PUFA/SFA and n-6/n–3 ratios. Plastic fats are obtained by chemically and enzymatically altering some oils. Partial

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hydrogenation and interesterification are used to modify oils in an attempt to simulate the consistency and melting point of animal fat. Interesterification is beneficial because it does not caucse saturation of the fatty acids and does not form trans fatty acids. Olestra (Olean®), Saltrim, Caprenin are commercially available as fat substitutes for meat products

2. Dietary fibre

Dietary fiber is the edible part of plants and analogous carbohydrates which are non- digestible in human small intestine with positive health benefits. Varieties of fibers from different sources have been used in meat products to reduce cook loss due to their water and fat binding properties and to improve texture. Oat fiber imparts flavour, texture, mouth feel and increases yield of meat products. Various dietary fibre sources like sorghum, wheat fibre, carrot, sugarbeet, citrus (lemon) fibre extract can be used for development of functional meat products. Various dietary fibre sources like pea hull flour, gram hull flour, apple pulp and bottle gourd in different combinations at 10% level were used in developing healthier chicken nuggets by Verma et al. (2009). Fructooligosaccharides (FOS) are non-digestible which can be used as dietary fibres. The production of low calorie meat products is possible using inulin (Raftiline®, Fruitafit®, Fibruline®). Chitosan obtained from exoskeleton of crustaceans has characteristics of a dietary fiber.

3. Salt replacers

In meat processing, sodium chloride (NaCl) is vital ingredient due to its beneficial effect in improvement of functional properties of meat and preservative effect. For health reasons the NaCl content of processed meat products should be reduced. Potential sodium chloride reduction depends on the type of the product, its composition, the type of processing required and the preparation conditions. Simple reduction of common salt has negative effects on sensory and textural attributes of the product. Sodium reduced product can be developed with various combinations of sodium chloride, potassium chloride, and calcium chloride having flavor and texture scores similar to control. Enzyme transglutaminase with caseinate, KCl, or dietary fiber can be used for improving water and fat-binding properties. Potassium salt of phosphates can be used in reducing sodium content of cooked meat products. Use of calcium ascorbate, besides its antioxidant property also enriches calcium content of meat products and reduces sodium content. Combination of sodium citrate, corboxy methyl cellulose, and carrageenan decreases frying loss and increases saltiness in low salt product. A blend consisting of potassium chloride, tartaric acid, citric acid, and sucrose as salt substitutes is suitable for replacement of 40% sodium chloride.

4. Fatty acid profiles modifiers

The increasing demand by consumers for healthier products is stimulating the development of meat products with reduced fat contents and altered fatty acid profiles. Omega-3 fatty acids have health benefits. Fish and other seafoods are primary source for long chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA). Major sources of alpha-linolenic acid

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(ALA) are seeds and oils of flaxseed, soybean and canola. Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) is a group of geometric and positional isomers of linoleic acid. CLA is important for healthful living. Naturally occurring CLA originates mainly from bacterial isomerisation or/and biohydrogenation of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) in the rumen. Use of functional ingredients like linseed as a source of linolenic acid, an omega-3 fatty acid, fish oil as a source of omega-3 fatty acids, or the addition of vegetable oils during processing will also augment CLA content in meat products.

5. Antioxidants

Lipid oxidation is one of the major causes of deterioration in the quality of meat and meat products. The use of natural preservatives for augmenting shelf life of meat products is a promising technology as many substances from plants and vegetables have antioxidant and antimicrobial properties which can be utilized in processing of meat products. Comparisons of the antioxidant potential of naturally occurring plant extracts or animal products, such as aloevera, fenugreek, ginseng, mustard, rosemary, sage, soya protein, tea catechins, and whey protein concentrate, have been shown to be effective antioxidants when incorporated into meat products. Chitosan is also suitable for meat product as an antioxidant. Inclusion of dried plum puree was effective as a natural antioxidant for suppressing lipid oxidation in precooked pork sausage patties. The addition of tomato peel to enrich lycopene content in dry-fermented sausages has been attempted. Use of carnosine improves shelf life of the cooked meat products by delaying lipid oxidation. Sodium ascorbate and alpha-tocopherol acetate are being used to minimize the lipid oxidation in meat products.

6. Enzymes in meat processing

The enzymes from microbial, plant and animal sources may be used to modify texture of meats and meat products. Protein degrading enzymes (papain, bromelin, ficin) have been well known as tenderizer. However some other enzymes have been discovered and successfully utilized.

Cross linking enzymes for structure engineering

Enzyme Reaction Cross link Application

Transglutaminase, acyltransferase

Formation of an isopeptide bond

Protein bound glutamine-lysine

Production of restructured meat

Increased firmness of heated products

Tyrosinase, non radical forming oxidase

Oxidation of tyrosine residues

Tyrosine-tyrosine

Tyrosine-lysine

Tyrosine-cystine

Increased gelation of meat proteins, increased firmness of meat gels

Laccase, radical forming oxidase

Oxidation of tyrosine

Tyrosine-tyrosine Firmness improvement of meat gels

(Lantto et al., 2010)

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The salt-fermented shrimp sauce from southern rough shrimp (Trachypena curvirostris) can be used as tenderizer. Plant proteases from kiwifruit (actinidin, a cysteine protease) exhibit mild tenderizing effects and have other potential beneficial effects on lipid oxidation and colour stability of lamb meat. The potential of an asparagus enzyme extract in a meat tenderizing application as well as the hydrolytic activity of proteases from kiwifruit toward myofibrillar and connective tissue proteins have been reported. Enzymes used in generation of meaty flavour

Pronase E and fungal extract (Penicillium aurantiogriseum ) are suitable for improved flavor and texture characteristics sausages. Combination of Lactococcus lactis Subs. Cremoris NCDO 763 and alpha-ketoglutarate improves contents of volatile compounds responsible for ripened flavor and sensory quality. Fungal protease Epg222 can be used for increased aroma intensity and reduction in hardness sausages. Cell-free extract from Lactobacillus sakei and Debaromyces hansenii with aminopeptidase and proteinase activities promotes generation of volatile flavor components.

7. Nitrite substitute

The consumer demand for nitrite free/reduced meat products is compelling meat industry to search for alternative methods to produce nitrite free/reduced meats that maintain the color characteristics of nitrite cured meat products. The ‘‘uncured’’ natural and organic versions of typical cured meats are becoming popular in market. Use of nitrate-reducing starter culture (Staphylococcus carnosus ssp. utilis) and addition of a spice mixture, nitrite rich vegetables (celery and spinach), for producing similar color, color retention and acceptable flavor developments in meat products is possible. Chinese red broken rice powder from Monascus purpureus can be used as a substitute for nitrite. In uncured meat products, zinc protoporphyrin IX (ZPP) is formed by endogenous enzymes (protoporphyrin IX) and this gives characteristic cured meat color have been reported. Annatto (Bixa orellana L.) powder may be used for partial replacement of nitrite in sausages without affecting microbial or sensory attributes of the product (Zarringhalami et al., 2009).

8. Texture modifiers

The neutral, linear polysaccharide curdlan is produced by Alcaligenes faecalis var. myxogenes. Curdlan is approved for food uses in the United States. It can form a low-set thermo-reversible gel when heated between ~55°C and 80°C or a high-set, triple helix, and thermo-irreversible gel when heated above ~80°C and then cooled. The curdlan is used as a texture modifier in processed meats such as pork, fried battered chicken, hamburger patties, and meatballs to yield juicier and softer products (Hsu and Chung, 2000).

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B) Advances in processing: i. Retort Pouch Processing

In tropical countries, frequent fluctuations in electricity poses major obstacle in preservation of perishable meat products. The alternative strategy like retorting can be used to make them shelf stable. Retorting is a method of preserving food by heating it in hermetically sealed containers to improve keeping quality at ambient storage. The filled products in the pouch are heat sealed and sterilized by steam cooking in a retort to yield commercially sterile foods. As a result the retort pouch processed foods are microbiologically safe. Retort-processed products offer convenience.

Thermal processing paved the way for developing shelf stable, ready to eat (RTE)

meat products. The popularity of RTE meat products is increasing among the consumers due to changing socio-economic pattern of life. Retort flexible packaging reduces the processing time up to 50% compared to metal cans and cylindrical containers. The other benefits include less space for storage, shipping costs and easy disposable of the used pouches. In Europe and Asia retort flexible packaging has already reached a significant share among the thermally processed foods. The retort pouch processing for chicken products have potential as traditional Indian curries, soups, briyani, keema etc that require appropriate processing to ensure safety and longer shelf life for distribution and marketing. The shelf life of thermally processed meat products varies between 6 to 12 months based on the processing conditions such as the kind of products, the type of laminates used, the Fo achieved etc. The retort-pouched foods processed in India that have already reached American markets especially Hawaii markets should be an inspiration to Indian food processors. The National Research Centre on Meat, Hyderabad is developing different meat and chicken products in retort pouches which include traditional meat products, sausages and nuggets etc.

ii. Hurdle technology

Substances or processes that inhibit deteriorative changes in foods are referred as hurdles. Hurdle technology is used for the gentle but effective preservation of foods. Since ancient time hurdle technology was used unknowingly for preservation of traditional foods. With better understanding of principles of major preservative factors for foods like temperature, pH, water activity, oxidation-reduction potential (Eh), competitive flora, and their interactions, smart application of hurdle technology became more widespread. Recently, the influence of food preservation methods on the physiology and behaviour of microorganisms in foods, i.e. their homeostasis, metabolic exhaustion, stress reactions, are taken into account, and the novel concept of multi-target food preservation emerged.

iii. High pressure processing

Currently, high pressure processing (HPP) is used by the meat industry as a post-processing technology to extend shelf life and improve the safety of ready to eat meat

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products. Partial replacement of additives such as NaCl and polyphosphates is possible using high pressure processing, since it has a similar effect on myofibrillar proteins as the additives. Studies have reported that with the application of high pressure up to 400 MPa there is increase in myofibrillar protein solubility and improvement in water retention of cooked products and textural properties of low-salt beef sausage batters. High pressure processing (HPP) can be used to produce healthier meat products.

iv. Packaging

Packaging is crucial for maintenance of quality and protect against damage and microbial contamination. Appropriate method should be chosen according to the type of the product.

Vacuum packaging: The air inside the package is evacuated in order to reduce the amount of oxygen in contact with the product. The CO2 concentration increases which lower microbial growth and slows down deteriorative processes.

Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP): The composition of the air inside package is modified.

Masterpack system: In this system 4-8 air-permeable overwrapped packages are placed in a large pouch (masterpack or motherbag) that is impermeable to oxygen and moisture. Air is evacuated from the masterpack and then back-flushed with the desired gas mixture. Typical gas mixtures range from 100 % to 80 % carbon dioxide with nitrogen used as the remaining gas. The presence of CO2 inhibits the growth of bacteria and therefore extends shelf-life.

Active packaging: This involves incorporation of additives into packaging systems for maintaining or extending product quality and shelf-life. The additives are oxygen scavengers, carbon dioxide scavengers and emitters, moisture control agents and antimicrobial packaging technologies.

Intelligent packaging: It monitors the condition of packaged foods and gives information about quality of the packaged food. Various kinds of sensor technologies, indicators (including integrity, freshness and time-temperature (TTI) indicators) and radio frequency identification (RFID) are used.

v. Warming treatment

The process is also known as “Aging” or “Reddening” of processed meat. Warming treatment is performed on meat products in Japan as well as in Germany, the Czech Republic and other European countries. In this treatment, the meat is warmed to a medium temperature (40–50°C) after curing, then dried and smoked. Through this process, color, flavor and rheological properties of meat products are known to improve.

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vi. Softer meat products for the elderly

For elderly persons, soft foods which can be easily chewed are desirable. In Japan, Hanpen is a Japanese traditional fish meatball with a soft texture to facilitate chewing for elder people. On this basis, meat Hanpen, soft textured and easily chewable meat product was reported by Tanabe and Yano (2006). These are prepared by steam cooking to ensure a soft texture. Kuroda et al. (2009) evaluated soft meat loaf, prepared from beef, pork (1.5:1), egg and onion. Olive oil, starch, salt, ginger extract and gelatin were added to improve the flavor and texture of this product. The newly developed product was considered to be smooth and quite soft due to gelatin and filtration when compared to ordinary soft sausage.

vii. Tenderization of natural casing

Natural casings are preferable to the artificial type due to superior smoke permeability and elasticity. However, casing quality may be compromised by factors such as animal age, as a result of which, strength and elasticity of casing may diminish. Efforts for tenderization of casings are in progress. Currently, natural casings are treated by enzymes and/or organic acids (lactic acid, acetic acid and citric acid) and/or trisodium phosphate. For tenderization of casings at low cost on larger scale suitable method is essential. High pressure in conjunction with organic acid treatment has shown to significantly tenderize tough Chinese hog casing. High pressure effectively rendered casings uniformly tender (Nishiumi et al., 2009).

viii. Enrobing/Coating

Enrobing/coating is often used to add flavour, seal the product so that moisture and juiciness are retained during cooking and improve product appearance. Currently there is demand for low fat products. Coating mixes have been developed to coat meat products that can be cooked in conventional ovens to simulate fried foods, but without the added fat (Fletcher, 2004). Reduction in fat content of the enrobed spent hen meat patties by use of corn flour, sodium alginate and carboxy-methyl cellulose in coating mix have been reported.

C. Advances in Storage and Processing System

Deep chilling, super chilling or partial freezing are terms used to describe the process of cooling a product to one or two degrees below its freezing point followed by storage at (0-10C). This forms uniform smaller ice crystals on the surface of meat which insulates the product from minor temperature changes during storage. It is efficient in maintaining the freshness of meat for longer period without adversely affecting the quality attributes than that of traditional chilling (40C). This process can be adopted for significantly enhancing the shelf life of products for efficient marketing to fetch premium prices than frozen products in addition savings on energy.

We must aim at simple and relevant technologies and equipments to result in process

efficiency for achieving lower production costs and higher yields, product diversification, by-products utilization, improving shelf life, developing quality control and management

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systems. Product diversification is necessary to minimize imports to the detriment of domestic industry. Processing technology should also focus on global competitiveness, energy conservation and socio-economical friendliness. Organized processing under the supervision of professionals can ensure the right kind of product delivery to the consumers with safety and at affordable price.

In addition to the advances in ingredient systems that may be used to manufacture

novel meat products, new processing approaches for the industrial manufacturing of meat products are being developed. Suitable processing systems are required for uniform and safe meat products. Recently some developments in meat processing equipments- vacuum fillers, meat grinders, meat homogenizers, slicers etc have been reported (Weiss et al., 2010). Conclusions

There is vast scope for processing industry for innovation in meat products. Production of meat products of consumers’ choice with contemporary processing techniques and adequate quality control may find their entry into national and global markets and fetch higher returns. There is challenge for the processing industry to choose appropriate ingredients having lower cost or no detrimental effect on health, improvement keeping quality. . Enormous work has been carried out for developing healthier meat products. It is expected cost-effective healthier meat products that are nicely adapted by consumers.

(References can be collected from authors)

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02. Food safety and standards act and its impact on meat food safety

V. Sudershan Rao

National Institute of Nutrition, ICMR, Hyderabad

It is almost six decades since the first food regulation was made in independent India. Tremendous progress made in agriculture, food processing and changing food habits in population coupled with long pending demand from the stakeholders for an integrated food law as well as the obligations under WTO have necessitated the birth of New Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006 and Rules 2011. The new act is in operation from August, 2011 This regulation integrates provisions from different rules, acts and orders, which were being administered by different ministries . The salient features of this act are: (1) Multilevel, multi-departmental control to integrated line of command; (2) Integrated response to strategic issues like novel/genetically modified foods and international trade; (3) Powers to licensing for manufacture of foods to the Commissioner of Food Safety and designated officers; (4) Single reference point for all matters relating to food safety and standards and regulation and enforcement; (5) Regulatory regime to self-compliance through Food Safety Management Systems; (6) Graded penalties depending on the gravity of offence.

The major emphasis of the new act is an integrated approach to food safety. It is now well recognized that foodborne diseases due to microbiological contamination of food and water is major public health problem. In India, since there is no food borne disease surveillance system, it has been very difficult to estimate the extent of the problem. However, studies show that about 20% of deaths among children (<5 years of age) are due to diarrhoea, which is caused essentially due to consumption of contaminated food/water. A study conducted by NIN in 2006 indicated that in 13.2% of households surveyed in India, at least one person has suffered food borne illness during a fortnight that preceded the survey. Meat is high risk commodity for foodborne pathogens. Studies carried out in various places in India and elsewhere have shown that food pathogens are often present in fresh meat and poultry. The health status of food animals can potentially influence food borne pathogen levels in three ways. First, diseased animals may shed higher levels of food borne pathogens. Second, animals that require further handling in the processing plant to remove affected parts may lead to increased microbial contamination and cross-contamination. Finally, certain animal illnesses may lead to a higher probability of mistakes in the processing plant, such as gastrointestinal ruptures, which would lead to increased microbial contamination and cross-contamination. Though traditional methods of cooking in India may eliminate many of these risks, but the cross contamination due to various reasons like not following Good Hygienic Practices including Personal Hygiene could make food unsafe. The new act addresses these issues by introducing the concepts like Good Manufacturing Practice, Good Hygiene Practice, Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point(HACCP) and Food Safety Management Systems.

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The Meat Food Products Order , 1973 which was under Ministry of Agriculture (Department of Agriculture) Government of India, was applicable only for value added Meat products but not to the dressed or fresh meats. It does not apply to street side slaughtered small animals like poultry or sheep or goat etc. The new food safety act envisages a different type of approach than the Meat Food Products Order for ensuring the food safety. For the purpose of implementation of this act , depending upon the scale of business of processing and selling the food there are three types of provisions have been made. For petty food manufacturer ie

a. Manufactures or sells any article of food himself or a petty retailer, hawker, itinerant vendor or temporary stall holder;

or

b. Such other food businesses including small scale or cottage or such other industries relating to food business or tiny food businesses with an annual turnover not exceeding Rs 12 lakhs

or who is slaughtering not more than 2 large animals or 10 small animals or 50 poultry has to register themselves with the registration authority and other two provisions are obtaining license either from State or Central Licensing authority depending upon the scale of operation. By bringing the petty food business manufacturer/processor into the realm of the new act, the short comings of earlier order have been addressed.

The act in the chapter 3 schedule IV, Part I proposes essential measures that need to be followed even by the petty food manufacturer or operator for ensuring the food safety. The measures include from Location to type of construction, ceiling, flooring, water facilities, machinery , utensils to be used, waste disposal , pest control and personal hygiene of the food handlers etc(Annexure I).

More specific hygienic and sanitary practices to be followed by food business operator dealing with meat and meat products are given in Chapter 3 Part IV of schedule IV (Annexure II).

The implementation of this act started very recently, it is too early to expect any change on meat food safety, but certainly it will have salutary effect in long run. Food safety authorities at state and Central level are organizing number of awareness programmes various stake holders about the requirements of new food safety act. There is a need for educating the food business operators about the importance of practicing Good Manufacturing Practices, Good Hygienic Practices, Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point in ensuring food safety, more so in high risk food for microbiological contamination like meat.

Details of Food Safety Standards Act, 2006 related to meat Industry can be downloaded from Food Safety & Standards Authority Website website (www.fssai.gov.in/).

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3.0 Optimizing shelf life of meat and meat products using innovative packaging solutions

B. D. Sharma and R. R. Kumar

Division of LPT, Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Bareilly

Introduction

Packaging is the scientific method of containing food products against physical damage, chemical changes and further microbial contamination and to display the product in the most attractive manner for consumer preference.It can be described as a coordinated system of preparing goods for transport, warehousing, logistics, sale and end use. Packaging contains, protects, preserves, transports, informs, and sells. In many countries it is fully integrated into government, institutional, industrial, business and personal use. Packaging fresh meat is carried out to avoid contamination, delay spoilage, permit some enzymatic activity to improve tenderness, reduce weight loss and where applicable, to ensure an oxymyoglobin or cherry-red colour in red meats at retail or customer level. When considering processed meat products, factors such as dehydration, lipid oxidation, discoloration and loss of aroma must be taken into account. Traditional food packaging was meant for mechanical supporting of otherwise non-solid food and protecting food from external influences. The shelf life of packaged food depends on both the intrinsic nature of food and extrinsic factors. Intrinsic factors include pH, water activity (aw), nutrient content, presence of antimicrobial compounds, redox potential, respiratory rate, and the biological structure, whereas extrinsic factors include storage temperature, relative humidity, and the surrounding gas composition .

Vacuum packaging maintains the product in an oxygen deficient environment to achieve its preservative effect. It has the inherent disadvantage of keeping the meat in mechanical strain which may increase drip loss. An alternative to vacuum packaging, with added cost, is modified atmosphere packaging wherein meat and meat products are stored under various gaseous atmospheres to achieve enhanced shelf life. Active packaging is the deliberate incorporation of certain additives into packaging systems (whether loose within the pack, attached to the inside of packaging material or incorporated within the packaging material itself) with the aim of maintaining or enhancing product quality and shelf-life. Principal active packaging systems involve oxygen scavenging, moisture absorption, carbon dioxide and finally antimicrobial systems. These concepts are successfully utilized in the US and Japan but have seen only limited development in Europe. This could be due to legal restrictions, lack of knowledge about both the acceptability of these systems to consumers and their effectiveness in packaging or to their economic and environmental impact. Consumers now look forward to labeling with shelf life dating on the food itself as an assurance of quality, nutrition and safety. Intelligent packaging (sometimes described as smart packaging) is packaging that in some way senses some properties of the food it encloses or indicate history of the environment in which it is kept and is able to inform the

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manufacturer, retailer and consumer of the state of these properties. Although distinctly different from the concept of active packaging, features of intelligent packaging can be used to check the effectiveness and integrity of active packaging systems.

Vacuum Packaging

Vacuum packaging of meat is meant to retard or completely check the oxidative reactions and inhibit the microbial growth by eliminating oxygen. It is widely used to extend the storage life of fresh chilled meats by maintaining an oxygen deficient environment within the pack. The air within the package must be evacuated effectively to almost anoxic levels (less than 500ppm) to prevent irreversible browning due to low levels of residual oxygen. The exclusion of oxygen from the meat surface as soon as possible, after the breaking of the carcass into primal and subprimal cuts, retains the potential to re-oxygenate meat following retail pack display . The application of a vacuum to 0.8 to 0.9 atmospheres is generally sufficient to produce satisfactory vacuum , so that most potent pathogenic aerobic bacterial growth is inhibited. The oxygen level should be less than 1 per cent and carbon dioxide less than10 per cent in vacuum packaged meat. Lactobacillus and Brochothrix thermospecta are the dominant bacteria in vacuum packaged meat. However, vacuum packaged meat having pH below 5.8 overcomes the danger of Brochothrix thermospecta. This is due to the longer lag phase of this bacterium in comparison to competitive bacteria and also due to its sensitivity to low pH and temperature.

Vacuum packages for meat are four basic types. The first one involves use of heat shrinking flexible packaging material around the primal cuts. When exposed to heat it shrinks and increases film thickness, improves mechanical resistance and reduces the drip loss. The second type involves use of preformed plastic bags/pouches made up of polyamide (PA) as the outer layer, while the inner core is polyethylene (PE). Polyamide provides barrier properties and physical strength while polyethylene provides sealing properties. The third type involves use of thermoform trays in line from a base web. Here the product is placed into the tray and then a film web is allowed to cover the tray from a second reel of film followed by pack evacuation and vacuum sealing. The fourth one is called vacuum skin packaging, in which meat is placed in a rigid pre-formed tray or on the flat surface of a flexible base material followed by heat softening, evacuation and vacuum shrink sealing. This technique is recommended for long term storage of primal and sub primal cuts of buffalo meat. It ensures a shelf life of 8-10 weeks at 00C. Vacuum packaging of lamb and pork is avoided for different reasons. Lamb may have a shelf life of 3 weeks only because of comparatively high pH. However, lambs with ultimate pH less than 5.8 can be vacuum packaged for shipment to distant destinations. Pork starts with a large load of bacteria and pork cuts are reported to have a shelf life of 2 weeks only at 1°C.

Vacuum shrink packaging in cryovac barrier bags may provide a means of storage and transport of frozen carcasses, sides or quarters to overseas destinations. A suitable film

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for vacuum packaging must have a good mechanical strength and barrier properties, besides making perfect seals Vacuum packaging is done either in laminates or co-extruded films.

Some of the typical laminates in use are:

Aluminium foil/Polyethylene

Polyamide/Polyethylene

PVDC copolymer film

Polyester / Polyethylene

PVDC/ Polyester / Polyethylene

Copolymer coated cellulose/PE film

Nylon/EVA

Vacuum packaging is recommended for long term storage of dressed whole or halved poultry because it ensures a shelf life of 5-6 weeks at 2°C. Vacuum packaging reduces the volume of air sealed with meat. The residual oxygen, if any, is quickly consumed by meat. Thus, vacuum packaging provides a good avenue for keeping the product at a better level of quality. The advantages of vacuum packaging can be enumerated as follows;

1. There is saving of space and energy during storage, transport and distribution.

2. There is no loss in weight.

3. The natural flavour of the product is preserved.

4. The product has better keeping quality.

5. The display of the product is better which help in better marketing and fetching better price

Vacuum packaged product is stored in a refrigerator at 0-2°C. Storage of chilled meat in gas impermeable packs restricts the growth of Pseudomonas sp., thus extending the shelf life of meat. The most common bacteria on stored vacuum packaged poultry meat are the lactic acid bacteria mainly Lactobacillus sp. However, a puncture or slit or loose seal in vacuum pack may result in blue or green discolouration. Interestingly, vacuum packaged buffalo meat has been found to have the lower fibre diameter and higher sarcomere length. Thus, vacuum appears to enhance ageing of meat resulting in comparatively tender meat

Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP)

Modified atmosphere packaging is an important preservation method for fresh and minimally processed foods. MAP encloses food products in high gas barrier materials, where

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gas environment has been changed once to slow the respiration rate, reduce microbiological growth and retard enzyme spoilage with the final aim of prolonging the shelf life. It is also referred as controlled atmosphere packaging with certain conditions. In controlled atmosphere packaging (CAP) system, the package atmosphere is altered initially and then maintained during the entire period of storage. These techniques are used for a wide range of shelf stable and ready-to-eat chilled foods.

Modified atmosphere combined with low temperature delays the deleterious effects and maintains quality of chilled stored meat for extended periods. The atmosphere inside the package is modified in such a way to extend the shelf life of meat while retaining its colour, flavour and weight. The package air can be suitably replaced by gases usually nitrogen, oxygen or carbon dioxide alone or in combination.

Different meats have varying modified atmosphere requirements. In red meats, oxygen maintains the much desired bright red pigment-oxymyoglobin associated with freshness while carbon dioxide inhibits the growth of meat borne micro-organisms. The most commonly used gas mixture for fresh red meat is high oxygen which is minimum 60-70% and 30-40% carbon dioxide. Buffalo meat and beef need high oxygen content to maintain a bright red colour. Pork needs less oxygen due to high fat content. Nitrogen serves as an inert filler to balance a gas mixture. However, its use increases the cost of packaging. .

Carbon monoxide is used in very low concentration and gives cherry red colour. The sulphur dioxide has inhibitory effect on bacteria in acidic pH and is used in fermented meat products. Argon, an inert noble gas has some antimicrobial activity and is also sometimes utilized in vacuum packaging of meat and meat products. High standards of hygiene and temperature controls are essential prerequisites for the quality and safety of MAP packed meat and meat products. A gaseous atmosphere of 99% carbon dioxide/1% carbon monoxide was found to be best for preserving the desirable pork loin. Pork loins in such MAP obtained the highest consumer acceptance scores after 24 h of storage. Chops from high pH carcasses had comparatively higher color scores and aerobic plate counts and less discoloration. Overall pH was the best indicator of color and microbiological stability.

In general, the ideal MAP gas mix. for various meat and meat products can be summarized as follows:

Raw red meat 70% O2, 20%CO2, 10% N2

Raw pork 80% CO2, 20% N2 or even 100% CO2

Raw dressed poultry 40%CO2, 60% N2 or 50% CO2, 50 % N2

MDPM 20-30% CO2, 0-10% O2, 70-75% N2

Cured meats 10-15% CO2, 85-90 %N2

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Raw offal 80% O2 , 20%CO2

Combination products 3o% CO2 ,70%N2

Active Packaging

Active packaging has been defined as packaging, which changes the condition of the packaged food to extend shelf-life or to improve safety or sensory properties, while maintaining the quality of packaged food. Packaging may be termed as active when it performs some desired role in food preservation other than providing an inert barrier to external conditions. The development of a whole range of active packaging systems, some of which may have applications in both new and existing food products, is fairly new. Active packaging includes additives or freshness enhancers that can participate in a host of packaging applications and by so doing, enhance the preservation function of the primary packaging system. Active packaging is one of the innovative food packaging concepts that have been introduced as a response to the continuous changes in current consumer demands and market trends. Major active packaging techniques are concerned with substances that absorb oxygen, moisture, carbon dioxide, flavours/odours and those which release carbon dioxide, ethylene antimicrobial agents, antioxidants and flavours.

1. Oxygen scavengers

High levels of oxygen present in food packages may facilitate microbial growth, off flavours and off odours development, colour changes and nutritional losses, thereby causing significant reduction in the shelf life of foods. Although oxygen sensitive foods can be packaged under MAP or vacuum conditions, such techniques do not always facilitate the complete removal of oxygen. Therefore, control of oxygen levels in food packages is important to limit the rate of such deteriorative and spoilage reactions in foods.

Oxygen absorbing systems provide an alternative to vacuum and gas flushing technologies as a means of improving product quality and shelf life. Using an oxygen scavenger, which absorbs the residual oxygen after packaging, quality changes in oxygen sensitive foods can often be minimized. Oxygen absorbers can also be a complement of vacuum packaging to avoid photo-oxidation phenomena, in particular for sliced delicatessen products. Indeed, presentations in small packages with a transparent cover to show the food product are more and more appreciated. However, if oxygen traces are still present when the package is put on the shelf, the photo-oxidation phenomena start to take effect, leading to a rapid discoloration of the meat. Existing oxygen scavenging technologies utilise one or more of the following concepts: iron powder oxidation, ascorbic acid oxidation, photosensitive dye oxidation, enzymatic oxidation (e.g. glucose oxidase and alcohol oxidase), and unsaturated fatty acids (e.g. oleic or linolenic acid) rice extract or immobilized yeast on a solid substrate. Structurally, the oxygen scavenging component of a package can take the form of a sachet, label, film (incorporation of scavenging agent into the packaging film), card, closure liner or concentrate. Ageless® (Mitsubishi Gas Chemical Co., Japan) is the most common oxygen

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scavenging system based on iron oxidation. The sachets are designed to reduce oxygen levels to less than 1%. Iron based oxygen scavenger along with catalysts have been successfully used in sliced, cooked and cured meats.

2. Carbon dioxide scavengers and emitters

The function of carbon dioxide within a packaging environment is to suppress microbial growth. Therefore, a carbon dioxide generating system can be viewed as a technique complimentary to oxygen scavenging. Since the permeability of carbon dioxide is 3–5 times higher than that of oxygen in most plastic films, it must be continuously produced to maintain the desired concentration within the package. High carbon dioxide levels (10–80%) are desirable for foods such as meat and poultry in order to inhibit surface microbial growth and extend shelf life. The advantages of carbon dioxide are that it acts on all the food inside the packaging and does not require contact between the food and package, whereas the disadvantage is that it changes the color of meat.

CO2 may be used in conjunction with oxygen scavengers to maintain an atmosphere that is favorable for the preservation of certain products. In the case of fishery products, fresh and processed meats, cheeses, and baked goods, a high concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere of the package is advantageous because it maintains the organoleptic properties of the products and exerts a bacteriostatic effect. Collapse of the package or development of a partial vacuum may also be a problem for food packed with oxygen absorbers. To overcome this problem, the dual action of oxygen absorber/emitter of carbon dioxide absorbs oxygen and generates an equivalent volume of carbon dioxide. Ageless® G and FreshPax exert dual effects as they have the ability to absorb oxygen and emit carbon dioxide. Freshilizer® is another CO2-releasing product used to extend the shelf-life of fresh meat. This innovative package consists of a tray with a perforated false bottom in which a porous sachet containing sodium bicarbonate/ascorbate is deposited. When exudates from meat come in contact with the sachet, it releases carbon dioxide, so that the carbon dioxide absorbed by the meat is replaced continuously. Carbon dioxide absorbers (sachets), consisting of either calcium hydroxide and sodium hydroxide, or potassium hydroxide, calcium oxide and silica gel, may be used to remove carbon dioxide during storage in order to prevent bursting of the package. Food applications include their use in packs of fresh meat, dehydrated poultry products and beef jerky.

3. Moisture absorbers

The main purpose of liquid water control is to lower the water activity of the product, thereby suppressing microbial growth. Several companies manufacture drip absorbent sheets or pads such as Cryovac®Dri-Loc®(Sealed Air Corporation, USA), Thermarite® or Peaksorb®(Australia), Toppane (Japan) and Fresh-R-Paxe (Maxwell Chase Technologies, LLC, USA) for liquid control in high water activity foods such as meat and poultry. These systems consist of a super absorbent polymer located between two layers of a micro-porous

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or non-woven polymer like polyvinyl acetate blanket. Such sheets are used as drip-absorbing pads placed under whole chickens or chicken cuts.

4. Chlorine dioxide generators

Chlorine dioxide can exist in gaseous, liquid or solid state. Its efficiency against bacteria, fungi and viruses can be delivered from a solid state, called Microspheres (Bernard Technologies, USA), through the interaction of moisture to produce a controlled and sustained release of chlorine dioxide in gaseous form. According to the company, no residue is left, nor is the food product contained in the packaging tainted in any way. Sustained and controlled release of chlorine dioxide is related to exposure to humidity greater than 80% and light. The result is a high activity against a broad spectrum of microorganisms including actively growing vegetative cells and spores. Microsphere powder can be delivered from sachets previously incorporated in the packaging. The sustained and controlled release of chlorine dioxide from the Microspheres can be varied from peak delivery of 1 ppm–100 ppm for periods of days to 6 weeks. Applications for this technology are just beginning to unfold in the food industry to reduce food safety risks for meat, poultry, fish and dairy products.

5. Preservative releasers/Antimicrobial packaging

Microbial contamination and subsequent growth reduces the shelf life of foods and increases the risk of food borne illness. Traditional methods of preserving foods from the effect of microbial growth include thermal processing, drying, freezing, refrigeration, irradiation, MAP and addition of antimicrobial agents or salts. However, some of these techniques cannot be applied to food products such as fresh meats. Antimicrobial packaging is a promising form of active packaging especially for meat products. Incorporation of bactericidal agents into meat formulations may result in partial inactivation of the active compounds by meat constituents and therefore exert a limited effect on surface microflora. Antimicrobial food packaging materials have to extend the lag phase and reduce the growth phase of microorganisms in order to extend shelf life and to maintain product quality and safety.

The classes of antimicrobials listed range from acid anhydride, alcohol, bacteriocins, chelators, enzymes, organic acids and polysaccharides. Antimicrobial packages have had relatively few commercial successes except in Japan where Ag-substituted zeolite is the most common antimicrobial agent incorporated into plastics. Ag-ions inhibit a range of metabolic enzymes and have strong antimicrobial activity. Antimicrobial films can be classified into two types: those that contain an antimicrobial agent which migrates to the surface of the food and, those which are effective against surface growth of microorganisms without migration. Besides these flavour/odour absorbers like cellulose triacetate, citric acid, activated carbon etc have applications in poultry and fish.

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Intelligent Packaging

Intelligent packaging systems are those that contain an external or internal indicator or sensor to provide information regarding aspects of history of package and/or quality of packaged food. Intelligent packaging has been defined as packaging systems which monitor the condition of packaged foods to give information about the quality of the packaged food during transport and storage. Smart packaging devices, which may be an integral component or inherent property of a foodstuff’s packaging, can be used to monitor a plethora of food pack attributes. It refers to packaging that senses and signals or informs. The headspace of food packages undergoes changes in their composition over time. Devices capable for identifying, quantifying, and/or reporting changes in the atmosphere within the package, the temperatures during transfer and storage and the microbiological quality of food provide valuable information both to the final consumer and producer and/or marketer about the effectiveness of the conservation strategies used in the marketing chain.

Basically, there are two types of intelligent packaging: one based on measuring the condition of the package on the outside, the other measuring directly the quality of the food product, i.e. inside the packaging. In the latter case, there is direct contact with the food or with the headspace and there is always the need for a marker indicative of the quality and/or safety of the packed food. Examples include time–temperature indicators (TTI), gas leakage indicators, ripeness indicators, toxin indicators, biosensors, and radio frequency identification. Although distinctly different from the concept of active packaging, features of intelligent packaging can be used to check the effectiveness and integrity of active packaging systems.

1. Indicators

A. Time-Temperature Indicators

The best-before date printed on food packaging is only an indicative value and does not take into account possible fluctuations in temperature that food may suffer during storage. The best-before date must therefore be within the shelf-life of the food to ensure that food is safe to consume. They fall into two types: visual indicators or radio frequency identification (RFID) tags. The basic idea underlying visual indicators is that the quality of food deteriorates more rapidly at higher temperatures because chemical reactions, biochemical reactions, and microbial growth are speeded up. The indicators change color in response to cumulative exposure to temperature to point at probable loss of shelf life. The main mechanisms of action include enzymatic reactions, polymerization, or chemical diffusion. These products are used to monitor exposure to unsuitable temperatures during transport and storage and are an indication of quality for the producer because they ensure that the product reaches the consumer in optimal conditions. It is important that the indication is irreversible.

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B. Freshness indicators

The information provided by intelligent packaging systems on the quality of meat products may be either indirect (i.e. changes in packaging oxygen concentration may imply quality deterioration through established correlation) or direct. Freshness indicators provide direct product quality information resulting from microbial growth or chemical changes within a food product. Microbiological quality may be determined through reactions between indicators included within the package and microbial growth metabolites. The chemical detection of spoilage of foods and the chemical changes in meat during storage provide the basis for which freshness indicators may be developed based on target metabolites associated with microbiologically induced deterioration.

Changes in the concentration of organic acids such as n-butyrate, L-lactic acid, D-lactate and acetic acid during storage offer potential as indicator metabolites for a number of meat products. Biogenic amines such as histamine, putrescine, tyramine and cadaverine have been implicated as indicators of meat product decomposition. Carbon dioxide produced during microbial growth can in many instances be indicative of quality deterioration. Hydrogen sulphide, a breakdown product of cysteine, with intense off-flavours and low threshold levels is produced during the spoilage of meat and poultry by a number of bacterial species.

2. Sensors

A sensor is defined as a device used to detect, locate or quantify energy or matter, giving a signal for the detection or measurement of a physical or chemical property to which the device responds.

A. Gas sensors

Gas sensors are devices that respond reversibly and quantitatively to the presence of a gas by changing the physical parameters of the sensor and are monitored by an external device. Systems presently available for gas detection include amperometric oxygen sensors, potentiometric carbon dioxide sensors, metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistors, organic conducting polymers and piezoelectric crystal sensors. In recent years, a number of instruments and materials for optical oxygen sensing have been described. Such sensors are usually comprised of a solid-state material, which operate on the principle of luminescence quenching or absorbance changes caused by direct contact with the food. These systems provide a non-invasive technique for gas analysis through translucent materials and as such are potentially suitable for intelligent packaging applications.

B. Flouroscence based oxygen sensors

Flourescence-based oxygen sensors represent the most advanced and promising systems to date for remote measurement of headspace gases in packaged meat products.. The active component of a fluorescence-based oxygen sensor normally consists of a long-delay

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fluorescent or phosphorescent dye encapsulated in a solid polymer matrix. Oxygen is quantified by measuring changes in luminescence parameters from the oxygen-sensing element in contact with the gas or liquid sample, using a pre-determined calibration. The process is reversible and clean: neither the dye nor oxygen is consumed in the photochemical reactions involved, nor by-products are generated and the whole cycle can be repeated.

C. Biosensors

Biosensors are compact analytical devices that detect, record and transmit information pertaining to biological reaction. Intelligent packaging systems incorporating biosensors have the potential for extreme specificity and reliability. Market analysis of pathogen detection and safety systems for the food packaging industry suggests that biosensors offer considerable promise for future growth. The majority of available biosensor technology is not yet capable of commercial realisation in the food sector.

At present two biosensor systems are commercially available. ToxinGuarde developed by Toxin Alert (Ontario, Canada) is a visual diagnostic system that incorporates antibodies in a polyethylene-based plastic packaging and is capable of detecting Salmonella sp., Campylobacter sp., E. coli 0517 and Listeria sp.. The Food Sentinel System (SIRA Technologies, California, USA) is a biosensor system capable of continuous detection of contamination through immunological reactions occurring in part of a barcode. The barcode is rendered unreadable by the presence of contaminating bacteria. Such systems give some insight into products likely to become more main stream in the years to come.

3. Radio-frequency identification tags

RFID technology does not fall into either sensor or indicator classification but rather represents a separate electronic information based form of intelligent packaging. RFID uses tags affixed to assets (cattle, containers, pallets, etc.) to transmit accurate, real-time information to a users information system. In an RFID system, a reader emits radio waves to capture data from an RFID tag, and the data are then passed to a host computer for analysis and decision making. The RFID tag contains a minuscule microchip connected to a tiny antenna.

Bio-based and edible packaging

In the last decade, there has been a growing interest in the development of thermoplastic materials from biodegradable biopolymers, particularly those derived from renewable resources. The move is directed to produce edible films and coatings capable of protecting the food. Edible Packaging is an edible film or coating and is simply defined as a thin continuous layer of edible material formed on, placed on or between the foods or food components. The edible package is an integral part of the food, which can be eaten as a part of the whole food product. Biopolymers can be an alternative source for packaging development. Many studies have been undertaken for the suitability of various bio-molecules

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mainly includes polysaccharides, lipids and proteins. It is a challenge to incorporate or maintain the functionality of conventional packaging without compromising with intended barrier properties of novel packaging material. These do not generally form coherent stand alone films.

Desirable attributes of package material: Edible coatings should have an acceptable color, odor, taste, flavor and texture. It must adhere to the food but not stick to the secondary packaging materials. It should melt in mouth, but not in hands. An edible film to be used in food should be generally recognized as safe (GRAS). There should be a declaration about the type of edible materials as some individuals are allergic to certain polymers

Edible packaging material must meet requirements related to permeability (mainly water vapor, carbon dioxide and oxygen) mechanical properties (especially their resistance to stretching and rupture), optical properties (mainly related with their opacity and color) and optical properties (mainly related with their opacity and color) and flavor (in most cases, flavorless coatings are needed). These films/coatings may also serve as carriers of food additives such as anti-browning and antimicrobial agents, colorants, flavors, nutrients and spices. These can be advantageously used on meat and meat products with moisture loss reduction during storage of fresh or frozen meats, retention of juices from fresh meat and poultry, decrease in oxidation of lipids and myoglobin, reduction of spoilage and pathogen microorganisms on the surface of coated meats, and restriction of volatile flavor loss and foreign odour pick up.

Edible coatings should have an acceptable color, odor, taste, flavor & texture. It should be undetectable. It must adhere to the food but not stick to the packaging materials. It should melt in mouth, but not in hands. An edible film to be used in food should be generally recognized as safe (GRAS). There should be a declaration about the type of edible materials as some individuals are allergic to certain polymers.

Bio molecules of edible packaging: The use of edible films/coatings based on natural polymers and food grade additives have been constantly increasing in the food industry. The films/coatings can be produced with a great variety of products such as polysaccharides and their derivatives, proteins of animal or vegetable origin, lipids compounds and also from composites consisting of a blend of the previous materials. Normally, plasticizers are added to films/coatings in order to improve their physical properties. They help to decrease brittleness and improve flexibility by reducing the intermolecular forces and increasing the mobility of polymeric chains.

A. Polysaccharides

Polysaccharides that have been used to form films/coatings include starch and starch derivatives, cellulose derivatives, alginates, carrageenan, various plant and microbial gums, chitosan and pectinates. Their hydrophilic properties provide a good barrier to carbon dioxide and oxygen under certain conditions but a poor barrier to water vapor and deficient

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mechanical properties. Galactomannans, natural polysaccharides commonly used in food industry, mostly as stabilizer, thickener and emulsifier, are one of the alternative materials that can be used for the production of edible films/coatings based on their edibility and biodegradability. Agr is a gum derived from a variety of red sea weeds and like carrageenan it is a galactose polymer. Agar coatings containing water soluble antibiotics and the bacteriocin nisin have been used on meat and fish.

B. Lipids

Lipids, due to their hydrophobic behavior, are often added to polysaccharide films aiming at decreasing their hydrophilicity and consequently, decreasing the water vapour permeability. The incorporation of active substances such as antibacterial, antifungal and antioxidant is one of the emerging utilizations of edible films/coatings; leading, in some cases, to changes in the physicochemical properties of edible films/ coatings. Paraffin wax has been used to give protective coatings on several livestock products.

C. Proteins

A great variety of proteins have been investigated to produce edible films and coatings, such as collagen, common gelatin, corn zein, cotton seed, egg white, wheat gluten, soybean, gelatin, fish myofibrillar protein, pea protein, chitosan, casein, and whey proteins. A process of protein cross linking is necessary to obtain a flexible, easy to handle film. The resulting film properties are affected by the amino acid composition, distribution and polarity; conditions affecting formation of ionic cross linking between amino and carboxyl groups; presence of hydrogen bonding; intra molecular and intermolecular disulfide bonds. Collagen sausage casings are made from regenerated corium layer of animal hides. However, the formation of whey protein-based films has mainly involved heat denaturation in aqueous solution at 75-100°C, which produces intermolecular disulfide bonds, which might be partly responsible for film structure. Heat treatment promotes water insolubility, which may be beneficial to maintain film and food integrity. Whey protein based films and coatings are generally flavorless, tasteless and flexible materials, water based, and the films varies from transparent to translucent depending on formulation, purity of protein sources and composition.

D. Composite Film

Multi-component and composite films can consist of a lipid layer (moisture barrier) supported by polysaccharide or protein layer (structural matrix). Food based plasticizer such as glycerol, sorbitol, propylene glycol are generally added to edible films. A potential example of these types of composite packaging materials is gelatinized starch / hydrophobic copolymer/ polyethylene. Protein based films appear to be better oxygen barriers than polysaccharides or lipid films. Improved starch and pectin films have been proposed for coating red meat also. Despite considerable research, the use of bio-based packaging materials for the packaging of food remains limited.

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Conclusion

The package as a simple instrument for the marketing of food is changing to match the needs of consumers and the food industry. Changes in consumer preferences have led to innovations and developments in new packaging technologies.Vacuum packaging and modified/controlled atmosphere packaging maintain the quality of meat and meat products more than 5 weeks at refrigerated temperature.Active packaging is useful for extending the shelf life of fresh, cooked and other meat products. Currently, oxygen scavenger and moisture absorbers are found on the market in increasing numbers. However, antioxidants and antimicrobial active packaging and freshness indicators will be increasingly important and in future demand by the food industry. The potential advantages of intelligent packaging for muscle-based foods are many and varied. Apart from aspects of quality, safety, and distribution already outlined, intelligent packaging offers considerable potential as a marketing tool and the establishment of brand differentiation for meat products. Bio-based materials may find use in short shelf life foods stored at refrigerated temperature due to the fact that the material itself is bio-degradable.

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04. Meat and meat products in healthy diet

S. Biswas

Dept of APT, WBUAFS, Kolkata

Let us start with the topic on the carnivorous habit of human. Our protohuman ancestors certainly ate meat and it isn't hard to figure out why they indulged. To most people, meat tastes really good. It provides precious protein, and it's packed with fatty calories, an important consideration when food sources were precarious. Twice, however, since human beings diverged from chimpanzees a few million years ago, the human gene called apoE has mutated, giving us distinct versions. Overall it is the strongest candidate around for a human "meat-eating gene" (though it isn't the only candidate). Unfortunately, this version of apoE may have mortgaged our long-term health for short-term gain: We could eat more meat, but it left our arteries looking like the insides of Crisco cans. Luckily, a second mutation appeared around 226,000 years ago, which helped us break fats down and whisk cholesterol from our blood. What's more, it kept cells fitter and made bones denser and tougher to break in middle age, further insurance against early death. We owe our ability to have a meat-intensive diet to changes in our DNA.

ApoE probably also boosted our brains. To function properly, brain cells need to sheathe their axons in myelin, which acts like rubber insulation on wires and helps brain signals travel much faster. Cholesterol is a major component of myelin, and while the cholesterol in our bellies doesn't end up in our brains (the brain manufactures its own cholesterol), the version of apoE that helps whisk cholesterol from our blood also helps to distribute brain cholesterol where it's needed and therefore helps prevent myelin deterioration. The ability to eat more meat was perhaps just a side benefit of boosting our brain power.

Before we congratulate ourselves on our spiffy apoEs, however, consider this: Bones with hack marks and other archaeological evidence indicate that we started dining on meat at least 2.5 million years ago, eons before the more recent fat- and cholesterol-fighting apoE emerged. So for millions of years we were either too dim to link eating meat and early demise, too pathetic to get enough calories without meat or too brutishly indulgent to stop ingesting food we knew would kill us. Even less flattering is what the germicidal properties of the earlier apoE mutation imply: that protohumans scavenged carcasses and ate putrid leftovers.

Still, eating meat did help our ancestors survive, and live long enough to pass down their traditions to future generations. Now we celebrate most every holiday by eating (or avoiding) meat.

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Why we should eat meat?

1. If we were all vegetarians, there would be no fertilizer and then eventually no plants. If we only consumed plants, all the farmland now used to raise livestock would have to be used to raise edible plants which could mean no livestock and in turn, no fertilizer from that livestock. In the long term, this would mean no plants. Or plants only raised on artificially produced fertilizers, which would also mean polluted waters.

2. Another important thing to note is that humans, among most other species without rumens, cannot digest grass. One of the strong arguments against eating meat is that great amount of food energy wasted every time an animal eats another animal (a nine-to-one ratio), but in the case of cows that are grass-fed, they are eating biomass from which we cannot glean food calories. In addition, the energy to grow grass comes from the sun, which means cows are, in essence, converting the sun’s energy, through the venue of grass, into food energy that we can consume. And, importantly, grass fed beefy is mighty tasty.

Role of meat in human diet

Protein

Human requirements for protein have been thoroughly investigated over the years (FAD/WHO 1985) and are currently estimated to be 55 g per day for adult man and 45 g for woman. (There is a higher requirement in various disease states and conditions of stress). These amounts refer to protein of what is termed "good quality" and highly digestible, otherwise the amount ingested must be increased proportionately to compensate for lower quality and lower digestibility. The quality of a protein is a measure of its ability to satisfy human requirements for the amino acids. All proteins, both dietary and tissue proteins, consist of two groups of amino acids - those that must be ingested ready-made, i.e. are essential in the diet, and those that can be synthesized in the body in adequate amounts from the essential amino acids. Eight of the 20 food amino acids are essential for adults and ten for children. The quality of dietary protein can be measured in various ways (FAD/WHO 1991) but basically it is the ratio of the available amino acids in the food or diet compared with needs. In the earlier literature this was expressed on a percentage scale but with the adoption of the S.I. system of nomenclature it is expressed as a ratio. Thus a ratio of 1.0 (100 per cent) means that the amino acids available from the dietary proteins are in the exact proportions needed to satisfy human needs; a ratio of 05 means that the amount of one (or more) of the essential amino acids present is only half of that required. If one essential amino acid is completely absent (a circumstance that can occur only experimentally with isolated proteins since any food, let alone a whole diet, consists of a mixture of many proteins) the protein quality would be zero. It is generally considered that the qualities of proteins from animal sources are greatly superior to those from plant sources. This is true only to the extent that many animal sources have Net Protein Utilisation, NPU, (a measure of the usefulness of the

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protein to the body) around 0.75 while that of many, but not all plant foods is 0.5-0.6. The value of meat in this respect is that it is a relatively concentrated source of protein, of high quality (NPU 0.75-0.8), highly digestible, about 0.95 compared with 0.8-0.9 for many plant foods, and it supplies a relative surplus of one essential amino acid, lysine which is in relatively short supply in most cereals.

Does processing reduces the bioavailability of protein?

Apart from the inherent quality of the various proteins a reduction in quality takes place if there is damage to amino acids when the food is cooked.

At a temperature below 100°C when proteins are coagulated, there is no change in nutritional quality. The first changes take place when food is heated to temperatures around 100°C in the presence of moisture and reducing sugars, present naturally or added to the food.

There is a chemical reaction between part of one essential amino acid, lysine and a sugar to form a bond that cannot be broken during digestion, and so part of the lysine is rendered unavailable.

At a higher temperature or with more prolonged heating, the lysine in the food protein can react with other chemical groupings within the protein itself and more becomes unavailable.

In addition the sulphur amino acids (cystine which is not essential and methionine which is) are rendered partly unavailable.

The lysine-sugar reaction results in a brown-coloured compound (the so-called browning or Maillard reaction) which produces an attractive flavour in food and is the main cause of the colour of bread crust and roast meat. While such severe heating reduces the amount of lysine available in these foods the loss is nutritionally insignificant since it affects only a very small fraction of the total amount present. At the temperature needed to cook meat there is little loss of available lysine or the sulphur amino acids but there can be some loss if the meat is heated together with reducing substances, as may be present when meat is canned with the addition of starch-containing gravy or other ingredients. Overall the damage to protein caused by cooking is of little practical significance.

The nutritional quality of the proteins of meat rich in connective tissue is low since collagen and elastin are poor in the sulphur amino acids - there is only 0.8 g of each per 100 g of total protein compared with values of 2.6 and 1.3 of each respectively in "good meat. Meat is tough to eat when it is rich in connective tissue and such meat is often used for canning since the relatively high temperature involved in the

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sterilization process partly hydrolyses the collagen so making the product more palatable.

Does meat contain adequate dietary proteins?

The protein requirement of an individual is defined as the lowest level of protein intake that will balance the loss of nitrogen from the body in persons maintaining energy balance at modest levels of physical activity (FAD/WHO 1985).

The "requirement" must allow for desirable rates of deposition of protein during growth and pregnancy. When energy intake is inadequate some of the dietary protein is diverted from tissue synthesis to supply energy for general physical activity - this occurs at times of food shortage and also in disease states where food is incompletely absorbed and utilized.

A diet adequate in energy is almost always adequate in protein - both in quantity and quality. For example, an adult needs an amount of protein that is equivalent to 7 - 8% of the total energy intake, and since most cereals contain 8 - 12% protein even a diet composed entirely of cereal would, if enough were available and could be consumed to satisfy energy needs, satisfy protein needs at the same time.

Growing children and pregnant and nursing mothers have higher protein requirements as do people suffering from infections, intestinal parasites and conditions in which protein catabolism is enhanced. During the stress that accompanies fevers, broken bones, burns and other traumas there is considerable loss of protein from the tissues which has to be restored during convalescence and so high intakes of protein are needed at this time together with an adequate intake of energy.

The digestibility of the proteins of various diets varies considerably. For example, the digestibility of typical Western diets and Chinese diets is 0.95 (i.e. 95% digested). That of the Indian rice diet and Brazilian mixed diet is 0.8 (FAD/WHO 1985).

Digestibility is high in diets that include milk and meat and low when maize and beans predominate. An increase in the amount of protein eaten beyond "requirement" figures compensates for any shortfall in digestibility and protein quality.

Meat as a source of vitamins and minerals

Meat and meat products are important sources of all the B-complex vitamins including thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, biotin, vitamins B6 and B12, pantothenic acid and folacin. The last two are especially abundant in liver which, together with certain other organs is rich in vitamin A and supplies appreciable amounts of vitamins D, E and K.

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Meats are excellent sources of some of the minerals, such as iron, copper, zinc and manganese, and play an important role in the prevention of zinc deficiency, and particularly of iron deficiency which is widespread.

Meat Iron

The amount of iron absorbed from the diet depends on a variety of factors including its chemical form, the simultaneous presence of other food ingredients that can enhance or inhibit absorption, and various physiological factors of the individual including his/her iron status. Overall, in setting Recommended Daily Intakes of nutrients the proportion of iron absorbed from a mixed diet is usually taken as 10%. Half of the iron in meat is present as haeme iron (in haemoglobin). This is well absorbed, about 15-35%, a figure that can be contrasted with other forms of iron, such as that from plant foods, at 1-10%. Not only is the iron of meat well absorbed but it enhances the absorption of iron from other sources - e.g. the addition of meat to a legume/cereal diet can double the amount of iron absorbed and so contribute significantly to the prevention of anaemia, which is so widespread in developing countries.

Zinc is present in all tissues of the body and is a component of more than fifty enzymes. Meat is the richest source of zinc in the diet and supplies one third to one half of the total zinc intake of meat-eaters. A dietary deficiency is uncommon but has been found in adolescent boys in the Middle East eating a poor diet based largely on unleavened bread.

Health hazard associated with the consumption of meat

Coronary or Ischaemic Heart Disease

A major cause of death in some parts of the industrialized world is coronary heart disease (CHD) and saturated fatty acids have been implicated as an important dietary risk factor.

Since about a quarter of the saturated fatty acids in the diet is supplied by meat fat, the consumption of meat itself has come under fire.

The first stage of development of the disease is a narrowing of the coronary arteries by deposition of a complex fatty mixture on the walls - a process termed atherosclerosis.

The fatal stage is the formation of a blood clot that blocks the narrowed artery thrombosis. Even if the thrombosis is not fatal the reduced blood flow to the heart muscle deprives it of oxygen and can lead to extensive damage - myocardial infarction.

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Despite many years of intensive investigation the real cause of CHD is not known but a large number of what are termed risk factors have been identified, including a family history of CHD, smoking, lack of exercise, various types of stress and certain disease states together with a number of dietary factors.

The saturated fatty acids, myristic and palmitic, have been established as the most important of the dietary risk factors in coronary heart disease.

There are three types of lipoproteins (protein-lipid complexes) in the blood; low density lipoproteins (LDL) in which 46% of the molecule is cholesterol; high density lipoproteins (HDL) which include 20% as cholesterol; and very low density lipoproteins (VLDL) which have 8% cholesterol.

High levels of total blood cholesterol are associated with the incidence of CHD and high intakes of saturated fatty acids elevate blood cholesterol levels: hence the association between dietary saturated fatty acids and CHD.

It is the LDL that appears to be the main problem and HDL appear to be protective. This lipid hypothesis of causation of CHD has led to the adoption in many countries of dietary guidelines which, among other objectives, are intended to reduce the intake of saturated fatty acids as compared with unsaturated fatty acids and so reduce blood levels of LDL.

Types of Fatty Acids

1. Saturated Fatty Acids (SFA)

Two of the saturated fatty acids, myristic and palmitic acids, appear to be the principal dietary factors that increase the blood cholesterol and do so by increasing LDL

The other main SFA in the diet, stearic acid, does not have the same effect (apparently because it is converted to oleic acid which is monounsaturated fatty acids of shorter chain length appear to have no effect.

In order to explain the terms saturated and unsaturated fatty acids to the consumer, SFA have been equated with animal fats so meat fat is perceived as being saturated, but, in fact, this is only relative. For example pork lard is 40% SFA, beef tallow is 43-50% SFA, depending on the part of the body from which it is derived.

These figures can be compared with 20 - 25% SFA in vegetable oils which are perceived as unsaturated. Except for lamb fat the proportion of SFA is about 40% or less.

This perception of meat fat as being saturated has led to the belief that meat, particularly red meat, should be avoided. In fact it has been shown that a reduction of

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total fat intake while still including in the diet 180 g of lean meat containing 8.5% fat can result in a reduction in blood cholesterol levels (Watts et al 1988).

The relation between diet and coronary heart disease is not only a subject of considerable misunderstanding in the minds of consumers but also a subject of some controversy among medical scientists.

2 Monounsaturated Fatty Acids (MUFA)

The fatty acid of main interest is oleic acid (plentiful in olive, rape seed and high oleic safflower oils).

The relatively high intake of olive oil and consequently the proportionately low intake of SFA are believed to be important dietary factors in the low incidence of CHD in Mediterranean countries compared with northern Europe.

It is not clear whether oleic acid confers direct protection or simply replaces SFA in the diet. Table 3-2 shows the contribution of meat fat to the intake of MUFA.

3. Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids (PUFA)

These are fatty acids with between 2 and 6 double bonds and long carbon chains of 18 to 22 carbon atoms.

Linoleic acid (18 carbon atoms and 2 double bonds) and linolenic acid (18 carbon atoms and 3 double bonds) are plentiful in many vegetable oils.

The very long chain fatty acids, eicosapentaenoic (20C, 4 double bonds) and docosapentaenoic (22 C, 5 double bonds) are plentiful in fish oils and smaller amounts are present in some meat fats. These very long-chain PUFA appear to offer direct protection against "heart disease", particularly against thrombosis, but it is not clear whether the other PUFA in the diet (from vegetable oils) offer protection or simply displace SFA. Consequently it is often recommended that vegetable oils (rich in PUFA) should not simply be added to a diet but should be used to replace other fats when there is a need for fat in formulating food products.

Linoleic and linolenic acids are essential in the diet (they were at one time termed vitamin F) and the very long chain FA are formed from them in the body. It is possible that the rate of their formation may not be adequate under all circumstances and so there may be benefit from consuming some of these very long chain PUFA ready-made in the diet.

4. Trans Fatty Acids

PUFA exist in nature in two structural forms, termed cis and bans forms.

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It is the cis forms that are used in the production of fatty products such as special margarines. The other forms, bans, are formed when oils are hydrogenated to make hard fats for some margarine, and small amounts are found in the fats of ruminants where they are formed by bacterial hydrogenation in the rumen.

Experimentally bans fatty acids have been shown to have an adverse effect on both LDL and HDL and so are considered potentially harmful. When calculating the ratio of PUFA and SFA in diets, the bans fatty acids are often included with SFA.

5. Cholesterol

Cholesterol is a fatty compound involved in the transport of fat in the blood stream and is also part of the structure of cell membranes of tissues of the body.

It is not a dietary essential since adequate amounts are synthesized in the body from other dietary ingredients.

Confusion has arisen between the terms blood cholesterol and dietary cholesterol. For most individuals dietary cholesterol has little or no effect on blood cholesterol levels because reduced synthesis in the body compensates for increased dietary intake. However, most authorities advise a general reduction in cholesterol intake for everyone.

Meat supplies about one third of the dietary cholesterol in many western diets with the remainder from eggs and dairy products. Since all these foods are valuable sources of nutrients there could be some nutritional risk in restricting their intake.

In addition to playing an important role in CHD dietary saturated fats have been implicated in hypertension, stroke, diabetes and certain forms of cancer, so all dietary guidelines include recommendations to reduce total fat intake and especially that of saturated fats.

Generally it is recommended that total fat should be reduced to 20-30% of the total energy intake, with not more than 10% from saturates, 10-15% from MUFA and with PUFA at 3% or more; this results in a P/S ratio of 1.0. Most authorities, but not all, recommend a reduction in dietary cholesterol to around 300 mg or less per day.

Poultry Meat or Read Meat?

a) Dietary guidelines sometimes include advice to substitute, at least in part, chicken for red meat.

b) Chicken meat including its skin contains about the same amount of fat as does medium-fat red meat, 20%; it is necessary to remove the skin with the adhering subcutaneous fat, to reduce the fat content to around 5% - which is no lower than the figure for lean meat.

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c) However, chicken flesh has less saturated fatty acids (33% of the total) and more PUFA (14%) than lean meat with 45% and 4% respectively.

d) Duck flesh is very fat, containing about 10% fat - 45% when the skin and subcutaneous fat are included; only 27% of duck fat is saturated.

e) Meat from game birds, grouse, partridge, pheasant and pigeon, contains about 5, 7, 9, and 13% fat respectively, of which about one quarter is saturated.

f) Apart from differences in the amounts and types of fatty acids in the various kinds of meat, poultry and game their nutrient compositions are similar.

Processed meat or raw meat?

Toxic compounds

While cooking is necessary to develop the desirable flavours in meat (as well as to destroy harmful organisms) the oxidation of fats, especially at frying temperatures, can give rise to compounds that decompose to aldehydes, esters, alcohols and short chain carboxylic acids with undesirable flavours.

Meats are particularly susceptible because of the unsaturated lipids present which are more readily oxidized and because of catalysis by haeme and non-haeme iron.

The more PUFA present the greater the likelihood of oxidation, and pork (3.6 g PUFA/100 g when grilled), duck (meat and skin, cooked, 3.5 g) and chicken (roast meat and skin, 2.5 g) are the most susceptible. Other types of meat are less susceptible, e.g. Iamb (grilled cutlets, 1.5 g PUFA), turkey (meat with skin, 1.3), and beef (fried steak, 0.6 g per 100 g).

The adverse effect of these oxidation products on eating quality is well recognised but more recently it has been suggested that some of them may be carcinogenic, and also may be involved in the ageing process and CHD. However, it is possible or even likely that the unpleasant flavours would cause rejection of the food at levels below harmful ranges.

Cholesterol can also be oxidized and the oxidation product has been suggested as a possible factor in CHD (Addis 1986).

Carcinogens

A number of epidemiological studies have suggested a link between the intake of animal protein and predisposition to cancers at various sites -pancreas, breast, colon, prostate and endometrium - but there are many contradictory reports. A summary of eleven case-controlled studies of colon cancer, three of stomach cancer and one of breast cancer concluded that the available data do not provide convincing evidence

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that removal of meat from the diet would substantially reduce the cancer risk (Phillips et al 1983; Kritchevsky 1990).

o The products of pyrolysis of organic material (by overheating and charring), polycyclic hydrocarbons, are believed to be carcinogenic. The most thoroughly investigated of these is 3,4-benzpyrene which is formed on the surface of barbecued and broiled (grilled) and smoked meat products (including broiled fish and roasted coffee).

o The main source of these compounds is the flame itself, especially from charcoal, and indirect cooking where the flame is not in contact with the food greatly reduced the amount present.

Nitrosamines

Nitrites, used in curing salts can react with amines commonly present in food, to form nitrosamines.

These have been shown to be carcinogenic in all species of animals examined but it is not clear, despite years of intensive research, whether the amounts present in cured meats affect human beings. The problem is particularly difficult because nitrosamines have been found in human gastric juice, possibly formed from nitrites and amines naturally present in the diet. As a precaution, legally enforced in some countries, there is a tendency to reduce the amount of nitrite used in the curing mixture and to add vitamin C which inhibits the formation of nitrosamines.

Erythorbic acid and tocopherol are also effective in reducing nitrosamine formation. The problem is complex since the process of curing is designed to prevent the growth of Clostridium botulinum which is responsible for botulism, and the risk of botulism is increased if the concentration of nitrate-nitrite is reduced too far. (Moreover, cigarettes contribute far greater amounts of nitrosamines, up to one hundred times as much as cured meats).

Other problems

Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathies (BSE)

There is a group of diseases called prion disease, also known as spongiform encephalopathies or transmissable dementias, which include some very rare human diseases, scrapie in animals and BSE. It is not clear whether these all represent the same disease but they have in common the presence of an aberrant form of a normal cell protein called prion protein.

In some countries there have been recent outbreaks of BSE in cattle with the suspicion that it might be transmitted to human beings through affected meat.

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This is difficult to prove or disprove and the risk may be remote but it has added to other popular suspicions about meat and may be partly responsible for the reduction in beef consumption in some countries.

Excessive Amounts of Vitamin A in Liver

There are reports in the scientific literature of harmful effects of acute and chronic excessive intakes of vitamin A, mostly from pharmaceutical preparations. Recently, however, concern has been expressed at unusually high levels of vitamin A found in some, few, samples of animal liver, which, if eaten during the early stages of pregnancy, might possibly affect the human foetus.

Residues of Drugs. Pesticides. etc.

Residues of drugs, pesticides and agricultural chemicals can be found in small amounts in meat and meat products. Pesticides, for example, may be applied specifically to the animals to control insects or intestinal parasites but may also be present in meat as a result of exposure of the animals to chemicals used on buildings, grazing areas and crops. While there is no clear evidence that these small amounts cause harm to the consumer they are perceived as a risk.

The problem is complicated because several hundred substances are used to treat animals, to preserve animal health and to improve animal production. These include antimicrobial agents, beta-adrenoreceptor blocking agents (used to prevent sudden death in pigs due to stress during transport) anti-helminthics, tranquillizers, anti-coccidial agents, vasodilators and anaesthetics.

Potential safety problems arise from the possibility of residues of these drugs and their metabolites remaining in the tissues (and milk) consumed by human beings. Some tranquillizers, for example, are used in pigs in the immediate pre-slaughter period when there is no time for their removal through the normal metabolic processes. They can persist in the human body so that repeated intakes could possibly result in accumulation of the drugs.

Where there is sufficient scientific information available about the drug in question the Codex Commission defines the following:- Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI) as a measure of the amount of a veterinary drug, expressed on a body weight basis, that can be ingested over a life-time without appreciable health risk (the same term and definition as used for food additives). This is set at one hundredth of the maximum no-observed-effect level (NOEL) determined in experimental animals, on the assumption that human beings may be ten times as sensitive as the test animals used to determine NOEL and that there may be a tenfold range of sensitivity within the human population. When data are incomplete the safety factor may be set at a much higher multiple.

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The maximum amount of residue of a drug - maximum residue limit (MRL) - is the maximum concentration per kg fresh weight of food that is recommended by the Codex Commission as being legally acceptable. This is based on the amount considered to be without any toxicological hazard to human health and takes account of other relevant public health risks as well as food technological aspects.

A point is made in the 1991 report that the principal problem is not only the safety of the substances and their residues but the public perception of their safety.

There is no doubt that administration of drugs to animals (and birds) is always a potential risk to human health and so there is a need to control the use of these drugs and to measure the extent of any residues left in the food intended for human beings.

Conclusion

Meat is not an essential part of the diet but without animal products it is necessary to have some reasonable knowledge of nutrition in order to select an adequate diet. Even small quantities of animal products supplement and complement a diet based on plant foods so that it is nutritionally adequate, whether or not there is informed selection of foods.

Side by side with these known benefits of including meat and meat products in the diet are problems associated with excessive intakes of saturated fats, risks of food poisoning from improperly processed products, residues of chemicals used in agriculture and animal production and other potentially adverse aspects discussed.

Within these concepts is the major problem of meat production under conditions that avoid food poisoning and satisfy the economic demands of profitability with the traditional, cultural and religious concerns of the community in question.

(References can be collected from author)

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05. Recent advances in processing and preservation technology of shelf-stable meat products

J. Sahoo, A. K. Biswas1 and M. K. Chatli Department of LPT, College of Veterinary Science, GADVASU, Ludhiana

1Division of PHT, CARI, Izatnagar Introduction

Contribution of processed meat food sector is hardly 2% of total meat production in India. This sector is very slow growing in our country due to various reasons. Among them the most important are lack of cold chains for effective marketing and processed meat products are highly perishable in nature due to their inherent composition. Further, frequent electricity cut misleads the processors about shelf-life of the products causing heavy economic losses to them. As meat products are highly perishable commodity due to favourable conditions for growth of micro-organisms and lipid oxidation, many processing techniques though have been standardized for several meat products, but most of them have limited shelf-life at ambient temperature. The demand for processed meat products is ever increasing due to urbanization, improved standard of living and changing life styles. So it is now challenging tasks for the meat technologists to adopt newer techniques which could combat microbial growth and lipid oxidation on the developed products. Development of low moisture or dehydrated meat products could be one of the better options to combat the present problems. In this direction hurdle technology is of paramount importance.

Hurdle technology

The hurdle technology is an intelligent combination of two or more processes, which allows improvements in safety, stability and quality of foods as well as their nutritional values and economic properties (Leistner 1999). Hurdle technology is minimal optimum combination of several hurdles or preservation techniques which acts synergistically to improve microbial stability, sensory quality as well as saving of energy and money (Karthikeyan et al 2000 and Das and Radhakrishna 2001). Hurdle concept was evolved in 1976 at Federal Centre for Meat Research, Kulmbanch, Germany by Leistner and Rodel (Berwal 1994). Hurdles are barriers in microbial growth and hence responsible for microbial safety and stability of most foods. More than 60 hurdles have been already reported, most important hurdles are physical hurdles like high and low temperature, UV radiation, vacuum and modified atmosphere packaging, physicochemical hurdles includes low water activity (aw), low pH, low redox potential and use of preservatives (antioxidants and antimicrobials), microbiologically derived hurdles like competitive microflora, protective cultures and miscellaneous hurdles like chitosan, monolaurin, chlorine etc.

It is of paramount importance in developing countries due to lack of storage facilities and nowadays more or less unconsciously used in many traditional foods (Leistner and Gorris 1995). Leistner (1994) defined hurdle treated food as shelf-stable products which have been mildly

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heated (70-100°C) in a sealed container but sufficient to inactivate all but sporulated bacteria by lowering pH, redox potential, water activity etc. and can be stored without refrigeration. The hurdle technology concept proved very successful in many traditional and novel meat products like tandoori quails (Kumar and Berwal 1997), meat pickles (Kumar et al 2000), caprine and buffalo meat keema (Malik 1999 and Karthikeyan et al 2000), chicken snack sticks (Kale et al 2009a,b ; Sahoo et al 2008)), shelf stable buffalo meat chunks (Malik 1999), shelf-stable pork sausages (Thomas et al 2008) and development of chicken snacks using hurdle technology (Singh et al 2011), chicken meat waddi (Sahoo et al 2012), chicken kurkure (Sahoo 2011 unpublished), chicken meat biscuits (Sing et al 2011), chicken meat caruncles (Singh et al 2012), chicken meat noodles, goat meat waddi, meat mathi (Sahoo 2012 Project Report)

Extrusion technology

Extrusion technology is applied to most of the shelf-stable snack meat foods. Food extrusion is a process by which food materials or mixtures of ingredients are forced to flow through a die which is designed to form and /or puff dry extrudates. (Rhee et al 1999a). Extrusion technology is an energy efficient, rapid, high temperature, short time and continuous system in which numerous ingredients and processing conditions can be utilized (Harper, 1981). Snack foods such as cookies, pretzels, corn/tortilla chips and meat snacks as well as breakfast cereals are extensively produced by this technology (Lusas and Rhee 1987). Extrusion technology causes gelatinization of starch, protein denaturation, lipid modification, inactivation of enzymes and micro-organisms and exerts antinutritional factors (Chakraborty and Bhattacharya, 1998). By extrusion technology, we can maximize expansion and crispiness of products and minimize the heat damage of nutrients. (Peri et al 1983).It is reported that extrusion cooking is a rapid and versatile system for the hygienic production of wide variety of snacks and pasta (Smith and Ben-Gera 1980 and Harper 1981).

Extruded type meat snack foods

Meat snacks may well be one of the oldest types of snack food. After all, their fundamental processes - salting and drying - date back at least as far as the Middle Ages, possibly earlier. Those early versions have been described as looking like strips of thick cardboard and being just about as easy to chew. Fortunately for the jaws of today's consumer, meat snacks have evolved into a wide variety of much more palatable forms by using newer formulations and process optimizations. Extruded snacks are made from meat and non-meat ingredients. Meat incorporation improves flavour, taste and nutritive value of the products. Extrusion helps to create forms and shapes of products. They are very popular for convenience, crispiness and shelf stability. It is reported that extruded products are highly impressive (Zeuthen et al 1984) and nutritionally well accepted (Battacharya et al 1988). Park et al (1993) reported use of high meat and low fat for the production of good quality snack foods. Rhee et al (1999b) prepared the expanded extrudates from blends of corn starch (81.72-84.86%) and goat meat, lamb, mutton, spent fowl meat, or beef (15.14-18.28%) by using a single screw extruder. They observed that all extrudates were well expanded and low

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in fat (<1.5%), water activity (<0.12%), bulk density and shear force. McKee et al (1995) studied jerky type extruded products prepared from partially defatted chopped beef (PDCB), mechanically separated chicken or chicken thigh meat and potato flour and flavoured with chilli powder. They concluded that PDCB product flavoured with 0.5% chilli was rated most desirable among them. Singh et al (2002) also developed chicken snacks using spent hen meat, rice flour and sodium caseinate, spice mix, condiments, salt, phosphate and baking powder. They concluded that use of 50 % chicken meat is ideal for preparation of chicken snacks with highest score for colour and appearance, texture crispiness and overall acceptability when compared to control (without meat) and those prepared from 40 and 60% spent hen meat. They also observed the inverse relation between pH of product and percentage of chicken meat. The moisture content of chicken snacks with 50% meat was about 9.6%.and the contents fat, protein and ash indicated an increasing trend while carbohydrate content in the products showed a decreasing trend with increase in level of meat in the mix. Cosenza et al (2002) prepared the fermented cabrito snack stick product from goat meat adding various levels of soy protein concentrate (SPC).They concluded that good quality snack sticks could be prepared with addition of SPC at 3.50% level which were resulted in a 4.60% reduction in the price of snack sticks when compared with control. They observed that fermented snack sticks have higher ash percentage and contained about 66% less fat than a commercially available meat snack stick in America. They revealed that SPC at 3.5% level in fermented snack sticks did not affect the flavor, texture and overall acceptance when compared to the control. Sharma and Nanda (2002) developed the chicken chips utilizing the spent hen meat and they reported that sensory ratings of color and appearance, meat flavor intensity and overall acceptability did not decrease significantly (P> 0.05) from 2 week onwards up to 12 weeks and the product ratings still remained between good to very good. Lee et al (2003) developed the popped cereal snacks with optimum ratio of meat to grain 1:2 and 1:3 to corn starch and potato starch, respectively. They revealed that the popping degree of snack starch and spent hen meat was affected by the presence of meat when grain content of snacks increased and the size of the air cells also increased. Anna Anandh et al (2005) prepared extruded tripe snack food from buffalo rumen meat (50%) and corn flour (at 40%, 50% and 60%) and control with 100% flour. They reported that 50% corn flour incorporation was optimal with highest score in different sensory attributes like flavour, texture, after taste and overall acceptability.

In view of this the processing, packaging, storage and quality aspects of some shelf stable products are described below. 1. Chicken snack sticks incorporated with oat meal and ragi flour:

Like other whole grains, oat meal is considered a nutritionally-dense food. It contains 384 Kcal energy, 8.80 g water, 67 g carbohydrates, 11.02 g protein, 4.22 g fat, 1.7 g dietary fibre, 76 mg phosphorous, 24 mg magnesium, 0.585 mg manganese, 8.098 mg selenium, 0.111 mg thiamine and 0.034 gm tryptophan per 100 g of oat meal. (www.britannica.com). More important is that it doesn’t contains cholesterol and sodium.

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Oat meal provides a wide-range of potential health benefits, many of them supported by clinical research. Oat meal consumption increases the viscosity of food digest in the intestine (Jenkis et al 1978), reduces risk of cardiovascular diseases, improve cardiovascular health in post-menopausal women, reductions in serum cholesterol and blood pressure, helps in control of non-insulin-dependent (Type 2) diabetes, enhanced immune response to infection and stabilize blood sugar levels. It may lessen the risk of certain cancers via reductions in obesity, as well as antioxidant activity, reduces risk of breast cancer, decreases symptoms of childhood asthma associated with eating more whole grains and vegetables (www.answerfitness.com). Oat is a natural whole grain which provides balance energy, proteins, iron and magnesium. It contains significant amount of soluble fiber composed of beta-glucan (Anttila et al 2004).

Finger millet (Eleusine coracana) is one of the important cererals in the Indian subcontinent and many of the African countries. It is also known as African millet or Ragi. In India, ragi is mostly grown and consumed in Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Maharastra. Finger millet contains 5-8% protein, 1-2% ether extractives, 65-75% carbohydrates, 15-20 % dietary fibre (DF) and 2.5-3.5% minerals. This low cost cereal is a rich source of calcium, iron and phosphorous, and contains a good balance of amino acids mainly methionine (Tripathy et al 2003). It also provides 328 Kcal energy per 100 g ragi. It is also a very good source of phytochemicals such as polyphenols, pigments and phytate (Hulse et al 1980). A daily intake of approximately 30 g is encouraged to promote health benefits associated with fiber. This locally available cereal flour is much cheaper compared with other commonly used binders/extenders,viz, corn flour, wheat flour and maida It have also some other health benefits such as hypoglycemic (Lakshmi Kumari and Sumathi 2002), hypocholesterolemic (Hegde et al 2002) and anti-ulcerative properties (Tovey 1994). Chethan and Malleshi (2007) mentioned the anti-microbial activity of polyphenols from ungerminated and germinated finger millet on most pathogenic strains such as Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aurues, Listeria monocytogens, Streptococcus pyogens, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Sertia marcescens, Klebsiella pneumonia and Yersinia enterocolitica. Ragi is considered an especially wholesome food for diabetics.

Quality and storability of chicken snack sticks In view of above mentioned beneficial health effects of oat meal and ragi flour,

attempt was made in the present study to develop health oriented chicken snack sticks with longer shelf life. Research investigation was undertaken to develop and extend the shelf life at room temperature of a health oriented functional based chicken snack sticks (CSS) by standardizing the level of oat meal or ragi flour alone or in combination and thereafter incorporating antimicrobial agents (Nisin and Potassium sorbate) and antioxidants (Sodium ascorbate and Tocopherol acetate) and vacuum packaging of CSS. It was observed that the optimum level of oat meal and ragi flour was 4.2% and 8.4%, respectively while developing CSS with better physico-chemical and sensory quality. Further it was noticed that the combined effect of oat meal and ragi flour at their optimum level was synergistic in

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improving the physico-chemical quality and sensory attributes in respect of crispiness, AT, MFI and OA and enriching crude fibre and ash content of CSS. Finally, vacuum packaged CSS treated with above mentioned antimicrobial agents and antioxidants greatly improved oxidative stability (TBARS value, PV, FFA%), significantly (p<0.05) lowered SPC (log 2.20 cfu/g) and enhanced sensory quality during the storage period of two months at a room temperature of 25+20C with 60+3% relative humidity.

2. Health oriented chicken meat biscuits

Snack food industry is rapidly growing world over due to change in life style, growing urbanization, increasing per capita income and working couple. Snack foods have become an internal part of the eating habits of the majority of the world’s population and they are prepared from natural ingredients or components to yield products with specified functional properties. There is an increasing consumer demand for more complex and natural seasonings in snack foods. Research has shown that snack products contribute to approximately 40% of the daily energy intake (Bell et al 2005). Earlier research workers studied on extrusion of meat, dried offal meat, minced fish flesh, mechanically deboned chicken and dried or semi-dried ground meat with non -meat ingredients such as corn starch, rice starch or flour, soy flour/grit/protein isolate and gums etc in the production of snacks of various shapes like rings, stars and curls (Alvarez et al 1990 and Mittal and Lawrie 1986).

Bakery products, particularly biscuits command wide popularity in rural as well as

urban areas among all the age groups (Agrawal 1990). The per capita consumption of biscuits in India has grown from a paltry 400 grams about ten years ago to 1.5-2 kg today (www.biscuitbusiness.com). Shukla et al (2000) have reported that the per capita consumption of biscuit in India is 8 kg per annum as against 15 kg per annum in developed countries. The production of bread and biscuit have increased from 5 to 19 lakh tonne from 1975 to 1990 and 19 to 30 lakh tonnes during 1990–1999, respectively, recording sixfold increase in a quarter of a century (Shukla et al 2000).

There are also new concerns about food safety due to increasing occurrence of new

food-borne disease outbreaks caused by pathogenic micro-organisms. This raises considerable challenges, particularly since there is increasing use of chemical preservatives and artificial antimicrobials to inactivate or inhibit growth of spoilage and pathogenic micro-organisms. As a consequence, natural antimicrobials are receiving a good deal of attention for control of a number of micro-organisms. A number of studies have demonstrated that compounds existing in many spices also possess antimicrobial and antioxidant activities. Some herbs are bactericidal and have broad-spectrum activity against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria (Dorman and Deans 2000) Clove oil contains eugenol, which strongly inhibits the growth of Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella enteritidis, Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus in various agar mediums (Mytle et al 2006). Essential oils are well known inhibitors of microorganisms (Burt 2004). Clove essential oils were tested for inhibitory activity against important spoilage microorganisms of intermediate moisture foods.

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It was reported that clove oil had antilisteric activity in meat and cheese. In addition, the effect of clove oil on the oxidative stability was studied (Gulcin et al 2004). The use of spices with other food ingredients, such as sodium chloride, sugar and organic acid might provide a synergestic effect in controlling microbial growth. In this sense, eugenol (clove essential oil compound, Syzygium spp.) and thymol (from thyme and oregano, Thymus and Origanum) exhibit antioxidant and antimicrobial properties (Lee and Shibamoto 2002). The antioxidant effect of these compounds has been reported to be higher than α-tocopherol or BHT while their antimicrobial activity has been proven with bacteria, fungi and yeasts. In foods, the use of essential oils or some of their individual components, as potential natural preservatives has been reported in cheese, bakery products and meat.

Bakery products, particularly biscuits command wide popularity in rural as well as

urban areas among all the age groups. Spent hen meat was used in the following experiments to identify its optimum level to be incorporated in chicken meat biscuits. Also various natural preservatives and modified atmosphere packaging were tried to increase the shelf life of the chicken meat biscuits at room temperature (35 ±2 °C, 70% R.H.).

Preparation of chicken meat biscuits

Deboned meat obtained from spent layers was frozen, cut into smaller cubes, were dipped in a solution containing 0.25% papain (w/w) and 0.15 M calcium chloride (w/v) for about 36-40 hrs at refrigeration temperature (4±1oC) for tenderization. After 36-40 hrs, the meat was taken out from the solution, washed thoroughly 2-3 times with running water, extra moisture was drained out then packed in low density polyethylene (LDPE) bags and kept at -18±1oC for subsequent use. Frozen tenderized meat sample were taken out as per requirement and cut into smaller cubes after partial thawing in a refrigerator (4±1oC). The meat chunks were then double minced using 6 mm and 4 mm grinder plates to get fine tenderized minced chicken meat (TMCM) for experimental use. TMCM was blended with common salt, sugar and mixed with clean hand up to 1 min. Then SMP was added and mixed in a Dough Maker (Kenwood Chef, Model No.OW KMC55019, Havant Hants PO9 NH, England) for 1 min followed by mixing of ammonium bicarbonate, MSG, spice mix, up to 30 sec in the dough maker. Then refined wheat flour and rice flour (RF) mixture having sodium bicarbonate was added and mixed again for 1-2 min. At last the refined oil was added slowly by the side of the dough maker and mixing done for another 1 min. Finally the dough was again chopped in an Inalsa mixer for 2 min. The prepared dough was rolled using Chakla and Belna in sheets of optimum thickness, then cut into circular shape using a biscuit die. Raw CMB were placed in a stainless steel plate and kept in pre -heated hot air oven for the required time. Then CMB were kept in Pearl PET jars and thereafter analyzed for different physico-chemical parameters (texture profiles, colour profiles, moisture, cooking yield and water activity) and sensory characteristics ( appearance, flavour, crispiness, after taste, meat flavour intensity and overall acceptability) to determine optimum chicken meat level and baking time-temperature schedules using Response Surface Methodology (RSM) software.

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Quality preservation of chicken meat biscuits

Studies were conducted for the development and quality evaluation of health oriented functional based chicken meat biscuits (CMB) using hurdle technology. Meat level, baking temperature and baking time were optimized by Box-Behnken design of Response surface methodology (RSM). 50% meat level, 140°C baking temperature and 45 minutes baking time conditions were selected as best responses taking target for texture and colour profiles, moisture, baking yield, water activity and sensory characteristics. The optimized product was tested for the selection of best natural antioxidant (AO) among clove powder, nutmeg powder, caraway powder and cinnamon powder and best natural antimicrobial (AM) among eugenol, peppermint oil, orange oil and thymol crystals. Among all the natural antioxidants studied, 0.2% clove powder was found superior in its AO activity with respect to DPPH and ABTS activity, TBARS number, FFA content and peroxide value while in case of natural antimicrobials, 0.3% eugenol was having highest antimicrobial effect with respect to standard plate count and also for odour score. The selected level of clove powder and eugenol at different proportions were incorporated in CMB for storability study at room temperature (35 ±2 °C, 70% R.H.) under modified atmosphere packaging with 50% N2 and 50% CO2. When control aerobic and control modified atmosphere packaged and treated MAP samples were compared, the combination of natural preservatives and MAP was found to be more effective in preserving the quality of CMB for a storage period of 60 days with respect to moisture %, hydratability, water activity, TBARS number, peroxide value and FFA contents besides having positive effect on the colour and texture profiles, microbiological and sensory quality. Also the proximate composition of CMB at the end of the storage did not differ significantly from that of before storage.

3. Functional chicken Noodles

Noodles are one of main staple food throughout Asian countries because of variety, versatility and satisfying flavour and these features make it suitable for persons of all ages. It constitutes 40 percent of total wheat flour consumption in Asia (Crosbie et al 1990). Noodles are low in calories, sodium and fat and high in complex carbohydrates which are source of food energy and also provide protein, calcium, iron, magnesium and vitamins. Protein content of noodles depends on protein in wheat flour which differs with type of noodles to be prepared. In general wheat flour protein content used in different type of noodles is in range of 8-13 percent and ash content in range of 0.35-0.48 percent (Hou and Kruk 1998). Cereals are main raw material of noodle but lack vitamins, essential amino acids such as lysine, tryptophan and threonine (Chaiyakul et al 2009) and for this it is recognized as junk food. So protein rich ingredients need to be incorporated into products, and addition of meat could be one of the better options to improve nutritive value and sustain consumer demand in market place. Noodles, in general, are cereal based low cost staple food products contributing 40% of total wheat flour consumption in Asian countries. But this cereal flour based product lacks essential amino acid so needs to be improved with animal proteins that have high biological value. However there is a very scanty literature available on the development of meat noodles, and for this, a study was

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undertaken to develop safe and well accepted chicken meat noodles stable at ambient temperature for better distribution and marketing using hurdle technology. Such products can be recommended for the army provisions, which can be kept without refrigeration facilities for serving during military operations. Further, the successfully developed technology can be transferred to the individuals and among the masses to develop self-help groups. In present study multiple hurdles like heat treatment, low aw and addition of antimicrobials and antioxidants (chitosan 1%, EDTA 35ppm, eugenol 0.1% and pippermint oil 1%) were tried for development of shelf-stable chicken noodles.

Preparation of Chicken noodles

Tenderized minced chicken meat (TMCM) was prepared as per procedure mentioned in chicken meat biscuit, was blended with salt, tetra-sodium pyrophosphate (TSPP), refined vegetable oil, spice mix and refined wheat flour. A total of 20 samples were prepared based on three-factor three levels central composite experimental design of Response Surface Methodology. Final mixing was done in Inalsa food mixer for 1 min. Dough prepared by this way was cold extruded (pore size 3 mm for each noodle) through a hand extruder. The raw noodles were placed on multipored aluminium foil, gelatinized by steaming, and finally hardened by quick chilling. Moisture content of noodles were reduced by drying in a cabinet industrial tray dryer at a constant temperature of 60°C for varying period. The dried samples were cooled to room temperature, packed in LDPE bags, sealed and kept in a controlled humidity cabinet at ambient temperature (35±2°C, 70% R.H) before quality evaluation.

Quality preservation of chicken noodles

The optimum processing conditions standardized were adopted for development of CMN along with chitosan, EDTA, eugenol and peppermint essential oil for selecting best preservative which was then used for storage stability study at ambient temperature (35±2°C, 70% RH) under aerobic and modified atmosphere (MAP) packaging conditions. Results indicated that on the basis of different responses analyzed (product yield, moisture content, pH, protein, fat, water solubility index, hardness, adhesiveness, total colour changes and overall acceptability scores), 60 per cent meat level, 9 hrs drying time and 12 min steaming time was found to be optimum for development of CMN. Amongst the all preservatives eugenol treatment exhibited powerful antioxidant activity, higher lipid stability and overall acceptability but lower microbial count in developed CMN. When control and eugenol treated products were compared in storability study at ambient temperature (35±2°C, 70% RH) under different packaging conditions, water activity (aw) was significantly lowered in modified atmospheres (50% N2 + 50% CO2) packaged samples than that of aerobic control and eugenol treatments. Water absorption index (WAI) or water solubility index (WSI) however did not vary significantly amongst the treatments but noodles with eugenol treatment and kept under modified atmospheric condition showed lower peroxide value, lipid oxidation and FFA contents besides their positive impacts on antioxidant activities, colour and texture profiles, microbial quality and sensory

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attributes. All noodles stored at ambient temperature (35±2°C, 70% RH) under aerobic and MAP packaging conditions were well acceptable up to 90 days.

4. Chicken meat caruncles with natural preservatives

Traditional meat based snacks mainly include expanded pork rinds (bacon skins or skeens), jerky, chimni etc. However, in many countries, meat snacks such as beef jerky and fermented/cured low-moisture meat sticks are popular (Park et al 1993). Similarly popped pork rinds have been popular as a between meal snack in south for many years. Extruded meat based snack products are convenient, easy to carry, highly crispy and attractive (Zeuthen et al 1984), nutritionally sound (Battacharya et al 1988) and shelf stable in nature. Extruded snack foods were produced with meats in combination with other ingredients (Mittal and Lawrie 1984, Megard et al 1985, Alvarez et al 1990 and Alvarez et al 1992). For their preparation, Extrusion technology is commonly used and is becoming more and more popular due to their technological advantages over the traditional food processing techniques.

Park et al (1993) prepared good quality snacks by using three different levels of beef and fat along with defatted soy flour and corn starch in a single-screw extruder. Berwal et al (1996) developed turkey meat papads using raw and heat treated meat along with rice flour (50:50) and observed that heat treated turkey meat papads had significantly higher sensory scores and better acceptability. Rhee et al (1999b) prepared the expanded extrudates from blends of corn starch (81.72-84.86%) and goat meat, lamb, mutton, spent fowl meat, or beef (15.14-18.28%) by using a single screw extruder. They observed that all extrudates were well expanded and low in fat (<1.5%), water activity (<0.12%), bulk density and shear force. Sharma and Nanda (2002) developed and studied the shelf life of chicken chips and reported that sensory properties remained stable up to 12 weeks of aerobic storage. Cosenza et al (2003) prepared the fermented cabrito snack stick by using goat meat with different levels of soy protein concentrate and stored at 2±1°C. Anna Anandh et al (2005) prepared extruded tripe snack food from buffalo rumen meat (50%) and corn flour (at 40%, 50% and 60%) and control with 100% flour. They reported that 50% corn flour incorporation was optimal with highest score in different sensory attributes like flavour, texture, after taste and overall acceptability. Defreitas and Molins (2006) formulated snack dips with the combination of 50% ham, 26% bacon or 28% pepperoni with added sour cream, unflavored yogurt and tofu and concluded that snack dips were stable and microbiologically safe under simulated wholesale (3 weeks, 2-4°C), retail (10 days, 5°C) and household (10 days, 8-10°C) storage conditions. Ray et al (1996) prepared highly nutritious jerky-type extruded products by using potato flour with beef / chicken and chile powder and proved that extrusion processing resulted in lower microbial counts in the finished product. Kong et al (2008) developed value-added jerky-style fish meat snacks from salmon flesh and observed that extrusion cooking did not adversely affect content of omega-3 fatty acids. Kale (2009) developed chicken snack sticks incorporated with 4.2% oat meal and 8.4% ragi flour and extended its shelf life with nisin and potassium sorbate.

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Incorporation of meat in cereal snacks improves nutritive value and sensory attributes. Spent hen meat is a good source of proteins and omega-3 fatty acids. Hence the development of health oriented functional meat based snacks from spent hen meat is important. To improve crispiness and to inhibit lipid oxidation and growth of yeast and mold various flours and starches such as rice flour, tapioca starch and potato starch; natural preservatives such as clove powder, ginger and garlic and different packaging conditions seem to have an important effect on shelf life. In view of all these aspects, an attempt was made in the present study to develop health oriented chicken meat caruncles with longer shelf life at room temperature. Deboned spent hen meat obtained from the White Leghorn spent hen carcasses following standard slaughtering procedure, were used in the development of chicken meat caruncles.

Preparation of chicken meat caruncles

Tenderized minced chicken meat obtained from spent layer was blended with common salt, sugar and mixed with clean hand up to 1 min. The emulsion was mixed in an Inalsa mixer for 1 min, followed by mixing of baking powder, Carboxymethyl cellulose, spice mix, up to 30 sec in the mixer. Then refined wheat flour(maida) was added and again mixed for 1-2 min. At last the refined oil was added slowly by the side of a dough maker and mixing was done for another 1 min. The prepared emulsions were extruded through the manually operated stainless steel extruder into a thin chip like shape in a microwave ovenable plate. Cooking was done by putting this plate in a microwave oven (Inalsa make) for required time (3-5 min.). Then CMC were kept in Pearl PET jars and thereafter analyzed for different physico-chemical parameters viz cooking yield, texture profile, colour profile and sensory attributes (colour and appearance, flavour, texture, crispiness, after taste, meat flavour intensity and overall palatability) to determine the optimum chicken meat level, oil level and cooking time using Response Surface Methodology (RSM) software.

Quality preservation of chicken meat caruncles

Studies were conducted to develop shelf stable chicken meat caruncles using spent hen meat, starches, flours, natural preservatives along with modified atmosphere packaging for safety and benefit of the consumers. The process of development of chicken meat caruncles was optimized using three factor three level Box-Behnken design of response surface methodology. Three levels of meat (60%, 65% and 70%), oil level (2.5%, 5% and 7%) and cooking time (3, 4 and 5 mins) were considered for which 17 different runs were conducted. The process was standardized at 65% meat level, 5% oil level and at 4min cooking time. The flours and starches were used successfully to increase the cooking yield and to improve the sensory attributes. Developed chicken meat emulsion with 60% tapioca starch along with 0.2% clove powder produced better results in terms of physico-chemical characteristics, oxidative stability and microbiological parameters than 3% ginger and 2% garlic paste during the period of refrigeration storage at 4±1°C for 9 days. Chicken meat caruncles prepared by using 0.2% clove powder along with 50% CO2:50% N2 modified atmosphere packaging produced better acceptability of the product by improving the sensory

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attributes, decreasing the microbial load and inhibiting the lipid peroxidation (FFA, PV, TBARS number, DPPH % inhibition and ABTS % inhibition) and thus maintained freshness of quality better than their control counterparts up to a storage period of 60 days at room temperature (35±2°C and 70% R.H).

5. Goat meat mathi

Three different batches of Goat Meat Mathi were prepared using rice flour:meat combinations of 3:1(T1), 1.6:1(T2) and 1:1(T3) in the formulation of the product containing other ingredients such as refined oil, whole egg liquid, salt, polyphosphate, spice mixture, sodium bicarbonate, carragenan, sodium ascorbate, tocopherol acetate, nisin, potassium sorbate, monosodium glutamate, and water in required quantities. The meat emulsion was prepared with a dough maker. About 20g of dough was rolled into mathi using chakla and belna. Then the mathis were deep fat fried to light brown colour, cooled and packed into LDPE bags. The packed mathis were kept at room temperature. Different physico-chemical and sensory quality parameters were examined. It was found that the cooking yield % was significantly (P<0.05) higher in T1 batch though there was no significant difference in emulsion stability % among the mathi variants. The moisture % was significantly higher in T2 batch. There was a linear significant increase in protein and fat % as the meat level was increased and rice flour level was decreased. The protein and fat percent significantly increased reaching to 14.89 % and 24.34 %, respectively as the quantity of the meat increased, showing highest value in T3 batch. There was no significant difference of ash %, TBARS value, free fatty acid %, peroxide value, water absorption index and water solubility index. However, hydratability decreased as the meat level in mathi increased. Various sensory attributes indicated that the T1 batch had highest scores in respect of colour and appearance, flavor, crispiness and overall acceptability. Based on different quality parameters studied, it is concluded that the rice flour and meat in ratio of 3:1 is best suitable in the formulation to prepare goat meat mathi.

6. Goat meat waddi Goat meat emulsion was developed using various ingredients such as minced goat

meat, refined soyabean oil, salt, sugar, TSPP, sodium nitrite, spice mixture, baking powder, whole egg liquid, maida, carragenan and chilled water in required quantity, moulded into small balls or waddis manually of uniform size, cooked in a pre heated hot air oven at 175 oC first for 30 minutes then after turning again cooked for 15 minutes and dried in a industrial dryer at 70 oC for 30 hours.. Analysis of various quality parameters exhibited that the mean value of the product pH and cooking yield was 6.20 and 32.07 %, respectively. The proximate composition of the product indicated that the mean moisture, protein, fat and ash contents were 3.5, 43.65, 35.45 and 4.77 %. The product was evaluated by semi-trained taste panel members for various quality parameters. The sensory evaluation indicated that the various sensory attributes namely colour and appearance, flavour, crispiness, after taste, meat flavour intensity and overall acceptability were rated as good to very good in 8 point descriptive scale. Quality of GMW can be well maintained up to 120 days at ambient temperature (35oC) under different MAP conditions with100% CO2 is being preferable.

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7. Chicken meat waddi with black gram and saboodana flour

Preparation of chicken meat waddi:

Three different batches of chicken meat waddi containing black gram flour + saboodana flour in 50:50 ratio (T1), 75:25 ratio (T2) and 100:00 ratio (T3) in the formulation were prepared. Minced chicken meat and flour combination were used in 30: 70 ratio. In the formulation other ingredients like refined soybean oil, salt, polyphosphate, sodium ascorbate, sodium nitrite, spice mix, baking powder, carragenan and chilled water were used to make meat emulsion in a dough maker. The meat emulsion about 15g each was made into small balls or waddis of uniform size. cooked in a pre heated hot air oven at 175 oC first for 30 minutes then after turning again cooked for 15 minutes and dried in a industrial dryer at 70oC for 30 hours, packed in LDPE bags and kept at room temperature.

Quality evaluation of chicken meat waddis:

The emulsion pH of waddis significantly (P<0.05) decreased with the increase in the quantity of black gram flour, the lowest pH being observed in T3 batch. There was no significant variation in emulsion stability among the three batches of waddis which ranged from 95.34-95.48 %. The cooked product pH (5.90) was significantly higher in T3 batch as compared to T1 and T2 waddis. Cooking yield % was also decreased significantly with the increase in black gram flour and decrease in saboodana flour. The moisture % in waddis was significantly higher in T2 batch, whereas the protein and fat % were significantly higher in T3 batch containing 100% black gram flour. There was a significant linear decrease of water activity in order of T1(0.714) >T2(0.695) >T3(0.520). The colour profile studies indicated no significant variation in L* , a* and b* value. On texture profile analysis (TPA) of waddis it was found that there was no significant variation of different textural characteristics such as hardness, springiness, stringiness, cohesiveness, chewiness, gumminess and resilience among the T1, T2 and T3 batches of waddis. The microbiological assay of the samples showed that coliform count and staphylococcus count were absent in all the batches. There was no significant difference of standard plate count and yeast and mould count among the three different batches of waddis which ranged from log 1.36 to log 1.50 and log 0.33 to log 0.43 cfu/g, respectively. The sensory evaluation of waddis indicated that there was no significant variation in any of the sensory attributes such as colour and appearance, flavor, texture, juiciness and overall acceptability among T1, T2 and T3 batches. Based on the above findings it is concluded that black gram flour and saboodana flour in the ratio of 50:50, 75:25 and 100:00 can successfully be used in preparation on chicken waddis with 100% black gram flour in the formulation is most preferable.

8. Turkey meat pickle

Turkey meat pickle was prepared using lean meat, salt, spice mixture, green curry stuff, citric acid, vinegar and mustard oil in required proportion and evaluated for various quality aspects. The finished yield of the product was 62.53±4.18 percent. The product pH

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was found to be 5.69 indicating that it is a low acid food. The proximate composition showed moisture content to be 42.7 %, fat 21.03 %, protein 16.3% and ash 4.53 %. The other physico-chemical properties showed TBARS value of 1.96 mg malonaldehyde/kg, FFA content 0.49 percent, peroxide value 9.81 m.eq/kg, and standard plate counts and Yeast and mould counts were log 2.38 and 2.35cfu/g, respectively.

The sensory evaluation of turkey meat pickle conducted (8 point scale) by semi-trained taste panel members indicated that scores for colour and appearance to be 6.71, flavour 6.67, texture 6.54, juiciness 6.38 and overall acceptability 6.58. In general the turkey meat pickle was rated as good to very good.

9. Chicken gizzard pickle:

Chicken gizzards were dipped in pickling solution containing salt, sugar, sodium nitrite, sodium ascorbate, tetrasodium pyrophosphate (TSPP) and kept at refrigeration temperature (4±1°C) for 48 hours. Then the pickled gizzards were taken for development of pickles using a formula containing spices, condiments, citric acid and mustard oil @ 4, 5, 0.25 and 10 %, respectively. Acetic acid was added at three different levels in which T1, T2 and T3 contained 8, 10 and 12 % acetic acid. For preparation, gizzards were cut into small pieces of 1.5 ×1.5 cm2 size each, pickled in pickling solution, and then autoclaved at 121°C for 10 min. Then gizzards were shallow fried for 4-5 minutes and taken out. Condiments and spices were fried in remaining oil until golden yellow colour achieved. After that fried gizzards were added into it, mixed for 2-3 min and then stopped cooking. The acetic acid was added at three different levels as mentioned earlier. All the products were kept in the PET jar and evaluated for pH, proximate composition, colour and texture profiles and sensory attributes. Results indicated that pH of the products decreased with the increased in acid levels, however non-significant difference was found in between T1 and T2 samples. As expected titratable acidity was higher in T3 sample than other treatments. On texture profile analysis, T3 sample exhibited numerically lower values for hardness, springiness, cohesiveness, chewiness, gumminess and resilience. This indicated acid level had little effect on texture profiles of fresh pickles. Instrumental colour value suggested that increase of acid level lowers the darkness (lower L* value). With the increase of acid level lower values were also observed for redness (a* value) and yellowness (b* value). Proximate analysis indicated non-significant differences in moisture, fat, protein and ash contents. In regards to sensory attributes T3 sample shown to have higher scores for all attributes, however scores for flavor and overall acceptability only differed significantly from corresponding scores of T2 and T1.

(Refrences can be collected from authors)

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6.0 Major genes influencing meat quality and technologies for improvement

A. R.Sen and I. Prince Devadason National Research Centre on Meat, Hyderabad

Substantial advances have been made over the past decades through the application of molecular genetics in the identification of loci and chromosomal regions. This has enabled opportunities to enhance genetic improvement programs in livestock by direct selection on genes or genomic regions that affect economic traits through marker-assisted selection that contain loci that affect traits of importance in livestock production. Meat quality covers inherent properties decisive for the suitability of the meat for consumption, further processing and storage including retail display. The earlier work on genetic effect on meat quality focused on breed differences and those differences are still very relevant for improvement of meat quality through molecular means. Technological quality is a complex and multivariate property of meat, which is influenced by multiple interacting factors. The quality attributes like fat content, composition, uniformity and oxidation stability are mainly affected by genotype and feeding strategy. The WHC, tenderness and color are major affected by all the above factors. Genetic influences on meat quality comprise difference among breeds as well as difference among animals within in the same breed. Differences can be caused by a large number of genes with small effects - polygenic effects. Some meat quality attributes can also be associated with large monogenic effects – Major genes. In this present paper, more emphasis has been given on the genes identified for various meat quality traits and how markers can be used for improvement in meat quality traits in farm animal selection for consistent meat quality.

Consistent and uniform meat quality

Meat quality is defined by those traits the consumer perceives as desirable which includes both visual and sensory traits and credence traits of safety, health and more intangible traits such as clean and green or welfare status of the productive system. The supply of meat which is wholesome, safe, and nutritious and of high quality to the consumers will ensure continued consumption of meat. In order for livestock industries to consistent produce of high quality meat, there must be a understanding of the factors that cause quality to vary and implementation of management systems to minimize quality. Important visual traits include: colour and texture of meat, fat colour, amount and distribution of fat, decrease of excess water (purge) in the tray. Consumers of lamb in Australia usually place the highest weighting on flavour/odour, followed by tenderness and juiciness. This is contrast to consumers of beef who generally rate tenderness as the most important palpability trait. Meat standards Australia indicate that flavor has increased in importance to beef consumers, most likely a result of reducing the variation in tenderness

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Major genes for meat quality

Advances in molecular genetics have led to the identification of genes that affect meat quality trait. Currently several genes with major effect on commercial animal production especially on carcass and meat quality traits are known. Some of the candidate genes identified and their association with meat quality traits are presented in Table 1 and are elaborated as follows:

Halothane gene

This gene is mapped to chromosome 6. A recessive mutation of this gene causes susceptibility to malignant hyperthermia. It is also referred to as the PSS gene, causes malignant hyperthermia, which can be triggered by stress or exposure to the anesthetic gas halothane. As the name porcine SS gene indicates, carrier of this gene is highly susceptible to stress. Even during careful handling, the stress accompanying pre slaughter treatment is sufficient to trigger a higher rates of postmortem glycolysis in pigs homozygous and heterozygous for the halothane gene, having most severe in the homozygous pigs. The effects of the gene have been closely associated to development of PSE meat. This was initially described as muscle degeneration. The development of PSE meat is caused by an extensive protein denaturation due to the combination of the pH and simultaneous high temperature early post mortem. Certain breeds (Pietran, Poland China) or certain strains within breeds (Landrace) contained a large proportion of PSE-prone animals whereas other breeds or strain were practically free of this defect. The causative mutation (RYR1) for the halothane gene is the gene encoding for a ryanodine receptors isoform. Some countries eliminated the presence of halothane gene from their selection lines several years ago, eg: Denmark, Netherland, Sweden and Switzerland. Some of the international breeding companies decided to remove the halothane gene from their selection lines. In general, pigs homozygous and heterozygous for the halothane gene have higher carcass yield and lean percentages. The positive effect of halothane gene on performance is however counterbalanced by its negative effect on WHC and color.

The RN- gene

RN gene was mapped to chromosome SSC15 (Sus scrofa). The RN- gene identified in the Hampshire breed is associated with reduced technological yield (Napole yield or in French Rendement Napole, from which the gene has its name) during processing of ham and bacon. The effects of the gene have been associated with high muscle glycogen stores in the scarcoplasmic as well as lysosomal components and an extended pH decline postmortem. Meat from carriers of the RN- gene is often referred to as “acid meat” due to the low pH. The causative mutation (R200 Q) for the RN- gene is in the PRKAG3 gene encoding for a muscle specific isoform of the regulatory Y subunit of adenosine monophosphate – activated protein kinase. The RN- gene has no effect on early postmortem pH value, but results in a lower pH24h value, which again is associated with a higher reflectance (light meat) and inferior WHC. The differences in WHC of pork from carriers and non-carriers of the RN- gene may

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be associated to more pronounced denaturation of myosin tails and sarcoplasminc protein in pork from carriers of the RN- gene. The RN- gene only increases drip loss by approximately 1 %. In contrast the technological yield is reduced by 5-6% in meat from carriers in meat from carriers of the RN- gene compared with non-carriers. Carriers of the RN- allele have been shown to produce more tender meat with a lower WB-Shear force. In developed countries, approximately 20-35 % of pork is consumed fresh and 65-80% in further processed. Hence with the low processing yield of meat from carriers of the RN- gene the processing industry has a strong interest to be able to discriminate better pork from the two genotypes.

Table1: Candidate genes associated with meat quality in farm animals

Animal Candidate gene Traits Pig HAL Meat quality/ stress MC4R Growth and fatness RN.PRKAG3 Meat quality AFABP/FABP4 Intramuscular fat HFABP/FABP3 Intramuscular fat CAST Tenderness IGF2 Growth and fatness Cattle CAST Meat tenderness Leptin/Thyroglobulin Marbling Myostatin Growth and composition DGAT1 Intramuscular fat/ marbling Sheep Callipyge Muscular hypertrophy GDF8 Muscular hypertrophy Chicken EX-FABP Fatness L-FABP Fatness

Callipyge sheep

The callipyge sheep phenotype results from a mutation on chromosome 18 present in a heterozygous offspring that inherit the mutation from their sire, they have extreme muscling, particularly in the hindquarters, reduced fatness and improved feed efficiency, but have extreme tough meat. In callipyge sheep, increased myofibre size is due to a greater proportion and size of type 2X/2B (fast glycolytic) muscle fibres and a reduction in the % of the IIa myofibre. The muscle of callipyge sheep has increased calpastatin, reduced breaks in the I-band region during post-mortem ageing and no change in collagen cross linking compared to normal sheep. Hence the myofibrillar rather than the connective tissue component is primarily responsible for the markedly increased toughness.

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Carwell or rib eye muscling (REM) gene in sheep

It has emerged that certain Australian Poll Dorset sires produce off spring with increased longissimus cross-sectional area and mass at equivalent live or carcass weights. This is apparently due to segregation at a locus on 18 known as the rib eye muscling (REM) or Carwell locus. In contrast to callipyge, the effect of carwell is limited to the longissimus muscle, with no effect on fat depth, live weight or hindquarter weight. Carwell increases the rib eye area and weight approximately 11% and 7% respectively which translates into a 15% boost in yield for high priced cuts. The carwell allele does not alter meat tenderness, intramuscular fat deposition and acts as a completely dominant mutation.

Myostatin

The Myostatin gene (also known as GDF-8) regulates development of muscle and inactivation of this gene products results in extended muscular development. Loss of Myostatin expression in Knockout mice has associated with length and increase in the number of muscle fibres (hyperplacia) and an increase in fibre size (hypertrophy). The double muscled body type of Belgian Blue and Piedmontese cattle has been linked to a inactive myostatin gene. The loss of myostatin activity causes these cattle to be extremely muscular and lean. In the case of Belgian Blue, the mutation is an 11-bp deletion in the third exon, while the Piedmontese carriers a point mutation in the same exon. Myostatin is a negative growth factor that inhibits both the terminal differentiation of myoblasts and the proliferation of myogenic cells. Alleles associated with increased muscling have also been associated with variation in other traits including collagen content, meat colour, energy metabolism and hormonal levels. Although there have been conflicting reports on the effects of double muscling on meat tenderness.

Calpain and CAST system gene

The markers for tenderness have been identified and these markers are known to influence the expression of the calpain-calpastatin enzyme complex that regulates the rate of protein degradation in the live animal and post-mortem muscle. Meat tenderness is an important issue in beef cattle production because it has a major impact on consumer satisfaction. Consumers consider tenderness to be the single most important component of meat quality. Among the factors that have been identified as responsible for this process are µ-calpain and m-calpain which are encoded by the CAPN1 and CAPN2 genes and its inhibition, calpastatin (CAST), which is encoded by the CAST gene. The calpain proteolytic system is also involved in the regulation of myoblast migration and fusion and cell proliferation and muscle growth.

The calpain/calpastatin system is an endogenous calcium dependent proteinase system, theorized to mediate the proteolysis of key myofibrillar proteins during postmortem storage of carcass and cuts of meat at refrigerated temperatures. Calpain is responsible for the breakdown of myofibrillar proteins, which are closely related to meat tenderness. Calpastatin

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(CAST) inhibits µ and m-calpains activity and therefore regulates postmortem proteolysis. Increased postmortem CAST activity has been correlated with reduced meat tenderness. The CAST gene is mapped to BT47 (Bos taurus), is considered a candidate gene for beef tenderness. The calpain system may also affect the number of skeletal muscle cells (fibres) in domestic animals by altering rate of myoblast proliferation and modulating myoblast fusion. A number of studies have shown that the calpain system is also important in normal skeletal muscle growth. Increased rate of skeletal muscle growth can result from a decreased rate of muscle protein degradation, and this is associated with a decreased in activity of the calpain system, due principally to a large increase in calpastatin activity. These observations suggest that genes coding for calpain and calpastatin may be considered as candidate gens for lean content of carcass in pigs also.

Melanocortin receptor gene

In animals, the melanocortin receptor gene (MC4R) is known as a factor maintaining body homeostasis by regulating the energy balance. MC4R is involved in appetite regulating mechanism. In pigs, it has been the effect of MC4R polymorphism on feed intake and carcass fatness traits. It can be used as a genetic marker for these traits in animal selection.

Insulin like Growth Factor 2

Insulin –like growth factor 2 (IGF2) gene plays an important role in mammalian growth, influencing foetal cell division and differentiation, and post natal muscle growth. It is paternally expressed i.e. on the allele from father is expressed in progeny. IGF2 is one of the intermediates in the GH endocrine pathology. Based on its physiological function, IGF2 is considered as a candidate gene for a QTL in pigs affecting muscularity. IGF2 is involved in myogenesis and is supposed to the responsible for 15-30 % of the phenotypic variation in muscle mass and 10-20% in back fat thickness of pigs.

Fatty acid binding protein

Intramuscular fat content has a major influence on meat quality. Amount of intramuscular fat decides the marbling of the animals. It was determined that pork loin should have at least 2% fat in the lean meat, otherwise it is too dry after cooking. Fatty acid binding binding proteins (FABPs) are members of the super family of lipid binding protein. The heart fatty acid binding protein (FABP3) is involved in fatty acid transport from cell membrane to the intracellular sites of fatty acid utilization and is mainly expressed in cardiac and skeletal muscle. FABP3 has been mapped to the QTL region on SSC6 (Sus scrofa).

Exploitation of major genes for meat quality

Improving meat quality is not just about changing levels of traits like tenderness or marbling, but it is also about increasing uniformity. The existence of major genes provides excellent opportunities for improving meat quality, since it allows large steps to be made in the desired direction. Secondly, it will help to reduce variation, since we can fix relevant

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genes in our products. For a proper exploitation of major genes it is critically important to know what type of meat we want to select for. This is not a trivial issue, as meat is processed and used in many different ways. The other advantage of the DNA technology is that markers close to relevant genes or tests that identify mutations in candidate genes allow us to also exploit genes with smaller effects. Marker genes

Most quantitative traits such as growth rate are controlled by many hundreds of genes, each with a small effect. A gene with a large effect such as the halothane gene is very much the exception. Table 2 presents some of the company who are producing markers for meat quality. Nevertheless much research is now under way to identify possible genes with useful effects on performance. The function of most of the genes so far detected is unknown. They may however be situated on the chromosome close to a gene that does affect performance, for example growth rate, but for which no DNA test exists. Due to genetic linkage the gene that can be detected will then show an association with growth rate, which is actually caused by its neighbor that cannot be detected. In this case the DNA tested gene is known as a marker, because it marks a section of chromosome affecting performance. The gene whose presence it detects is known as a quantitative trait locus (QTL), with linkage between the marker and the QTL. Possible markers have been reported for all the important traits, and many have been mapped. Marker assisted selection

The development of the field of genomics has stimulated interest in ‘molecular breeding for meat quality’ as this ‘trait’ constitutes the classic case where DNA marker-based selection is at its most efficient, where the trait cannot be measured on the selection candidate and can only be measured at high cost on its relatives post-mortem; e.g., meat ultimate pH. In the process of marker assisted selection, DNA testing for the marker can be used to increase the frequency of the QTL and lead to an improvement in the trait. The main benefit would be in traits such as meat quality or disease resistance which are difficult or expensive to measure in the live animal, or reproduction which occurs late in life. Table 2: List of companies offering commercially available markers for meat quality

Company Animal Traits Biogenetic services Cattle Meat quality Pig Porcine stress syndrome Bovigen Cattle Tenderness Quality grade Marbling Genmark Cattle Double-Muscling phenotype Pig Porcine stress syndrome

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Genseek Cattle Tenderness Pig RN gene Porcine stress syndrome Genetic visions Cattle Tenderness Igenity Cattle Quality grade Marbling PIC Pig Porcine stress syndrome/ RN

Information at the DNA level can help to fix a specific major gene, but it can also

assist the selection of a quantitative trait for which we already select. Molecular information in addition to phenotypic data can increase the accuracy of selection and therefore, the selection response. The phenotypic meat quality data will not only enable the detection of relevant DNA markers, but will also be used to validate markers from experimental populations or to test candidate genes. Significant markers or genes will be included straight away in the selection process. An advantage of the molecular information is that we can obtain it already at very young age, which means that animals can be preselected based on DNA markers before the growing performance test. This is a great advantage for the overall testing and selection system. Candidate genes

The most straightforward approach for identifying the genes controlling a particular trait is to use knowledge of the physiology of the trait to identify the biochemical pathways involved. This will then suggest genes that may be important for controlling key processing in the development of the phenotype. These genes are “candidate” genes that can be tested by identifying polymorphisms within the genes and observing whether the occurrence of the polymorphisms can account for some or all of the variation observed in the trait. Rather than searching at random for markers, the candidate gene approach uses knowledge of physiology to identify likely QTLs with a major effect. The halothane gene RYR1 appears to be the functional gene or QTL responsible for all the effects on lean growth and stress susceptibility. H-FABP was discovered to affect intramuscular fat in Dutch Durocs and is currently being trialed under licence in other populations. Candidate genes to control boar taint from skatole and androstenone are being investigated by several groups. Other markers which have been generated for meat quality based on the candidate gene approach include myogenin (increased muscle fibre number, which may impact overall meat quality). A shortcoming of the candidate gene approach can be that the number of candidates is increasing substantially as more and more genes are being identified. Conclusions

There are clear breed effects on meat quality, which in some cases are fully related to the presence of a single gene with major effect. Within breeds, there is considerable genetic

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variation in important meat quality traits, which again is partly caused by major genes. DNA technology provides excellent opportunities to improve meat quality in selection schemes within lines. Selection on major genes will not only increase average levels of quality but also decrease variability (i.e. increase uniformity). On the other hand, major genes can be exploited for differentiation for specific markets.

Although there has been rapid advances in knowledge of the genome sequence, in

techniques for assaying variations and in the statistical methods for using this information effectively in selection programs, the major barrier to implementing the techniques remains the lack of populations in which phenotypic traits are systematically recorded. Such information is essential to estimate the proportion of the phenotypic variation that is under environmental and genetic control. Phenotypic information is also necessary to calculate the breeding value of each chromosomal segment for a given trait. Genes with a major effect on a phenotype in one population may be associated with little phenotypic variation in another, depending on the genetic background. Improved knowledge of genetic and epigenetic effects and interactions between genes (epistasis and pleioptropy) and genes with the environment will allow information to be effectively incorporated into selection and management strategies. These ever increasing refinements will provide breeders with better tools to rapidly respond to changing market demands for meat products with desired qualities.

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7. Technological advances for microbiological safety of meat foods

U. K. Pal, P. K. Mandal and C. D. Das

Department of LPT, Rajiv Gandhi College of Vet. and Animal Sciences, Pondicherry Today, all over the world, consumers demand meat and meat products those are of high quality, safe, and convenient to handle with ease, having high sensory appeal and with an extended shelf life. Among all these, microbiological safety of meat foods is considered to of paramount importance because it has direct bearing on the health of the consumers and huge economic bearing on the industry. High prevalence of food borne pathogens, as well as widely reported numbers of cases of outbreak are causing great impact on personal lives of the consumers, on food business and national economies. In India, reporting and documentation system of food borne outbreaks are still in its infancy. However, the impact of food borne outbreak can be assessed from the fact that in 2009, a total of 5,500 food borne outbreaks were reported in the European Union (EU), involving 48,984 people, resulting in 4,356 hospitalizations and 46 deaths (Chen et. al., 2012). Among all the food borne pathogens, the highest number of cases was reported for Campylobacter and Salmonella, 1,98,252 and 1,08,614, respectively, mainly associated with fresh poultry meat and eggs and pork ( EFSA, 2011). As per CDC (2010) report, poultry and beef were responsible for 17% and 16% of food borne outbreaks, respectively in the USA in 2007. Globally, the WHO has estimated that approximately 1.5 billion episodes of diarrhea and more than 3 million deaths occur in children below 5 years of age and a significant proportion of these episodes results from consumption of food contaminated with microbial pathogens and toxins (Johnson, 2003).

Therefore, production of foods, particularly meat foods with adequate margin of safety with regards to disease causing microbes and their toxins play a vital role in food business both locally and globally. Important pathogenic microorganisms associated with foods include E. coli O157:H, Salmonella, Staphylococcus aureus, Listeria monocytogenes, Campylobacter jejuni and Yersinia enterocolitica which are transmitted through beef, mutton and chevon. Pork acts as source of Trichinella spiralis, Toxoplasma gondii, E.coli, Salmonella, S. auerus; whereas, chicken is the source of Salmonella enteritidis, S. aureus, Campylobacter jejuni and L. Monocytogenes (Malik et. al., 2010).

Microbiological quality of meat in India: Indian scenario is far from satisfactory with regard to hygienic meat production except in few export oriented meat processing plants which follow the procedures and standards to meet the international marketing requirements for meat. Most of the municipal slaughter houses, which cater the needs of local markets, are in dilapidated state with poor infrastructural facilities required for hygienic meat production. Moreover, road-side slaughter of food animals and poultry is wide spread throughout the country. As a result, meats produced and sold in the local markets are heavily contaminated but only solace is rigorous cooking of meat in the home prevents the occurrence of untoward

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incidents due to consumption of meat. Different authors have reported a wide range of microbial load in different meats. Tiwari et. al. (2002) reported that buffalo meat sold in the retail markets of Bareilly, Haldwani and Kichha contained Standard plate counts (SPC), staphylococci, coliforms, psychrophilic and yeast and mold counts (YMC) (log10 cfu/g) in the range of 7.0-7.9, 5.3-6.5, 3.6-4.5, 4.2-5.8 and 4.6-5.6, respectively. Similarly, Mukhopadhyay et. al. (2009) recorded SPC, coliforms and YMC (log10 cfu/g) in the range of 5.46-8.59, 3.0-7.54 and 5.12-7.75, respectively in beef samples sold in and around Pondicherry. The same authors also reported SPC, coliforms and YMC (log10 cfu/g) which ranged from 5.93 to 10.94, 3.30 to 8.36 and 5.50 to 9.05, respectively in chevon sold in Pondicherry. However, Pal and Bachhil (1988, 1994) recorded comparatively lower microbial load in chevon sold in retail shops of Bareilly. Microbial quality of dressed chicken sold in different cities in India have been reported which contained high levels of SPC, coliforms and yeast and molds (Pattanaik et. al.,1997; Barbudhe et. al., 2003; Mukhopadhyay et. al.,004 and Santosh Kumar et. al.,2011). Several authors have isolated and identified different pathogenic microorganisms like S. auerus, Bacillus spp., Corynebacterium spp., Salmonella spp., Clostridium perfringens etc. from various meat and meat products (Gupta et.al.,1987; Bachhil, 1988, 1989; Sharma et.al.,1993 and Mukhopadhyay et.al.,2009).

Microbiological safety standards and regulations: At national level, recently enacted Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006 implemented and monitored through Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) has superseded all other laws and regulations related to food. The Act officially repeals the regulatory framework established by the Prevention of Food Adulteration Act, 1954; the Fruit Products Order, 1955; the Meat Food Products Order, 1973; the Edible Oils Packaging (Regulation) Order, 1988; the Solvent Extracted Oil, De-oiled Meal and Edible Flour (Control) Order, 1967 and Milk and Milk Products Order, 1992. However, rather than eliminating these regulatory authorities, the Act combines them under a single authority with minor revisions, while adding key provisions to further strengthen food safety regulation.

FSSAI has been created for laying down science based standards for articles of food and to regulate their manufacture, storage, distribution, sale and import to ensure availability of safe and wholesome foods for human consumption. FSSAI serves as the single reference point for all matters relating to India’s food safety standards as outlined in the Food Safety and Standards Regulations, 2010. Microbiological limits for different meat food products have been prescribed mostly based on earlier standards/ orders. For example, corned beef, cooked ham, canned chicken, canned mutton and goat meat should contain a maximum total plate counts (log10 cfu/g) of 1000 and E. coli, Salmonella spp., S. aureus, Clostridium perfringens should be absent in 25 gram of samples.

Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC), ISO (International Organization for Standardization), ICMSF (International Commission on Microbiological Specifications for Foods), European Union Standards, Food Safety and Inspection Services (FSIS) (USA) are

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important international regulatory authorities related to food safety. The main purpose of these authorities are protecting health of the consumers and ensuring fair practices in international food trade. CAC also promotes coordination of all food standards related works undertaken by international governmental and non-governmental organizations.

Application of technologies to ensure microbiological safety of meat foods: One of the most important challenges to the meat scientists and technologists is to develop effective technologies which can be applied in the meat industry for production of microbiologically safe meat foods to safeguard the consumers’ health and faith. Chen et.al. (2012) has reviewed comprehensively the possible technological interventions to ensure microbiological safety of meat foods. These are as follows:

1. Meat preservation technologies (a) Vacuum packaging (b) Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) (c) Active packaging

2. Chemical intervention technologies (a) Use of chlorinated water (10-20 ppm) for carcass wash (b) Use of organic acids and their salts (c) Use of Peroxyacetic acid (d) Use of acidified sodium chloride (e) Use of tri-sodium phosphate (f) Use of ozone

3. Biological intervention technologies (a) Plant extracts and essential oils (b) Bacteriocins (c) Bacteriophages

4. Physical intervention technologies (a) Steam pasteurization (b) Irradiation (c) High frequency heating (d) Hurdle technology

5. Alternative technologies (a) Intelligent packaging (b) High pressure processing (c) Pulsed electric field (d) Pulsed light (e) Ultrasound technology (f) Oscillatory magnetic field (g) Natural antimicrobials

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Among the packaging technologies listed above vacuum packaging and MAP are in use for fresh meat packaging and to some extent for packaging meat products and these packaging systems are mostly involved in increasing the shelf life of the products rather than inhibiting growth of specific pathogen. Zhao et.al. (1992) reported that applying vacuum packaging followed by refrigerated storage of meat and meat products might control, but still could not effectively inhibit the growth of L. monocytogenes. Data on CO2 enriched MAP for L. monocytogenes are contradictory and confusing (Chen et. al., 2012). Wilkinson et.al. (2006) found that CO2 did not affect L. monocytogenes populations even in 100% CO2

packaged retail- ready fresh pack. On the contrary Nissen et. al. (2000) reported that the higher the CO2 concentration in the package, the more inhibition of L. monocytogenes. In the recent years, there is emergence of active packaging systems for packaging of meat products. In active packaging system, additives such as moisture controller, O2 scavengers or generators, CO2 or odour controllers, flavour enhancers and antimicrobial agents are incorporated (Shoeib and Harner, 2002 and Kerry et. al., 2006). Lopez- Carballo et. al. (2008) reported that water soluble sodium magnesium chlorophyllin (E-140) and sodium copper cholorophyllin (E-141) reduced the growth of Staphylococcus aureus and L. monocytogenes by 4 and 5 logs, respectively, when the chlorophyllins were added into gelatin film forming solution. Antimicrobial agents which can be either dispersed or coated in the packaging film include CO2 generators\ O2 scavengers, chlorine di-oxide generators, bacteriocin, enzymes (glucose oxidase), bioactive polymers (chitosan), organic acids, tocopherol, chlorophyllins, plant extracts, essential oils, spice powders. etc (Chen et. al., 2012). Chen and Brody (2013) reported that antimicrobial packaging structures with an O2

scavenger or a CO2 generator were more effective than allyl isothiocyanate (AIT) in inhibiting the growth of total aerobic bacteria, Enterobacteriaceae counts and L. monocytogenes on ready-to-eat cooked ham samples.

Chemical intervention technologies are preferably applied to decontaminate the carcass surfaces immediately after dehiding and evisceration, but before chilling, because then they can prevent the attachment of contaminating microorganisms on the carcass surfaces (Chen et.al., 2012). As per the findings of Sofos and Smith (1998), chlorine is known to reduce total bacterial counts and kills some food-borne pathogens such as E. coli O157:H7 and Salmonella during washing of beef and poultry carcasses. In the USA, use of chlorine at the concentration of 20 ppm has been approved in poultry washes\ sprays and at 50ppm in poultry chill tanks but it is not currently permitted for decontamination of red meat carcasses (Byelashov and Sofos, 2009). Solutions of organic acids (1-3%) viz. lactic and acetic acids are commonly used for decontamination of beef and lamb carcasses. Other organic acids, including formic, citric, fumaric, propionic and L- ascorbic acids may be used either separately or as a mixture in chemical washes (Chen et. al., 2012). Loretz et. al., (2010) reported microbial reductions for inoculated bacteria on beef carcasses to the tune of 0.7 log to 4.9 logs for aerobic bacteria, non pathogenic E. coli, E. coli O157:H7 and Salmonella species by applying acetic and citric acids under laboratory conditions. Vandekinderen et. al. (2009) concluded that peroxyacetic acid (peracetic acid) due to its high

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oxidation potential destroyed microorganisms by oxidation and subsequent disruption of their cell membranes, causing lysis and ultimately death. Various authors have reported varied microbial population reduction including E. coli O157:H7 and Salmonella typhimurium by application of peroxyacetic acid (King et. al., 2005; Vandekinderen et. al., 2009 and Quilo et. al., 2010). Similarly, because of its powerful oxidizing capacity, ozone kills bacteria by destroying their cell membranes. Advantages of applying ozone as meat disinfectant include its high reactivity, penetrability and eventual natural decomposition to oxygen (Chen et.al., 2012)

Biological interventions such as application of plant extracts and essential oils, bacteriocins and bacteriophages have shown some promise as antibacterial agents and are being increasingly used in food industry (Chen et. al., 2012). Shelf life and food safety may also be enhanced by using natural or controlled microflora, such as lactic acid bacteria (LAB) and\or their metabolic products including lactic acid, bacteriocins and others (Hugas et. al., 1995). Bacteriocins are antimicrobial peptides/ proteins produced by bacteria (Galvez et. al.,2007). Bacteriocins which have their applications in meat include nisin (Lactococcus lactis), enterocin (Enterococcus faecium), lactocin and sakacin (Lactobacillus sakei) and pediocin (Pediococcus acidolactici) (Chen et. al.,2012). Bacteriocins do not target specific molecular sites in the bacterial cell. Moreover, they can destroy bacterial membranes, thus swiftly minimizing the time available for bacterial mutation which in turn, may solve the problem of antibiotic resistance (Tiwari et. al., 2009). Bacteriophages are generally considered as safe for use in food and highly host specific and are more frequently used for inactivation of L. monocytogenes (Greer et. al., 2006). However, high host specificity restricts their application because a phage against one bacterial strain might not be effective against another (Chen et. al., 2012).

Plant extracts and their essential oils contain a variety of secondary metabolites that have been identified for their ability to inhibit the growth of bacteria, yeast and molds (Chorianopoulos et. al., 2008). Antimicrobial activity of phenolic compounds present in plant extracts may be due to their ability to increase bacterial cell permeability thereby allowing the macromolecules to escape (Bajpai et. al., 2008). Antimicrobial and antioxidant effects of various leaf and fruit extracts including curry leaf, drumstick leaf, coriander leaf, tomato, gooseberry and red grapes in the meat system have been studied and reported recently (Devatkal et.al., 2011 and Najeeb, 2012).

Physical intervention technologies such as steam pasteurization is being widely adopted in the beef slaughter industry as a commercial antimicrobial carcass intervention process (Chen et.al., 2012). In the USA, industrial process of steam-pasteurization of whole carcasses as well as parts of carcasses that are to be further processed was developed and was approved by the FDA in 1995 (Fung et.al., 2001). This technology provides a fast and cost effective solution to decontaminate small and large pieces of meat. Similarly, gamma rays produced from Cobalt-60 and Caesium-137 are permitted to be applied for food irradiation.

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The WHO and CAC support food irradiation and agree that food irradiated at doses below an average of 10 kGy are safe to eat and require no further toxicologic testing (Hubbert et.al.,1996). An irradiation dose up to 4.5 kGy for refrigerated meat, up to 7 kGy for frozen meat and up to 3 kGy for poultry is allowed in the USA. The D-value of the most resistant serotype of Gram-negative pathogens of public health significance, viz., E. coli, Yersinia enterocolitica, A. hydrophila, Campylobacter and Salmonella is 0.6 kGy (Juneja, 2003).

High frequency heating includes radiofrequency (RF) and microwave (MW) heating and has gained increased industrial interest having high potential to become the alternatives to conventional methods of heat processing (Wang et.al., 2003). Both RF and MW heating are modern techniques that rely on electromagnetic energy and are able to provide rapid and uniform heat distribution within a food (Tang et.al., 2006). In micro wave cooking care must be taken to avoid ‘cold spots’ which may allow pathogens to survive. Therefore, following rules are recommended to ensure safe microwave cooking of meat (Hubbert et. al., 1996):

Debone large piece, as bone can shield the meat from thorough cooking.

Arrange the meat uniformly in a covered dish and add a little liquid as steam aids in killing bacteria.

Rotate meat for even cooking.

Do not cook whole, stuffed poultry in the microwave.

Never partially cook meat – if combined with conventional heat, complete cooking immediately.

Use a temperature probe or meat thermometer to verify that the meat has reached a safe temperature.

Observe the standing time in the recipe (it is needed to complete the cooking process).

As per Murano (2003), hurdle technology refers to the use of a combination of sub-optimal growth conditions in which each hurdle factor alone is insufficient to prevent the growth of spoilage and pathogenic bacteria, but hurdles used in combination provide effective control. Based on the hurdle concept, a number of meat food processors have used a combination of intrinsic and extrinsic factors that affect microbial growth to effectively control the outgrowth of pathogens in foods (Chen et. al.,2012).

Alternate technologies listed as intelligent packaging, high pressure processing (HPP), pulse electric field (PEF), pulsed light (PL), ultrasound technology, oscillating magnetic field (OMF) and natural antimicrobials have great potential to be developed as applicable methods that are required to meet the meat safety requirements. Physical interventions such as HPP, PEF processing, PL technology, ultrasound technology and OMF have been studied as novel meat intervention technologies in recent years. However, these technologies have several challenges to overcome before commercialization such as increased cost, the quality and sensory changes in meat foods and the lack of validation studies (Chen et. al., 2012).

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Conclusions:

Microbiological safety of meat foods depends on the extent of meat food safety measures in place throughout the chains of animal production, transportation and lairaging, slaughter, further processing, distribution and handling at the point of consumption. An integrated quality control (IQC) system should be followed which is a system of process control expanded to involve every facet of the food chain from farm to table, including production, processing, distribution and preparation. Therefore, first and foremost requirement is the production of clean and healthy animals and birds at farms. Many types of cross contamination take place during the transportation and lairaging of the animals and birds. All measures should be undertaken to ensure transportation with least stress to the animals and proper rest in the lairage to produce meat of optimum quality. Observance of HACCP at slaughter is a must to ensure microbiological safety of foods. In this regard it is worth mentioning that recently, the Australian Meat Industry and Australian Quarantine Inspection Service developed the Australian Export Meat Inspection System (AEMIS), an integrated set of controls specified and verified by the regulator that ensures the safety, suitability and integrity of Australian meat and meat products destined for domestic and export markets (Jenson and Summer, 2012). Based on the national database, Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) are combined to produce a Product Hygiene Index (PHI), a method applied uniformly to verify an establishment’s ability to comply consistently with performance standards and to detect and resolve its own deficiencies.

Key Performance Indicators are

Compliance with pre-operational sanitation and microbiological performance standards ;

Compliance by operators with work instructions for hygienic dressing and processing;

Complying with predicted E. coli growth on carcasses during the chilling process ;

Assessing microbiological quality of chilled carcasses (TVC, E. coli and Coliforms) ;

Assessing microbiological quality of processed primals (TVC, E. coli and Coliforms) and

Assessing freedom from visual defects (hair, dust, ingesta, pathology, bruising, etc) in processed product.

Maintenance of appropriate cold chain during distribution is of paramount importance as temperature abuse is one of the major stumbling blocks in the meat foods safety measures. Finally, when the meat reaches the consumers, extreme care should be taken to avoid mishandling the same in the kitchen and on serving table in order to ensure safety.

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Although microbial safety of meat foods is a major public health issue of increasing importance, many public health authorities in many countries throughout the world do not adequately appreciate its importance for human health and economic development (WHO, 1997). The need for maintaining the supply of microbiologically safe meat foods in the face of adversities has created needs for developing new technologies and works are going on all over the world in this regard. Furthermore, genomics and proteomics of food borne bacteria appear to have been largely neglected with regard to food safety (Johnson, 2003), but these fields could provide tremendous advances in technologies to ensure meat food safety.

 

(References can be collected from authors)

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8.0 Proteomics: A crossroad between animal genomics and meat sciences

M. K. Chatli and J. Sahoo Department of LPT, College of Veterinary Science, GADVASU, Ludhiana

What is Proteomics?

Proteomics is the study of the proteome, the protein complement of the genome. The term “proteomics” and “proteome” were coined by Mark Wilkins and colleagues in the early 1990s and mirror the term “genomics” and “genome”, which describe the entire collection of genes in an organism.Proteomics is a dynamic science and basically a systematic & comparative analysis of protein function, “closer” to activity, expression, post-translational modifications (PTM), localization, complex formation and also referred as Functional genomics/post genomic tools. The proteome is expressed from the genome, influenced by environmental and processing conditions, and can be seen as the molecular link between the genome and the functional quality characteristics of the meat. In contrast to traditional biochemical methods where one protein is studied at a time, several hundred proteins can be studied simultaneously.

Proteomics is a promising and powerful tool in meat science and used as a key tool to unleash the molecular mechanisms behind different genetic backgrounds or processing techniques of meat. Thus understanding the variations and different components of the proteome with regard to a certain meat quality or process parameters will lead to knowledge that can be used in optimising the conversion of muscles to meat, tenderness and colour of meat. Present focus of proteomics is on the development of techniques and mapping of proteomes according to genotypes and muscle types. However, In the future, focus should be more towards understanding and finding markers for meat quality traits. In this lecture, my major focus will be on the methods used in the proteome analyses of meat in relation with animal genome, with an emphasis on the challenges related to statistical analysis of proteome data, and on the different topics of meat science.

Tenderness, juiciness and colour are the most sought out quality attributesby the consumers for meat and direct the marketing strategies in meat industry. Furthermore, to compete with other foods, the predictable meat quality has become essential. These traits are influenced both by genetics, environmental factors and processingconditions. However, the underlying molecular mechanisms are far from understood. While the genes remain constant during the lifetime of the animal, the expression of the genes to mRNA and proteins is very dynamic and is regulated by a large number of factors influencing on protein synthesis or degradation. The proteins expressed from the genome may thus be viewed as the mirror image of the gene activity.Thus, analysing the proteome can be viewed as analysing snap-shots into a system in constant change.

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Tools for proteomics

Proteomics are the tools used to analyse the proteomes.Most of the proteomics tools are basedon protein separation in at least two dimensions, usingeither chromatographic methods or electrophoresis, and isusually followed by the use of mass spectrometry (MS).

In general, the steps followed in designing the experiment on proteomics includes thefirst step is toset up an experiment with different animals, treatments ormuscles with different quality traits e.g. colour or tenderness. This is followed by protein extraction, 2-DE, imageanalysis and statistical analysis . Evaluation of thedata and selection of significantly changed proteins are criticalsteps in the experiments. Furthermore, identification of the proteins by MS and interpretation of theresults often lead to new hypotheses and newcycles of proteome analyses to be performed.

Muscle protein fractionation: The total number of different proteins expressed from a genome includingsplice variants and post-translational modifications in aeukaryotic cell, with numbers ranging from 100–500,000(Righetti et al., 2005). These proteinsare localised in different compartments. Some are part oflarge protein aggregates, like the myofibrillar proteins,some are localised in membranes and others are enzymeslocalised in the cytoplasma. With the help of pre-fractionationof the proteins based on solubilisation and extractionprocedures, the enrichment of soluble sarcoplasmic or myo-fibrillar proteins can be achieved. These proteins will havevery different chemical properties which can be used to isolatethe proteins in different fractions. The development of strategy for the sample preparation protocols is mandatory to avoid any type of protein loss. Typically,approximately 1000 different proteins, or 10% of thetotal number of proteins, can be analysed on one 2-DEimage.The presence of high-abundance proteins in a tissue orcell often masks low-abundance proteins and thus generallyprevents their detection and identification in proteomestudies. The use of pre-fractionation methods can assist inthe identification and detection of low-abundance proteinsthat may ultimately prove to be informative biomarkers.For comprehensive proteome analysis by 2-DE, pre-fractionationis essential for the following reasons. First, bypartitioning the proteome into compartments, the complexityof each compartment is dramatically reduced facilitatingspot identification and quantitative analysis. Secondly,there is a pronounced bias inherent in 2-DE towards abundantproteins. This has the effect of masking low-abundanceproteins. Pre-fractionation enriches low-abundanceproteins. Thirdly, the amount of any given protein that canbe resolved on a 2-DE is limited. Pre-fractionation allowsthe proteins present in a particular fraction to be loaded athigh levels, further increasing the representation of lowabundanceproteins. Finally, relative to whole cell preparations,the number of proteins that are solubilised during thedifferential extraction procedures is greatly increased yieldinga more comprehensive representation of the proteome. The protein and peptide fractionationtechniques include stepwise extractions of proteins, immune depletion,reverse

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phase or ion-exchange chromatographyand gel filtration. The choice of techniqueis greatly dependent on the type of protein:water-soluble proteins, salt-soluble proteins

Separation by Two-Dimensional Electrophoresis: This is most commonly used in meat science for proteome profiling. There is parallel separation of individual proteins in the form of a band where spot patterns are observed and each spot represents an individual protein species that migrates to its specific coordinates, due to its specific molecular weight and charge. However, major technical improvements such as the introduction of immobilized pH gradients have been important for the reproducibility of the method (Gorget al., 2004). Technique includes separation of proteins using isoelectric focusing followed by separation by using sodium dodecyl sulphate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE). After separation, different techniques are used to visualise the proteins, resulting in a large number of spots on a 2-DE image of the gel which is subsequently digitalized. It is important to remember that both choice of protein extraction method, pH gradient in the isoelectric focusing step, and staining technology will determine which proteins can be observed and analysed. In this technique, there is good resolution of proteins but poor protein solubility, limited dynamic range of detection and thus difficult analysis

Handling of 2-DE images and statistical analysis ofproteome data from 2-DE is very complex process. Though 2-DE images are very informative, but these gel images arecomplex consisting of a very high number of more or lessoverlapping protein spots, where the position of the proteinspots may vary from one gel image to another. Furthermore,the staining intensity and background may be variablethroughout the gels and from one gel to another. Thus,the process of analysing the gel images to search for theinformation revealed by the proteins is a critical and complexstep of the process.Several commercially available softwares are designed toalign and analyse the images from 2-DE experiments. In principle, there are two differentapproaches for matching data from one gel to another. Oneapproach is to detect spots in each gel and map the resultingspots from one gel to another. This approach is bothtime consuming and it faces a number of challenges resultingin a significant number of missing values in the dataanalysis. An alternative approach is based on alignment of theimages instead of matching protein spots. When the imagesare aligned, spots can be detected across all gels simultaneouslyusing common boundaries around the spots for allgel images.Thereafter protein spot tables can be generated withoutmissing values. However, overlapping protein spots andsaturated protein spots are still major challenges for the data analysis. A useful approach to overcome these challenges is to analyse the aligned gel images pixel by pixel. Variation from one gel to another even in strongly overlapping protein spots and in saturated protein spots can then be detected. Proteome data need special attention in analysis and statistical validation of the outcome.

Mass spectrometry (MS): Mass spectrometry is a method of choice for protein identification (Yates, 2000) and characterization (Mann et al., 2001). It elucidates the structure of peptides and chemical compounds by ionizing chemical compounds to generate charged molecules or

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molecule fragments and measuring their mass-to-charge ratios. In proteomics, it is used to determine the molecular weight as well as amino acid composition of proteins at low concentrations. Since MS of proteins and peptides is a qualitative rather than quantitative method, mainly due to unpredictable ionisation capabilities of individual peptides (Lim et al., 2003) so quantification of mass spectra can be done with Isotope Coded Affinity Tag labelling (ICAT). MS also has certain limitations including high capital cost and requirement of sequence databases for analysis (Yarmush and Jayaraman, 2002).

Bioinformatics: Thousands of MS spectra are generated during a comparative proteome study, and extracting information from MS data includes multiple analytical steps, like noise extraction, mass calibration, and deconvolution of complex peak patterns, for which improved algorithms and software is continuously being created (Bendixen, 2005). Data normalisation and statistical approaches must be improved for accurate detection of differential protein expression. In addition, automatic processing and software development is needed for handling large data sets. In this respect, statistical analyses of proteome data have very much in common with data analysis of microarray based mRNA expression.

Limitations of proteomics

To ensure the experimental design is made such that it is possible to analyze the results. Choice of extraction method for the proteins is determining which proteins that can be studied, and proteins that are not extracted will thus not be considered. Very hydrophobic proteins, membrane proteins and high MW proteins are often difficult to solubilise and to analyse by 2-DE. Usually, a few hundred to several thousand proteins can be analysed in one experimental setup, but still this is only a small part of the entire proteome. Thus it is important to draw conclusions based on the proteins that are actually under investigation and not extrapolate the results to the proteins that failed to be analysed. Proteomics analysis is a costly (requiring infrastructure), difficult and time consuming process.

Applications of proteomics in meat science

In meat science proteomics is a fairly new tool. However,over the last years several studies are published where proteomics shed light on different aspects of meat, both duringthe aging process and also in response to different processingconditions. Several species have been studied, such ascattle, pork, lamb and chicken. In most of these studies 2-DE has been used in combination with MS identification ofspecific proteins as the proteomics tool.

Proteome mapping: Describing the details of proteins present in a meat sample is referred to as proteome mapping. The mapping is useful to know the type of stress related proteins and enzymes involved in oxidative metabolism. Similarly proteomic studies may also be very

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much useful to investigate changes induced by different pre-slaughter conditions. Kristensenet al., 2004, reported that compensatory growth in pigs has been associated with more tender meat. Understanding the post-mortem processing and its interaction with environmental factors may provide valuable information for optimisation of whole chain management systems for consistent meat quality. A proteome mapping study of bovine semitendinosus(ST) muscle using a combination of 2-DE and mass spectrometryallowed the detection of roughly 500 reproducibleprotein spots (Bouley et al, 2004). Of these,a total of 129 protein spots corresponding to 75 differentgene products were identified by matrix-assisted laserdesorption ionisation-time of flight (MALDI-TOF) MS.Approximately 25% of the identified proteins were involvedin metabolic pathways, while 17%, 16%, and 14.5% wereinvolved in cell structure, cell defence, and the contractileapparatus, respectively.

Proteome changes due to genetic variations: Genetic variations may cause phenotypic differences thatcan be studied using proteomics. Changes in expression ofbovine skeletal muscle proteins induced by hypertrophywere studied by proteome analyses (Bouley et al., 2004).The muscle hypertrophy was caused by a deletion in themyostatin gene, and samples from the ST muscle were takenfrom bulls that were heterozygote and homozygote for themyostatin deletion and from control bulls. The 2-DE analysisallowed the detection of 400 common protein spots, andstatistical analyses revealed 28 protein spots that differedbetween the control and the homozygote bulls, while onlyone protein differed between the control and the heterozygoticbulls. Changes of proteins in the contractile apparatusand metabolic enzymes indicate that the myostatin deletionresults in a shift towards a fast-twitch glycolytic muscletype, which is in accordance with the results from the muscle fibre type analyses performed on the same animals. This demonstrates that proteomics reflects the shifts in fibre typein the muscles.

Proteome changes due to pre-slaughter conditions: Proteomics has also been applied to investigate proteome changes induced by different pre-slaughter conditions. Type of muscle fibre: An important interrelationship exists between type of muscle fibre and certain meat quality characteristics such as juiciness, flavour, tenderness etc. Understanding of molecular mechanisms from the study of proteomics have shown that double muscling / Doppelender in cattle (Fiems et al., 1995) and the callipyge trait in sheep (Taylor and Koohmaraie, 1998) are interrelated with meat quality traits.Callipyge trait in sheep: The Callipyge mutation in sheep causes muscle hypertrophy and results in a two to threefold increase in calpastatin (Koohmaraieet al., 1995). In such muscles, the post-mortem structural changes occur at a slower rate thereby indicating the important role of the calpain/ calpastatin system in meat tenderization. Use of proteomics in this field may provide some useful information about muscle growth, post-mortem metabolism and tenderness. Meat odour: Meat odour is also an important sensory attribute that dictates the freshness of meat and depend on the pre slaughter factors as well. In pig meat, a strong objectionable odour (Boar taint) is a major problem for pork industry. The odour is due to some hormonal substances such as androstenone and skatole. To resolve this problem, a large number of transcriptomic studies have been made so

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as to find out the molecular markers which can help in recognizing animals that may develop this problem (Grindfleket al., 2010). Similarly further proteomic studies are required to throw light on the mechanism of meat spoilage and development of offensive or putrid odour.

Proteome changes due to Post-mortem Conditions:Studying post-mortem changes in the proteome will lead to an increased understanding of the biochemical mechanisms behind meat quality traits, such as tenderness. A large number of factors such as genetic, physico-chemical, histo-chemical properties, temperature etc affect post-mortem metabolism and thus meat quality. But how these factors affect meat quality, is yet to be documented convincingly. Thus proteome changes may play a crucial role in proper display of these phenomenons. Lametsch and Bendixen (2001) first demonstrated the use of proteome analysis to characterize post mortem changes in porcine muscles and they reported 15 notable changes in proteome patterns (muscle proteins of 5-200 kDa, pH span of 4-9) between samples taken from slaughter to 48 h post mortem. Morzelet al., 2004 also reported proteome changes of post-mortem processes in pork. Moletteet al., (2005) reported that turkeys (BUT9) exhibiting fast post-mortem glycolysis in breast muscle presented certain meat quality problems such as lower water holding capacity, lower processing yield and lower tenderness. However further studies are required to rule out the complex mechanisms of post-mortem metabolism.Water holding capacity (WHC): WHC is the ability of meat to retain its water during application of external forces such as cutting, heating, grinding, or pressing.It is also related to molecular mechanisms such as variant of the ryanodine receptor, and variants of the PRKAG3 gene, in commonly termed the RN gene..The proteome study of RN-gene indicated the expression profiles of several enzymes affecting the regulation of glucose transport in mutant animals (Hedegaardet al., 2004). Understanding the study of proteomics and other molecular mechanisms that influence water-holding capacity of pork, beef, mutton, chevonetc and the interrelationships between muscle growth, development, and meat quality traits, would greatly benefit production and processing technologies.Drip loss: Drip loss from fresh pork is a result of shrinkage of muscle proteins, especially actin and myosin proteins, and the following expressing of fluids from the meat.This is a serious problem in pig meat and sometimes it can be as high as 12% of the carcass weight. This not only leads to huge economic loss but also negatively affects the quality of fresh and processed meat. In pork, intermediate filament proteins play important role in meat tenderness and WHC. Creatine phosphokinase M-type (CPK) and desmin have been recognised as potential biomarkers of high percentage drip loss. Also it was observed that over expression of heat shock protein 70 (HSP70) reduced water losses by lowering the protein denaturation (Di Luca et al., 2011).Meat tenderness: Variability of tenderness is a major challenge for understanding of meat quality in meat industry. Though many factors affecting tenderness are known, a large number of Quantitative trait loci (QTL) have been determined by Burrow et al., 2001. A detailed proteomic analysis conducted by Lavilleet al., 2009, showed that during muscle aging the solubility of some cytoplasmic proteins (Heat Shock Proteins and glycolytic enzymes) decreased, some proteins were fragmented (glycolytic enzymes, structural proteins)

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and some full length proteins were released from cellular structures like membranes and myofibrillar network (actin, troponin). It is important to study the relationship between the rate of pH fall in the first hour’s post-mortem and the rate of protein insolubilization because latter has potent effect on tenderness of beef and pork. Similarly structural muscle proteins and metabolic enzymes may act as biomarkers for understanding meat tenderness. The other factors including interaction of soluble muscle proteins, pH and ion transport during post mortem phase are yet to be documented.Calpains/ calpastatin system in meat tenderisation: The calpains are calcium dependent enzymes, and they have a specific inhibitor calpastatin, also present in the sarcoplasm of muscle fibres. The role of calpains/ calpastatin system in tenderisation of meat is also very important and their activity depends on the biochemical state of the muscle post-mortem.. Recently it has been documented in a proteome study that there seems to occur specific calpain-mediated degradation patterns of myofibril proteins during the process (Lametschet al., 2004). The content of calpastatin in beef is high due to which the meat is tough as compared to other species. This field also needs further scientific interventions in terms of proteomic analysis. Meat quality: Since more than 20% of muscle mass is composed of proteins, it seems that there is some important link between muscle proteins and meat quality. However, very few proteomic studies related to a precise meat quality defects are available (Remignonet al., 2005). Doherty et al., (2004) characterised the proteome of layer chicken pectoralis muscle and showed changes in relative expression levels of several proteins during growth. The relationship of growth rate to both carcass yield and meat quality remains poorly characterised. Identification of proteome markers for muscle growth and other meat quality traits will allow for building and testing new hypothesis so as to find better solutions to challenges in production and quality. Colour of meatis the primary factor which directs the purchasing decisions of the consumer. It indicates stability or discoloration (spoilage), the two most important quality attributes in shelf life (Renerre and Labadie, 1993). A detailed proteomic analysis of the sarcoplasmic fraction of pig semimembranosus muscle indicated that over-expression of mitochondrial proteins (ATPase β subunit, NADH dehydrogenase, succinate dehydrogenase, hemoglobin and two chaperon proteins, HSP27 and alpha crystalline) significantly affected meat colour (Saydet al., 2006).

Proteome changes due to processing: The processing of meat into different value added products is an important aspect of meat industry. A wide range of protein modifications are also important for meat processing techniques like fermentation, marination, drying, heating, freezing and high pressure processing. Understanding these protein changes during processing is very important for the final quality of meat product. These molecular mechanisms are not known properly so far. Proteomics could serve as a powerful tool in explaining these and allowing optimisation of meat processing technologies (Bendixenet al., 2005). A limited number of proteomic studies are available which have identified the potent biomarkers associated with quality as a function of technological parameters. This is important to control and direct the industrial processes for production of meat products such as hams on commercial scale (Parediet al., 2012).

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Authenticity of Meat: Adulteration or blending of the superior and costly meat with inferior and less expensive meat is a common practice. In addition, the authenticity of meat is most important in case of forensic meat science and wild life protection. Though adulteration can be checked through DNA based methods (Polymerase Chain Reaction, Hybridisation assay etc) but these methods give false positive results especially between closely related species. Proteomics have also been used to detect such types of frauds by identifying specific proteins as biomarkers in chicken meat as compared to beef or pork (Sentandreuet al., 2010).Some proteomic studies in different species such as chicken (Doherty et al., 2004), turkey (Updike et al., 2006), rabbit (DalleZotte and Szendro, 2011), goat (Almeida et al., 2004) etc have been documented but their detailed studies are yet to be ascertained fully.

Future prospects

Proteomics has turned out to be a promising and powerfultool in meat science over the last years yielding informationon differences between muscles in a carcass.Furthermore, the combined approach of 2-DE and MS hasdemonstrated a great strength in studying metabolic alterations,post-mortem proteolysis, and changes induced byenvironmental and processing conditions. Proteomics is considered as the key tool to unleash the molecularmechanisms behind different genetic backgrounds or processingtechniques of meat. Although the genetic backgroundis important, the major contribution to meatquality is caused by processing and environmental conditions.Thus proteomics could be the tool to reflect theimportant mechanisms and contributions to developmentof a satisfactory meat quality. In contrast to traditionalmethods where only one or a few proteins are studied at atime, several hundred proteins can be studied simultaneouslyby proteome analysis. At present, the major focus of the workers is on the development of techniquesand mapping of proteomes according to genotypesand muscle types. In the future, focus should be directedtowards understanding variation and finding markers formeat quality traits.While proteomics yields important information by itself,the potential in linking information generated by this techniquewith other –omics techniques is vast. An integratedfunctional genomics approach can be used to monitorquantitative and qualitative differences in the transcriptome,proteome, and metabolome, creating a powerful toolto study gene function and cellular responses to externalstimuli. In meat science, this approach will be of greatimportance, since meat quality is highly influenced by externalstimuli such as environmental and processing conditions.However, linking and extracting information fromsuch large data matrices is a formidable task, and willrequire significant research attention in the coming years.Proteomics has the potentialto shift the understanding of molecular mechanismsunderlying meat quality a great leap forward.

(References can be collected from authors)

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9.0 Establishment of referral laboratory and accreditation procedure

R. J. Zende and D. M. Chavhan Department of Veterinary Public Health, Bombay Veterinary College, Parel, Mumbai

The growing challenge to secure wholesome foods of animal origin, sufficient to feed

growing population in the world during coming era, has led to compelling need for utilization of drugs and chemicals in the food animals for maintaining their health as well as enhancing their productivity. As food production is one of the largest and most export oriented industry, it is essential that harmful residues be kept out of the food. Also, foodborne illnesses continue to pose serious threat to human health and foods of animal origin are usually implicated as a vehicle for such illnesses. Production of meat and its products involves a sequence of operations from harvesting to final consumption during which they are exposed to wide variety of microorganisms and the food being a rich source of nutrients, the bacteria multiply. The growth of microbes in meat is undesirable, since they cause spoilage changes and cause foodborne diseases. Thus, detection of foodborne pathogens and residues of pesticides, antibiotics, heavy metals, hormones has become important to enable safe and wholesome supply of food. Thus, surveillance, testing and monitoring of food contaminants becomes mandatory so that timely control measure can be initiated.

Food safety is a growing concern all over the world and it demands greater assurance about the safety and quality of food to consumers. The increase in world food trade and India’s potential for higher share in international food trade in line with the World Trade Organization (WTO) Agreement especially of Sanitary and Phytosanitary (SPS) and TBT necessitates the adoption of food safety measures. Food standards are expected to acquire greater importance given increasing concerns on food safety on the back of breakout of diseases such as bacterial, viral, fungal, parasitic and the residues of different chemicals etc on the one hand, and growing consumer demand for products which are healthy on the other.

Besides, there are number of Food safety issues related to domestic and international market such as physical Hazards, chemical hazards, biological hazards, zoonotic diseases, meat adulteration/meat speciation, slaughterhouse by-products utilization and waste disposal, risk analysis studies etc.

The Indian food regulations comprise various food laws that have been enacted at different points of time and are under the ambit of various ministries. As many as eight ministries deal with food laws resulting in many standard making bodies such as BIS under the BIS Act, CCFS under the PFA Act, Food Processing Ministry under the FPO, Agriculture Ministry under AGMARK. Very often these organizations work independently of each other and there is no coordination between them. This in turn, has led to loose administration and enforcement of various laws with the result that the consumer and the processor/exporter are adversely affected. Several Ministries have legislative responsibility for the safety of food products for domestic consumption and exports. Each Ministry has prescribed its set of Rules

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under relevant Acts and Orders, often creating a confusing and sometimes contradictory environment for the industry. Therefore, the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India has been established under the Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006 as a statutory body for laying down science based standards for articles of food and regulating manufacturing, processing, distribution, sale and import of food so as to ensure safe and wholesome food for human consumption

Although there are multiple agencies involved in meat and meat products sector especially concerned with food safety, the efforts have been sporadic and not in tune with national perspective. In absence of risk assessment approach, setting regulatory standards, testing facilities for domestic sector has been quite difficult. The surveillance, testing and monitoring of meat contaminants becomes mandatory for each country for timely control measure can be initiated. Quality assured a confidence among consumers, both domestic and international and will thus facilitate the growth of meat trade within India, and will also foster export trade.

In India, all laboratories are working in isolation and independently therefore, there is a need of integrated approach for networking of all laboratories together and everything should be under one umbrella i.e., National Referral Laboratory (NRL) as a controlling authority. Therefore, there is a strong need to establish a NRL for meat and meat products’ quality standards to cater the testing requirements at national and international level. National laboratory will have all testing facilities under one roof to bridge the gap between producers and domestic/ international trade. It will improve the confidence among the customer who demand safe and wholesome meat.

The National Referral Laboratory will be analyze meat and meat products, poultry and poultry products, slaughterhouse by-products, for nutritional, physico-chemical, microbiological quality evaluation, bio-toxins, residue analysis, meat adulterants, detection of chemical contaminants, quality evaluation of water used for meat processing, food contact chemicals, risk assessment studies, monitoring of quality of meat and poultry products, etc. and other activities like Safety evaluation of slaughter house waste and its disposal standardization and food safety education and training to the slaughterhouse and other industry workers.

The organizational structure of the NRL must have well qualified staff to handle all the activities in the laboratory in an organized manner. The layout of the laboratory should have enough space for building NRL infrastructural facility alongwith space for car parking for the client, an approach road and a garden also. Laboratory should equipped with most modern and sophisticated equipment required for analysis of meat, milk, egg, fish and their products for microbiological and chemical residue analysis as per the standard operating procedures accepted nationally and internationally.

Laboratory accreditation is a procedure by which an authoritative body gives formal recognition of technical competence for specific tests/ measurements, based on third party assessment and following international standard. Formal recognition of competence of a

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laboratory by an Accreditation body in accordance with international criteria has many advantages such as 1. Increased confidence in Testing/ Calibration Reports issued by the laboratory, 2. Better control of laboratory operations and feedback to laboratories as to whether they have sound Quality Assurance System and are technically competent, 3. Potential increase in business due to enhanced customer confidence and satisfaction, 4. Customers can search and identify the laboratories accredited by NABL for their specific requirements from the NABL Web-site or Directory of Accredited Laboratories, 5. Users of accredited laboratories enjoy greater access for their products, in both domestic and international markets, 6. Savings in terms of time and money due to reduction or elimination of the need for re-testing of products.

The Government of India has authorized NABL as the accreditation body for testing and calibration laboratories. NABL is a registered society under the Societies Registration Act 1860. It operates as an autonomous body under the aegis of in the Department of Science and Technology (DST), Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India. The laboratory accreditation services to testing and calibration laboratories are provided in accordance with ISO/ IEC 17025: 2005 ‘General Requirements for the Competence of Testing and Calibration Laboratories’.

The laboratory is required to apply in the prescribed application form (NABL 151 for testing laboratories), in three copies along with two copies of the quality manual of the laboratory that should describe the management system in accordance with ISO/ IEC 17025: 2005. The application is to be accompanied with the prescribed application fee as detailed in the application form. When the recommendation results in the grant of accreditation, NABL issues an accreditation certificate which has an unique number and NABL hologram, discipline, date of validity alongwith the scope of accreditation.

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10.0 Meat consumption pattern and traditional meat products of north east region of India

 

M. Hazarika, S. K. Laskar and D. R. Nath Department of LPT, College of Veterinary Science, AAU Guwahati-22, Assam

Introduction

Before making an attempt to discuss the meat consumption pattern with special reference to traditional meat products of North East Region (NER) of India, it is felt necessary that a glimpse of the region, its people, climatic condition, traditions, habits and culture need to be informed to the people because, food habit and other culinary practices largely depend upon the above mentioned factors.

North eastern India is the amalgamation of eight states viz. Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Manipur, Nagaland, Sikkim and Tripura that shares more than 2000 Km of boarder with China, Nepal, Bhutan , Myanmar and Bangladesh. The region is connected to the rest of the country by a narrow 20 Km wide corridor of land which is coined as “Chicken Neck”” by the local people. Therefore, NER’s cuisine is highly influenced by Mongolian invasion, cuisines of Myanmar (Burma), China and South East Asian countries. The region covers an area of 7.9% of the country’s total geographical area, yet it provides shelter for only 3.8 % of the total country’s population. Approximately 225 out of 450 tribes of India reside in the region and they have more than 1200 distinct races and sub tribes within the tribes that are in record.

The entire North East is full of lush green valleys, mountains, springs, green vegetations, flora and fauna. Because of these rich natural resources the region is identified as one of the world’s biodiversity hot spot area. It is further estimated that around 52% of the total land area of this region is covered by forest.

The region shares about 5.8% of the country’s domesticated animals apart from rare varieties of wild animal species. The economy of the people largely depends upon the income generated from both crop and animal production. The people of NER have strong preference for foods of animal origin. The ethnic and tribal groups are confined to their traditional food habits and customs where consumption of meat is an integral part. They produce varieties of meat and poultry products since time immemorial. Diversity in tradition and culture among different communities in NER has resulted in large variety of traditional meat products. However, there is a large gap between the demand and supply of meat and meat products consequent to which NER imports huge quantity of fresh and processed animal foods from outside the region. To meet the ever increasing demand for meat, varieties of non-conventional meats obtained from Mithun, Yak, Deer, Rabbit, Dog, Jackal, Monkey, Tiger, Beer, Elephant, Rhinoceros, Snakes, Mongoose, Frog and Tortoise etc. are also being

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consumed frequently although wild animals are not permitted to kill under wild life protection act. In spite of this act, there is a great threat to our wildlife because of their indiscriminate killing for food purpose. With more than 90% of the NER population being non vegetarian against the national average of 70%, there is heavy demand for meat and other animal products. The people of this region have strong preference for foods of animal origin which might be due to their relationship with the mongoloid culture of South East Asian countries. It is found that mongoloid people need more iron in their blood so as to support normal respiratory process at high altitude and meat is a good source of iron. Therefore, meat consumption both from conventional and non-conventional animals is a tradition for the tribal people. On any special occasion like marriage, religious festivals, use of meat is obligatory. Possessing of large number of Mithun and Yak earns higher status by a family both socially and economically. Apart from the fresh meat production and traditional processing, a sizeable portion is preserved using their indigenous methods and ingredients. The products as well as methods of preservation vary from region to region and even among the ethnic groups. Some of the meat products are preserved years together at normal room temperature. Certainly some hidden indigenous technologies are applied which are not known to other people which need to be explored for commercial exploitation.

Often question arises why the tribal people like to consume their own indigenously processed meat products. The people of the region are not much exposed to modern meat technology. Due to difficult terrain, transportation bottleneck and economic backwardness, most of the people cannot afford to buy imported meat products because of their high cost and non-availability in the remote places. As a result, most of the people are bound to adopt and restrict themselves to their own preparation satisfying themselves with their own traditionally prepared local meat products which are comparatively cheaper. However, the meat consumers are not without problems and they often face problems like meat food poisoning probably due to wrong preservation techniques and unhygienic handling methods.

It is very interesting to note that excess meat is processed and preserved by drying or by drying cum smoking or by salting and drying with local herbs or by fermentation. It is also observed that indigenous herbs, leaves of trees, roots, seeds, liquid vegetable extracts, spices and oils are used for preservation of some meat products. Many tribal people claim that certain herbal products used in meat preservation has lypolytic, proteolytic, cholesterolytic and hepatoprotective properties. Their claim is probably true from the fact that in spite of heavy consumption of meat, few people are prone to heart problems.

The North Eastern Region can physiographically be categorized into four distinct sub regions i.e. i) Eastern Himalayan ii) North East Hill iii) Brahmaputra valley and iv) Barak Valley. The discussions held so far pertains to the tribal people residing in the hilly areas which comprised of 75% of the total population, rest 25% are non tribal and they migrated to this region and settled permanently either in the Brahmaputra valley and Barak valley of Assam and few capital cities and towns of NE states. The meat eating habits of these people are akin to the people of other states of India. It is this section of the society which consumes

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lots of exotic meat products imported from other parts of the region. Varieties of processed meat products like sausage, ham, bacon, Kentucky Fried chicken, salami, nuggets, meat loaves , kabab, kofta, tikka, lollypop, momo etc. are now available in the markets of their capital cities. However, due to their high cost, all cannot afford to buy the same although they are fond of such palatable meat products. Few meat products from other foreign countries like USA, Newzeland are also available. Considering the increasing demand for processed meats, few state Govts of the region have started establishing meat processing plants with the financial aids from MOFPI, GOI. A modest beginning has been in sight which is an encouraging trend.

Table 1. Livestock resources and meat production in NER of India

States Total Livestock (Figure in ‘000)

Total Poultry (Figure in ‘000)

Total meat production (Figure in ‘000 Tonnes)

Arunachal Pradesh 1413 1348 21 Assam 17227 29060 30 Manipur 789 2403 24 Meghalaya 1823 3093 37 Mizoram 328 1239 11 Nagaland 1419 3156 64.5 Sikkim 270 159 3 Tripura 1869 3701 14 N E Region 25138 44157 204.5 India 529698 648830 5700 % in NE Region 4.74 6.80 3.6 Source: 18th Livestock Census, Dept. of Animal Husbandry, Ministry of Agriculture, GOI, 2007-08

Table 2. Per capita consumption and requirement of meat in NE Region

States Population ( In lakh)

Meat Production (‘000 Tonnes)

Per capita consumption(Kg/annum)

Deficit / surplus (Kg/caput/annum)

Arunachal Pradesh

13.42 21 15.64 (+) 3.24

Assam 310.85 30 1.07 (-) 11.33 Manipur 30.17 24 8.90 (-) 3.50 Meghalaya 29.10 37 12.71 (+) 0.30 Mizoram 11.19 11 9.90 (-) 2.50 Nagaland 30.77 64.5 20.96 (+) 8.56 Sikkim 6.20 3 4.83 (-) 7.57 Tripura 36.35 14 4.28 (-) 8.12 N E Region 468.05 204.5 9.66 (-) 2.74 India 11500 5700 5.0 (-) 7.40 Source: Ministry of Agriculture, GOI, 2007-08. Deficit calculated on the basis of the difference between availability of meat and minimum requirement as recommended by the ICMR. (+) indicates higher consumption than the recommended one.

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Table 3. Average Expenditure (Rs.) per person per 30 days on different food items in North Eastern States for rural and urban areas

Food items NE States All India Rural Urban Average Rural Urban Average Cereal 134.87 153.54 144.20 102.19 105.61 103.90 Vegetable 45.72 60.85 53.28 32.89 44.35 38.62 Milk and Milk Products

17.02 38.27 27.64 17.60 82.98 50.29

Fish, meat & egg

63.01 89.42 76.21 18.60 27.84 23.22

Source: 60th NSSO report (2004), New Delhi

Meat consumption pattern:

The North Eastern Region of India is one of the most culturally diverse regions of the world. The tribal people mostly live and earn their livelihood from the hills and forest. Materials which are easily available like bamboo shoot, mushroom, soybean, locally available fruits, vegetables, fish and meat are the common sources for preparation of food items. A regular meal normally contains rice, fermented bamboo shoot, soybean and fermented fish or meat products. Thus, rice, vegetables along with meat is the staple foods of the ethnic people dwelling in the Himalayan region of India. Even in religious festivals, meat is invariably used by many dominant tribes of the region. Meat being a highly perishable animal food with high moisture and protein content, the ethnic people are compelled to preserve the surplus meat either by chilling (storing under snow ), by drying and smoking or by fermentation.

From the traditional food habits of the ethnic people of NER, the consumption pattern of meat or meat products can be grouped in to seven different categories.

a) Fresh meat: - The food animals are slaughtered either by its owner or by an appointed butcher and the meat is shared among the members of the family or the villagers. The fresh meat is cooked and consumed and the surplus meat is preserved by the traditional methods. In the difficult and lean periods, fleshes of wild animals are also being consumed scarcely.

b) Dried meat: - The surplus meat is either sun dried or air dried and preserved for the lean period. Varieties of other meat products are made from these dry meats.

c) Dried and smoked meat: - The surplus meat is cut into strips or pieces and kept over the fire place on a bamboo platform (A square basket made up of bamboo sticks and hung over the fire place). The meat gets dried & smoked slowly and naturally which takes about 15 – 30 days time depending upon the intensity of fire. Many other popular dishes are made from this meat which often has very long self life.

d) Dried & smoked meat with preservatives: - Apart from simple drying and smoking, use of locally available preservatives like salt, turmeric, fermented bamboo shoot, herbs and roots are very common to prolong the self life. Some of the tribes have been practicing these methods since time immemorial. They claim that meat can be stored

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years together as these preservatives possess strong antibacterial, antilypolytic & antioxidative properties. These preserved meats are prepared on washing, re-hydrating and cooking with other vegetables and taken along with rice.

e) Fermented meat: - The diverse ethnic groups prepare & consume a variety of fermented meat products since a long period. Although these people do not have advanced scientific knowledge, yet, they have been preparing such fermented meat foods based on their experience & traditional knowledge. Scientific studies of these products revealed that diverse microbial organisms range from enzyme and alcohol producing yeasts and moulds to lactic acid producing gram negative and gram positive bacteria with biological functions take part in the fermentation process. These meat foods are even marketed in different North East Indian markets.

f) Non-fermented processed meat products: Varieties of non-fermented meat products prepared from meat with local vegetables, herbs and spices are available. Among them indigenously produced blood sausage, animal by-products with rice flour, maize or fruits, dry meat powder with herbs and special preparation from animal fats preserved in dry gourd or bamboo containers are important. Shelf life of these products ranges from a few days to few months.

g) Modern processed meat products: Some of the popular meat products prepared from pork, chicken chevon and mutton are available in the capital cities and towns of the region. These products are mostly brought from outside the NE region and from other countries. Of late a modest beginning has been made by the Assam Livestock and Poultry Corporation under PPP mode for commercial manufacturing of meat products under the brand name Pinecone meat products.

On analysis of available data in respect of annual meat production in NER, it is observed that the highest meat production is recorded in Nagaland followed by Meghalaya, Assam, Manipur and Arunachal Pradesh. Around 3.6% of total meat produced in the country is recorded in this region. While looking into the per capita consumption of meat, Nagaland topped the list with 20.96kg/annum followed by Arunachal Pradesh (15.64kg/annum) and Meghalaya (12.71kg/annum). Assam’s position (1.07kg/annum) is in the bottom of the list. Few states (with + symbol) even consume higher quantity of meat than the one (34g/ caput/day) recommended by the ICMR. On the whole, consumption of meat in NER is far better than the national average. Another notable finding is that the people of NER spent three times more for fish, meat and egg and two times less for milk and milk products as compared to national average as reported by the National Sample survey Organisation. Moreover, a large number of traditional meat products are being prepared and consumed by the people of this region. All such products are highly in demand and command remunerative prices in the meat markets of NER. Here is a list of different traditional meat products of NER

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Table 4. Certain traditional meat products of NER with their colloquial term, origin and type

Sl. No.

Name of the product Origin Type and description of the product

1 Adin Arunachal Pradesh Smoked dried pork, beef or mithun meat with fermented bamboo shoot

2 Ar sa ret Mizoram Dry smoked chicken

3 Ashi kioki Naga tribes, Assam Thinly sliced dried pork taken with fermented bamboo shoot /soybean

4 Arjia Western part of Himalaya & Sikkim

Soft brown sausage type Mutton product taken as curry

5 Bai Mizoram Pork with spinach and bamboo shoot taken as curry with rice

6 Bagjinam Sema Naga of Nagaland

Fermented pork taken as curry

7 Cheu Deuri community of Assam

Semi-Boiled pork pieces smeared with turmeric, red chilli and salt woven in bamoo sticks & roasted over fire (Charcoal)

8 Chilu Sikkim, Ladak and Bhutan

Fat of yak/Beef/Lamb stored in empty stomach of sheep used as edible oil

9 Dawng sa ret Mizoram Dry smoked beef used as curry 10 Doh klong Meghalaya Small pieces of boiled pork with local spices-

fried in oil & hot served 11 Doh khleik Meghalaya Pig brain and head meat with bamboo shoot and

spices and fried in oil 12 Doh kpu Meghalaya Finely minced pork-mixed with onion, garlic

,green chillies and local spices- meat balls - - fried in oil & served with rice

13 Doh snam Meghalaya Blood-filled in intestine with spices.-cooked for ½ an hour taken as blood sausage

14 Doh Snier Meghalaya Cleaned intestine filled with molten fat, moist cooked ,spices and turmeric added to improve shelf-life

15 Doh pheret Meghalaya Small cut pieces from edible and inedible organs-cooked ina pot for long time with spices and served hot

16 Doh tyrkhong Meghalaya Smoked-dried pork/beef 17 Eg-adin banum Mising community of

Assam Pork pieces mild cooked- marinated with local spices and condiments-woven in bamboo sticks-roasted over fire until turns into golden brown

18 Honohein/Mongong grain

Dimasa tribe of Karbi anglong

Dried pork/buffalo meat used for curry preperation

19 Kheuri Sikkim Meat product prepared from Yak or Beef chopped intestine in empty stomach of sheep, taken as curry or side dish

20 Kargyong Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh,Darjeeling

Soft or hard brownish sausage like product prepared from yak/Beef/Pork ,taken as curry or side dish

21 Momo All the states of North Eastern Region

Flour with water-dough, small balls are rolled, filled with pre fried minced meat with spices-steam cooked and served with sauce

22 Ngam phoat Arunachal pradesh Dry smoked meat covered with salt and turmeric paste

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23 Ngam Toongpak Arunachal pradesh Pork small pieces with bamboo shoot–kept inside a tightly covered bamboo hollow container. Long shelf life

24 Noau soum Assam Boiled rice smeared over the boiled pork pieces filled tightly in bamboo cans and sealed-fermentation occurs within few days and acts as preservative

25 Pakku Tripura Mutton curry with rice 26 Sathu North cachar hills of

Assam Pieces of pork fat-half boiled –kept inside the sathu (Water gourd) container -kept near the fire for 4-5 days- long shelf life-used in curry.

27 Saphak North cachar hills of Assam

Boiled fats of pork-kept in air tight bottle and used in curry preparation

28 Suka ko maso Sikkim, and Darjeeling

Mutton or buffalo meat-smoked dried taken as curry, side dish or grilled meat

29 Sun/Yen akangha Manipur Dried beef/chicken product Sun/Yen ayaiba Manipur Smoked beef/chicken

30 Satchu Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh,Darjeeling

Yak meat or Beef smoked dried, hard brownish taken as curry or side dish

31 Tambe-Akom Misimi tribe of Arunachal Pradesh

Small pork pieces mixed with ginger, garlic and salt paste stuffed into bamboo hollow container- burnt in fire-cool & consume in slice form

32 Yoo-Aso Apatani tribes of Arunachal Pradesh

Pork back fat with skin treated with a herbal preparation called pila (Extract of ash of millet and a local fern) – long shelf life

33 Zadoh snam Meghalaya Fresh beef/pork blood mixed with half cooked rice and fried in oil for 5-6 minutes with local spices

Source: Personal collection of the authors

Conclusion: The North Eastern Region of India is a cluster of eight states with innumerable ethnic groups and culturally diverse tribal people basically originated from Tibeto-Burma, Indo-Mongoloid and South East Asian races. Because of their closeness to the people of those regions, the food habits are also similar to South East Asian Countries. Meat being the staple food, varieties of traditional meat products is being prepared and available in this region. Although the per capita consumption of meat is higher than the national average, there exists a large gap between supply and demand compelling the people to import large volume of meat products from outside. The region also spends a good share of their income to purchase non-vegetarian food items particularly meat and meat products. The region is bestowed with several indigenous meat products thereby providing enough opportunities and scope to export these products to the neighbouring South East Asian countries. Proper documentation and R&D works will certainly help in popularization and expanding this venture even to other developing and developed countries. It is also equally important to discourage the consumption of meat of non-conventional wild animals which could be achieved by increasing the production of conventional meat animal species. In this endeavour, the region needs adequate financial patronage, guidance and good will from the Central Government.

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11.0 Innovations in the rapid detection of meat-borne pathogens of public health significance

Madhavaprasad C. B. and Nagappa S. Karabasanavar

Department of VPH, Veterinary College, Shivamogga, Karnataka    

Global trade of meat and meat products and the epidemiological situations of meat borne diseases/ epidemics in different countries / geographical regions have prioritized the biological hazards (pathogens or their metabolites / toxins) as one of the most common and frequently encountered health risks derived from meat and meat products. Especially, species of Salmonella, Clostridia, Listeria, E. coli O157: H7, Campylobacter, Vibrio, Staphylococcus, Aeromonas, Yersinia, Trichinella, Cryptosporidium, food borne viruses (Rota, Norwalk, Astro and other enteroviruses), mycotoxins, etc have drawn considerable attention in meat and meat products in the recent times (in the era of liberalization, privatization and globalization). This has roots in the evolution of meat consumption patterns over the centuries, that from the act of hunting and serving meat to limited individuals (raw or cooked) into a system of mass production, processing, packaging and distribution to a large population distributed over a wide geographical area. Nevertheless, this development is not uniform across the globe by virtue of social, political, technological developments and economical reasons. Hence, today we see a gradient of food production, processing, preservation, distribution, sanitary practices and consumption patterns. This determines the varying levels of incidence or prevalence of meat borne diseases in different geographical regions. Hence, the food safety objectives must be ensured at various levels of meat supply chain in-line with the farm-to-fork approach.

Meat-borne pathogens are widespread both in developing and developed countries (extent varies) and have public health and economic implications necessitating their prompt detection. These pathogens in meat or meat products have regulatory implications that have trade related issues; not only that, the benchmark for achieving food safety objectives is determined by two principal factors namely appropriate level of protection (ALOP) to the consumers and the concept of ALARA (as low as reasonable achievable). Hence, their presence in meat/ food must be detected, quantified, the risk must be analyzed; risk characterization has to be done and risk has to be communicated to the stakeholders as early as possible without loss of time.

However, the detection of meat borne pathogens is not simple owing to several complex factors related to the growth and multiplication of the agent in the meat and the technology available for their rapid detection. One of the gold standards in associating involvement of a meat product contaminated with a pathogen of food borne disease is the isolation of the respective agent in the laboratory which normally takes a minimum of week. By that time either the epidemic of the disease subsides or it may lead to preparative epidemic owing to the lack of rapid diagnosis in its control. Additionally, other factors like improper diagnosis or lack of diagnosis lead to under-reporting and hence the exact prevalence or incidence of a disease is not documented. Laborious conventional techniques hamper systematic surveillance and monitoring programs, epidemiological studies and creation of database on meat borne pathogens. Once these objectives are met, we will be able to disseminate the pertinent data into the public domain for appropriate safety measures and precautions.

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The rapid detection of pathogens becomes imperative especially under the present circumstances where food moves globally in a rapid / fast manner putting the health of the public with no risk / minimum risk. Rapid detection of pathogens helps in quick management decisions, risk eliminations, cutting down of the cost, quick recall of the product (which is already in the supply chain), quality assurance and putting in place the total quality management system.

Scientists are working on innovative rapid detection techniques / systems for the past 2-3 decades, for instance rapid detection of Salmonella species using ELISA (BioEnzabeadTM, Salmonella-TekTM, BacTraceTM, TROLTM, etc), Staphylococcus aureus (Bommeli SET-EIA, RidascreenTM, TECRA, TRANSIA, VIDAS, etc) and Clotridium perfringens (IMS-ELISA), etc. Some rapid tools are available for pathogen / toxin characterization and quantification, identification of virulence and antibiotic resistance markers. Technological innovations in pathogen detection make use of a single or combination of techniques such as Antibody based assays, Nano detection, Bioluminescence, Biosensors, Electro immunoassay, enzyme assays (ELISA), Immune diffusion, Immunochromatography, Immunomagnetic separation, Immunoprecipitation, Latex agglutination, Microarray analysis and Nucleic acid based assays (DNA hybridization, Polymerase chain reaction, Probe assays, etc).

These tools are used at academia for research, development and validation purpose, and industry for ensuring quality assurance. However, these tools are not employed or sparingly employed for surveillance/ monitoring of food borne pathogens and its database creation and networking. Though principally the food industry people and the academia agree to farm-to-fork approach; however, on practical basis, visibility of that approach in an integrated fashion is not seen throughout the supply chain and only segmented approach is evident at production and processing systems. This necessitates urgent need for application of rapid pathogen detection tools throughout the meat supply chain and to meet the specific food safety objectives.

Conclusion:

There have been unprecedented technological innovations in the rapid detection of pathogens in foods including meat and meat products which has overcome the limitations of conventional techniques. Rapidity in detection of meat borne pathogens throughout the meat supply chain helps to meet the specific food safety objectives and implementation of the concept of ALOP and ALARA. The need of the hour is to use these rapid techniques widely for systematic surveillance and monitoring of meat borne pathogens or their metabolites.

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12.0 Role of predictive microbiology as a tool for ensuring food safety

A. S.Yadav Department of PHT, Central Avian Research Institute, Izatnagar

In the recent years there has been increase in the outbreaks of food-borne pathogens in recent years. Therefore, ensuring safety of food by controlling microbial food quality right from production stage as raw material till the product reaches to the consumer is not only important to meet the fundamental demand of consumers who want food to be safe and healthy preserving the nutritional and sensorial attributes but also from export point of view for meeting the standards at international level. The reasons of increasing trend in outbreaks of food-borne pathogens are numerous: increase in vulnerable population, change in consumer life style, aging of population, modification of commercial and industrial practices, and increase in transcontinental travel and development of sensitive detection techniques.

This invites for the food manufacturers to develop knowledge about the hazardous associated with pathogenic microorganisms in food to improve their risk analysis. This type of knowledge is usually based on experimental methods describing the role of various factors in controlling the growth of food-borne pathogens. This consists of the study of the behavior of the contaminant population in a given food product under different environmental conditions (e.g. temperature and duration of storage). This knowledge is gained from limited number of experiments because of time required and cost involved. Moreover, this knowledge is based upon the limited number of risk conditions (type of bacteria studied, level of bacterial population, limited number of breaks of cold chain etc.). This type of knowledge obliges food producers to maximize the food safety margins (e.g., important heat treatments), however, this may be incompatible with the improvement of nutritional attributes of foods.

Due to this reason, microbiologists would like to improve their approach by using new tools for modeling and simulation. Some models have been in use with the aim to describe the effect of temperature and heat treatments on microbial destruction. However, it is only since 1980’s that the first mathematical model have been built to simulate the complete behavior of microorganisms (growth, lag and decrease phase) in food products under process.

During production of food product till the product is distributed and consumed, there is succession of different stages and during these stages some of the points can be described as critical from point of view of contamination of microorganisms. At each of these points, microbial contamination or multiplication can occur. If we consider that a contamination occurs at a given initial level during one of these critical steps, predictive microbiology consists of a simulation of the behavior of this contamination from the starting point to a given time taking into consideration variations of process conditions. The predictive microbiology gas four major objectives in general.

1. Predictive microbiology approach allows the microbial hazard to be predicted, which improves the choices used to prevent and control microorganisms.

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2. It allows quantification of risk, so as to improve the accuracy of data collected. 3. It is used to optimize the experimental design, which allows the expansion of

investigation domain, reduces delay and cost. 4. Predictive microbiology approach also improves communication between experts and

managers thereby support debate for safe guarding food safety from micro biological point of view.

Modeling of microbial pathogens in food

Since microorganisms are easily dispersed, display physiologic diversity, and tolerate extreme conditions, they are ubiquitous and may contaminate and grow in many food products and their response to the environmental factors can be quantified. The growth, survival or death of microorganisms in food are affected by many factors, both intrinsic and extrinsic. These include : intrinsic factors such as pH, NaCl, sugars, phosphates, nitrites, water activity, nutrient level,, and extrinsic factors such as temperature, atmosphere 9i.e. aerobic, anaerobic and modified atmosphere), and relative humidity. By manipulating one or more of these factors, it is possible to alter the growth behavior of microorganisms in foods. For example, extending lag and generation time of microorganisms, increasing sensitivity of microbial cells or spores to inactivation technology, or preventing spore outgrowth and toxin production. By quantifying the effects and interactions of such multiple food factors, predictive mathematical models can be developed to predict growth or inactivation behavior of microorganisms in foods. It is based on the assumption that the response of microorganisms to these factors are reproducible and can be characterized and quantified. Steps for the development of models include experimental design, data collection, model development, model validation and development of an effective interface between the models and end-user. The following describe some basic knowledge regarding microbiological growth and inactivation that the user should be familiar with:

Phases of bacterial growth:

The level of microorganisms in food is controlled by various factors, including the initial contamination level, level of nutrients, temperature, pH, water activity, additives, and the presence of other microorganisms. In food microorganisms can increase in number (grow), decrease in number (inactivate or die) or remain at the same level (survive). Predictive models can be developed for each of these types of bacterial behavior. Microbial growth can be segmented into three different phases: lag phase, growth phase and stationary phase.

a) Lag Phase(lag phase duration): Lag phase can be defined as the time required for the cell population to adjust to the food environment or a new environment priotr to replication(growth).lag phase is the most unpredictable part of a growth curve compared to growth and stationary phases. This is because Lag phase is not only detected by innate properties of the cell, but also by the previous physiological state (history) of the microorganisms. For example, the lag phase duration (LPD) of bacteria grown at 37oC in culture media and then transferred to raw ground beef at

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10oC will be different than the LPD of bacteria grown at 21.1oC. This is because the previous environment of bacteria will result in different cellular constituents that need to be made before the growth commences in a new environment. LPD was reported to be higher in brain heart infusion broth as compared to the values in sterile raw ground beef (Tamplin et al, 2005). Thus, the predictions from the models developed from the data collected in broth cannot be applied to another substrate.

b) Growth Phase: the growth phase represents the replication (multiplication) of microorganisms. The cell numbers are increasing at such a rate that it is best to use logarithm values to represent them graphically. Growth is sometimes described in terms of growth rate of generation (doubling) time. Growth rate is expressed as the change microbial population per unit time. The generation time (GT) is the time (usually stated in hours or days) that takes for one cell to divide and become two cells. The generation time is referred to as the doubling time for the entire population. In a population of bacterial species, not all cells divide at the same time or at the same rate. Generally, bacteria have longer generation times in food systems than in bacteriological broth media. To convert GT to growth rate , simply divide 0.301 (log

10 value of 2) by the generation time. On the other hand , growth rate is the change in bacterial numbers over some period of time, typically expressed as log 10 per hour or day. To convert growth rate to generation time, divide 0.301 by the growth rate.

c) Stationary phase and maximum population density: Stationary phase is the phase that microbial growth ceases and the number of cells reaches the maximum population density (MPD). Microbial growth ceases due to the presence of other bacteria, exhaustion of nutrients, or the production of inhibitory factors such as toxic metabolites, low pH, and depletion of essential growth factors (jay, 20000. In most foods, a typical MPD is 9-10 log 10 (1 to 10 billion) cells per gram or per milliliter of food.

d) Death phase: Bacteria die in a food after reaching the stationary phase due to the depletion of nutrients and the presence of toxic metabolites produced during the growth phase.

Bacterial inactivation:

Bacteria are inactivated or killed, when environmental conditions are adverse to bacterial survival. These conditions can cause acute inactivation as with high temperature, or mild inactivation, (slow), as observed with low levels of organic acids. The shape of the inactivation curve may vary, depending on the organism and the environmental conditions. Conditions may cause immediate death or linear reduction of bacterial cells, or a period of no death followed by a graduate death of bacterial cells. The study carried out in minced chicken meat on thermal destruction of Salmonella indicated that Salmonella at different temperatures (55, 60, 65 and 71oC) showed no lag period and there was immediate decline phase.(Juneja et al., 2011), however, in other food matrix the scenario may be different with presence of lag phase followed by inactivation.

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Linear inactivation phase: Linear inactivation scenario, the log10 value of cell number vs. time is plotted. In the linear phase of inactivation, the rate (slope of line) of inactivation depends on the severity of the effectors (such as heat). The thermal inactivation is referred to in terms of the decimal reduction time, or D-value. It is the time for the microbiological population to decrease by 90% 9 10 fold or 1.0 log10) at a specific heating temperature. The D-value is the absolute value of the inverse of the rate (slope) of cell reduction when reductions were plotted against heating. The D-values are also affected by incorporation of other antimicrobial in food products as seen by Juneja et al (2011) where the D-values were lower for Salmonella in the minced chicken meat at all temperatures (55, 60, 65 and 71oC) in the samples incorporated with trans-cinnamaldehyde or carvacrol. Another term related to thermal inactivation is the z-value. It describes the change in heating temperature that causes a 90% (or 10 fold) reduction in the D-value. The z-value is commonly used to calculate the process lethality.

Shoulders and tails: The kinetics of both thermal and non-thermal inactivation may display a lag-like period, some times referred to as “shoulders”, that proceeds the liners inactivation phase. For thermal inactivation scenarios, this is commonly observed at low temperatures and when using higher cell concentrations. It has been theorized that this represents a sub-population of cells that are more thermotolerant, which is more likely to be observed at high inoculums levels. Shoulders may result from inaccurate measurements of the internal temperatures of the matrix during temperature “come up” time, the use of mixed cultures, cell clumping, and cell multiple–hit mechanism. In some instances, the linear phase of inactivation does not intercept the x-axis, but instead transitions to a curve referred to as a “tail”. Such tails are more commonly observed with higher inoculums levels. It has been observed that tails represent a subpopulation of bacteria that are more thermally resistant as seen in a study carried out recently on inactivation of Salmonella in minced chicken meat.(Juneja et al., 2011),

Types of models: for application in prediction of growth or inactivation profile of bacteria in food matrix;

a) Primary models: After the experimental protocol is established, and experiments are conducted, cell number vs. time data are collected for each of the test conditions. The data are fitted and analyzed by curve-fitting programmes to develop a best-fit line to the data to obtain parameters of microbial growth characteristics. For growth data, these may include lag phase duration, growth rate and maximum population density for the microorganisms. For inactivation data, these may include initial “ shoulder” a linear reduction in cell number (inactivation rate), and possibly a “tail”. D-values for Salmonella in minced chicken meat in a study carried out by Juneja et al (2011) were calculated by determining the line of best fit by linear regression analysis and the sensitive and resistant Salmonella populations were determined by fitting the regression lines to survivor curves that exhibited tailing by a logistic function using a curve fitting programme.

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b) Secondary models: Secondary models are derived from the parameters (e.g. lag time, growth/inactivation rate, maximum population density) obtained from the primary models. Secondary models describe the change the primary model parameters as a function of the environment factors that are examined in the in the experimental studies. For example, a secondary model describes the growth rate of a pathogen in a food as a function of storage temperature, or growth rate as a function of salt concentration, water activity, storage temperature, In thermal inactivation of microorganisms, the z-value is a type of secondary model that describes the change in D-value as a function of temperature. Secondary models can be simple linear regression as seen in Salmonella inactivation studies .(Juneja et al., 2011) or complex polynomial models.

The ultimate aim of developing primary and secondary models is to estimate and predict bacterial growth or inactivation rate in a food product so that the intervention strategies can be applied at critical control points for producing microbiologically safe food.

(References can be collected from authors)

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13.0 Bacterial cultures in processing and preservation of meat

R. N. Borpuzari Department of LPT, College of Veterinary Science, AAU, Gawahati, Assam

The manipulation of compositional and other factors through the use of microorganisms to initiate or encourage a specific meat fermentation process is a practice that is as old as the art of meat preparation itself. Although unaware of the mechanism of the action, man had relied upon fermentation for centuries as an effective method of meat preservation. The scientific rationale behind fermentation started with the identification of microorganisms in 1665 by Van Leeuwenhoek and Hooke (Gest, 2004).

According to Liepe (1982) and Geisen et al. (1992), the pioneering work in the application of microbial cultures in meat fermentation for production of raw smoked and raw dried meat were attempted by Cesari (1919), Cesari and Guilliermond (1920) and Kürk (1921). Jensen (1935) and Jensen and Paddock (1940) used 40 different strains of lactobacilli in industrial production of American-style raw-smoked sausages. Niven et al. (1955) used Pediococcus cerevisiae as meat starter culture for production of raw-dried sausages. Niinivaara (1955) for the first time demonstrated the beneficial effect of application of Micrococcus M53 in meat fermentation.

In meat processing and preservation, microbial interventions are employed primarily as starter cultures and as biopreservative cultures. Meat starter cultures are selected pure microbial cultures comprising of single or two or more microbial species. By the action of the enzymes produced by the starter cultures, a series of biochemical and physico-chemical changes are induced under typical conditions of fermentation (Liepe, 1982; Lücke and Hechelmann, 1987; Geisen et al., 1992; Incze, 1992). Biopreservation is the extension of shelf life and food safety by use of live cells natural or controlled microbiota (biopreservation) and/or their antimicrobial compounds (bioprotection). One of the most common forms of food biopreservation is fermentation, a process based on the growth of microorganisms in foods, whether natural or artificially added. While improvement in the sensory properties, reduction of the duration of the technological process and ensuring uniformity of the product are the primary considerations for use of starter cultures, biopreservative cultures are primarily employed for enhanced safety of the product. Nevertheless, depending on the biochemical characteristics of the microorganism, same microbial cultures may be used for either of the two purposes.

Until recently, approaches to seek improved food safety relied on the search for more efficient chemical preservatives or on the application of more drastic physical treatments. Nevertheless, these types of solutions do have inherent drawbacks – toxicity of many chemical preservatives (e.g. nitrites), alteration of the sensory and nutritional properties of

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meat and especially the demand for minimally processed meats without additives have led to application of microbial cultures for improving the food safety standards of meat and meat products. The bacterial pathogens that account for majority of the food borne infection and intoxications include Salmonella, Campylobacter jejuni, Escherichia coli 0157:H7, Listeria monocytogenes, Staphylococcus aureus and Clostridium botulinum (Buzby et al., 1996).

Lücke (1999) listed the 4 basic purposes of addition of meat starter cultures as:

i. ‘Safety’ – inactivation of pathogens.

ii. ‘Stability’ – extension of shelf-life by inhibiting undesirable changes brought about by spoilage microorganisms or abiotic reactions (e.g. lipid oxidation)

iii. ‘Diversity’ – fermentation of the raw material to induce desirable changes of the sensory properties and

iv. ‘Health Benefits’ – through beneficial effect of the intestinal flora.

Meat starters should be nonpathogenic (Deibel, 1974; Porubcan and Sellars, 1979; Geisen et al., 1992), should be able to grow and multiply optimally in meat under conditions of storage and processing - should be able to grow at high concentration of salt and temperature of ripening and drying, should be able to improve organoleptic quality and microbiological stability of the product. Essentially, meat starter cultures should be homofermentative and should able to grow at low pH (Deibel, 1974; Coretti, 1977). Meat starter cultures should possess mild proteolytic and lipolytic activities as production of free amino acids, volatile fatty acids, carbonyl compounds are concerned with improvement of the aroma and flavour quality of the meat products (Winter, 1980; Leistner, 1991a; Geisen et al., 1992). Leistner (1985) emphasized that the meat starter culture should have antibacterial activity against spoilage and pathogenic organisms present in meat. The different microorganisms of the mix culture should exert synergistic effect against each other (Coretti, 1977; Leistner, 1991b; Incze, 1992). Lücke and Hechelman (1987) suggested that the meat starters should not produce antibiotics which may adversely affect the natural microflora of the human hut system.

Geisen et al. (1992) and Incze (1992) emphasized that the meat starter cultures should have a shorter lag phase and should be able to grow faster at the beginning of production process and remain the dominating flora all throughout the production process. Hammes and Knauf, (1992) reported that the desirable characteristics of different strains of microorganisms could be transferred to a single strain through genetic engineering. The first successful attempt was made by Geisen and Leistner (1989) by successfully transferring the gene for production of lysostaphin by Staphylococcus staphylolyticus to the mould culture Penicillium nalgiovense. Similar attempts were also made by Gaier et al. (1992) with lactobacilli.

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Microbial Antagonism and Meat Safety:

Fredrickson and Stephanopoulos (1981) have made a detailed review on the possible mechanisms of microbial antagonism and Jay (1996) has classified the following mechanisms of microbial antagonism:

i. Production and excretion of substances those are inhibitory or lethal to other microbial cells. This is the primary basis of antagonism by lactic acid bacteria and the bacteriocins are among the principal substances. In addition to bacteriocins, LAB may produce H2O2, diacetyl and acetoin at levels high enough to be inhibitory; and pH depression is a common feature.

Bacteriocins are peptides and are produced by strains of all genera of LAB that are of relevance to meat fermentation. They inactivate undesired bacteria in meat without affecting the sensory quality of the product. Bacteriocins formed by LAB inhibit Listeria but only few are effective against Bacillus, Clostridium and Staphylococcus (Abee et al., 1995; Stiles, 1996; Schillinger et al., 1996 and Hugas, 1998). It has been shown that Gram-ve bacteria such as Salmonella become sensitive to bacteriocins in presence of chelating agents which permeabilize the outer membrane (Stevens et al., 1991) or by sub-lethal heating or freezing (Kalchayanand et al., 1992).

In meat fermentation, organic acids produced by LAB and the concomitant decrease of pH are responsible for the preservation effect. Lactic and acetic acids are the major acids produced by meat starter cultures. Because the specific antimicrobial effect of an acid depends largely on the concentration and lipophilicity of its undissociated form, acetic acid has a stronger antimicrobial effect than lactic acid at the same concentration and the same pH in the range of 3-7. Propionic acid is even more effective but its producers, propionic acid bacteria, are not competitive at all in meats. Other acids like formic acid are formed only in low amounts and are unlikely to contribute to meat preservation. Sensitivity to organic acids varies between different bacteria and also depends on the simultaneous action of other factors such as water activity and nitrite. Thus, small differences in acid concentrations have a major effect on acid-sensitive microorganisms such as Listeria monocytogenes (Lücke, 1999).

Other primary metabolites of LAB such as diacetyl (Helander et al., 1997), benzoic acid and some heterocyclic organic compounds (Niku-Paavola et al., 1999) have been shown to be inhibitory, but only at much higher concentration than are normally formed during meat fermentation.

ii. Competition for the attachment/ adhesion site. The ‘Nurmi Concept’ or competitive exclusion (Nurmi and Rantala, 1973) to prevent salmonellae and campylobacters from colonizing the gut of young chicken is the best example of this mechanism.

iii. Rendering the environment unfavourable/ undesirable to others. The microbial environment can be rendered unfavourable not only by the production of bacteriocins and the like, but also by changes in oxidation-reduction potential and pH.

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iv. Competition for oxygen and nutrients. Refrigerated ground meats that are not packaged in gas impermeable films spoil by the growth of their aerobic bacterial biota and not by the aerobic fungi that are usually present. Since the bacteria grow faster than the fungi, they out-compete the latter for oxygen. Troller and Frazier (1963) attributed the inhibition of Staph. aureus by two saprophytic bacteria to the ability of the latter to out-compete the former for amino acids. Under anaerobic conditions, serine was found to be important in the inhibition of Salmonella Typhumurium by a chicken caecal bacterium (Ha et al., 1994).

v. Combination of the above. The failure of a pathogen to grow in fresh ground beef at a favourable temperature may be the consequence of all of the above; inhibitory substances, lack of adhesion, competition for nutrients and excretion of unfavourable substances.

Lactic Acid Bacteria:

Homofermentative lactobacilli are used as starter culture primarily due to their ability to breakdown the added carbohydrates to lactic acid. Production and accumulation of lactic acid causes rapid fall in the pH values to 5.2 to 4.9 thus helping in formation of typical flavour and aroma and improvement in textural properties of the product due to coagulation of meat protein at low pH (Acton et al., 1977; Hammes et al., 1985).

Lactobacilli are also important for their antibacterial activity against pathogenic microorganisms like Salmonella (Master et al., 1981), Staphylococcus (Vignolo et al., 1989), Clostridium (Tanaka et al., 1980), Listeria monocytogenes (Cintas et al., 1992), Yersinia enterocolitica (Nielsen and Zeuthen, 1985) and Pseudomonas (Guerrero et al., 1989). They also possess inhibitory effect against non-sporeforming and sporeforming bacteria Enterobacteriaceae and enterococci (Brankova and Yankov, 1985), psychotropic bacteria of the family Enterobacteriaceae and Brochothrix thermosphacta (Schillinger and Lücke, 1989), enterohaemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EHEC) (Incze, 1998; Kofoth et al., 1998; Stiebing et al., 1998).

In the production schedule of fermented sausages, employing of temperature above 20oC, lactobacilli find an important application (Lücke and Hechelmann, 1987). Normally, lactobacilli do not reduce nitrate; however, many species of L. plantarum are reported to possess nitrate reductase activity, which is evident at pH level above 6.0 and that too in presence of added carbohydrate (Rogosa, 1961).

P. acidilactici and P. pentosaceus are homofermentative bacteria and are important species of meat starter cultures (Smith et al., 1975a). These organisms also possess antibacterial activity against undesirable saprophytes and pathogenic bacteria (Pucci et al., 1988). Pediococci do not produce H2O2 and can not reduce nitrate.

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Dose of starter cultures is important to derive optimal fermentation benefits. Meat starter cultures should be added in the sausage mix at the level of 106 to 107 live cells per gram (Hammes et al., 1985; Lücke, 1987; Niinivaara, 1991) so as to make them the dominating flora at the beginning of the technological process to ensure desirable characteristics of the meat products.

The factors influencing the number and activity of starter cultures are - the type of organisms consisting of the starter cultures (Bacus, 1984), type of raw material and their microbiological quality (Katsaras and Leistner, 1988), the curing ingredients and spices used - primarily due to their bacteriostatic and bacteriocidal effects (Demeyer et al., 1987), type of added carbohydrate (Acton et al., 1977), the technological parameters employed etc. (Stiebing and Rödel, 1990).

Micrococci and Staphylococci:

Niinivaara (1955) first used micrococci as meat starter culture with the strain M53.

Since then a number of micrococci and non-pathogenic staphylococci have been used as meat starter cultures primarily as a component of mixed culture with LAB (Montel et al., 1992). Micrococci are used as meat starter culture primarily due to their nitrate reductase activity (Lücke and Hechelmann, 1987). Some strains of micrococci and staphylococci can also reduce nitrite due to the actions of nitrite reductase enzymes (Lücke, 1985).

Nitrite reduction is a complex biochemical process depending largely on the pH value (5.2 to 5.6) and the temperature of the medium (4 to 50C) (Teruya et al., 1976). High initial microbial contamination, presence of oxidative substances, oxidation-reduction potential of the medium exert considerable influence in the biochemical process. The process of nitrate reduction takes place optimally under anaerobic condition (Teruya et al., 1976). Sometimes certain undesirable metabolites may be formed in to the meat mass such as elementary nitrogen, ammonia, and nitric acid during the process of nitrate reduction (Liepe, 1982; Wirth, 1986).

Schörmuller and Schilling (1965) observed that for effective nitrate reductase activity of micrococci when used as a constituent of a mixed culture, the pH value and temperature should be around 7.0 and 300C, respectively.

Puolanne et al. (1977) reported that the strain Micrococcus M III showed maximum nitrate reductase activity at pH 6.0 and there was a gradual decline in nitrate reductase activity when the pH of the medium was reduced to 5.6 and at temperature below 10oC but gradually increased up to 440C.

Micrococci are also required to be inoculated at a large dose. Optimally, the inoculum dose should be 106 to 107 cfu/g (Niinivaara, 1991). The number, however, depends on the activity of the strains of the organisms employed (Lücke, 1987).

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One of the important considerations of micrococci over staphylococci is that when applied as starter culture, these organisms exert maximum nitrate reductase activity at temperatures below 15oC (up to 5oC) (Meisel, 1988) (cited by Hammes and Knauf, 1992). Hammes (1986), however, reported that staphylococci exhibited significantly quicker nitrate reductase activity at temperature below 15oC. In addition to taking part in accelerating colour formation and stabilization, mixed starter cultures possessing nitrate reductase activity also reduce the concentration of residual nitrate and nitrite significantly (Pfeil and Liepe, 1973).

Studies have revealed that application of mixed bacterial cultures comprising primarily of lactobacilli and micrococci could significantly reduce the residual concentrations of nitrate and nitrite (Gerigk and Gossling, 1981).

Micrococci and staphylococci are also used as starter cultures due to their ability to produce catalase as well as their mild proteolytic and lipolytic activity. Catalase produced by micrococci breaks down hydrogen peroxide resulting from adventitious growth of undesirable microorganisms and primarily those of LAB. Hydrogen peroxide has strong oxidizing property affecting the colour, aroma and keeping quality of the meat products (Hammes and Knauf, 1992).

Demeyer et al. (1984) and Debevere et al. (1976) reported that lipolytic and proteolytic activity of micrococci exerted considerable influence on aroma and flavour quality of fermented meat products. Tryglycerides, the major constituent of lipid, undergoes changes due to oxidative hydrolysis of fat. Hydrolysis of tryglycerides produces diglycerides, monoglycerides, glycerin and fatty acids. Under oxidative changes, tryglycerides produces hydroperoxide, from which depending on the subsequent degradative changes, aldehydes, ketones, fatty acids, carbon dioxide, water etc. are produced. Micrococci help in development of typical flavour quality of raw-dried meat products due to their ability to produce free fatty acids which subsequently broken down producing methyl ketone and aldehydes that finally take part in the flavour development of the product (Pezold, 1969).

Talon et al. (1992) reported that the lipolytic activity of micrococci was more pronounced on free fatty acids produced as a result of hydrolysis of different substrates containing tryglycerides and that M. varians exhibited stronger lipolytic activity on aeration.

pH, temperature, type of bacterial culture, presence of inhibitory substances and activators in the medium etc. affected the lipolytic activity of bacterial cultures (Langner, 1972; Geisen et al.,1992). Lower concentration of nitrite up to 0.025% had stimulate whereas, concentrations at levels of 0.08% inhibited the lipolytic activity of Micrococcus 199/10 (Stoychev et al., 1972 a, b).

Exo-proteases released by micrococci can break down low molecular peptides to different free amino acids (Sajber et al., 1971). reported that Micrococci accelerate the process of accumulation of free amino acids in meat products (Dierick et al., 1974).

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Use of micrococci in the production of fermented meat products can cause accumulation of amino-nitrogen up to 25% of the total nitrogen in the products (Mihalyi and Körmendy, 1967). Fermented meat products inoculated with M. varians had 11% higher free amino acids as compared to those fermented products prepared without the use of the strains (DeMasi et al., 1990). There exist a positive correlation between the concentration of free amino acids and organoleptic properties of the finished products particularly to that of aroma and flavour.

Few strains of micrococci exert stimulatory effect on the growth and multiplication of lactobacilli when used as a mixed culture (Nath and Wagner, 1973). The obsrved synergism might be due to significant reduction in concentration of hydrogen peroxide produced by lactobacilli as a result of catalase activity of the micrococcal strains.

Mirna and Coretti (1979) reported that micrococci and lactobacilli when used together with D. kloeckeri as starter culture in the production of raw-dried fermented sausages could degrade D.D.T. effectively and to a lesser extent γ-hexachlorohexane and monolinoran. They reported that the strains of micrococci isolated from raw-dried carabeef sausages could degrade methoxichlor up to 95% of the initial level. Similar studies were also carried out by Boschkova and Marudov (1992). These workers reported that M. varians L6 could degrade lindane and garlon 4E more effectively as compared to L. plantarum K6. They further observed that the rate of degradation of pesticide was dependent on the concentration of the cell in the growth medium.

Conclusions:

Use of selected bacterial cultures may reduce the risk of pathogens in meat and meat products and improve food safety. Application of starter cultures in meat fermentation has a long history and a variety of fermented meat products are produced worldwide. To harmonize consumer demands for minimally processed meat products and necessary safety standards, traditional means of controlling microbial spoilage and food safety norms are being replaced by combination of innovative technologies that include biological antimicrobial systems such as biopreservation and/or bioprotection in combination with mild physicochemical treatments and low levels of traditional and natural chemical preservatives.

(References can be collected from the author)

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14.0 Specialty meat products of Jammu & Kashmir – Production and scope of R&D

M. Salahuddin, A. H. Malik and M. A. Pal

Department of LPT, FVSAH, SKUAST-K, Srinagar

Kashmir is famous not only for its picturesque natural sceneries but also for its cuisine of indigenous meat products, which have made the state of Jammu and Kashmir (J&K) a gourmet's

heaven. In tune with the diversity in traditions and culture of India, a variety of traditional meat products are prepared here. The cuisine is collectively termed as ‘Wazwan’ which was once a specialty restricted to royal feasts only. The Wazwan constitutes flavorful ready-to-eat meat products which are usually freshly prepared and served hot as part of splendid meals. Being immensely popular, these meat products have created a niche for themselves and have become predominant component of meat products available in the market. Besides fulfilling local demand, these products also cater to the fast food requirements of a large number of domestic and foreign tourists and are relished by one and all visiting the valley.

As in other parts of India, the production and marketing of meat and meat products in J&K has been steadily growing over the years. The traditional meat products industry in J&K has great socio-economic importance and necessitates development on scientific lines. Scope exists not only for hygienic production but also for improvements over the traditional practices followed in the formulation and preparation of these meat products so as to enhance their quality as well as shelf-life and thus make available safe food to the consumers, broaden their marketing and promote exports. Thus there is need to improve upon the traditional technology of these meat products in all relevant aspects. Various aspects of the traditional meat products of J&K including their production and R&D initiatives etc have been briefly discussed in this paper.

Meat Production and Consumption

According to July 2011 NDTV report, official statistics has revealed that J&K annually consumes a whopping 51,000 tonnes of mutton worth Rs.12.06 billion (over Rs.1200 crore), of which 21,000 tonnes is imported from outside. The 21,000 tonnes is in addition to 30,000 tonnes of mutton produced locally and costing Rs.7.02 billion (Rs.702 crore) which also goes into the local consumption each year. In addition to mutton, poultry and poultry products worth Rs.1.2 billion are also imported into the state from neighboring Punjab and Haryana. This is in addition to the local poultry production worth Rs.1.8 billion that also goes into local consumption.

It is an accepted fact that meat for human consumption must come from healthy animals that are efficiently slaughtered and hygienically dressed. However, slaughter of animals and production of meat in J&K still continues under unclean and primitive conditions without even adequate supplies of potable water. The hygiene and sanitary conditions which

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are a prerequisite for wholesome meat production are generally lacking. Meat inspection is almost non-existent. Thus the quality of meat produced is generally far from satisfactory. Improvement of hygienic condition in the production of meat is a must for the overall growth of meat industry in J&K. The existing poor hygiene standard in most meat processing units in the state underscores the need for reorganizing the meat industry on modern, scientific lines. Most meat production, processing, storage, distribution and retail activities will require tailor-made programmes to meet hygiene requirements which can be achieved through Good Hygienic Practice (GHP), The Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) system and Risk Assessment along with verification by Government regulatory authorities.

Historical Perspective

Kashmiri cuisine is based on the ancient tradition of this region. The Rigveda mentions the meat eating traditions of this area. The ancient epic of Kashmir, namely the Nilmatapurana informs us that Kashmiris were heavy meat eaters. This habit persists in today's Kashmir. The cuisine of indigenous meat products of Kashmir is collectively named as ‘Wazwan’. The term ‘Wazwan’ is derived from two Kashmiri words, viz. ‘waza’ and ‘wan’. The word ‘waza’ denotes a trained chef employed in processing of indigenous meat products and ‘wan’ means shop. Thus ‘Wazwan’ represents the entire range of Kashmiri meat products. The origin of Wazwan in Kashmir dates back to more than 500 years when it travelled from central Asia to Kashmir and became Valley’s cultural identity. In the course of time the processing techniques have been evolved and adopted. Wazwan processing is considered to be a specialized technique restricted to a limited category of people involved in this trade; the wazas who have inherited the cooking skills from their ancestors and pass these on from generation to generation.

Range of the Meat Products

Because of the heritage of unique cuisine, tastes and preferences, a variety of traditional meat products of indigenous taste profile have been developed in Kashmir over the course of several hundred years. The Wazwan is not a simple meal but involves days of planning and hours of cooking in its making and serving. Traditionally it ranges from anything between 7 to 36 courses most of which are prepared from meat cooked overnight on raging fires involving a spread of huge copper vessels, mounds of mutton, chicken, fish, vegetables and heaps of spices and other ingredients. Wazwan is thus an ultimate cuisine, an example of Kashmir’s hospitality.

The prominent Wazwan products processed even today in J&K include Rista, Goshtaba, Nate-Yakhni, Aab-Gosh, Dopyaza, Tabaq-Maz, Methi-Maz, Dhani, Rogan-Josh, various Kababs and Kormas etc. Almost all the dishes under Wazwan are meat-based. Two Wazwan products, viz. Rista and Goshtaba, form the main and essential components of Wazwan and are thus an inalienable part of this world-famous traditional Kashmiri cuisine. Rista and Goshtaba are emulsion type meat products prepared from comminuted (pounded)

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meat. They are considered to be essential components of Wazwan due to their highly appealing flavor, texture and other palatability characteristics.

Raw Material Used

The Wazwan products are generally prepared from pre-rigor mutton/chevon obtained from young male animals of good conformation. As is true for the manufacture of any convenience meat product, the basic approach depends on the considerations of cost, since meat comes under the category of high value foods. Broadly meat in two different forms, i.e. intact and ground meat forms the starting material for these meat products. Since the flavor and texture of the products are of prime consideration, the choice depends on the nature of raw material on the one hand and the requirement of the end product on the other. In products developed from intact meat, the manipulation of quality attributes like flavor and texture of the final product is directly related to these factors in the raw material. Thus only good grades of meat cuts can be used for such products.

In contrast to this grinding and other processes of disintegration break down the normal structure of meat and facilitate the addition of several seasonings suitable to local tastes as also other additives resulting in improved yield and quality. It also lowers energy usage in cooking and helps in lending the processing operations to mechanization making it more suitable for production on an industrial scale. Thus the traditional comminuted meat products have an immense scope in the convenience food industry. Diversification of the processed meat industry in this direction appears promising and would ultimately add to the variety, convenience, nutrition and quality to the range of products available besides generating extra economic and employment benefits.

Demand for the Meat Products

The demand for Wazwan products is ever increasing mainly due to socio-economic development and changing life styles. As in other parts of India, meat based fast foods and fast food establishments have become part of our life as there has been a considerable impact of this phenomenon in J&K also. Many of the traditional meat products have been exploited in this direction. With increased modernization and rise in the standards of living, the demand for these meat products is expected to increase further. Although the production of these meat products is mostly restricted to J&K, there is ample scope to introduce them at national level and promote their export. Besides generating extra economic and employment opportunities, processing of meat into such products is a must for the satisfaction of consumers who want variety, convenience, nutrition, taste and quality.

The continuous growth in the meat based convenience food industry, and thus in ready-to-eat Wazwan products, is predicted due to a number of factors. Population increase, increased urbanization, industrialization, rapid growth in information technology, rising income, changing food habits with preference for convenience products, rise in working woman force and proliferation of fast-food outlets offers a tremendous potential for growth of

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value-added meat products. The optimism in the industry circles is generated by realizing that the broadening band of new middle class of the population will prefer hygienic and quality food while eating out of home. The quickness of service combined with unique flavor and quality lend to these products a peculiar attraction and the busy people on the move are increasingly taking to these convenience foods. There is a growing population of ‘working family’ especially in the urban areas who are under enormous pressure for time imposed by problems of living accommodation, distance and transportation. There is a huge floating population of tourists at any given time who are hard pressed for clean wholesome food and there is the younger, new generation, open to experimentation in food habits. Another fertile area is the mass and institutional catering where there is an imperative need for hygienic nutritious food requiring less skills and elaborate inputs in preparation and dispensation.

Need for Technology Intervention

The variety, multiplicity and product proliferation of processed meat foods available in the market depends on the technologies available and harnessing them to meet the growing consumer demand. Although the consumption of traditional meat foods is on the increase but the traditional methods of their preparation are primitive and more or less confined in many aspects. Most of these traditional foods are still processed in unorganized small scale units. The traditional meat artisans are reluctant to share their indigenous skills about the processing of these products with the consumers or with meat processors and render their services at high cost. The primitive and confined nature of the techniques coupled with the harsh attitude of the meat artisans provides an opportunity to exploit these meat products for large scale production, establishment of quality control standards and improvements in their processing and preservation technology on modern lines through organized research and development.

Systematic efforts are, therefore, required to improve their technology, quality and yield by the use of more appropriate ingredients, processing conditions and machinery. Consumer appeal and demand of these products can further improve rapidly because of modern technologies in processing, preservation, packaging and distribution. Development of this industry on modern scientific lines is thus vital for improving product output not only for domestic consumption but also for earning foreign exchange through exports.

Emulsion technology with all its benefits has yet to be introduced in the processing of these products. The benefits of various non-meat additives in improving the quality and reducing the production cost need to be harnessed in these products also. Some of these meat products are high-fat products and considered objectionable by consumers thus necessitating the technological interventions and incorporation of functional food ingredients. Traditionally, these products are prepared fresh and served hot. Modern day fast-food and other catering systems demand that the products be prepared, packaged and kept ready for serving to floating customers. Application of modern methods of processing and packaging will greatly increase their shelf life and improve their marketing and export promotion.

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Present Commercial Situation

Production and marketing of Wazwan products is a good business venture but used to be restricted to hotels and restaurants. It is heartening to note that of late the situation at commercial level has started changing and is showing better signs of development. Some public sector enterprises and business concerns in private sector have already ventured into the area of traditional meat product processing and marketing to meet the growing demands. Some of the concerns have opened up fast food units while others are inclined to go for export market. Some of these concerns have ambitious expansion programmes on their drawing boards after receiving good consumer response. The products are now available even in departmental stores in canned and retort pouch forms and have gained remarkable popularity within and outside India. Government is also playing its crucial role in popularizing these meat products by show-casing them in food festivals in India and abroad and the entrepreneurs are being encouraged to open processing units through liberal financial credit and support.

Goshtaba and Rista Processing

The term ‘Goshtaba’ is a combination of two words ‘gosht’ and ‘aab’ meaning the meat and the water, respectively. Goshtaba and Rista are prepared by pounding deboned meat with the aid of a wooden mallet on a smooth flat stone slab. Traditionally, hot boned meat is a prerequisite. The fresh fat preferably from the same carcass is added at the rate of about 20-30% by weight and the pounding of meat and fat is continued till an emulsion of desired consistency is attained which is judged by the waza. Common salt and large cardamom seeds are added during pounding. The meat emulsion is then rolled out to make balls of varying sizes (usually 5-12 cm diameter). Goshtaba balls are cooked in gravy (yekhni) consisting of curd, oil, water, spices and condiments till the desired texture of the product is attained. The curd is added in such a way that it forms a homogenous emulsion without separating into particles. Rista balls are cooked in gravy consisting of an aqueous extract of spices, condiments and oil. The salt is then added and cooking is concluded when the desired flavor has emanated and optimum texture of the meat balls and consistency of the gravy is attained.

The products are tender and have mellow characteristics. Upon slicing there are no jags and the appearance is pleasantly smooth and uniform. Upon pressing they assume fine elastic characteristics and regain original shape immediately. Goshtaba has an extremely rich flavor with a composite sensation of sour and salty taste and highly desirable aroma of meat and curd. After consumption the product leaves an exquisite after taste which is relished even after finishing the meal. It is the unique feature of Wazwan that curd is invariably incorporated in the gravy of meat products like goshtaba and Nate-Yakhni, to impart a characteristic blend of meat and curd flavor which makes these products highly palatable and acceptable to the consumer.

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Harisa Processing

Harrisa is an indigenous meat based product of Kashmir which is an all-time favorite winter delicacy. It has a spice rich flavor and is in great demand within and outside the state and also liked abroad. It is prepared commercially and even at homes. Nowadays it is also sold at fast food outlets and bakeries. It is easy to prepare and could be served to a large number of people in relatively short time. Harisa is prepared by cooking bone-in mutton with raw rice, water, spices, condiments, oil and salt in large vessels (overnight) for 5-8 hours. The bones are separated and the mixture is stirred vigorously until it becomes smooth and pasty in consistency. It is served at breakfast with local bread with hot oil poured on top and sometimes garnished with saffron and kabab pieces.

R&D Efforts

The efforts towards R&D of these traditional meat products were initiated at IVRI, Izatnagar in mid eighties through pioneering work on Rista, Goshtaba and Kababs at the Division of Livestock Products Technology. After the establishment of LPT Division at SKUAST, the R&D efforts related to formulation, processing, preservation and quality control of these products have continued despite odd local conditions that prevailed for about two decades. The Division is mandated to conduct basic and applied research on various aspects with special emphasis on the development of appropriate technical know-how suited to this industry. It also serves as a centre for training, information, consultancy and technology transfer to cater to the needs of the industry.

To generate base line data under commercial conditions, the quality of available meat products marketed in various classes of restaurants within municipal limits of Srinagar city was evaluated for physicochemical, microbiological and sensory attributes. Processing schedules and recipes were standardized for Goshtaba and Rista. Incorporation of mutton fat at 20% level was found to be optimum for these products. The hot-processed, traditionally-minced and phosphate-treated groups of the two products showed higher yield and pH, and, better emulsion stability and fat retention in comparison to cold-processed, machine-minced and salt-treated groups. Shelf-life of the two products under refrigeration (4+1oC) was 7 and 4 days respectively.

Processing factors like comminution and addition of salt, 20-30% mutton fat and low amounts of spices make them more susceptible to oxidative changes with consequent undesirable effects on their quality and shelf-life. The effects of added antioxidants, Rosemary extract (0.005%) and α-Tocopherol (0.02%), on the quality of Rista and Goshtaba was studied. The additives had beneficial effect on the physico-chemical and sensory quality of the products. During refrigerated storage the antioxidants were helpful in maintaining the oxidative stability and improving the microbiological and sensory quality of the products.

Goshtaba and Rista come under the classification of high fat meat products and thus are a risk factor for the development of obesity, cardiovascular diseases and cancer. To meet the requirement of health conscious consumers and further improve its marketing, the need is

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to reduce the amount of fat in the product formulation to bring it under the ambit of low-fat meat products. The effect of sodium alginate (0.1%), carrageenan (0.5%) and hydrated oatmeal (10%) as added fat replacers on the quality and acceptability of low fat Goshtaba was studied. The overall performance of fat replacers was better than the control and hydrated oatmeal proved better than the other fat replacers. The effect of traditional and machine method of preparation on the quality and acceptability of low fat Goshtaba formulated with 10% hydrated oatmeal as fat replacer was studied. These results demonstrated better performance of traditional method of preparation of low fat Goshtaba formulated with 10% hydrated oatmeal. The quality, stability and acceptability of low fat Goshtaba, prepared by traditional method and formulated with the 10% hydrated oatmeal was evaluated under refrigerated storage (4+10C) for a period of 3 weeks.

The low fat Goshtaba formulated with 10% hydrated oatmeal could be stored for 20 days without any appreciable loss of quality and acceptability.

Production process for preparation of Harisa from mutton and chevon has been standardized with benefits in terms of saving in time, energy and labor over the traditional process. The mutton product stored under refrigerated conditions (2oC) and vacuum/aerobic packaging had a shelf-life of 18 days. The chevon product under aerobic packaging had a shelf-life of one week at 4+1oC.

Phosphate had a beneficial effect on the yield and quality of kababs from sheep, goat, chicken and buffalo meats under hot, chilled and frozen conditions of handling. Application of emulsion technology resulted in higher yield of kababs without any detrimental effect on the consumer acceptability as compared to hand mix. Comparatively better yield and acceptability of kababs was observed on charbroiling than oven-roasting. But due to its convenience, oven-roasting/oven-broiling would prove more beneficial commercially. Combination of chicken and goat fats or chicken fat alone could be used for production of kababs from goat meat. Extending mutton and chicken formulations with maida, potato and soya resulted in kababs of good quality and acceptability. Chicken kababs proved to be of better quality and consumer acceptability than mutton kababs. Incorporation of spent hen meat and by-products in mutton kabab formulation resulted in a product with greater yield and better consumer preference as compared to mutton kababs. Pre-cooked (charbroiled) kababs from mutton, chicken and combination of the two could be stored at 5+1oC for a period of 10 days without any appreciable loss of quality and consumer acceptability.

Black bean paste at 10% level was optimum extension level for the formulation of extended chicken seekh kababs cooked by oven roasting and microwave methods. Storage studies on oven roasted chicken seekh kababs extended with cowpea (15%), green gram (15%) and black bean (10%), under aerobic packaging conditions at refrigeration temperature (4±1.°C) for 0, 7, 14 and 21 days revealed significant (P<0.05) and gradual decrease in almost all the quality attributes and sensory scores, but which were well within the limits of acceptability. Storage studies of microwave cooked chicken seekh kababs extended with these legumes revealed that the products were acceptable throughout the storage period.

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Conclusion

Jammu & Kashmir is well known for its traditional meat products, the cuisine collectively termed as Wazwan, the indigenous methodology for which has been developed over the course of several hundred years. Being produced by small processing units or confined to unlicensed small producers, no reliable statistics regarding their production is available. These meat products are quite popular and are also a special attraction for domestic and foreign tourists visiting J&K and offer great scope for exploiting as convenience meat products. Processing of Wazwan products is mostly confined to Kashmir valley. Under this scenario, there is ample scope to introduce them as new variety products at national level and promote their export. The commercial production and marketing of these products have not kept pace with developments in meat science and technology which greatly hampers the growth of this industry and the related socio-economic development. World over, the meat industry is changing from being production oriented to consumer driven. Due to their popularity and ever increasing demand the scope for production of these meat products has increased immensely, creating a need for developing technologies for manufacturing them on large commercial scale. In order to exploit these traditional meat products as efficiently and profitably as possible, adequate and economically sound processing, prolongation of shelf life by preservation and optimization of storage and handling, improvement of safety and nutritive value, adequate and appropriate packaging, and maximum consumer appeal are key prerequisites.

 

(References can be collected from authors)

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15.0 Meat production practices and challenges in export meat plants

Sahaya Pratap Fonglan General Manager, AOV Exports Pvt Ltd, Unnao, Uttarpradesh

Overview and historic perspective of Indian Meat Industry:

There is a rapid change in the meat eating trends and consumption pattern throughout the world and in India and hence changes are taking place in the meat production practices accordingly. During the post independent era the meat industry has grown leaps and bounds. In 1961 Indians consumed an average of 3.7 kg meat (per person), and 5,2 kg in 2002 (5,6 billion kg meat). This represents a 40% increase! In comparison, meat consumption in Germany only increased by 28% (same time period).

Comparatively, in 1910 there were a total of 350 slaughterhouses in India. Meat eating was nowhere as widely spread as today. Since 1947 the number of slaughterhouses in the land of diverse culture increased to 36,000. Volume-wise China is now the biggest consumer of meat in the world. Second place is the European Union with 56 Billion kg meat annually, followed by the United States with a total consumption of 36 billion kg meat annually. The U.S. tops meat consumption per person, with 124 kg followed by the EU countries with 75 kg per person annually.

If current trends of meat consumption continue, Indians will consume 7-8 kg meat in the year 2020 (more than 10 billion kg meat). To cope up with this growing demand in the domestic market many developments and changes are expected to occur in this sector.

Meat production practices and consumption in India can be dated back to the Vedic period. The historic literatures since Vedic period clearly define methods and processes for clean meat production. The following excerpts collected from various Vedic texts depict the various practices which revolve around meat production and consumption

practices.

Moral Codes and Beef-eating In Vedic Period:

Distinguished guests like one’s teachers, priests, kings, bridegrooms and Vedic students on their return home after the completion of their studies are to be honored with the presentation of a bull or a barren cow to be slaughtered – hence, a guest is denominated in the Vedic literature as goghna or cow-killer.[21] The ceremony of madhuparka is notable in this context. The madhuparka ceremony seems to have been very old because the custom of entertaining a distinguished guest with beef is found both in the Satapatha Brahmana[22] and the Aitareya Brahmana[23] and it was in all likelihood known also in the Rgvedic period.

We now turn to the Smrti literature. Manu, like Vasistha, sanctions the consumption of the flesh of all domestic animals which have but one row of teeth.[24] That this would obviously include beef becomes clear from the comments of even such orthodox pundits like

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Medhatithi and Raghavananda.[25] Manu also recommends the madhuparka with beef for the reception of kings.[26] The Yajnavalkya-smrti distinctly lays down that a mah-oksa or ‘big bull’ is to be slaughtered on such occasions.[27] In fact, both the Manu and Yajnavalkya-Smrtis permit the killing of bovine species on such special occasions, in sacrifices and in rites for manes etc.; otherwise beef-eating was regarded as upapataka or minor offence, though not mahapataka or mortal sin.[28]

MEAT PRODUCTION PRACTICES AND TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT (TQM) IN MEAT INDUSTRY:

Meat being a food commodity, quality meat production is inevitable. This can be achieved by adapting a robust TQM system. TQM is otherwise the integrated quality management system. A well know approach to integrated quality management system is that of the European Federation for Quality Management (EFQM). They developed an excellence model which identifies the various enablers and the results that can be expected as follows:

Enablers:

‐ Leadership ‐ Employee satisfaction ‐ Clearly defined Policy and Strategy ‐ Healthy Partnerships and Resources ‐ Well defined processes

Results: (Markers)

‐ Employee satisfaction ‐ Customer satisfaction ‐ Society acceptance ‐ Key performance indicators/results

To have a robust meat production process system, a well established TQM should be in place. For this all the enablers of the TQM need to be identified and put in place to achieve the expected results. The efficiency of the enablers can be measured by means of the expectant results. This is a brief about TQM for any industry or process.

Now we will consider the practical considerations to implement and reproduce TQM in meat processing industry. TQM in meat processing industry can be summarized through clean meat production and clean meat production can be achieved through TQM systems. HACCP is one such system which can help deliver safe meat which is an attribute for clean meat production. To achieve quality meat the following attributes need to be considered with regards to TQM in meat plants.

Various attributes necessary for achieving TQM in meat processing industry:

‐ Sufficient facility ‐ Technical manpower

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‐ Identified and Verified processes ‐ QMS and Food Safety Management System ‐ Robust documentation ‐ Continuous monitoring and implementing corrective and preventive actions against

identified non-conformances.

FACILITY:

The facility is very important, because without proper facility, the processes and systems cannot be put in place even by competitive manpower. Depending upon the quantum of meat to be produced the capacity of the facility need to be designed. The standard facilities required for clean meat production for implementing TQM are as follows.

Lairage:

Lairage is the resting place for the animals prior to slaughter. This should have sufficient space and facility to carryout ante mortem inspection, supported by a laboratory to support the ante mortem inspection function.

Animal Holding Yards

For large production plants, in addition to the lairage, animal holding yards are a must. The animals received from authorized farms or approved markets will be received in these yards to have enough stocks to fulfill the daily requirements of large establishments. Preliminary veterinary inspection can be carried out and Ante mortem passed animals shall be moved to lairage. Normally a day’s stock shall be placed in the lairage.

The animals spending more than 24 hours in the lairage need to be subjected for reinspection for ante mortem by qualified veterinarians. The animals passed for Ante mortem inspection are need to be properly identified with the ear tag to ensure traceability in the system. To

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have a fool proof TQM system, it should be properly enabled and integrated with the information technology systems. The animals shifted to lairage are to be properly identified with ear tags and are to be properly documented.

Buffalo Abattoir:

The details of animals shifted from lairage to abattoir are passed on to the abattoir MIS (Management Information System). The buffalo abattoir should be facilitated with the following:

‐ Animal restraining box/Ritual slaughter box ‐ Stunners ‐ Electrical stimulation system ‐ On line dressing line, offal line for red offal and green offal ‐ Leg cutters ‐ Horn cutters ‐ Flaying machine ‐ Bunking system ‐ Breast cutter ‐ Carcass splitter ‐ Inspection platforms ‐ Sterilizers ‐ Washing and sanitation stations ‐ Ante rooms

Chillers:

The chillers are to be conveniently located between the abattoir and the processing and packing area. It is mandatory to maintain the chiller temperature between 2 – 4 degree C.

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Latest development is that large ante room with moving rails and hanging lines are in place. The carcasses are subjected to blast of chilled air while the carcass is mechanically moved on the rails. Here the purpose is to bring down the carcass temperature to 12 to 15 degree C and to facilitate maximum dripping of wash water and residual blood. Thus the carcass is rapidly chilled to a temperature of 12 to 15 degree C, semi dried and the clean carcass is shifted in to the chillers. Here the temperatures of the carcass are further brought down to below 7 degree C in a period of 18 to 24 hours. And ensure to get the pH of the meat dropped to around 5.6 to 6.0.

Deboning and Packing Hall:

Sufficiently spaced deboning hall and packing hall with requisite number of working tables (stainless steel), trolleys, meat crates, sterilizers, etc., is a must for complying with the HACCP system and to maintain TQM during processing and packing. The process hall temperature shall be maintained around 10 degree C with the help of temperature controllers.

Freezers:

Generally as per the requirement, requisite number of plate freezers and blast freezers are to be put in place. Mostly freezers maintain a temperature of – 40 to – 45 degree C to freeze the meat to a core temperature of – 18 degree C and below. The plate freezers are used for freezing smaller retail cuts and the blast freezers are used for freezing large industrial cuts and blocks of meat.

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Secondary Packing Division:

This area is to be equipped with the following facilities:

‐ Cartoning/Boxing facility ‐ Automatic Strapping Machines ‐ Shrink Wrap Machines ‐ Metal detectors ‐ On line weighing scale

All the cartons undergo thorough metal checking and all the cartons are subject to scaling to prevent any metal pieces from being passed on along with the meat and to ensure proper weights of the cartons to comply with TQM requirements.

Cold stores:

Depending upon the throughput of the plant the capacity of the cold stores need to be designed. While designing the cold store sufficient clear space and head space need to be allowed for the free circulation of cold air to maintain the temperature of the frozen cartons. The temperature is to be maintained at -20 degree C or below. The racking system should be designed in such a way that the frozen cartons should not be stacked alongside the walls of the cold store. At the floor pallets with sufficient height need to be place for thorough air circulation. The entry and exit doors of the cold store are to be place diagonally opposite to each other to minimize temperature loss. Also the doors are to be supported with air curtains to prevent temperature loss.

Dispatch:

The dispatch section should have enough ante room with controlled temperature to handle the dispatch activities. The frozen cartons are to be dispatched in reefer containers with freezing facilities and facility to monitor the temperature of the cargo during transit. The temperature is to be maintained at or below -18 degree C.

Identified and Verified Processes:

To meet the challenges of safe and clean meat production the various processes need to be defined, tested, verified and then put in place. Periodical evaluation of these processes is a must to ensure a fool proof food safety system.

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Product Traceability System:

Product traceability system is a must to ensure control on the TQM. This will help to initiate and achieve product recall in the event of any untoward quality conformance encountered with the finished products. Each and every animal are tagged for proper identification and are subsequently traced with batch codes until it reaches the consumer. Thus each animal and each carton are traced forward and backward to ensure TQM in the system.

Inspection and Testing:

The protocol doe inspection and testing includes the testing of the following:

‐ Carcass, meat in process, frozen meat. ‐ Meat contact surfaces ‐ Hygiene swabs/surface swabs ‐ Water used in the system

Routine check lists, procedures, processes, etc need to be designed as per requirement and ensure to put in place TQM.

QMS and Food Safety Management Systems:

There are many private standards available as follows:

‐ ISO 9001 ‐ ISO 22000 ‐ HACCP ‐ SQF ‐ EUROGAP ‐ BRC ‐ ISO 14000

CHALLENGES:

This can be summarized in to various categories:

‐ Availability of sufficient livestock ‐ Collecting sufficient livestock for slaughter ‐ Encouraging the farmers to sell the culled animals and grown calves directly to the

meat plants. ‐ Collaborate with the farmers, NGOs, Government agencies, etc., to rear male calves

in an integrated way. ‐ To establish disease free zones and Effective disease surveillance mechanisms. ‐ Establishing and adopting an indigenous feed lot system to feed the abattoirs. ‐ Developing a robust meat retailing system in India

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‐ Availability of centralized Food Testing Laboratories at various meat processing regions of the country.

‐ To strengthen the interface between the private sector and the public sector. ‐ Voluntary/Compulsory backward integration for slaughterhouses for male buffalo calf

rearing. ‐ Incentives for buffalo meat export derived from own farms. ‐ Access to cheap institutional credit. ‐ Promote FDI in the buffalo rearing, meat production and meat retail activities in

India.

Conclusion:

To ensure clean meat production in meat processing industry there is no end for developments, innovations and processes. Quality is an ever evolving term, wherein every day and in every process there is scope for development. Ultimately the best product that is best priced with the requisite consumer appeal will win the loyalty of the consumers. Hence to be on top of the market, in an competitive market environment, TQM ensures product acceptability and provides competitive edge to stand atop among the competing brands both in local and in international markets. And to meet the ever growing demands both in the international and domestic markets, requisite dev elopements and innovations need to be infused into the industry with inputs from various stake holders like Academia, Research Institutions, Government and Regulatory bodies, NGOs and the ever demanding consumers.

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16.0 Biotechnological application in meat science and technology

R. Narendra Babu

Department of Meat Science and Technology, VCRI, Namakkal Human food safety requires rigorous flock monitoring and testing to ensure the absence of disease, effectiveness of vaccinations and tight biosecurity. Biotechnology has made significant contributions in these areas and continues to deliver real economic benefits for entrepreneurs. The meat industry operates in a complicated and complex environment. There are many external influencing factors that influence the meat production and quality. Efficient meat production is vital, it is also the industry's responsibility to ensure that this end is achieved through the highest poultry health and welfare standards as well as rigorous attention to food safety. Promoting high standards of health and welfare will deliver significant benefits to the farmer especially the broiler farmer. Advances in biotechnology have led to the manufacture of more effective vaccines, enzymes and dietary ingredients and also facilitates to implement HACCP in the meat processing plants. In this paper apart from routine biotechnological techniques applied in meat speciation, detection of food pathogens and developing fermented meat products, the latest biotechnological tools for meat processing is discussed in three major sub headings

1. Hurdle technology in meat preservation

2. Nanotechnology in meat processing

3. Value added enriched meat products

1. Hurdle technology in meat preservation

Hurdle technology is used in industrialized as well as in developing countries for the gentle but effective preservation of meat. The intelligent application of hurdle technology became more prevalent, because the principles of major preservative factors for meat (e.g., temperature, pH, a w, Eh, competitive flora), and their interactions, became better known.

Hurdles

The most important hurdles used in meat preservation are temperature (high or low), water activity (aw), acidity (pH), redox potential (Eh), preservatives (e.g., nitrite, sorbate, sulfite), and competitive microorganisms (e.g., lactic acid bacteria).

Other hurdles include oxygen tension (low or high) modified atmosphere (carbon dioxide, nitrogen, oxygen), pressure (high or low), radiation (UV, microwaves, irradiation), other physical processes (e.g. ohmic heating, pulsed electric fields, pulsed light processing, ultrasonication), new packaging ( e.g. selective permeable films,

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advanced edible coatings), the microstructure of foods (e.g. solid- state- fermentations, emulsions), and various preservatives

Some hurdles (e.g., Maillard reaction products) will influence the safety and the quality of meat, because they have antimicrobial properties and at the same time improve the flavour of the products

Physical hurdles

1. Heat processing 2. Storage temperature 3. Radiation

4. Electromagnetic energy 5. Microwave energy

6. Radiofrequency energy 7. Oscillating magnetic field pulses

8. High electric field pulses 9. Ultrahigh pressure

10. Ultrasonication (18kHz and 500MHz) 11. Packaging

Physico- chemical hurdles

1. aw 2. pH 3. Redox potential (Eh) 4.Salt

5. Nitrite/ nitrate 6. Carbon dioxide 7. Oxygen

8. Organic acids 9. Ascorbates act as antioxidants Smoking

10. Phosphates 11. Phenols 12. Spices and herbs

13. Lysozyme

Microbially derived hurdles

1. Competitive flora 2. Starter cultures 3.Bacteriocins 4. Anbiotics

5. Free fatty acids 6. Chitosan 7. Chlorine

Emerging hurdles

Ultrahigh pressure

Ultra high pressure (UHP) treatment can be used as a preservative technique. One of the key advantages of UHP is that it can inactivate certain microorganisms, while the product itself may not be affected as much as with other many preservation techniques. The combination of a mild heat treatment with UHP application has shown to be a quite effective technique for a range of products. The inactivation by UHP treatment was dramatically reduced in foods with a water activity below 0.94. To adequately inactivate bacterial spores, pressures over 8000 kg/ cm2 and elevated temperatures are required.

Mano-thermo-sonication

A new combined process of microbial inactivation including heat and ultrasonication under pressure is known as Mano- thermo- sonication (MTS). The combined use of heat and

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ultrasound under pressure increases very much the lethality of heat treatments allowing drastic reductions in time and/ or temperature of heat processes.

Mano- thermo- sonication could be an advantageous alternative to current heat processes

Edible coating and osmotic dehydration

Osmotic dehydration has now been termed a Dewatering and Impregnation Soaking (DIS). Controlling the surface preservative concentration with an adequate Edible Protective Superficial Layer (EPSL) enriched with specific additives. Osmotic dehydration and edible coatings represent two ways to apply hurdle technology to solid foods without affecting their structural integrity. Edible films or coatings used: starch and derivatives, dextrins, alginates and other gums, cellulose derivatives, collagen, zein, gluten and other protein types, waxes and acetylated glycerides or other fatty materials. Certain specific agents (antimicrobial additives, antioxidants, organic acids, nutritional additives, flavours, colouring, etc.) can be incorporated into edible films to obtain functional effects localized on the surface.

2. Value added enriched meat products

Consumer demand for food products of superior health quality has renewed interest in modifying the lipid composition of meat. Functional foods are foods enriched with single ingredients, which influence one or more functions of the consumer in a favorable way, exceeding the effects of normal adequate nutrition.

Enriching meat with health-promoting substances (fatty acids and anti-oxidants) is an interesting future issue for meat production.

n-3 Fatty Acids

The recommended daily intake (RDI) for n-3 long-chain PUFA is 350 to 400 mg.

Conjugated Linoleic Acid

The RDI of CLA in humans is 0.1% of daily food consumption.

Antioxidants

The most important natural antioxidant, -tocopherol, is involved in the second level of defense, whereas Selenium is involved in the first level (glutathione peroxidase). Both antioxidants reduce the risk of cancer and the incidence of cardiovascular diseases in humans. The RDI of -tocopherol is 10 mg and for Selenium is 47 µg to 70 µg.

Effect on Meat Quality

Enrichment of meat with health-promoting substances results in a change of the composition of muscle tissues.

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3. Nanotechnology in poultry meat processing

Nanotechnology has begun to find potential applications in the area of functional meat product by engineering biological molecules toward functions very different from those they have in nature, opening up a whole new area of research and development.

According to a definition in a recent report (Nanotechnology in Agriculture and food), food is nanofood when nanoparticles, nanotechnology techniques or tools are used during cultivation, production, processing, or packaging of the food. It does not mean atomically modified food or food produced by nanomachines.

Nanotechnology applications are currently being researched, tested and in some cases already applied in food technology:

Meat processing:

Nanoencapsulated flavour enchancer

Nanotubes and nanoparticles as gelation and viscosifying agents

Nanocapsule infusion of plant based steroids to replace a meat’s cholesterol

Nanoparticles to selectively bind and remove chemicals or pathogens from meat product

Nanoemulsions and particles for better availability and dispersion of nutrients

Nanococchleates (coiled nanoparticles) to deliver nutrients more efficiently to cells without affecting color or taste of meat product

Meat Packaging:

Antibodies attached to fluorescent nanoparticles to detect chemicals or food pathogens

Biodegradable nanosensors for temperature, moisture and time monitoring

Nanoclays and nanofilms as barrier materials to prevent spoilage and prevent oxygen absorption

Antimicrobial and antifungal surface coatings with nanoparticles (silver, magnesium, zinc)

Lighter stronger and more heat resistant films with silicate nanoparticles

Modified permeation behaviour of foils

The potential applications of nanotechnology for functional foods and nutraceuticals by applying the new concepts and engineering approaches involved in nanomaterials to target the delivery of bioactive compounds and micronutrients". "Nanomaterials allow better encapsulation and release efficiency of the active food ingredients compared to traditional encapsulating agents, and the development of nano-emulsions, liposomes, micelles, biopolymer complexes and cubosomes have led to improved properties for bioactive

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compounds protection, controlled delivery systems, food matrix integration, and masking undesired flavors." Nanotechnology also has the potential to improve food processes that use enzymes to confer nutrition and health benefits.

Nanobeads and nanofibers are highly efficient immunoseparation and highly sensitive impedance measurement in order to develop a nano-biosensor for rapid detection of foodborne pathogens including Salmonella, Listeria and E. coli in poultry, meat and vegetables. By integrating the high efficiency of nanobeads-based sample separation/concentration, the high sensitivity of nanowire/nanofibers, and the high efficacy of flow-through microfluidics channel, a nano-biosensor will meet the required sensitivity, specificity, and speed for screening of foodborne pathogens in different meat foods.

The biosensor will consist of a sampler, multiple-section microfluidic cartridges, a pumping unit, an impedance detector, a microprocessor, a display, a key panel, and a USB connector. When a food sample, containing various biological and chemical components and different bacteria, is dropped, it is mixed with magnetic nanobeads (10-100 nm) coated with antibodies for 5 to 15 min to get sufficient immunoreaction. Then, target bacteria are separated by applying a magnetic field to hold magnetic beads while washing. During their flowing through a microfluidic channel (20x100 um cross-section), target bacteria are captured by the antibodies immobilized on the nanowire/nanofibers (10-50 nm) connected to two microelectrodes (5 to 15 min). Free nanobeads can pass through the nanofibers. The change in dielectric properties of the nanowire/nanofilber, i.e., impedance, caused by captured target bacteria, is measured and correlated to the cell number of bacteria in a food sample.

Nanotechnology can be used to detect pathogens and contaminants in meat at different stages in the supply chain, helping to ensure end-to-end food safety.

The application of matter at dimensions of less than 100 nanometres - in food and drink applications is predicted to grow rapidly due to the benefits the technologies can bring to both industry and the consumer in terms of food safety & quality, health benefits and packaging.

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17.0 Conversion of muscle into meat – Recent concepts and scientific view point

S. K. Mendiratta

Division of LPT, Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar

The conversion of muscle into meat is a complex process. Immediately post-mortem, there are two related processes that affect eating quality. These are fall in muscle pH and temperature and shortening of the muscle. In turn, these two processes affect a third process i.e. breakdown of muscle proteins by enzymes (proteolysis or ageing), which also significantly influences eating quality. The changes during first few hours of slaughter are far more dynamic and have greater implications on quality and palatability characteristics particularly tenderness and juiciness of meat. Meat flavour and colour are also related to changes during conversion of muscle to meat. Besides lipid peroxidation, amino acids and peptides generated by proteolysis also contribute to meat flavour. Similarly, colour degradation during storage related to metmyoglobin formation due to oxidation of haem iron from the ferrous state (Mb-Fe++) to the ferric state (Mb-Fe+++).

Researchers have tried to understand these changes and identified processes for the advantageous control of meat properties of economic significance. The studies conducted so far showed that the rate and range of changes taking place during conversion of muscle to meat may be modified by using different physical (temperature, pressure, electrical stimulation), chemical (activation of proteolytic enzymes by introducing Ca ions) and biological methods (application of enzymes of microbiological, plant and animal origin).

Muscle metabolism in living animal, rigor mortis, ageing and conditioning

In living muscle source of ATP are either free fatty acids or glucose from blood or glycogen stored in muscle fibres. This whole process is extremely complex and completes in three stages i.e. Glycolysis, oxidative decarboxylation and oxidative phosphorylation. Totally 38 molecules of ATP are produced from one molecule of glucose/glycogen. The level of glycogen in most muscles generally varies between 10-20 mg/g. Generally the concentration of ATP in muscle tissue remains very low (around 5-7 m mol/kg. of muscle) and this will support contraction for only few seconds. However, ATP used is restored immediately due to reaction between ATP and phosphocreatine (CP).

After the death of the animal, rigor mortis (contraction of muscle) occurs when the ATP level falls below the very low level (about 5 m mol/kg.) required maintain relaxation. Thin and thick filaments combine irreversibly to form actomyosin and extensibility of the muscle is lost. Resolution of rigor and tenderization of muscle (ageing) indicated by softening of muscle takes place in a progressive manner after a variable period in each species. It is faster at high temperatures, with every 10°C increase results in a more than doubling of the final tenderness achieved in a certain time. Many research reports indicated that the processes of aging occur faster in the muscles of animals which reach slaughter maturity sooner.

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Among the three most often analysed animal species, the fastest protein degradation is observed in chicken meat, next in pork and finally in beef. Chicken meat achieves 80% of its maximum tenderness about 8 h after death, where as beef takes 10 days; sheep 7.7 days, pig 4.2 days and rabbit 9.5 days to reach the same level of tenderness. Conditioning is the term applied to the natural process of tenderization when meat is stored or aged post-rigor (pork 4-10, lamb 7-14 and beef 10-21 days at 1°C. On the basis of available research data, it is suggested that proteolysis cause degradations of bonds inside the cytoskeleton, including proteins building the myofibrillar structure (titin, nebulin, M- and Z-line proteins), proteins connecting myofibrils (desmin), the external cytoskeleton, i.e. proteins connecting myofibrils with sarcolemma of muscle fibres and anchoring muscle fibres in surrounding membrane. Thus weakening of the myofibril is considered an important change followed by structural weakening of the intramuscular connective tissue.

Rate and extent of pH and temperature fall

The main determinant in defining condition of meat is rate of pH fall and rate of chilling (Simmons et al., 2000). These are not independent and can be greatly influenced by many other factors. The enhanced tenderness of slowly chilled meat can be attributed to the earlier onset of proteolytic breakdown of the myofibrillar structure and thereby exhibit a faster pH fall than rapidly chilled muscles. It has also been observed that delayed chilling resulted in faster pH fall, and improvement in textural quality of excised muscle compared to direct chilling (White et al., 2006). Hannula and Puolanne (2004) reported that temperature at the time of onset of rigor mortis also has major influence on meat quality and meat should be held above 7-10°C before the onset of rigor mortis. Mendiratta et al. (2008) evaluated the effect of different handling conditions on quality of sheep meat and reported significantly higher pH, moisture, cooking yield and sensory scores for meat cooked within 1-2 hrs of slaughter than the meat cooked after storage for 5-6 hrs. Rajnarayan (2008) reported that ageing or conditioning of spent goat carcass at room temperature for 10-12 hrs produced same quality of goat meat curry as within 1-2 hrs of slaughter. However deboning immediately after slaughter and then ageing or conditioning at room temperature did not produced desirable results.

Postmortem quality problems

Meat quality may be affected by both the preslaughter handling of the live animals and the post slaughter handling of the carcasses. Some of the common problems associated with improper handling of meat animals or meat are:

Dark, Firm, Dry (DFD) Condition

Dark, Firm, Dry (DFD) condition generally affects beef, lamb and pork. DFD meat (also referred to as dark cutting meat) is characterized by its dark colour and dry or sticky texture. It is less appealing to consumers due to its unappealing dark colour and less

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pronounced taste. DFD meat is often the result of animals experiencing extreme stress or exercise of the muscles before slaughter. Stress and exercise use up the animal's glycogen reserves, and, therefore, postmortem lactic acid production through anaerobic glycolysis is diminished. The resulting postmortem pH of DFD meat is 6.2 to 6.5, compared with an ultimate pH value of 5.4 or 5.5 for normal meat. This type of meat is more susceptible to spoilage since it has a higher pH than normal. Thus, proper handling and prevention of stress is the best way to reduce the incidence.

Pale, Soft, Exudative (PSE) Condition

Pale, Soft, Exudative (PSE) condition is stress-related and inheritable, most common in pork but may also affects beef, lamb, and poultry. PSE meat is the result of a rapid postmortem pH decline while the muscle temperature is too high. Thus PSE condition results due to short-term glycogen depletion prior to death, very rapid glycolysis due to excitement (antemortem) or due to holding at higher temperature after slaughter. In all these conditions pH reaches to 5.2 in 2-3 hrs after slaughter. This combination of low pH and high temperature adversely affects muscle proteins, reducing their ability to hold water and causing them to reflect light from the surface of the meat so the meat appears pale, lack firmness and fluid drips from cut surface. When cooked, PSE meat lacks the juiciness of normal meat and is unsuitable for processed meats.

Cold shortening and thaw rigor

Cold shortening is the result of the rapid chilling of carcasses immediately after slaughter, before the glycogen in the muscle has been converted to lactic acid. With glycogen still present as an energy source, the cold temperature induces an irreversible contraction of the muscle (i.e. the actin and myosin filaments shorten). Cold shortening causes meat to be as much as five times tougher than normal. This condition generally occurs in lean beef and lamb carcasses that have higher proportions of red muscle fibres and very little exterior fat covering. Electrical stimulation (the application of high-voltage electrical current to carcasses immediately postmortem) reduces or eliminates this condition by forcing muscle contractions and using up muscle glycogen. Thaw rigor is a similar condition that results when meat is frozen before it enters rigor mortis. When this meat is thawed, the leftover glycogen allows for muscle contraction and the meat becomes extremely tough.

Recent concepts related to conversion of muscle into meat

Proteomics

The great progress in biotechnology in recent years has resulted in the development of new scientific research areas such as genomics and proteomics, which are used to study the complex patterns of gene and protein expression in cells and tissues. The composition of the proteome has a major influence on the biophysical characteristics of meat such as tenderness, water-holding capacity, and colour. The recent application of proteomics in the field of meat science has provided some interesting and promising results and explained the mechanisms

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influencing the different quality traits. Recent advances in Mass Spectrometry (MS) technology have led to the development of several different MS-based proteomic methods.

The quality of raw meat is influenced by changes in the muscle or meat proteome caused by different factors, such as animal growth, age, rate of glycolysis, and postmortem protein degradation. Proteomics has provided new and valuable information about the complex mechanisms behind postmortem proteolysis in meat (Lametsch et al., 2001). It has provided information on the cleavage sites and degradation patterns of the proteins degraded postmortem. Postmortem protein changes in muscle have been investigated with proteomics by Hwang, (2004) and Morzel et al. (2004) and these studies revealed that a large part of the proteome changes postmortem. The main cause of protein changes postmortem is probably protein degradation because many of the identified changes are protein fragments that increase in spot intensity postmortem (Lametsch et al., 2002).

Proteomics has also been applied to study postmortem metabolism to provide further knowledge of undesirable meat characteristics, such as PSE (Laville et al., 2005). An increasing number of studies over the last years using different proteomics tools have led to a better understanding of postmortem proteolysis and its’ relation with meat tenderization. Examples of this include the discovery of degradation products from proteins thought to be unaltered during post mortem storage (e.g. actin and myosin heavy chain), and the involvement of heat shock proteins during the conversion of muscle to meat. Proteomics has also been used to identify potential protein markers for tenderness, and several candidates have been proposed to explain the variation in tenderness being observed. The power of these candidate markers to explain variation in tenderness remains unclear, but it is certain that they will contribute to building a better picture of this complex process (Hollung and Veiseth-Kent, 2012).

Apoptosis

In humans, apoptosis in muscle tissue have been studied in relation to muscle atrophy or neuromuscular disorders. After bleeding, oxygen supply to muscle cell stop and cell will be in anoxia and receive no nutrients. Under these conditions, cell can decide to dig by initiating the apoptotic process immediately after death and the process continue till concern enzymes remain active. Ouali et al. (2006) has described the strong analogies between the known consequences of apoptosis and postmortem changes affecting a set of different muscle characteristics. They have also integrated the mechanisms of apoptosis with meat tenderization and proposed that by setting cell death and apoptosis before the rigor mortis, meat qualities particular tenderness can be affected. However, intense discussion and research is required to accept this hypothesis.

Proteolytic enzymes and Inhibitors

Among endogenous peptidases, cathepsins and calpains are well studied proteolytic systems effecting tenderization. Role of 20S proteasome has been described recently by Sentandereu et al. (2002) and Thomas et al. (2004). Among different calpains, calpain I or M

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calpain suggested to have a major role in the tenderization process (Veiseth and Koohmarraie, 2005). Fernandez et al. (2005) indicated that N1 and N2 line region of titin act as reservoir of Calpain1.

Calpastatin is a known specific inhibitor of calpains. Recently, Reynaud et al. (2005) suggested that calpain inhibitors consist of family of four different isoforms and they are expressed differently under different conditions. Many properties of these inhibitors are still unknown. Similarly, cathepsins have their own inhibitors called “cystatins” (Dubin, 2005). On the basis of their structure, Rawlings and Barrett (1990) suggested four different families of cysteine peptidase inhibitors i.e. family 1 cystqalins (also designated Stefins), family 2 cystatins (also designated cystatins), family 3 cystatins (also designated Kininogens) and family 4 cystatins. All these cystatins inhibit cysteine peptidases such as papain and lysosomal peptidases including cathepsins B, H and L.

Thus, the process of meat tenderization results from synergistic action of several endogenous enzymatic systems, many of these are still to be identified.

Changes in WHC and Juiciness

Movement of water from intercellular to extra cellular space and release of bound water when the pH become closer to pI of myofibrillar protein seems to be most important factor affecting juiciness of meat (Lawson, 2004).

During early post mortem the myofilament spacing increases due to a decrease in sarcomere length as a result of rigor mortis induced longitudinal contraction. The process of longitudinal shrinkage has important consequences for water mobility in meat (Bertram et al., 2004, Pearce et al., 2011). During the conversion of muscle to meat, the sarcomere not only continues to shrink longitudinally, but also laterally, as pH also decreases along with the irreversible association of thick and thin filaments after depletion of ATP. The decrease in pH causes alterations of the structure in the myofibrillar proteins. This increase in hydrogen ions reduces electrostatic repulsion between the myofibrillar proteins and thereby decreases the repulsion between the filaments, which contributes to lateral shrinkage of the muscle fibres. If the post mortem pH decreases rapidly, i.e. whilst the muscle temperature is still high, the myosin heads denature and shrink (Offer, 1991). Denaturation of the myosin heads is also thought to make a significant contribution to myofibrillar lateral shrinkage. This process is also important as the ability of denatured myosin to bind water is reduced resulting in decreased WHC, e.g. pale, soft and exudative (PSE) meat.

The expulsion of water from between the intramyofibrillar space into the extra-myofibrillar space corresponds with an increase in extra-myofibrillar water volume and a simultaneous decrease in intra-myofibrillar area, which is reflected in relaxation times of the different water populations (Bertram and Andersen, 2004). Disintegration of cellular membranes during the development of rigour mortis is also required to facilitate the transfer of intra-myofibrillar water to extra-myofibrillar spaces and drip channels. The degree of water accumulation in the extra-myofibrillar space is also determined by the interaction between the myofibrils and the connective tissue and specific cytoskeletal proteins.

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Kristensen and Purslow (2001) provided evidence to suggest that the shrinking myofibrillar area along with an intact cytoskeleton (which consists of the desmin-rich intermediate filaments and costameres) resulted in the detachment of fibre bundles (muscle fasciculi) from the connective tissue epimysium allowing the exudation of water to accumulate in the extra-fascicular space in between the muscle fasciculi. Based on the presumption of membrane disintegration and an intact cytoskeleton the following process of water movement of water within the muscle occurs, Pearce et al. (2011) described the process that all the longitudinal and lateral shrinkage of the muscle fibres/cell is concurrent with the shrinkage of the endomysial connective tissue network surrounding a muscle fibre. When the connection between the endomysial network and the connective tissue perimysium is broken, fluid accumulates in the perimysial network between the fibre bundles. This is said to occur within the first 4-6 hrs post mortem. At a later stage post mortem the muscle fibre shrinks within the endomysial network. Fluid then accumulates in gaps between the fibres and endomysial network. This is observable 12 hrs post mortem. Therefore, the movement of water happens firstly from within the myofibrillar compartment or the intra-myofibrillar space into the inter-myofibrillar space and then into one of two other extramyofibrillar compartments, inter and extra fascicular spaces.

Thus existing research information suggests that management of early post-mortem conditions requires simultaneous consideration of both cooling rate and glycolytic rate to produce desired effects on meat quality. For example, when the cooling rate of a carcass is rapid, acceleration of glycolysis and early rigor development resulting in improved tenderness, but when carcasses are cooled slowly, accelerated glycolysis can result in appreciable toughening. Any effort to improve tenderness must be balanced with efforts to maintain and improve product safety.

Indian conditions and meat quality

Indian meat production can be described as “production by masses rather than mass production”. Meat retailers purchase hot carcass immediately after slaughter or carcass which has been chilled for short duration, hang in their retail shop and sold cutup parts. Consumers cook fresh meat chunks immediately or as per his convenience after keeping in refrigerator or deep freezer. Since meat is deboned or cut into pieces immediately or within 10-12 hrs of slaughter, shortening or stiffening is severe due to lack of skeletal restrain. This further deteriorates the quality of meat having higher initial connective tissue content. Also high environmental temperature in summer accelerates the process of onset of rigor mortis and has been associated with increased cooking loss. Also extreme winter in cold and hilly areas increased the risk of cold shortening and PSE. Thus management of handling conditions from slaughter to till consumption of meat is very important under Indian conditions.

(References can be collected from authors) 

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18.0 Recent advances in nutritional interventions for augmenting meat production

D. Chandrasekaran, P. Vasanthakumar, M. R. Purushothaman, C. Kathirvelan and S. Senthilkumar

Department of Animal Nutrition, VCRI, Namakkal

The improvement in the economic status has increased the purchasing power of the middle class. The current per capita meat consumption is around 5 to 5.5kgs per annum (FAO). The beef production in the country is 3.5 million tons (Business line). Buffalo in India contribute about 30 percent of the total Indian meat production. The contribution from cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs is 31 percent, 5 percent, 10 percent and 10 percent, respectively (FAO, 2003).

The production of poultry meat ranges between 3.3 and 4 million tons indicating that the per capita availability of poultry meat will be around 3 to 3.5kgs per annum hence the contribution of other meat will be only 2 to 2.5 kg per annum.

The buffalo meat export from India is increasing year by year from 4.95 lakhs tons during 2009/10 to 7.3 lakhs tons during 2010/11 and to 9.9 lakhs tons during 2011/12 indicating that there is a great potential for buffalo meat exports. The mutton/chevon production has not shown much increase due to the near static population of sheep and goats. There is a great potential for pork production as awareness about the intensive rearing of exotic pigs under hygienic conditions is removing the taboo among the non Muslims.

Enhancing the productivity in terms of enhanced daily weight gain increased body weight and exploiting the early efficiency are some of the means by the meat production in the country can be increased.

Buffalo meat production:

At present buffalo meat is obtained mainly from culled dairy animals. Fattening of buffaloe calves especially male calves is being attempted here and there without much success as the purchase price of the buffaloes for meat purpose ranges between Rs 50 to 55/kg live weight. In a fattening trial buffaloes with an initial body weight of 50.8kg reached 385 kgs in 52 wks the animals were fed with 1381.3kgs of concentrates and 395.1kgs of hay, the feed by gain was 5.32 ( Borghese,2005) with the assumption of Rs.15 per kg for concentrate and Rs 3per kg for hay the feed cost alone works out to Rs 65 per kg body weight.

Fattening of lambs/kids:

Based on the spiralling mutton cost many were lured to start intensive rearing of goats/sheep, many units had to close down since they were not able to run the farms profitably.

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Exploiting growth potential of kids / lambs

Understanding the pattern of the growth is very important to plan feeding strategies to enhance the growth rate of the lambs/kids and still be economical as it is widely believed that if sheep and goats are fed concentrates it will not be economical. At present no concentrate feed is fed to either sheep or goats under field conditions and suggestions are given to supplement with concentrates during summer or during drought conditions, as the animals would not get sufficient forages due to poor pasture conditions, but it is seldom followed. While reviewing the body weights of sheep and goats at our farm in the college (Table 1&2), the kids attain a body weight of 15 kgs at 6 months of age, the growth rate was observed to be 50gm/d during the 1st month then it increases to 92 gms/d during the 2nd and 3rd month then declining to 67g/d from 4 to 6 months and subsequently it is only 39 gms/d (Table 1). The growing potential assessed in terms of the gain as percentage of body weight (Table 2) indicates, the peak gain was in the 2nd month and it started to decline as the age advanced.

Concentrate feed for lambs/kids:

It is clear that the potential to attain the maximum growth rate is in the second month followed by 1st , 3rd and 4th months, since the lambs/kids are dependent on milk and grazing the full potential is not realized in the growth as the nutrient requirements are not met (Table.3). If we plan a strategy to supplement the lambs/kids from second month onwards starting at 5/d/kid during the beginning of the month and reach about 50g at the end of the month it may consume about 1 kg of concentrate during the 2nd month, 3 kg (@ 100 g/d) during the 3rd month and 4.5 kg (@ 150 g/d) during the 4th month. The total concentrate consumed will be around 8.5 kgs at a cost of Rs. 15/kg of feed the cost of total supplementary concentrate will work out to Rs. 127.50/-. This extra expenditure can still be economical when the 4th month body weight reaches 15.0 kgs instead of 11kgs, the additional body weight of 4.0 kgs will fetch about Rs.600 extra income and the kids can be marketed 2 months earlier.

Table 1. Body weight and growth of Sheep & goats

Age Body Weight (Kg) Weight

gain during the period

(Kg)

weight gain (g/d)

Min Max Mean

Birth wt 1.8 2.2 2.0

1 month 3.0 4.0 3.5 1.5 50

3 month 8.0 10 9.0 5.5 92

6 month 14.0 16 15 6.0 67

1 yr 20.0 24 22 7.0 39

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Table 2. Monthly growth rate in sheep & goats

Age Body Wt

Kg Gain in body weight (Kg)

Gain (% of previous body wt)

Birth Wt 2 - -

1month 3.5 1.5 75

2month 6.25 2.75 79

3month 9 2.75 44

4month 11 2 22

5month 13 2 18

6month 15 2 15

Feeding management of pregnant and lactating animals

Grazing alone may not always be sufficient to meet out the nutritional requirement of the animals particularly during the periods of early growth and late pregnancy (Table.3). Hence supplementary feeding to meet out the extra nutritional requirement during these periods is recommended. Energy intake is the major limiting factor for growth of ruminants on semi arid grasslands. Protein supplement alone to low energy diet has no effect on growth rate. Concentrate supplements should contain high energy and moderate amounts of protein.

In the pregnant does, the nutrient requirement is doubled during the last 45 days of the pregnancy and hence grazing alone will not be sufficient to meet the nutrient needs of the mothers. During last 6 weeks of gestation, 75 % of the foetal growth occurs. A high quality ration is required during this period. Supplementation of about 100 to 200 g of concentrate/day will not only enhance the lamb weight but will also enhance the subsequent milk yield after lambing, continuing the supplementation of the concentrate during the suckling period will enhance the growth rate of the kids.

Table 3. Nutrient requirement and supply in grazing Sheep/Goat

Category Requirement Available Shortage/Excess DM DCP TDN DM DCP TDN DM DCP TDN

Body maintenance 772 38 350 618 40 370 -154 2 20 (30 kg body weight) -20% 6% 6% Growing Lambs 337 40 223 270 17 161 -67 -15.4 -33 (10 kg body weight and growing @100 g per day

From milk

7 28 -20% -37% -17%

Pregnant animals – last 45 days (30kg BWt)

1280 92 665 1024 66 614 -256 -25.4 -50.6

-20% -28% -8%

Lactating animals – 1st 60 days (30 kg BWt)

1407 108 760 1126 73 675 -281 -35 -85

-20% -32% -11%

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Assumptions: 1. Sheep grazing period – 8 hours per day 2. DM consumption – 10% of requirement can be met per hour of grazing period 3. Nutrient content of mixed pasture grasses / browse is DCP – 6.5 % and TDN – 60 %.

Feeding management of breeding animals

The ewes to be mated should have the optimal body weight; if so the lambing percentage is improved by 20%. Hence two weeks prior to the mating, sheep / goats are fed with concentrates @ 250 g/day till the time of mating. It not only improves the conception rate but also the kid / lamb weight at birth and the number of twins.

Broiler Production:

Chicken meat is going to play a significant role in meeting the demand of the growing need of the animal protein requirement. The continuous increase in the cost of the feed ingredients and the increase in demand for the feed, is going to be tough for the poultry farmers to economically raise the birds. Hence achieving the target body weight with the best FCR is important, for which we have to work out a suitable strategy. The following points given below will help in planning an efficient strategy.

1. Growth Pattern

2. Intestinal development

3. Secretion

4. First feeding

5. Exploiting compensatory growth

6. Dietary manipulation

1. Growth pattern

The mean body weight achieved at different ages and the energy deposited per kg gain is given in Table 1

Table 1. The body weight and the calorie conversion efficiency of the broiler (Hubbard manual)

Age Mean wt Cal Conversion

wks (g) (Kcal/kg)

1 141 2936

2 359 3864

3 675 4544

4 1132 5110

5 1643 5504

6 2155 5951

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At present efficient strains are there achieving even better body weights, the point to be considered is that the energy needed to achieve per kg gain is increasing week by week. The energy needed in the sixth week is nearly double of that needed in the first week, indicating more gain as fat as age advances. Further, the partitioning of energy between maintenance and growth was 20:80, 30:70, 40:60, 50:50, 60:40, 70:30 during 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th weeks respectively. When the protein turnover in the breast muscle (Table 2) was studied it was found that the protein gain was 68% 7th day, 52% on the 14th day, 47% on the 28th day, but it was only 23% on the 42nd day.

Table 2. Protein turnover in Broiler breast meat (mg/d)

Protein turnover 7th d 14th d 28th d 42nd d

Protein synthesis 702 1193 2521 5086

Protein degradation 226 569 1338 3914

Protein gain 476 624 1183 1172

Taking into consideration the increment in the energy need for gain as the age advances and the decrease in efficiency of protein accretion, planning to achieve accelerated growth from day one and reach the target body weight at an earlier age will help in achieving a better FCR. To start challenging the chicks from day one, understanding the intestinal development and the gut secretions will be helpful. The weight of the intestine as a percentage of the body weight given in fig.1 indicates that by the 4th day the intestinal weight reaches a higher percentage comparable to the adult, further, reports state that the differentiation of the villi is achieved by 72h post hatch. The secretion of the enzymes trypsin, amylase and lipase (fig.2) indicates that sufficient quantity is secreted even on the 4th day itself, but the quantity of bile acid secreted on the 4th day is low compared to subsequent days, hence substitution of emulsifiers may be more advantageous than enzymes.

It has been observed that early feeding of the chicks hastens the development of the intestines (Fig.4) and consequently the increased 40th day body weight (Fig.5). This is supporting the fact that the yolk nutrients are to be used for body building and not to support the initial energy needs of the broiler. Based on the fact that accelerated development of the intestines and villi takes place in the first four days, feeding the chicks with highly digestible and absorbable nutrients provides a better start and helps in achieving a higher body weight (Table 3)

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Table 3. Effect of using highly digestible Special Pre starter up to 4 days on Growth of broilers

Feed type Age in days

4 7 21 33 42

Special Pre starter (0-4d) 117 190 820 1900 2670

Conventional 87 150 700 1700 2450

Difference % 34 21 17 12 9

Exploiting compensatory growth:

The compensatory growth is well known and it can be successfully used to enhance the feed efficiency in broilers. Diluting the feed using high fibrous indigestible feed ingredients like rice hulls during the early stages of growth for a few days has been found to enhance the feed efficiency without affecting the final body weight. In an experiment (Table 4) when chicks were fed diets diluted with rice hulls recorded a better FCR even at 55% dilution, with a non-significant reduction in the final body weight. Whereas the group fed the diet containing 25% rice hulls recorded a better body weight and FCR. The change in the pattern of nutrient accretion in the groups with early feed restriction was the main reason for the better FCR which is indicated by the reduced ME /kg gain (Table 5)

Table 4. Effect on Diet Dilution with Rice Hulls from, 4-11 Days of Age, on Performance of Male Broiler Chickens

Diet Dilution

Body Weight (g) Feed:Gain Adjusted Feed:

Gain 0-42 d 4 d 11 d 21 d 35 d 42 d 4-11 d 0-42 d

0 101 276a 720a 1673a 2149 1.33d 1.73 1.73

25 100 260b 696a 1668a 2159 1.71c 1.71 1.68

40 98 240c 659b 1612a 2093 2.18b 1.74 1.68

55 98 219d 604c 1532b 2029 2.75a 1.72 1.63

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Table 5. Diet dilution with rice hulls from 6 to 11 days of age, on compensatory growth of male broiler chickens

Treatment

Body wt (g) Feed:Gain ME Mcal/

kg gain

21d 35d 42d 49d 21-35 days

0-49 days

0-49 days

CCoonnttrrooll 773333 11779900 22339900 22889900 1.84 2.01 6.21

5500%% ddiilluuttiioonn 667777 11779900 22338800 22995500 1.7 1.93 5.9

Dietary manipulation:

The need for reducing the carcass fat is well known as the consumers prefer lean meat. Further, reduction in the rate of fat deposition will improve the FCR as fat is used at a lower efficiency in body weight gain. Several trials have been conducted to achieve low carcass fat by dietary manipulations. Decreasing the ME of the diet from 15.1MJ/kg to 10.9MJ/kg reduced the carcass fat from 48% to 38% and increased the carcass protein from 43% to 51%. But under commercial conditions diluting the diet lead to lower body weights consequently increased the marketing age negating the benefits accrued. Similarly increasing the protein content of the diet reduced the fat content of the carcass. Increasing the protein content of the diet from 16% to 24% reduced the carcass fat to 42% from 50% and increased the protein content from 41% to 47%. The economical viability should be considered as protein is one of the costlier nutrients.

Conclusion:

In any intensive rearing of livestock the feed cost is the deciding factor in the viability. The best option is to identify the efficient growth period and exploit the situation to make intensive meat production as an economical enterprise.

(References can be collected from authors) 

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19 Challenges to meat safety

Robinson. J. J. Abraham

Department of Meat Science and Technology, Madras Veterinary College, Chennai

The scientific awareness of the public health risks from unsafe food, including both acute and long-term health consequences has been constantly increasing. Many food borne pathogens and diseases, such as new pathogenic strains of E. coli, are emerging as technological improvements enable their detection. Also troubling is the accumulating evidence that some pathogens are becoming resistant to certain antibiotics. Public health authorities are growing more engaged with food safety as improvements in information and reporting systems accompany greater concern about food safety in general. The traditional food borne outbreak scenario is changing. In the past, outbreaks were mostly acute and highly local and resulted from a high level of contamination. Now, we see relatively more outbreaks from low level contamination of widely distributed commercial food products affecting many counties, States, and nations. This development has been attributed to changes in food production and distribution and to the growth of international trade.

Morbidity from food borne illnesses is second only to respiratory diseases in Europe, with estimates of 50,000 to 300,000 cases of acute gastroenteritis per million population every year. According to data from the Centres for Disease Control and Prevention, it has been estimated that approximately one in four Americans may experience some form of food borne illness each year.

Food consumption patterns are changing in India as populations become more urbanized, Indian food consumption is moving from subsistence to basic foods. Even in rural India, consumption of proteins , meats, poultry, fish has increased by more than a third in the 1990s as compared to the 1970s (National Statistical Survey, 1996). Urbanization also increases the risk of meat borne illness and makes monitoring and control more difficult. Additional problems, especially in developing countries include the lack of adequate infrastructure to handle large scale meat processing. A key issue is development of effective cold chains, given the high ambient temperatures and significant variability in power availability.

The meat industry around the world is becoming a truly global one. Increasingly, the situation is one of outsourcing the majority of raw materials and ingredients. Typically, a processed meat product in the developed world consists of ingredients from several countries. The trend is towards importing meat from the developing world and processing them for use in industrialized nations or for exports. Modern technologies implemented in meat processing and advancements in microbiological food-safety standards have diminished, but not altogether eliminated, the likelihood of food-related illness in the developed world. The increasing consumption of ready to eat meat products, prone to temperature abuse and the importation of raw foods from developing countries are among the main causes of this situation.

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We are, therefore, facing the twin issues of changing consumption patterns for foods, as well as changing global trade practices. Both these issues can have huge impacts on meat safety and risk assessment. Any attempts towards designing effective meat safety systems must take these into consideration.

Hence concerns and issues pertaining to safety of meat are increasingly attracting the attention of all stakeholders and policy makers and regulatory authorities of the meat industry. This paper presents an overview of the various challenges pertaining to safety of meat faced by the global meat industry.

Current Meat Safety Challenges

Food safety challenges associated with products of animal origin have become a growing concern in recent years, as already indicated above and indications exist that such issues will continue being important in the future. The main goal and challenge is related to prevent food borne illness outbreaks involving deaths, associated recalls of potentially contaminated products from the marketplace, and regulatory compliance issues and friction nationally and worldwide.

The challenges to meat safety may be conveniently classified as biological, chemical and physical apart from some general challenges, which are discussed below:

General

Trade associated challenges

Potential reasons for the increased food safety challenges of recent years are: modernized food production, processing, marketing and distribution practices; globalization of the food industry as indicated by the increased international trade, the increased transportation of foods among countries, and the multi-sourcing of food ingredients; the modernization of food preparation and food service practices; the continuous development of new food products to meet consumer demands and expectations for minimally processed and convenient foods; the increased urbanization and the associated need for transportation of large amounts of food products from centralized production and processing locations to urban population centers as food products need a shelf life adequate for distribution, marketing and consumption in distant areas; the increased travel which may enhance transfer of pathogens between countries; the changing consumer demographics, lifestyles, eating habits and increased life expectancy; the greater numbers of sensitive consumers who are at-risk for food transmitted infections; climate changes as well as associated natural environmental stresses which may induce biological changes and lead to new or emerging pathogens that may be resistant to control interventions or more virulent; advances in microbial pathogen detection methodologies; inadequate food-handler and consumer education and training in food safety and proper food handling; and increased interest, awareness and scrutiny of food safety issues by news media and consumer advocate groups as well as consumers..

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Animal Health Issues

Animal health challenges, such as avian influenza, swine influenza and foot and mouth disease, appear as major worldwide epidemics at various times and become major public concerns influencing consumer confidence in food safety. Even though they are not transmitted through consumption of properly cooked meat and poultry, such animal disease agents may result in major economic losses affecting local, domestic or international markets. As such, they have the potential to become major trade, political or diplomatic issues. It is the obligation of health authorities throughout the world to address such issues as effectively as possible. Although early detection and diagnosis is the key for containment, the goal should be prevention and eradication of animal pandemics. Such efforts should be based on global cooperation for risk-based contingency pre-planning, and for establishment and monitoring of effective preventive and protective measures or firewalls.

Animal Identification and Traceability

Identification and traceability of animals with technologies such as electronic ear tags or retinal scanning, or DNA fingerprinting, as well as food product traceability by means of barcodes, or radio frequency identification device (RFID) to facilitate recalls, are issues that have gained worldwide interest and importance in recent years, especially following detection of bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) in animals. Animal, food and pathogen traceability have food safety implications as they allow tracking, containment and recalls of animals and products if needed due to public health or other concerns.

Food Attribution

Another currently important food safety issue is to better link food borne illness episodes with specific food sources. Thus, more effort is needed to resolve causes of food borne illness episodes and more specifically to track food borne illnesses, their causes and vehicles of pathogen transmission. Specifically, this food attribution activity involves tracing (biotracing) pathogens through proper surveillance activities, and microbial source tracking based on phenotypic and genotypic methods. In the United States the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the federal public health agency, is emphasizing tracking food borne illnesses through intense epidemiological and molecular investigations conducted by its Food borne Diseases Active Surveillance Network (FoodNet) and the pathogen tracking and DNA fingerprinting program (PulseNet). These efforts have contributed to faster and better identification of food borne illness outbreaks with victims in various parts of the country. Overall, knowledge obtained through food attribution activities and efforts should contribute to the determination of microbial control needs, evaluation of progress toward pathogen control, help in microbial risk assessments, and identify potential new challenges.

Consumer Behavior and Expectations

In general, meat consumption increases as the standard of living is improved. However, meat consumption in developed countries may be approaching saturation levels, as consumers in such countries express a preference for foods with no additives or chemical

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residues, exposed to minimal processing, convenient and needing little preparation, safe, and economic. These changes in food preferences are associated with changes in demographics, lifestyles, life expectancy, and educational experiences. It should be noted, however, that food safety risks may become even greater in minimally processed foods as well as because consumers eat more meals away from home; the number of take home meals has increased; the use of pre-prepared or pre-packaged meals, salads and other food items has increased; more consumers prefer or follow special diets; and, present-day consumers are exposed to limited education relative to proper food handling practices. Minimally processed foods of low fat, reduced salt and other additives may be less safe, as for example, a lower fat content in a food is associated with higher moisture, which leads to dilution and further reduction of the already lower levels of salt and other additives. This further dilutes the preservative contribution of additives in a product that may also be minimally processed.

Dietary Supplements

Dietary supplements include vitamins, minerals, herbs or other botanicals, amino acids, and other substances that are added to meat products. The safety issues involved include over supplementation, use of botanicals not from plants typically used for food, use of hormone products, and the lack of purity of ingredients. Some of the problems include product recalls, deaths attributed to supplements containing ephedra, and reports of adverse effects.

Genetic Modification

Progress in food biotechnology and in the production of genetically modified organisms may be less controversial among some consumer groups in the future as their undeniably positive contributions in treating disease (ATryn, human antithrombin from goats milk) and helping feed the undernourished or malnourished (Aquaadvantage salmon) become better recognized. It should be noted, however, that animal cloning in routine production of food animals is unnecessary and should not be practiced. A report found that U.S. consumers’ acceptance of genetically modified food to be as follows: 72% support agriculture biotechnologies, 90% support medical biotechnologies, 75% believe biotechnologies will result in personal family benefits, and about 66% would buy produce modified to taste better or remain fresher. Internationally, 61% of Europeans avoid products with modified ingredients. Market tests of cloned beef in Japan showed that the low price (50% lower than other beef) outweighed concerns for the new technology. Starting in April 2000 in Japan, tofu, corn snacks, and soy milk with genetically modified ingredients must have the proper labeling.

Other Meat Associated Challenges

An important food safety challenge for sensitive consumers is presence of allergenic ingredients in some foods, including composite meat products. Proper processing, cleaning of processing lines to avoid cross-contamination, labeling of products and consumer education

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are needed to prevent exposure of sensitive individuals to such danger. Further, increased concern in recent years relative to potential intentional introduction of hazards in foods to cause food safety problems through bioterrorism activities is being addressed in countries such as the United States.

Biological Challenges

Microbial Food borne Pathogens

Microbial pathogens, and especially food borne pathogenic bacteria are considered as of the highest concern in the safety of meat products. Meatborne bacterial pathogens include Campylobacter spp., Salmonella, diarrheagenic E. coli serotypes, especially shiga-toxin producing / verotoxigenic (STEC/VTEC) enterohemorrhagic (EHEC) serotypes, Yersinia enterocolitica, L. monocytogenes, Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus cereus, Clostridium perfringens, Clostridium botulinum, Aeromonas, Arcobacter, Brucella, Shigella, and Enterobacter. Important parasitic agents include Trichinella spiralis, Sarcocystis spp., Toxoplasma gondii, Taenia spp. and Sarcocystis spp. Viral agents involved in human food borne illness are Norovirus, hepatitis A and enteroviruses; their transmission is mostly due to poor sanitation, cross-contamination during preparation and serving, or inadequate cooking.

In addition to the above, additional food borne pathogens recognized since 1970 include Vibrio cholerae nonO1, Vibrio vulnificus, Norovirus, Cryptosporidium parvum, Cyclospora cayetanensis, Cronobacter (Enterobacter) sakazakii, prions, and resistant bacteria. Other potentially important pathogens may be Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis, Escherichia albertii, and Clostridium difficile. However, progress in methodologies of detection is needed before their role in the safety of meat and other foods is determined.

The most important meatborne bacterial pathogens attracting attention in recent years are enterohemorrhagic (EHEC) STEC/VTEC E. coli serotypes and Salmonella, including antibiotic resistant strains, in raw meat, Campylobacter spp., in poultry, and L. monocytogenes in ready-to-eat processed meat and poultry products Therefore, it is important to control these bacterial pathogens in order to assure the safety of meat products. .

Control of Food borne Pathogens

Control of bacterial pathogens in animal food products has become a major concern for the industry, public health agencies, regulatory authorities, and consumers worldwide. The common sense strategy for bacterial pathogen control, with the goal of improving meat safety, is to apply adequate cleaning, good sanitation, proper hygiene, and effective antimicrobial intervention technologies in order to: ship for slaughter food animals with reduced contamination levels; reduce the potential for transfer of microorganisms to carcasses and meat from live animals and form the environment; apply safe, approved and effective decontamination interventions, when allowed, as an extra insurance for reduction of contamination levels on carcasses or meat when accidentally may be higher than those achieved by proper sanitation and hygiene; apply physical processes (e.g., heat, high pressure, irradiation, etc., when approved and useful) in order to reduce or eliminate, by

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killing, contamination on processed or cooked products; avoid or minimize cross-contamination at all stages of the meat processing chain, from production, to slaughter, processing, preparation and consumption; and, apply antimicrobial inhibitors and store products under low temperature and packaging conditions that delay or inhibit growth of surviving pathogen cells. Proper selection of interventions as well as design, validation, implementation, verification and documentation of this common sense approach, through HACCP, is the best available strategy for assurance of meat product safety, as well as quality.

Control of bacterial food borne hazards and enhancement of food safety is the responsibility of all involved in the food chain, from farm-to-table; from producer to packer, processor, distributor, retailer, foodservice, and consumers. All should be involved through an integrated approach, employing multiple simultaneous and sequential interventions, and based on the principles and philosophy of HACCP. The target of pathogen control approaches at the pre-harvest level should be to minimize contamination sources and access or transfer of contamination to food animals or plants. During harvest and product processing, the goal should be to avoid cross-contamination, remove/reduce contamination through washing, sanitization or decontamination interventions, inactivation of contamination through heat or other lethal interventions, and inhibition, delay or retardation of growth in products still contaminated with pathogens. The aim of efforts to control pathogens at the foodservice and consumer level should be to apply procedures that inhibit growth, inactivate contamination through cooking, and prevent transfer of contamination or cross-contamination. The strategy for control of food borne pathogens also includes proper food labeling, as well as proper education and training of food handlers.

The goal of all efforts and interventions is to control levels of contamination. This may be accomplished at the pre-harvest level as well as at every stage of the food chain through proper cleaning, sanitation and hygienic activities, and by application of food product cleaning, washing, and decontamination programs. Destruction of contamination is accomplished through cooking, pasteurization or sterilization (canning) thermal treatments, as well as non thermal novel treatments including irradiation, ultrahigh hydrostatic pressures, etc. Inhibition of microbial growth is achieved through cold storage, drying to reduce water activity, acidification to reduce pH or fermentation to reduce pH and produce antimicrobials such as acids and bacteriocins, addition of chemical antimicrobial agents, and packaging to protect from additional contamination or modify the gas atmosphere surrounding the product.

Frequently, inhibitory interventions are applied at sub-lethal levels in the form of multiple sequential or simultaneous hurdles. In general, antimicrobial interventions or hurdles used to control bacterial pathogens in meat and other foods include those of physical nature, such as low and high temperature, non thermal processes, such as irradiation (gamma, electron beam, x-rays) or high hydrostatic pressure treatments, and packaging methods, such as modified atmosphere packaging, including vacuum packaging, high oxygen, low oxygen, oxygen-free controlled atmosphere packaging, active packaging, smart packaging, edible packaging films, etc..

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Meat Irradiation

Meat irradiation appears to be imminent, especially with the use of electron beam technology rather than radioactive isotopes. The Titan Corporation Plant in Sioux City, Iowa, is on the verge of opening. The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) has approved an irradiation level of 1.5 to 3.0 kGy for poultry (fresh or frozen), and proposed approval of maximum levels of 4.5 kGy and 7.0 kGy for fresh and frozen red meat, respectively. Internationally, 41 countries have clearances for commercial food irradiation, with meat and poultry clearances in 23 countries for different categories and different doses. Consumer acceptance of irradiated food is high. A report by the FMI and Grocery Manufacturers of America showed that 60% of consumers were likely to buy irradiated meat in 1997 and 55% in 1998. A report indicated that 80% of consumers surveyed are willing to purchase irradiated versus non irradiated poultry, if the price is the same; 30% would pay a 10% premium; and 15% would pay a 20% premium. Thus, meat irradiation is moving in a positive mode with consumers at the present time.

Hurdle Technology

In most situations (with the exception of foods that are frozen, dried, canned or acidified) control of pathogenic bacteria in foods is commonly achieved through application of more than one, individually sub lethal, antimicrobial treatment as multiple sequential or simultaneous hurdles (hurdle technology concept). Optimization of multiple hurdles in order to maximize their efficacy is the goal for effective pathogen control, but foods and microbes are complex systems, and thus, selection of proper combinations and sequences of hurdles is complicated. Instead of empirical design of multiple hurdle systems, the goal should be to achieve synergistic antimicrobial effects against weak microbial cell targets; this would maximize antimicrobial effects and food product safety. Improper selection and design of multiple hurdle systems may lead to antimicrobial failures and potentially to selection or adaptation of pathogen cells exhibiting higher resistance to certain hurdles.

Stress adapted resistant pathogens may also develop in efforts of the industry to provide consumers with foods that are exposed to only minimal processing, contain no antimicrobial additives, and are convenient to consume; food borne pathogenic bacteria in these foods may be only stressed and become resistant to subsequent sub -lethal food processing stresses such as acid, cold, heat, drying, anaerobiosis, decontamination interventions, sanitizers, etc. In general, this phenomenon of stress-adaptation or selection of resistant populations, which may develop multiple resistances or cross-protection to other stresses, is an important issue that may be involved in failure of food preservation programs. This may be avoided through understanding of mechanisms of action of antimicrobial hurdles, as well as microbial cell functions that will allow us to optimize antimicrobial hurdle systems by applying the correct sequence of hurdles to avoid pathogen cell stress adaptation and resistance development; proper hurdle implementation will lead to microbial death through multiple cell injuries or metabolic exhaustion

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Chemical Hazards Associated with Meats

A. Pesticide Residues

Of all the food contaminants, pesticides probably have received the most interest worldwide. Most pesticides are acutely toxic to humans and animals; even ingestion of low levels over a long period of time can have adverse effects. Overall, very few, if any, foods are contaminated in the United States when pesticides are used according to the prescribed application guidelines.

The regulation of pesticide use is handled differently by each country throughout the world, though there is a tendency toward a more unified approach. With the passage of the GATT treaty (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade), we can expect to see a much broader approach to pesticide regulatory activities. The World Health Organization and the United Nations Environment Programme play major roles in evaluating and disseminating information on pesticide use and toxicity, as well as other types of toxic compounds. Codex Alimentarius prescribes standards for the residue levels permissible for various pesticides in various foods. In the United States, pesticide regulation is under the auspices of three government agencies; the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the FDA, and the USDA-FSIS. The EPA is responsible for the residue levels permissible for various pesticides in various foods, while n Europe this is undertaken by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) Some of the most common pesticides of concern to meat safety are discussed below:

a. Carbamates. These pesticides can be insecticides, herbicides, or fungicides and have in common a carbamic group in their structures. A variety of substitutions can occur around the carbamic group, which often will determine both the degree of toxicity and potential use. In recent years, carbamate residue has not been considered a problem in meat products.

b. Organohalides (halogenated hydrocarbons). Strictly speaking, many classes of pesticides contain halogens, especially chlorine, and can be grouped in this category. The organohalide pesticides have a vast array of different structures but usually have at least one ring substituent, contain chlorine, and are extremely stable. Examples of this class include aldrin, chlordane, dieldrin, endrin, heptachlor, and DDT. In the 1970s, DDT and similar pesticides were banned in the United States and most countries because of its bioaccumulation through the food chain, especially in predatory birds such as the bald eagle. The organohalides are neurotoxins and are noted especially for their persistence in the environment. Although many have been banned for years, they are still detected readily in the environment and fatty tissue of many animals, including humans. The major concerns with these pesticides are their potential teratogenicity (toxicity to fetuses), endocrine disruption, and carcinogenicity.

c. Organophosphates (OPs). These represent a large class of organic compounds with a variety of uses as herbicides, fungicides, acaricides, and most notably insecticides. The OPs are used on a wide variety of crops, grains, and food animals, such as poultry and cattle. As with carbamates, their toxicity and mode of action are associated with the irreversible inhibition of acetylcholinesterase. Because of fairly rapid breakdown, the OPs do not accumulate in fatty tissues or the environment (unlike organohalides). Many of the

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chlorinated OPs are strictly regulated, and, thus, many meat products are monitored by USDA-FSIS.

d. Synthetic pyrethroids. The pyrethroids are synthetic insecticides modeled after pyrethrins, which are natural constituents of the flowers of certain chrysanthemums. The pyrethroids, like most other insecticides, are neurotoxic to insects. The major advantages of this group of insecticides are their low toxicity to humans and animals and their action against a wide variety of insects. However, they do cause a “burning” type of skin irritation, which may explain the origin of the name. The pyrethroids are approved for a wide variety of crops, including many fruits and vegetables. They also are used for pest control on pets and farm food animals. Pyrethroids have replaced many of the organohalides and organophosphates and are now found commonly in household insecticidal products.

B. Hormone Disruptors

1.Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs)

The PCBs constitute a group of industrial chemicals that have good stability to chemical and thermal breakdown and are nonflammable. As with many of the organohalogen pesticides, they are considered POPs, and an effort is under way to bring about a worldwide ban. Prior to their production being halted in most countries in 1974, PCBs were used in electrical transformers, in electronic parts, and as flame retardants. Other than a severe skin rash termed chloracne, exposure to high levels of PCBs has not caused any problems in adults. However, in two major epidemics in Japan in 1968 and Taiwan in 1978, people ingested rice cooking oils containing high levels of PCBs (1,000 ppm or greater) and developed a variety of conditions such as chloracne, liver disorders, fatigue, and nausea. Some smaller children exposed to the contaminated oils had delayed neurological and cognitive functioning. Based on this and other studies, the FDA designated PCBs as unavoidable environmental contaminants and set tolerances at 0.2 to 2.0 ppm for residues in many food products.

2. Polychlorinated Dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs)

Dioxins and dioxin-like compounds are environmental contaminants that are fat soluble and chemically stable. Dioxins originate from combustion of chlorine-containing organic compounds. Sources of exposure include industrial and municipal incinerators and combustion of leaded gasoline, diesel fuel, and wood. Dioxins also are by-products of chlorine bleaching of paper and pulp and are known to be present in the leachates from certain hazardous waste sites. They exhibit high toxicity and carcinogenicity in animal models and thus merit a considerable amount of concern for human public health. Although dioxins are present in the environment in very small amounts (parts per trillion), their known carcinogenicity and estrogen-like action are causes for concern. The estrogen- like activity is of special interest, because the potential to target many different genes can disrupt cell functions. Possible effects include disruption of the reproductive system in the developing fetus, immune system malfunction, and neurological disorders. Until recently, no major cases

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of food contamination with dioxins have occurred. That changed in the spring of 1999, when significant contamination was found in dairy products, eggs, chickens, baked goods, and some pork and beef products produced in Belgium. Thes compounds are strictly regulated currently.

C. Antibiotic Residues

A considerable number of drugs, including antibiotics, are regulated closely by the FDA. Antibiotics have a wide variety of toxic effects, including potential teratogenicity and mutagenicity. Some of them, especially in the penicillin family, can cause hypersensitivity

reactions, which may be life-threatening in susceptible individuals. Because residue levels are seen only in food animals, the USDA-FSIS is responsible for monitoring them. All drugs are regulated so that only trace amounts are allowed in muscle foods, usually range below ppm. In many cases, the drugs must be withdrawn from the animals for a defined period before they are taken to market. Major issues have developed over the use of antibiotics in animal feed and/or treatments and how this practice contributes to the generation of antibiotic-resistant strains of bacteria. Thus, within the past several years, world regulatory agencies have moved to restrict antibiotic drugs used in treating human infections from use in both animal treatments and feed. In December of 1998, the European Union proposed a ban on the use of certain antibiotics as animal feed additives, and the U.S. FDA proposed new guidelines that severely restrict the use in animals of many antibiotics that are essential for treating bacterial infections in humans.

D. Chemicals from Production or Processing

1. Heterocyclic Amines

Several different amino acids present on the surface of a cooked (browned or grilled) food are pyrolyzed into potentially carcinogenic substances. It is now known that tryptophan, phenylalanine, lysine, and glutamic acid each can yield several different types of mutagenic heterocyclic amines when exposed to the high temperatures of broiling.Physical variables such as temperature, time, and method of cooking significantly affect the mutagenic activity of cooked meat. Cooking temperature is the most important factor; a marked decrease in mutagenic activity is observed when meat is fried at lower temperatures. Moreover, the surface of well-done charcoal-broiled steaks contains much higher levels of heterocyclic amines than that of boiled beef.

2. Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs)

These are highly mutagenic and carcinogenic compounds that are pyrolytic products of burning fuel or organic compounds and are present in any type of smoke. They are found primarily in the environment, as a result of air pollution. However, PAHs have been found in a variety of foods, especially grilled, roasted, and smoked fish and meats. Charcoal-broiled and barbecued meats have some of the highest levels, about 30 to 40 times normal. Generation of PAHs occurs primarily by cooking or combustion at high temperatures and

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involves carbohydrates, peptides, and lipids. Lipid pyrolysis appears to cause the greatest production of PAHs in grilled products. The PAHs can enter the body by either ingestion or inhalation. Once absorbed, they are activated by liver enzymes to produce compounds that can interact with either proteins or DNA. The binding to DNA involves covalent bonding, which causes mutations and eventual carcinogenicity in some animal species. Though information is limited, PAHs are also thought to cause immuno-suppression reactions in some animals.

3. Nitrosamines

The N-nitrosamines are carcinogenic compounds formed from reactions between a secondary amine (amino acid) and nitrogen oxides and nitrous acid originating from nitrate or nitrite added to processed meat products. The reaction generally does not occur to a great extent unless high temperatures are applied; thus, levels of N-nitrosamines are low in most meat products. The major regulatory thrust since the late 1970s has been on controlling the levels in bacon. Very specific regulations dictate maximum amounts of 120 ppm for sodium nitrite or 148 ppm for potassium nitrite, and 500 ppm for sodium erythorbate or sodium ascorbate in the product. The final nitrosamine contained in the cooked (fried) bacon is not allowed to be over 10 ppb, which is the level of detection. The only other cured meat products that have been scrutinized closely for nitrosamines are hams that had been smoked/cooked in rubber-containing elastic nets. The residual nitrite levels in cured meats have dropped dramatically from those reported in the 1970s. This indicates that cured meat products are not major sources of exposure to N-nitrosamines, as was once thought.

Physical hazards associated with meats:

Identification and control

Physical hazards, when compared to biological and chemical hazards, may not be distributed as uniformly throughout the food product. Therefore, fewer individuals may be affected by a physical hazard event. Nonetheless, a HACCP plan must take into account physical hazards and their control. Katsuyama also noted a distinction between physical contaminants that cause physical injury and those that are aesthetically unpleasing. HACCP deals primarily with those physical contaminants that may cause injury. However, in some instances, control of filth adulteration, whether it results in a public health risk or not, comes under regulatory agency control. This certainly is true for international regulatory guidelines. The filth consideration is also a part of the U.S. regulatory approach, recognizing the goal of harmonization of international food safety standards.

Physical hazards can result from incoming raw materials; poor personnel practices; and faulty processes, facilities, and equipment. The following list of physical hazards have been commonly encountered - Band-aids, Bones/bone fragments, Bullets/shot, Carcass ID tags, Cigarette butts, Dirt, rocks, Feathers, Gasket materials, Glass, Grease, Gum, wrappers, Hair, Hypodermic needles, Insects, Jewellery, buttons, Metal, Mold, mold mats, Paint flakes, Plastics, Rodents/droppings, Rubber, Wood splinters, Writing pen caps.

The control of these hazards begins with good manufacturing during pre-harvest management

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through further processing and handling before receipt by the ultimate consumer. Additional controls include, for example, carcass and product trimming, carcass washing, bone separators, metal detectors, magnets, x-ray devices, visual evaluation of incoming raw materials for defects, employee training, equipment and facility maintenance, and proper sanitation. However, complete control of the spectrum of potential physical hazards is impossible with current technology. One problem is that detection technology does not exist for certain contaminants—for example, vinyl gloves or pieces. The ability to be able to detect particulate contaminants regardless of the composition is needed.

In the absence of that technology, the following list of strategies to help prevent and control physical hazards in processing facilities has been recommended:

Complying with good manufacturing practice regulations

Using appropriate specifications for ingredients and supplies

Obtaining letters of guarantee from all suppliers

Utilizing vendor certification

Identifying types and sources of physical hazards

Determining critical control points

Installing equipment that can detect and/or remove physical hazards

Monitoring the critical control points and documenting control performance

Training employees

Advances in the detection and control of physical hazards are needed and warrant increased research and development efforts.

Quality Assurance Programmes and Meat Safety

HACCP Implementation, Education and Training

Food safety may be properly and effectively assured through adequate and proper implementation of validated and verified HACCP programs throughout the food chain. To be effective, process control and food safety management systems, such as HACCP, should be implemented on the basis of collaboration, cooperation and coordination among all sectors involved, industry, scientific community, regulatory authorities, and public health agencies.

HACCP plans should be based on a strong foundation of effective prerequisite programs, including good manufacturing practices (GMP) and good hygiene practices (GHP), as well as in adequate and hygienically designed facilities and equipment. In addition, specific standard operating procedures (SOP) or job instructions should be developed for use in employee training and during operations. Complete and effective SOPs should address: what is to be done in the operation; by whom; when; why; and how. The SOP should be understandable to workers and should also provide guidance as to what to do if a deviation or other problem develops during operations.

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HACCP implementation will be complete when its principles are applied throughout the chain of a production of a given product based on adequate, complete, and routine education and training of management and employees in understanding the importance of hazard control, the meaning and function of HACCP, and the proper and continuous application of its principles. This is crucial because management provides funding for materials, equipment, and adequate time for training and education of employees, while day-to-day HACCP implementation is not complete until there is complete worker training.

Evidence shows that human errors such as poor hygiene, improper food handling and inadequate heating, lead to most food borne illness events. Thus, in addition to food workers, it is important to teach consumers the basics of food safety. These include proper cooking of animal foods, thorough washing of raw vegetables, separation of uncooked from ready-to-eat foods, and washing of hands, cutting boards, knives, etc. Individuals at-risk for severe food borne illness should be instructed to avoid or properly cook risky foods, and to avoid raw or unpasteurized products.

Risk Assessment-based Food Safety Objectives

It is currently recognized, that food safety regulations and funding of research activities should be based on data gaps and knowledge needs, respectively, identified by proper risk assessments. The concept of risk analysis and risk assessment component are finding their value for implementation in microbial food safety, as several microbial food safety risk assessments have been undertaken by individual scientists, national agencies and international organizations such as World Heath Organization and the Food and agriculture Organization (WHO/FAO) in recent years. Examples of risk assessments include the FSIS draft E. coli O157 ground beef risk assessment and its review by the United States National Academy of Science (NAS), the listeriosis risk assessment completed by Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS) and CDC, and the Salmonella in broilers and eggs risk assessment of WHO/FAO.

As progress in risk assessments is achieved, efforts have been initiated in order to base food borne hazard control measures on performance, process and product criteria developed to achieve feasible food safety objectives. The criteria developed through risk assessments to meet established food safety objectives will then be managed by HACCP. Such transparent approaches are developed and advanced to allow better international cooperation, collaboration and harmonization, leading to improved control of food borne hazards and international food trade.

Regulatory Issues in Meat Safety

Regulatory Modernization and Harmonization

As the international food trade is expanding, there is a need for harmonization of food-safety-related process management and regulatory requirements need among countries coordinated by national and international agencies and organizations such as the WHO, the FAO, the Codex Alimentarius Commission (Codex), the World Trade Organization (WTO),

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and the International Commission on Microbiological Specifications for Foods (ICMSF). In addition, there is a need to determine and assign responsibilities for zoonotic diseases among animal health and regulatory or public health agencies, nationally (Animal, Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS), FSIS, and CDC in the United States) and internationally (World Organization for Animal Health-OIE, Codex, WHO). Harmonization of activities should lead to optimized use of resources, facilitate trade, eliminate friction, and enhance food safety.

Meat Safety in the Future

Meat Safety and Research Needs

During the past several decades, meat scientists and food microbiologists have been performing a variety of valuable and fruitful research activities to promote meat science and meat safety. A number of factors are important to the livestock and meat industry. For example, product quality (i.e., tenderness consistency) and processing efficiencies (i.e., centralized processing and precooking) are important targets for the industry. However, those considerations must be consistent with safety of the product and vice versa. With that focus in mind, it is imperative that all segments from producers to processor to retailer to consumer be involved to help assure meat safety. Practices are needed at the live animal level that can be implemented realistically and may reduce hazards that can be carried to the final product. Identification of those practices has been difficult, and demonstrating quantitatively that a pre-harvest practice reduces the incidence of food borne disease is unlikely. Therefore, producers may implement practices on the theoretical contingency that they will help reduce the incidence of a hazard. Perhaps, future research will lead to such improvements as vaccines or competitive exclusion agents that will function as classical control technologies at a critical control point in pre-harvest HACCP. That research demands significant attention by the scientific community.

The most progress in meat safety research has been made at the processing level, because this is a logical point to achieve broad-spectrum hazard control or elimination. As compared to the number of live animal producers, there are fewer processing facilities through which the product passes and can be subjected to hazard control. Nonetheless, the ideal system realizes hazard control pre harvest and this is coupled with the postharvest gains.

Postharvest intervention systems that integrate chemical, physical, and thermal strategies require further investigation to determine their synergy. However, those systems must be coupled with appropriate subsequent handling of the product, whether it be by purveyors, food service, retail stores, or the ultimate consumers. There is a need to discern the most correct information transfer system(s) to ensure that post processing education completes the concept of safety from live animal to consumer.

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20. Recent innovations in the development of low fat meat products

George T. Oommen

Department of LPT, Veterinary College, KVASU, Lakkidi, Pookkot, Kerala

Introduction

Meat, poultry and fish form a major portion of a healthful diet. There are several factors boosting the demand for convenience in meal preparation. The key factors are higher standard of living and educational status, higher purchasing capacity of the employed community, increased awareness on requirement of nutritious food, increasing participation of women in the work force, lack of time due to job and recreational activities, growing number of single person family and small households, lack of skill, experience and facilities in preparing meals at home, migration of people to urban areas for job, students and other people at work taking packed meals and increasing catering establishments, etc. The modern meat food industry and retailers in the developing countries have readily reacted to this growing demand by considerably expanding their variety of pre-prepared meat products which include fast food, ready-to-cook and ready-to-eat meat products available in market. Reduced and low fat meat products constitute a growing segment of the food industry with increasing demand for products.

Why Low Fat Meat Products are Needed?

Epidemiological, clinical and biochemical evidences indicate that high fat intake, especially saturated fat, is associated with increased risk of obesity, high cholesterolaemia, CVD, cancer of colon, breast and prostate and non-insulin dependent diabetes. To prevent these health hazards various health organizations have promoted the reduction of fat and cholesterol intake in our diet. Consequent to the increased awareness of the adverse effects of excessive dietary fat, health conscious meat consumers are modifying their dietary habits to low fat diet. Hence the demand for low fat meat products is increasing in recent times.

World Health Organization in 2003 made recommendations to reduce daily fat intake so that it does not exceed 30 per cent of total calorie intake and to limit saturated fatty acids less than 10 per cent of total calorie intake, 6 to 10 per cent from poly unsaturated fatty acids, 10 to 15 per cent from mono unsaturated fatty acids less than 1 per cent from trans fatty acids and to limit cholesterol intake to 300 mg per day. The US Code of Federal Regulations in 1995 defined ‘low fat’ food as that containing < 3 g total fat and ‘fat free’ < 0.5 g total fat. Fat < 10% is generally called ‘lean meat’.

Functions of Fat in Meat Products

Fat as a nutrient is useful for human health and development as well as for many physiological functions. It has a basic effect on various physico-chemical and sensory characteristics such as colour, texture, bite, heat transfer, mouth feel (smoothness or

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creaminess), maintenance of juiciness and moisture in foods, carry, enhance and release the flavours of other food ingredients, dilute protein content, delay protein extraction and thereby allowing more tolerance in mixing procedures.

Technological Problems in Producing Low Fat Meat Products

Production of low fat products through simple fat reduction substantially reduces the functional properties of fat, which significantly reduce important sensory properties. Reducing the fat content to < 10% often results in cooked ground beef that is bland, dry with a hard, rubbery or mealy texture, reduced cook yield, soft mushy interiors, excessive purge, darker product color, lack of beef flavor, reduced browning reactions and shorter microbiological shelf-life.

Although consumers prefer good food with minimal to no fat or low calories, they also need their food to taste good. Hence improving overall palatability must assume utmost importance in any effort to reduce fat in comminuted meat products. Therefore, there is great opportunity to develop low fat comminuted meat products with appropriate fat replacers. The optimization of their concentration to produce low fat meat products is necessary for better consumer acceptability and market value.

Methods of Reducing Fat Content

The production and processing procedures that can be utilized in reducing fat in meat poultry and fish products are 1) by reducing fat content by production practices like breeding and selection, feeding and management and trimming of excess fat. 2) Reducing fat by processing procedures like addition of protein/non-protein additives and other fat replacers. The production of processed meat products especially comminuted meat products such as ground beef, fresh pork sausage, coarse ground sausages and emulsified sausages with fat reduction or modification is possible through the fat replacement technology.

Fat replacers are ingredients that contribute fewer or no calories to formulated foods without altering flavor, mouthfeel, viscosity or organoleptic properties and are used for partial replacement of fat. Fat mimetics, on the contrary, imitate a particular function but not all of fat in a food and can be protein based, carbohydrate based or fat based system. Mimetics are not good as a frying medium because they bind excessive water and denature or caramelize at high temperatures. But fat substitutes and analogs are those whose physical and thermal properties resemble fat but have either fewer calories than fat or no calories. Fat analogs can be used for frying and can directly substitute fat. Fat barriers retard fat absorption into the product during frying.

Fat reduction or replacement is possible by substitution of leaner meats, addition of water. Water addition makes the product too soft and may result in shrinkage during cooking and excess accumulation of purge in packages. Therefore, fat replacers which can bind added water is being popularly used.

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Factors Considered for Selection of Fat Replacers

Some of the factors to be considered while selecting a fat replacer include ingredient composition, cost, solubility in water and saline, hydration properties, solution viscosity, gelling conditions, gel characteristics such as texture, setting temperature, gel strength, incompatibilities, caloric contribution, degree of heating for optimum functionality, effects on flavor and texture and labeling requirements. Some of the fat mimetics may be dry blended while others prehydrated and the order of addition to meat may also vary.

Applications and Functions of Fat Replacers

Fat replacers are used not only in processed meat products but in dairy products, snack products, soup, sauces, gravies, confectionery, margarine, shortenings, spreads, butter, baked goods, frozen desserts, salad dressing, etc. as well. Lipid based fat replacers in meat products impart texture and mouthfeel. Carbohydrate and protein based replacers increase WHC, texture and mouthfeel.

Protein Based Fat Replacers

Protein based fat replacers are fat mimetics as they cannot fully replace the functionality of fat. They include egg albumin, nonfat dry milk, sodium caseinate, whey protein concentrates, soy concentrates and isolates, collagen and gelatin, blood proteins, pea fibre, wheat gluten, corn germ protein, etc.

Some of these are microparticulated to form microscopic coagulated round deformable particles that mimic the mouthfeel and texture of fat. Some are processed to modify other aspects of ingredient functionality, such as water binding and emulsification properties. Although the substances are generally not sufficiently heat stable to withstand frying, they are suitable for use as ingredients in foods that may undergo cooking, retorting, and ultra high temperature processing. Microparticles from soy protein are large up to 80 µ and casein micelles smaller (< 1µ) to simulate the creamy mouth-feel of fat. Generally this is used in dairy products.

Soy concentrates and isolates containing < 0.3% carbohydrate in the form of oligosaccharides, raffinose and stachyose that cause flatulence are used in low fat meat products. Soy proteins form gel on heating in a fines ground meat holding liquid and moisture. Soy flour has beany flavor and less preferred.

Researchers have recommended 2% isolated soy protein in turkey bologna with high added water. Soy protein isolate is approved as a purge controller. But some studies have shown undesirable effect on product flavor and overall acceptability.

Next to soy protein wheat gluten is commonly utilized. Wheat gluten at 3.5% level improved emulsion stability and yield in low fat meat products but contributed off flavours to frankfurters which can be altered by different spice combinations. In frankfurters corn germ protein at 3% level showed possible fat and water binding potential with increased yield.

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In low-fat meat products whey protein concentrate (WPC34, 50 and 80) enhances moisture content and fat entrapment, resulting in increased cook yield, moisture retention and increased resistance to shrinkage. WPC80 at a 4% level can be effectively used as a functional ingredient in low-fat beef patties due to its heat gelation and emulsification properties. Sensory analysis indicates the 4% WPC level is an optimal level with respect to juiciness and overall acceptability of the low-fat beef patties, frankfurters, hot dogs and poultry products.

Researchers optimized a combination of 2% collagen fibres and 20% added water in low fat chicken frankfurter. Selvakumar (2009) used pre-gelatinised pork skin collagen at 5 to10% in low fat frankfurters (<10% fat) with superior overall acceptability. The formularies for LFF 10/10 and 10/5 were developed with very acceptable organoleptic attributes, cook yield and shelf life up to 75 days at -20oC, respectively under AP and VP systems economically.

Carbohydrate Based Fat Replacers

Tapioca starch, maltodextrin, hydrocolloids like carrageenan (kappa, lambda and iota), guar,locust bean and xanthan gum, modified potato starch, konjac flour, soluble dietary fibres from various plant sources: inulin, sugar beet, wheat, citrus, potato, oat and pea (lupin), pectin, hemicelluloses, β-glucans, lignin, microcrystalline cellulose, carboxymethyl cellulose (cellulose gum), etc. and their combinations have been used in different comminuted meat products.

Starches and polysaccharide gums are very effective water binding and texture modifying agents in low fat meat products. Starches that swell in cold water to allow thickening before heating is good for burger preparation. These mimetics act by stabilizing the added water in a gel-like matrix, imparting lubrication and moisture release. The benefits of using starches and derivatives are reasonable cost, easy availability and easy to store and handle. The selection of starches depends on their proper functioning during standard cook cycle.

Methylated cellulose derivatives have a property of reversible thermal gelation and are useful as fat barriers in fried foods. Oatrim is a cold water dispersible amylodextrin derived from whole oat and is rich in β-glucans. These components contribute body, stability, creaminess, mouth-feel and the glossy appearance of fat. Ground gel can be used in low fat sausage formulations. Oat bran is used in ground beef patties and fresh sausage for textural enhancement. Konjac flour can mimic as visible fat particles in fresh sausage or pepperoni. It can form heat stable gels which can be modified with starch or various gums.

Gums are hydrocolloids that immobilize water and give viscosity and gel formation. Iota- carrageenan forms thermoreversible gels (gel on cooling and remelt on heating) and so preferred for meat patty applications. But Kappa type is more functional in whole muscle items like hams, poultry rolls and restructured roasts. Alginates form chemical gels and are not thermoreversible. They can be used in restructured lean meats for steaks.

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Pectin based fat replacers derived from citrus peel is used in salad dressings, and meat products. Gums give viscous solutions at low concentrations and in meat systems they soften the texture and provide a smooth mouth-feel. Locust bean gum has been used in sausages to enable extrusion and stuffing. Application of microbial gums such as xanthan and gellan gums in meat system needs further research. Polydextrose in combination with other fat replacers was found useful in low fat patties.

Studies at The National Food Centre, Ireland showed that the blends of tapioca starch, carrageenan, oat fibre, pectin and whey protein can be used to offset the poor quality associated with cooked low fat beef burgers (< 10% fat). Blends of these often performed better than single ingredients, with tapioca starch, oat fibre and whey protein performing best in terms of eating quality. The addition of both pea and potato fibres at 1.5% and 3% w/w. improved tenderness and reduced shear force values of the reduced fat burgers.

The author and associates developed different low fat meat products such as restructured turkey loaf, beef burger and frankfurters using different fat replacers. Naseera (2007) developed formularies for a low fat (<2 per cent) restructured turkey loaf with 0.2 % carrageenan and 4% nonfat dry milk with good overall acceptability, cook yield, nutritional value and shelf life up to 40 and 60 days at 0-4oC and -20oC, respectively under aerobic and vacuum packaging systems. A low fat beef burger with 5 per cent fat and blend of carrageenan (0.5%), tapioca starch (1.5%) and pork skin collagen (2%) as fat replacers was developed with the highest overall acceptability, cook yield, nutritional quality, reduced purge loss, oxidative rancidity and shelf life up to 10 days at 0-4oC and 30 days at -20oC under aerobic and vacuum packaging systems (Premanand, 2010).

Fat Based Fat Replacers

Emulsifiers have become an ingredient in many low fat food products. Though emulsifiers are not true fat replacers, they form a part of the system. eg., lecithin, mono and diglycerides, plyglycerol esters, polysorbates and sodium sterolyl lactylate. Emulsifiers are used at low concentration of < 0.5% and can exert a fat sparing or fat extending effect in a reduced fat product. The effect of emulsifiers in combination with fat mimetics in low fat meat products is to be investigated.

Synthetic Fat Replacers

Sucrose polyester (Olestra) is synthesized by esterifying 6-8 – OH groups of sucrose with fatty acids. This would work as a zero calorie frying medium for fried or pre-browned meat items. It is used as a food additive in salted snacks. Natural or synthetic fat based fat replacers are yet to be approved for use in meat products.

As with most replacements in the diet, fat replacers can have adverse effects on the digestive system. Consequently, the preferred option is to look at natural as opposed to synthetic fat replacers. A fat replacer may also increase the amount of potential allergens in the product, particularly with the protein based replacers.

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Research Needs

No fat replacer is perfect for all applications. The problems of flavor, flavor, juciness, texture and mouth-feel have not been adequately solved by current fat replacers. Continued research into the effects of fat replacers on sensory properties of meat products is essential. The synergistic and additive effects of the replacers are to be investigated to determine the selection of proper blends rather than using a single replacer. The optimal combination and level of addition of various fat replacers will enable in the standardisation of the formularies for different products. This will allow the decreased usage of more expensive ingredients. At the same time research must continue to find low cost ingredients that can be functional with minimal processing. Further research on synthetic fat replacers or designer oil should be a long term goal. The interactions of various fat replacers with the sausage ingredients, processing procedures, storage conditions and final product preparation are to be well studied as the consumer acceptability of the product depends on palatability, economics and health perceptions of the products.

Flavour enhancement of low fat ground meat products is a very novel area for research. Further research on fat mimetics that can provide the satiety value and sensory properties of fat at a competitive price.

(References can be collected from the author) 

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21. Animal byproducts and their value addition

Sarfaraz A Wani and Asif H Sofi

Department of LPT, FVSAH, SKUAST-K, Srinagar

Introduction

India is bestowed by nature with a vast livestock resources comprising of 175 million cattle, 99 million buffalo, 65 million sheep, 126 million goats, 14 million pigs and 621 million poultry (Vaithiyanathan, 2010). Meat sector in India plays an important role in providing livelihood to rural people, sustaining livestock production and contributes a valuable foreign exchange to the country. Animal slaughtering not only provides meat but also valuable byproducts to the mankind. By slaughtering and processing of meat animal, only one third is meat while the rest comprise of byproducts and waste, which need to be adequately processed and utilized.

Animal Byproducts

Animal byproduct or offal may be defined as every part of a slaughtered animal except dressed carcass. Approximate percent yield of byproducts from large and small animals is given in Table 1 and 2 (Source: Chaterjee, 1981)

Table 1: Approximate yield of byproduct from large animals (Cattle and Buffalo)

S.No Meat/ Byproduct Percent yield

1 Meat (Boneless) 28.57

2 Bone, head, feet 22.85

3 Paunch content and waste 16.00

4 Hide 7.57

5 Blood 3.14

6 Lungs and oesophagous 2.00

7 Liver 1.42

8 Stomach 0.71

9 Heart 0.42

10 Head meat and brain 0.28

11 Tongue 0.28

12 Spleen 0.28

13 Kidneys 0.14

14 Fat 1.71

15 Casings 2.00

16 Other offals (genitalia, udder, tail end etc) 4.00

17 Urine, body fluid, bile, dung 3.50

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Table 2: Approximate yield of byproduct from Small animals (Sheep and Goat)

S.No Meat/ Byproduct Percent yield

1 Dressed weight 40.00

2 Paunch contents 22.00

3 Skin 9.20

4 Gut and tripe 8.00

5 Head 5.60

6 Blood 3.00

7 Fatty tissue 2.00

8 Lungs and oesophagous 1.00

9 Liver 1.20

10 Hoofs 0.80

11 Heart 0.40

12 Kidney 0.40

13 Spleen 0.20

14 Pancreas 0.16

Classification

Animal byproducts can be classified as edible and inedible on the basis of whether being used as food or not. Edible byproducts are those byproducts that can be consumed as a food by human beings generally include liver, kidney, heart, brain, intestine, tongue, spleen etc. They are also called as variety meats. On the other hand, those byproducts which cannot be consumed as food by human beings are called Inedible byproducts e.g. hides, skins, ear, snout, gallbladder, faetus, hoofs, horns, hair, bristles etc. All parts of dead animal or condemned meat and organs also come in this category. The basic criterion of division between edible and inedible byproducts depends upon the purchasing power, custom, tradition, food habits, religious outlook etc. Animal byproducts are also divided into principal/primary and secondary byproducts. Principal byproducts are those byproducts which are being directly harvested from the animals e.g. hides and skins, bones, blood, hoofs and horns whereas secondary byproducts are those byproducts which are derived from principal byproducts e.g. bones, a primary byproduct may yield secondary byproducts like bone meal, fat, gelatin, buttons, cutlery handles etc. Likewise intestines may yield casings, catgut, tennis strips etc. as secondary byproducts.

The principal byproducts and their secondary byproducts are given in following table:

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S.

No

Principal/Primary Byproducts

Secondary Byproducts and Uses

1 Hide and skin Leather products such as shoes, gloves, belts, bags etc.

Gelatin and glue; Fertilizer, Tallow/grease, Stock-feed.

2 Hair, bristles and wool

Pelting, brushes, fabrics and yarn, blankets, carpet, pillow, lanolin, fertilizer.

3 Blood Blood pudding, sausage mix, serum (pharmaceuticals) and plasma, albumen, fibrin, haemoglobin, glue, textile sizing, industrial blood products, coagulated blood products, dye setting, stock feed, fertilizer, liquid blood products etc.

4 Bones Bone meal, fat gelatin, glue, mineral supplement, buttons, cutlery handles and bone articles, Ostocalcium tablets from bones.

5 Hoof and horns Buttons, combs, hair pins, novelties, toys, hoof and horn meal, fertilizer, pith used for gelatin and glue etc.

6 Feet Neat’s foot oil

7 Intestines Casings, catgut-suturing material, tennis strips, musical instrument strings, tallow, muscularis layer for stock feed, rennin from calf stomach.

8 Condemned meat, inedible offal, trimmings and residues

Tallow for soap, machine oil, leather dressing, candles, meat and bone meal etc.

9 Glands and tissues Liver: Liver extract.

Lungs: Heparin, peptone.

Pituitary gland: Anterior (GH, LH, FSH, prolactin) and post-pituitary lobe hormone (oxytocin, vasopressin).

Thyroid gland: Thyroxine.

Parathyroid: Parathormone.

Pancreas: trypsin, insulin, pancreatin, glucagon

10 Ruminal and intestinal ingesta

Recycling as stock feed, compost manure, production of methane for light, heat and power.

(Source: Sharma, 2003)

Another basis for classification of animal byproducts is their ultimate use. These include agricultural byproducts (meat meal, bone meal, fertilizer etc); industrial byproducts (gelatine, glue, casings etc) and pharmaceutical byproducts (insulin, pepsin, bio-chemicals, hormones etc).

These animal byproducts needs to be utilized properly in order to check the pollution, ensure better returns, supply highly nutritive livestock feed (meat meal, bone meal, carcass

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meal etc), establish secondary rural industries, generate employment and to bring crop improvement in the form of manure and fertilizer.

Value Addition

A broad definition of value addition is to economically add value to a product by changing its current place, time, and from characteristics to characteristics more preferred in the market place. A more narrow definition is to economically add value to an agricultural product by processing it into a product desired by the customers. Value addition can be accomplished in a number of ways but generally falls into one of the two types viz; Innovation and coordination. Innovation focuses on the improving the existing processes, procedures, products and services or creating new ones where as coordination focuses on arrangements among those that produce and market farm products (Coltrain et al. 2000). Value addition of the raw material including animal byproducts is of great significance in developing countries like India from the point of generating employment and utilization of valuable products, which otherwise is getting wasted.

Value Added Products

Value added products are further processed products to provide increased convience to consumers through decreasing preparation time, minimizing preparation steps, allowing use of specific parts etc (Kondaiah, 2010). These value added products provide variety to the consumers, utilize the particular raw material, improve its quality, improve marketability, meet a particular demand and reduce the cost of the product. Some of the value added products obtained from the processing of animal byproducts include:

A. Variety Meat Products

  With vast livestock resources, India produces about 6.8 million tones of meat from different meat animals (Kondaiah, 2010). Most of it comes from the unproductive, aged and spent animals. The meat of these animals is less palatable due to its toughness because of higher content of collagen in it (Salahuddin et al. 2007). Furthermore, the slaughter of meat animals produces good proportion of variety meats including lungs, liver, spleen etc. Although many of the variety meats are typically fatty and higher in cholesterol, they are also good sources of essential vitamins and nutrients e.g. livers are high in vitamin A, B, C and D, iron, zinc, copper, and fatty acids. Hearts contain large amounts of iron and are a good source of selenium, zinc, phosphorous, niacin, and riboflavin. Brain is rich in niacin, phosphorus, vitamin B12  and C (Daniel et al. 2011). Hence, these unpalatable, yet nutritious meats and byproducts are processed into a value added products to the benefit of both producer and consumer. Variety meats are considered delicacies in some countries and are the basis for many traditional dishes while as in others, their consumption is associated with low-income populations (Halstead, 1999). Demand for variety meats is strong in many Asian countries. For example in China, many recipes call for sharp-tasting variety meats rather than muscle cuts, which are considered bland (Hayes, 1997). Cow tongues are considered expensive

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delicacies in Japan; and sliced beef feet are used for soup in South Korea. Tongue and liver are used in many Mexican dishes, such as putzaze (tripe and liver with tomatoes), lengua (tongue with green chilies), and menudo norteña (tripe soup). In Russia and Egypt (two of the world’s leading importers of edible offal), variety meats are more commonly consumed by lower income households to obtain high-quality protein and nutrition (Kamenski, 2006). The value added/variety meat products broadly includes emulsion based meat products (sausages, patties, nuggets, meat balls, kababs etc) restructured meat products (steaks, cutlets, chops, roasts, rolls etc), enrobed meat products etc (Kondaiah, 2004). These variety meat products not only increases the palatability of a less palatable spent meat and byproducts but most importantly leads to the reduction of the cost, hence affordable to the low income group of the society for getting the required nutrients.

B. Livestock Feed

Animal byproducts including condemned parts or even whole carcasses can be utilized as a feeding supplement for the live stocks including poultry and pet animals. These byproducts are rich source of nutrients including vitamins and minerals. The advantages of value addition of byproducts as livestock feed include better animal health, good returns, employment generation which in turn improves the livelihood security. These primary byproducts can be processed into a value added products viz; meat meal, bone meal, carcass meal etc for supplemented feeding.

Meat meal is the major secondary by-products of the slaughtering industry and is an important components of stock feeds for pigs and poultry. It can be prepared from the carcass trimmings, condemned carcasses, condemned livers, inedible offal, and also from the rendering of dead animals. It is used as a supplement for feeding of livestock as it is a good source of high quality proteins (well-balanced amino acid profile), energy, vitamin B and minerals. Addition of about 10% meat meal helps to satisfy the animal requirement for essential amino acids like lysine, methionine, theronine and tryptophan. Besides that meat meal also acts as a good source for vitamin B, particularly thiamine. Meat meals can be included in the diets for pigs and poultry of all ages. Bone meal, another important secondary byproduct is a mixture of crushed and coarsely ground bones (less than 2 mm size) used as a supplement in livestock feeds (Sharma, 2003). The composition of bone meal depend upon the type of bones used for its preparation, weather green or desert ones. Quality of bone meal is determined by the presence of phosphorous and calcium that should be ideally present in the ratio of 1:2. The average composition of bone meal is calcium (30.5%), phosphorous (15.5%), protein (7.0%) and fat (1.0%) (Sharma, 2003).

C. Value Addition Of Hides And Skin

Hides and skin are the valuable animal byproducts obtained after the slaughter and dressing of food animals. The constitute about 7 and 11 percent of the live weight of large and small animals respectively (Sharma, 2003). In India alone, 25 million cattle hides, 18 million buffalo hides, 90 million goat skins and 31 million sheep skins are produced as primary/principal byproduct (Naidu, 2003). But unfortunately, in developing countries, they

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are not exploited up to their full potential as often they are thought of as intrinsically unclean and finally end up being discarded or wasted because of ignorance and misinformation (Leach and Wilson, 2009). These hides can be sold as such after semi processing. The value of these raw hides and skin accounts 10-15% of the total realization from slaughtered animals. However, the value addition of these raw hides and skin in to processed leather enhances their value by 5-6 times (Naidu, 2003). The leather produced from hides and skin is used at industrial level for production of foot wares, garments and assorted leather goods such as wallets, passport cases, key chains, hand bags and brief cases etc and contributes immenously to the Indian economy through way of exports (ranks 8th in the world) (Anon, 2008), besides improving the livelihood security of the people right from producers to the processors. The Indian leather industry meets 10% of global finished leather requirement. India exports 65%, 12%, 11% and 12% finished leather to the Europe, North America, Hongkong and China; and rest of world respectively (Anon, 2008). For value addition of the byproduct into a high quality value added product, the quality of raw material is of utmost importance which can be maintained during pre-slaughter, slaughter and post slaughter stages.

D. Pharmaceutical Byproducts

Natural products including the animal byproducts provide many chemical and biochemical extracts needed in the pharmaceutical, food and cosmetic industries. There are large number of glands (pituitary gland, intestinal mucus, adrenals, liver, lungs, thymus etc) present in an animal involved in the syntheses and secretion of enzymes, hormones, pigments and vitamins. These are involved in the metabolic process in living cell and hence their availability in their natural form is very useful in pharmaceutical industries. The glands/tissues of a slaughtered animal obtained as a byproducts are a source of substances of pharmaceutical importance. The list of the glands and with their pharmaceutical importance is given in Table.

Gland/Tissue Product of Pharmaceutical importance

Liver: Liver extract (Heparin, catalase and Vit B12)

Lungs: Heparin, peptone.

Pineal gland: Melatonin hormone

Pituitary gland: Anterior (GH, LH, FSH, prolactin) and post-pituitary lobe hormone (oxytocin, vasopressin).

Thyroid gland: Thyroxine.

Stomach: Pepsin, Rennin, Heparin

Parathyroid: Parathormone

Suprarenal gland: Cortex (cortisone) and medullary hormones (adrenaline and noradrenaline).

Pancreas: Trypsin, insulin, pancreatin, glucagon

Testes: Testosterone, hyaluronidase

Ovaries: Progesterone

Gall bladder: Bile, Bile salts, bile pigments.

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To utilize the active principles of glands, their collection and preservation in a proper way plays an pivotal role. The general principles underlying the collection and preservation of glands include.

1. They should not come in direct contact with water as the active principles may be partially or totally leached out.

2. Trimming of ligaments, blood vessels, meat, fat or any other foreign tissue must be done with a pair of scissors and forceps as soon as glands are removed from the body.

3. Proper collection should be followed by preservation either by quick freezing at -18°C or less, or by chemical treatment (one lb of gland to one lb of acetone or one percent of phenol or two percent of formalin).

E. Fertilizer

With the development of animal byproduct industry, rendering has grown to include all the processes leading to the conversion of slaughter house offal into stock feeds (meat meal, bone meal, carcass meal etc), fertilizers and fats. The factor which decides whether the finished product obtained after rendering shall be used for stock feed or fertilizer is the nature of raw material. Clean and fresh material is used to make good stock feed while material which is contaminated and decomposed is suitable for fertilizer preparation.

Animal byproducts can be used as a valuable resource as agricultural fertilizer and soil conditioner. Their application can improve the soil health in a variety of ways by improving its structure and biology. Soil health is improved either directly through addition of carbon and nutrients that feed the micro organisms or indirectly though improved plant growth, which in turn leads to the addition of organic matter. They improve the soil structure by decreasing bulk density, increasing permeability, increasing cation exchange capacity and increasing aggregate stability. These changes in the soil structure leads to higher infiltration and moisture retention, better nutrition retention and better plant growth. The disadvantage associated with the application is that soil structure may get damaged during application by compaction and other contaminants like salts and metals may be added. However, these risks can be minimized by good management practices (Anon, 2007).

F. Energy Source

Animal residues and slaughter houses wastes viz; dung, droppings, urine, ruminal contents, blood, meat and fat trimmings etc can be utilized to alleviate the pollution problems besides providing light and heating energy source to farm, abattoir etc. Fuel from animal waste is a renewable energy. The source of this energy is plentiful and constant. The waste product is utilized effectively and contributes to the continuous generation of an efficient energy source. The animal wastes constitutes a good substrates for biogas production with methane potential of 619dm3kg-1 from mixed animal wastes, which is much higher than simple manure (20-30dm3kg-1) (Hejnefelt and Angelidaki, 2009). Power plants have been designed to produce biogas (60% methane, 30% carbon dioxide and traces of hydrogen,

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carbon monoxide etc) by digestion of animal waste (Sharma, 2003). Biogas is produced from animal wastes due to their anaerobic fermentation. It involves the collection of animal waste and byproducts, storage in an airtight tanks called digesters where anaerobic digestion occurs. The resulting gas is then compressed in tanks and distributed to consumption. The fuel is then burnt for steam production so it can force turbines to turn and create electricity. It can also be used to cooking, heating, lighting and even power car engines. It has been reported that it is economically feasible for the larger dairies to utilize the byproducts from livestock to produce biogas which can be used to generate electricity for their different uses (Anon, 1997).

Conclusion

The utilization of animal byproducts are often ignored, however, these items contribute a significant value to the livestock and meat industries. Value addition of animal byproducts has two benefits. Firstly, the meat industry gets additional revenue by processing them to industrial, household, and cosmetic products; livestock feed additives; pet foods; pharmaceutical and medical supplies etc that otherwise would have been unrealized. Secondly, the costs of disposing of these secondary items are avoided. Value addition can also sometimes acts as a cushion to cover losses suffered in the trade. Furthermore, although the development of synthetic substitutes in the middle of the 20th century decreased the value of many animal byproducts, but their importance in the pet food industry and the medical/veterinary field are contributing to an increase in byproduct values in recent years. Utilization of these byproducts as fertilizer contributes a lot in organic farming and could reduce our dependence on synthetic fertilizers. Animal byproducts and wastes are a good source of renewable energy as well its production is economically feasible .

(References can be collected from authors) 

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22. Scope and opportunities for organic and natural meat Production

Mahesh Chander

Division of Extension Education IVRI, Izatnagar

Abstract

If 0.5% of India’s enormous human population of 1.21 Billion decides to turn organic in next 10 years, it would have huge implications for the way food is produced and processed, considering the elaborate requirements and standards for organic production. Let us assume, roughly only 50% of the Indian population consumes meat, even then the requirement would be far more than what is being consumed in industrialized countries with very thin population, where, organic meat products are currently consumed. Going by the global trends indicating preference for good quality, health foods, animal welfare & environmental concerns, it looks quite likely that growing number of consumers would demand organic products of animal origin in India too. Already, the demand for good quality milk and milk products is getting stronger and the Indian consumers are willing to pay or even paying upto Rs 80/liter for pure milk and Rs 1200/kg for ghee, not necessarily organic per se, but unadulterated. This emerging trend makes it imperative that serious attention is to be paid not only on production, processing and marketing sectors but research in organic livestock production too need attention of the policy planners and other stakeholders like livestock research institutions. This paper, therefore, discusses prospects of organic and natural meat production in India in context of growing interest of domestic consumers for organic foods and opportunities for exports of such products.

Introduction

Considering the growing export demand alongside potential environmental benefits of organic production and its compatibility with integrated agricultural approaches to rural development, organic agriculture is being considered as a development vehicle for developing countries like India (Ramesh et al. 2005). The Government of India, therefore, formally launched National Programme for Organic Production (NPOP) in 2002, among other initiatives to boost organic production leading to production and export of organic agricultural products from India to many developed countries. The ICAR too launched a mega network project on organic farming during XI Plan, which involved 13 institutions of NARS. While research activities in organic crop production have begun, research relating to organic animal husbandry per se is yet to make a beginning in India. Whereas, there is potential for on- station and on-farm research in all the dimensions of organic livestock production viz. breeding, feeding, disease control, management, processing, marketing, socio-economic and ethical aspects, it being a virgin area as far as India is concerned. The socio-economic investigations concerning the acceptance of organic livestock production and economics of organic livestock farming may also be taken up by the social scientists engaged in livestock sector. Therefore, systematic efforts are needed in a network mode drawing expertise from the different quarters to make a beginning in the area of organic animal

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husbandry. There is strong possibility that India will be able to produce organic livestock products for not only its domestic consumers but also the consumers elsewhere in the world, given the vast pool of resources including the technical and scientific manpower India has.

To promote organic farming, a number of initiatives were taken by the Government of India since 10th plan (2002-07) and such activities are being pursued further with more intensity now, mainly looking at increasing prospects for exports of organic agricultural products to western developed countries. The organic land in India is 1.2 million hectares (ranks 7th in the world) constituting 0.6% of total agricultural land and with 677,257 number of producers (Willer & Kilcher, 2011). India exported 86 organic products worth US$ 100.40 Million during 2007-08 with 30% growth over previous years (APEDA, 2009). The export figures further rose to US$122 Million in 2009-10 (Gunner, 2011, Fig.1) and US$ 157 million in 2010-11.

A review of the situation reveals that to remain relevant to the global economy, India needs to produce what the consumers are demanding globally. India may not be in position to export organic livestock products at the moment but the people from higher strata within the country may increasingly look for products from organically raised livestock. Therefore, India certainly needs to move forward with its organic livestock farming activities, if not in big way; certainly small steps are essentially needed (Chander & Mukherjee, 2005).

Fig1: Growing export of certified organic agricultural products from India.

Organic products in the domestic market

From exports to domestic consumption is a logical trend given the increasing quality consciousness in the developing countries like India. A number of Indian companies are aiming to create marketing structures within India by developing the retail trade, with growing demand for organic foods. According to a survey of 1,000 consumers across ten

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cities conducted by Morarka Organic Foods Pvt. Ltd, 30 % of consumers want to buy organic products and are even prepared to pay 10 % to 20 % price premiums. Several companies in India are expanding the network of retail shops to increase the availability of organic and natural products on the domestic market and satisfy the increasing demand. Innovative trade and marketing concepts including ethnic food stores, handicraft showrooms, and organic food restaurants being used by the private companies may give the push to the organic food sales in India.

Opportunities in livestock sector

The organic agricultural products including of livestock origin are gaining increasing popularity. The farmers can cash upon this growing interest in eco-friendly, animal welfare oriented, safe, nutritious and tastier meat products (as perceived by consumers of organic products). The eggs and meat obtained from this venture can be promoted as specialty item to restaurants; hotels and ethnic food jaunts fetching higher returns, better when local/deshi birds are raised, which can better perform in free range system. Poultry can utilize the grazing lands/plantation area by feeding on earth worms, small insects, green grass etc, while fertilizing the land with manure.

The free range poultry systems or pastured poultry is a sustainable agriculture technique that calls for the raising of laying chickens, meat chickens (broilers), and/or turkeys on pasture, as opposed to indoor confinement. Humane treatment, the perceived health benefits of pastured poultry, in addition to superior texture and flavor, are causing an increase in demand for such products, which are believed to be having medicinal value, rich in antioxidants and least in chemical, medicinal or hormonal residues. Therefore, the growing interest in organic farming and meat & eggs drawn from free range systems might offer an attractive option in the form of market premiums for livestock farmers to venture into organic production.

It is expensive for intensive livestock producers in western countries to convert to organic production, but for countries like India converting extensive, pasture-based systems could be economically more attractive, while capturing price premiums for organic meat and livestock products. India may follow experiences of developing countries like Argentina, Brazil & Namibia which could export organic livestock products. India exports certified organic honey, which may be extended initially to small ruminants, for organic textile/garments including the materials like hides, leather and wool. The Indigenous Technical Knowledge (ITK) of farmers may provide effective option for veterinary care through proper validation, as also the negligible use of agro-chemicals especially in drylands and hilly regions, makes favourable environment for organic livestock production. Grass based extensive production systems prevalent in parts of India have good potential for conversion into organic animal husbandry. Moreover, Indian livestock breeds being less susceptible to diseases and stress, need less allopathic medicines/antibiotics. With rising literacy and the consumers‘awareness and concern about animal welfare issues and health

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foods, domestic consumption of organic foods including of animal origin is likely to get a boost.

Consumers are looking for quality-the ‘organic’ quality

The growing consumer interest in good quality food products in India signals the need for developing domestic market for local consumption of organic foods. With rising literacy, income and awareness on food quality generated by the mass media like TV, people are increasingly becoming quality conscious. Also, they are increasingly showing their willingness to pay for good quality products. For example, people readily pay extra money for unadulterated milk, which is not necessarily organic milk per se. This trend indicates that there is good potential for organic livestock products for local consumption. The enterprising farmers are now ready to experiment on new ideas on production and marketing, wherein organic livestock products like milk, meat, poultry & fish ideally fit. Just like marketing of FMCG and other industrial products market segmentation can be done by the farmers by supplying products to different categories of consumers with varying prices. The growing interest in eating out especially by visiting ethnic food jaunts, looking out for something unique, local and something which is natural and healthy while being environmentally safe offers hope for the production and supply of organic livestock products for domestic consumers. The domestic market development is the key for the development of organic animal husbandry and poultry farming in India. The growing market for organic cereals, vegetables, fruits, spices, pulses in Indian metros can be successfully extended to organic livestock and poultry products too.

Consumer education is important

Educating consumer and producer both is important to promote organic livestock production. Consumers need to be told that the safe milk and meat that they are looking for is the certified organic milk and meat, while farmers need to be made aware of this demand to be able for them to translate it into the new market opportunity! Also, there is a small but very concerned section of the society who does not consume livestock products owing to issues of animal cruelty, ill-treatment with them etc. The organic rearing of the farm animals sincerely addresses these issues and the certifiers approve that the due care has been taken in the process of production. These standards ensure that animals are kept free or never tied without specific purpose, allowed to express their physiological behaviour, fed with chemical free fodder, are not given hormonal injections and are reared in a completely stress free atmosphere. The information gap with respect to organic animal husbandry at the level produces and consumers need to be bridged by suitable extension education interventions and encouraging the farmers, milk brands, cooperatives to enter this market on one side and consumers at the other end.

The producers in India need to overcome the weaknesses and harness the strengths and opportunities, while developing their capacity in terms of knowledge, skills, infrastructure, animal feeding, hygiene, sanitation, disease control and assured certified

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supply chain required for organic livestock production. Large-scale commercial farms usually undertake most organic livestock production in industrialized countries; whereas, the small scale producers having limited resources and low risk bearing ability dominate Indian livestock sector. Nevertheless, they may cater to domestic consumers, if not exports currently. The emerging need of the quality conscious high end consumers in metros is required to be met by producing organic animal products locally. The local organic milk, meat and egg production may substitute import while generating employment, reducing foreign exchange demand, stimulating innovation, and making the country self-reliant in critical areas like food. Organic livestock production may be encouraged initially for domestic consumption, through research & development efforts including establishment of model organic livestock farms, processing units, traceability tools, and capacity building measures, besides consumer awareness on health foods. The international trade in organic livestock products from the developing world is considered a risky business due to poor sanitary conditions, existence of diseases, traceability problems as also the self sufficiency in importing countries, which might discourage producers in India too. Organic livestock and poultry production is an emerging and evolving system, different agencies and stakeholders have to work hard to make it sustainable for the reasons of health, environment, economy, quality of life and animal welfare.

Organic production especially livestock production is easier said than done. It’s far more complicated than the organic crop production since here two systems, i.e crop and livestock, both are involved. Moreover, there are some major handicaps, in case of India as landless animal husbandry is not allowed as also the number of animals to be kept in 1 ha is very low as per the carrying capacity (Table1).

Inspite of the limitations, the developing countries like India has the natural advantages to move ahead with organic animal husbandry (Chander et al, 2011). India can harness its local practices, Indigenous Technical Knowledge, ethno-veterinary medicines, local breeds etc to develop organic meat production sector. The major food chains are looking for suppliers of organically reared poultry & goat and its products. The potential entrepreneurs need to be identified, trained and assisted in setting up organic poultry goat production units and linking it with the market or consumers. It is important to develop understanding of market segmentation, product placing, branding, promoting and assuring supply on regular basis. Since, there is a promising future for organic meat production, the stakeholders need to develop correct understanding of this emerging system of production.

Final Comments: The long awaited Indian standards for organic livestock and poultry were approved by National Accreditation Board recently, though the notification is awaited. This is a welcome move and speaks of the deep interest being taken in India by the government agencies, NGOs, farmers and private sector to promote organic farming. At the BioFach-2012 held at Nuremburg in February, India was projected as country of the Year-2012, recognizing significant progress India has made in promotion, production and export of organic products. This phenomenal progress, however, does not include livestock and poultry, which have remained almost untouched by the developments in organic sector. It is

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suggested here that now, its turn of organic livestock and poultry production, which need serious attention during the XII plan.

Table1. Maximum no. of animals per hectare (Draft Indian standards)

Species/Class Maximum no. per hac.

Equines over six months old 2

Calves 5

Other bovine animals less than one year old 5

Male bovine animals from one to less than two years old 4

Female bovine animals from one to less than two years old

4

Male bovine animals two years old or over 2

Dairy Cows 2

Female breeding rabbits 100

Sheep 14

Goats 14

Piglets 74

Breeding Pigs 7

Pigs for fattening 14

Chicken 580

Laying Hens 230

(References can be collected from the author) 

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23. Strategies to tackle fluctuating poultry meat marketing in India

R. Narahari

General Manager, Reliance Retail Ltd, Mumbai.

Introduction:

The Indian Poultry Industry has transformed from backyard farming to a well-organized techno commercial industry worth Rs.50, 000 crores, in the past decade as India reached the landmarks of being the third-largest egg producer and fourth-largest broiler meat producer in the world.

Large integrated operations which have helped to transform the landscape that incorporates all aspects of production and marketing viz. raising grandparent and parent stock, contract farming, compounding of feed, and whole sale and retail sales. The productivity in both broilers and layers has improved tremendously due to the implementation of good management practices, optimum nutrition and scientific breeding under integration resulting in lower average costs of production and lower retail prices for poultry meat.

Chicken is a key contributor to the Indian livestock sector and India has one of the largest livestock sectors in the world, accounting for about 4 percent of the country’s overall GDP and 27 percent of its agriculture GDP. The sector provides employment to millions of workers in India.

The Indian poultry industry is undergoing a big shift from being a meagre backyard secondary source of income for rural residents to becoming a professionally managed integrated operation. The poultry industry has experienced remarkable growth over the last decade. The industry has moved from a level where small farms typically place 500 birds per cycle to a level where placement of 10,000 birds occurs regularly.

However, this growth has not been without challenges, such as frequent avian influenza outbreaks, a still large wet market distribution channel, an underdeveloped cold chain infrastructure and slow-changing eating habits. Despite growth in the poultry industry, chicken processing remains a small part of the total industry and has only recently started to gain traction. Growth of the foodservice industry, especially quick service restaurants (QSR), has played a significant role in driving investments in chicken processing from foreign and domestic players. The industry has huge potential to grow, not only from domestic consumption but also from a trade perspective. However, the industry still needs to address the large share of wet markets, awareness of hygienic meat consumption and nutritional benefits of chicken over other meats, volatility in input and output prices, and increasing industry standards to an international level in order to participate in global trade.

To have sustainable and consistent growth, whole industry has to drive the growth strategically by addressing the key issues which are destabilizing the industry. These issues can be broadly classified as follows:

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A. Influence of agro-climatic issues on the industry

Consistent availability of raw material for feed at competitive prices is key to the success of India’s poultry industry. Price volatility and high prices of key raw materials, such as corn and soymeal, are some of the main concerns facing the industry. It is estimated that the Indian poultry industry currently accounts for a little over 50 percent of the total domestic consumption of corn. The corn consumption for feed has grown at 6 percent per year between 2000/01 and 2010/11. However, the growth in corn consumption for feed was 10 percent per year over the past three years. Highlighting the demand in growth for corn due to growth in the poultry sector. At the current level of poultry industry (layer and broiler), and assuming a proper feed ration, India needs a little over 12 million tons of corn per year, compared to the current 9.7 million tons available for feed. According to the Associated Chambers of Commerce and Industry of India (ASSOCHAM), the currently increasing demand from the poultry industry is likely to substantiality increase corn consumption from the current level of 19 million tonnes to over 30 million tons by 2020. The occasional demand for a ban on forward trading and exports of corn and soymeal by the National Egg Coordination Committee (NECC), underpins the importance of these commodities to the poultry industry. In 2008, India’s government slapped a ban on corn futures trading and exports of corn from India to control the prices and protect the interests of local stakeholders. The Indian government plays an important role in key agri commodities such as corn, wheat and rice, by controlling stocks and prices. The growth in the domestic production of corn is unlikely to meet the demand for these products, given the higher focus on grain crops, thus creating a need for corn imports and reduced exports of soymeal in the coming years. Even though India is one of the largest producers of wheat, it is unlikely that wheat will be used in feed for chicken. Wheat is a main component in Indian consumers; diets, and will always remain a critical crop for fulfilling the country’s human food requirements.

The price of corn has soared 33 percent over the last two years, increasing the cost of chicken production. Soymeal prices have remained in check for most of that period but have raised more than 50 percent in recent months and have shown high volatility. The price of chickens has been even more volatile than input costs, which makes it difficult for the industry players to manage production costs. There is a lack of good information regarding the industry supply situation unlike in other countries where data is available to help companies coordinate supply and demand.

It is estimated that total placement grew 15 percent in 2012/12, following 8 percent growth in 2010/11. Although margins were not as lucrative as they were in 2010/11, 2011/12 was a reasonably good year for the poultry industry. Barring July and August, prices were mostly above the cost of production. Industry production growth is more suited to growth of between 8 percent and 10 percent, which is in line with demand growth. It is a regular occurrence for the industry to grow faster than demand due to anticipation of higher seasonal surges causing big price declines. This occurred as recently as late 2011/early 2012.

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B. Bio -security issues.

The industry needs to become more proactive and the government needs to create better appreciation regarding the importance of biosecurity measures among the producers. The industry has witnessed frequent avian influenza outbreaks with six outbreaks in India in the last three years. However, none of these outbreaks has been severe enough to dent consumer sentiment or derail consumption as most were limited to parts of the eastern region. However, these outbreaks are big barriers to India’s participation in chicken exports. Both industry and government have to make concerted effort to prevent frequent outbreaks so that industry can get the benefit of exporting whenever there is price advantage due to rupee depreciation against USD, sudden fall in the prices in local market.

C. Socio-religious issues.

Perhaps the most significant impacts of religious practices on consumption of poultry and other meats in India are the strong seasonal patterns in demand in some regions. Seasonal religious observances can lead to significant fluctuations in demand. In some cases, religious practices prohibit meat for specified periods, and in others, celebrations and festivals lead to increases in meat demand. In the Mumbai and Karnataka regions, religious observances during Shravan and other festivals significantly reduce poultry consumption for about 3 months of the year, likewise Sabarimala season will have impact in South Indian states and Navrathri in north Indian states. On the other hand, some festivals can lead to offsetting increases in demand. In Calcutta, on the other hand, an increase in poultry consumption is associated with the Durga Puja festival, likewise Deepawali and Ugadi festivals in Karnataka, Andrapradesh and Tamilanadu. With limited frozen storage facilities or interregional movement of live birds, the seasonal swings in demand contribute to volatility in market prices of poultry meat in many regions. It has been noticed that all most every year we see seasonal drop in demand pushes prices in the market down sharply, and many a times it is below production costs. Industry players have really not learnt from the past with regard to its impact on the overall demand and supply during the period so that production levels can be optimized to meet the demand.

D. Infrastructural constraints.

A major constraint in India’s poultry industry is the lack of basic infrastructure related to storage and transportation, including the cold chain and retail space. As a result, prices of chicken meat products are fairly volatile. Underdeveloped transportation infrastructure increases the cost of raw materials for producers and lack of a cold chain infrastructure increases the cost of end products for consumers. One of the main reasons for the lack of development in infrastructure is the large share of the wet market. At present, live bird sales dominate the market, which prevents the exploitation of regional comparative advantages in production, or the use of storage and domestic product movements to stabilize supplies and prices. Investments on the infrastructure front could boost confidence among industries such as QSRs and food retail, and encourage more investments in the respective sectors. In recent

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years, transport infrastructure in India has improved, but more work is still required at various points in the supply chain.

Cold chain infrastructure has also seen increased investments in recent years, with investments from private sector players such as Snowman, Kalpataru, Adani, Dev Bhumi and Gati. The Indian government has also acknowledged the need for cold chain infrastructure and established the National Centre for Cold Chain Development (NCCD) to support such projects. Besides existing policy level support from the government in the form of fiscal incentives and capex subsidies for cold chain development, foreign direct investment (FDI) in multi brand retailing could prove to be a strong catalyst in cold chain development.

Conclusion

Growth in domestic chicken meat demand, although from a low per capita consumption base, offers a huge untapped potential for the industry. In the coming years, the poultry industry could provide a cheap source of protein for consumers and a livelihood for farmers. The industry is expected to grow at a rate of 8 percent to 10 percent per year; a rate which is believed sustainable far into the future.

Opportunity exists for further optimization in the supply chain and development of the market for processed chicken meat products. The processed chicken market is estimated to be growing at 20 percent to 25 percent, much faster than the overall industry. Rising consumer incomes coupled with greater hygiene consciousness should continue to expand the market for processed products and gradually reduce sales through wet markets.

Growth in the foodservice sector, particularly in QSRs, has been one of the key drivers for the development of the processing industry. Significant growth plans are in the pipeline for existing QSR players and there is substantial potential for new entrants, which will support the growth of processing sector. However, the lower penetration of foodservice players in India compared to China limits the opportunity in the near term. The retail and foodservice Industries will continue to remain the most important drivers for the processing industry. Policy steps taken by the Indian government to liberalise the retail sector is expected to provide a further boost to the processing sector.

Despite continued demand from foodservice, the processing industry is running at lower capacity utilization. To some extent, the lower utilization is due to poor location, inappropriate technologies and scale, which have affected the financial performance of these plants. Competing with the wet market and having to sell meat products at a discounted price are big challenges for the processed poultry industry. Sales of processed meat through non-foodservice channels will be key to the success and growth of the industry.

Company-owned retail stores will play a significant role in creating awareness among consumers for purchasing hygienic meat. However, the transition from purchasing chicken from wet markets to purchasing processed meat from retail outlets will be a slow process if there are no policy interventions and efforts from producers to highlight the health and cost benefits of chicken over other meats. Policy level steps to reduce wet markets in a phased

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manner will speed up the process as has been witnessed in other Asian countries, and will provide a push to the processing industry there by stabilize the overall broiler production.

The opening of trade could provide an additional push to India’s processing sector as Indian processors could export white meat in return for dark meat. In addition this could help the industry raise its standards, giving investors the confidence to harness the potential offered by the Indian poultry industry. Before the Indian poultry industry could participate in world trade, it would require significant work in strong veterinary systems, traceability systems and quality systems as well as export-driven processing plants. With frequent outbreaks of avian influenza, participating in world trade will always remain a difficult proposition.

The cold chain infrastructure needs to be improved for optimal production and distribution of processed chicken products. We believe the industry offers investment opportunities for foreign players in activities such as breeding, animal health, feed, equipment and processing for those with a long term view. For the industry to reach its full potential, change at the policy level will be required. Investors are being challenged to invest in an industry that faces volatility not only on the input side but also on the output side. A reduction in wet market’s share could help in reducing volatility. Reducing wet markets will require the development of the retail channel and cold chain infrastructure and some level of policy intervention by the government.

There is very little doubt about the consumption growth prospects of India’s poulty industry, but the key question revolves around the structure and how fast it can evolve to international standards. Much will depend on how consumer preference evolves over time, but policy related triggers have the potential to expedite this transition. Existing industry players and potential new entrants have a large role to play in the evolution of the Indian poultry industry.

(References can be collected from the author) 

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24. Meat science education in India and man power requirement for the meat sector

P. K. Mandal and U. K. Pal

Department of LPT, RAGACOVAS, Pondicherry

1. Introduction

The livestock sector growing @ 5.6% is playing important role in Indian economy with a contribution of 6.8% of GDP and 25% of agricultural GDP and by providing food in the form of meat, milk, egg and nutritional security. An integrated research and education on production, processing and preservation of meat and numerous byproducts has assumed greater importance in recent years and can create direct and indirect employment opportunities for skilled, unskilled and illiterate people. More than 20 million people are employed in this sector directly or indirectly. However, the Indian meat industry needs to be organized on scientific lines. The industry is growing at a rate of 10%. The export of meat and meat products has increased by 100% in last 5 years. The export is expected to expand further with the WTO agreement and globalization. Meat export from India is growing @ 30% per annum with the establishment of 20 integrated meat plants.

For domestic supply more than 4000 slaughter houses and about 200 meat processing units are registered, in which mostly untrained butchers are working without proper sense of hygiene. Training of these meat workers is extremely important to upgrade the industry. Producing highly skilled butchers with ability to work under automation is another aspect of human resource development for the export oriented abattoirs. Requirement of qualified veterinarians for all these plants is an urgent need for proper meat inspection and management.

New Science Technology and Innovation policy 2013 unveiled by our Prime Minister in January 2013 lays greater thrust on research institutes aiming for India to be in top five scientific power in the world by 2020. The STI policy has proposed to double the expenses in higher education to 2 per cent of GDP. The recently finalized 12th plan allocation by National Development Council has also stressed on higher education and research.

To fulfill the man power requirement of this sector at different levels in academia, R&D and industry, training, education and research can play a vital role. In this paper we intend to discuss the facts and figures related to meat science education in India vis-a-vis man power requirement of this sector and to suggest necessary action to be taken for the future.

2. Meat Science Education In India

The education on meat science may be discussed under three categories viz. 1. Graduate level in which major is veterinary science, however, programmes on food science and technology also include courses on meat science / meat technology, 2. Post graduate level

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programme on meat science or LPT which includes exhaustive theory, practical and research components leading to MVSc and PhD degrees, 3. Below Graduate level - which are either skill oriented training, certificate or diploma courses. This is the area we feel needs more emphasis for the man power requirement of the Indian meat industry.

We wish to discuss this three tier education in meat science for three level of man power requirement for the rapidly growing meat sector for teaching, research and industry in the context of past, present and future.

1.1. Meat science education for veterinarian

2.1.1. Veterinary education before independence The modern veterinary education began with a diploma course (Table 1) in 1862 at Pune in an Army Veterinary School followed by at Lahore (1882), Bombay (1886), Calcutta (1893), Madras (1903). The first BVAS was started at Madras Veterinary College in 1935 (Gnanaprakasam, 1998). At the time of Independence we had 9 veterinary colleges. To the best of our knowledge meat science was not there in the veterinary curriculum in those days.

Table 1: List of erstwhile diploma programmes in veterinary science

Srl. Name of College Diploma (expanded) Diploma (abbreviated)

1 Bombay Veterinary College

Graduate of Bombay Veterinary College

G.B.V.C.

2 Bengal Veterinary College

Graduate of Veterinary Science G.V.Sc.

3 Madras Veterinary College

Graduate of Madras Veterinary College

G.M.V.C.

4 Bihar Veterinary College Graduate of Bihar Veterinary College

G.B.V.C.

5 Assam Veterinary College

Graduate of Veterinary Science G.V.Sc

6 Punjab Veterinary College

Licensed Veterinary Practitioner L.V.P.

2.1.2. Meat science in veterinary curriculum (1947-1994)

The erstwhile diploma course slowly became the degree programme as BVAS or BVSc with four or five years for the veterinary education. At least one course related to meat

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science was introduced in some colleges like Madras, Bombay and Tirupati in the form of meat hygiene but there was no uniformity in the veterinary curriculum between colleges. In 1980s onwards many colleges included at least one course related to meat or meat hygiene or food hygiene and the degree of BVSc&AH were introduced.

2.1.3. VCI curriculum (1994)

With the enactment of Indian Veterinary Council Act 1984, Veterinary Council of India was established in 1989 and a new era in veterinary education started. VCI introduced minimum standard of education from 1994. The new VCI curriculum for BVSc & AH became a 5 years programme with a total 177 credits. This is for the first time the Dept. of Livestock Products Technology (LPT) and Veterinary Public Health (VPH) were introduced for teaching 3 mandatory courses (6 credits hours) related to meat science and meat hygiene as detailed below. VCI has also proposed National Diploma (IVRI), P.G. Diploma in 21 specialties, continuing veterinary education/refresher courses (Singh, 1998).

Table 2: List of courses on meat science & meat hygiene in New VCI curriculum

Srl. Course No. Course Title Credit Semester

1 VPH 311 Food Hygiene and Public Health 2+1 Fifth Semester

2 LPT 312 Abattoir Practices and

Animal Products Technology 1+1 Fifth Semester

3 LPT 321 Meat Science 1+1 Sixth Semester

Subsequently a revision of VCI curriculum was done and being implemented from 2009. In the new VCI curriculum overall credit load is reduced by reducing courses in some disciplines, but new courses are introduced in the form of tracking course, study circle and entrepreneurship etc. In case of some changes were done in the courses and course contents although 3 similar courses related to meat science are retained with same credit load (Table -2). It is generally felt by the teachers that the course content is too much to justify with the credit load allotted.

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Table 3: List of veterinary colleges recognized by VCI

Srl. Name of College Year Srl. Name of College Year

1. Bombay Veterinary College, 1886 18. College of Veterinary Science,

Jabalpur 1948

2. Bengal Veterinary College 1893 19. College of Veterinary Science,

Bikaner 1954

3. Madras Veterinary College, 1903 20. College of Veterinary Science,

Anand 1964

4. Bihar Veterinary College, Patna 1935 21. College of Veterinary Science,

Parbhani 1972

5. College Veterinary Science, Tirupati 1946 21. Veterinary College, Namakkal 1985

6. College of Veterinary Science, Hyderabad

1955 23. College of Veterinary Sciences, Srinagar

1984

7. College of Veterinary Sciences, Hisar 1970 24. College of Veterinary Sciences,

Bidar 1984

8. College of Veterinary Science, Ranchi 1961 25. College of Veterinary Science,

Aizawl, 1995

9. Veterinary College Hebbal, Bangalore. 1958 26. College of Veterinary Sciences,

Puducherry 1994

10. College of Veterinary Science, Mathura

1947 27. College of Veterinary Science, Jammu

1999

11. College of Veterinary Sciences, Thrissur

1955 28. College of veterinary Science, Gannavaram

1997

12. College of Veterinary Science, Pantnagar

1960 29. College of Veterinary Sciences, Palampur

1986

13. College of Veterinary Science, Bhubaneswar

1955 33. College of Veterinary Sciences, Pookot

2004

14. College of Veterinary Science, Ludhiana

1969 31. College of Veterinary Science, Faizabad

15. College of Veterinary Science, Mhow 1955 College of Veterinary Science, Durg

16. Nagpur Veterinary College, Nagpur 1958 College of Veterinary Science,

S.K.Nagar

17. Faculty of Veterinary Science, Guwahati

1948 34. College of Veterinary Science, Satara

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As many as 90 universities were conferring Veterinary degree in India as BVSc or BVSc&AH (VCI 2009). Now there are 44 veterinary colleges (Table 3) including 2 private colleges in India with an average intake of about 2500 and output of about 2000 veterinary graduates.

Meat science education at post graduate level

Post graduate education in meat science is very important to supply the manpower for veterinary colleges and research institutes and for the domestic and export oriented meat industry. They are expected to be expert for managing meat processing and quality control and marketing.

The Pioneer in PG education related to meat science are Dept. of Meat Science/Meat Hygiene/LPT in veterinary colleges/institute at Madras, IVRI, Bombay, Tirupati, and Hissar. First there was more focus on meat hygiene aspect later it was slowly shifted on meat science or technology. With the establishment of agricultural universities in most of the states and later many veterinary universities (Table 4) post graduate education got more emphasis and PG in meat science was introduced in many veterinary colleges.

Table 4: list of veterinary universities in India with year of establishment Srl. Name Year

1 Tamil Nadu Veterinary and Animal Science University, Chennai 1989

2 West Bengal University of Animal and Fishery Sciences, Calcuatta 1995

3 Maharashtra Animal and Fishery Sciences University, Nagpur 2000

4 Pandit Deen Dayal Upadhyay Pashu Chikitsa Vigyan Vishwavidyalay Mathura

2001

5 Karnataka Veterinary Animal and Fisheries Sciences University, Bidar 2004

6 Sri Venkateswara Veterinary University, Tirupati 2005

7 Guru Angad Dev Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Ludhiana 2005

8 Kerala Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Pookot, Wayanad, (Kerala)

2010

9 Lala Lajpat Rai University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Hissar (Haryana)

2010

10 Rajasthan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bikaner 2010

11 Nanji Deshmukh Pashu Chikitsa Vigyan Vishwavidyalaya, Jabalpur 2009

There was no uniformity in the MVSc and PhD curriculum in different colleges. In

Madras, Bombay and Tirupati it was more meat hygiene oriented. However, in Hissar and IVRI it was APT or LPT and curriculum was more focused on meat technology aspects and the syllabus developed by Div. of LPT, IVRI was excellent. Recently ICAR has introduced

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new uniform syllabus for all PG and PhD programmes including LPT and being implemented in all colleges.

Presently 21 departments are offering PG programmes in meat science (Table 5). Almost a same number of VPH departments are also imparting meat science education pertaining to meat hygiene, quality control and food safety. In addition to offering regular MVSc/ PhD many of these departments are actively engaged in research funded by external agencies which support the PG programmes. Further, many of these departments are conducting short term (1-3weeks) training, winter school, summer school or refresher courses, seminar and workshops for the veterinarians, teachers or scientists for updating their knowledge and skill.

Table 5: List of Departments of Meat Science/LPT offering P.G.

Sl. No.

Name of the Department & College / Institute MVSc PhD

Yr. of

starting

Completed

Yr. of

starting

Completed

1 Dept. Meat Science, MVC, Chennai 1962 117 1985 17

2. Dept. Food Hygiene, Vet. College, Bombay 1976 100 1985 8

3. Dept APT, Vet. College, Hissar 1977 51 1977 22

4. Dept. Meat Sci., Vet. College, Tirupati 1979 59 1979 9

5. Dept. Meat Sci., Vet. College, Hyderabad 1983 27 1999 3

6. Dept. LPT, IVRI, Izatnagar 1986 85 1986 46

7. Dept. APT &M, Vet. College, Kolkata 2001 21 2004 4

8. Dept. Meat Sci., VCRI, Namakkal (1985) 2000 4 2000 1

9. Dept. LPT, Vet. College, Bangalore (1984) 2007 7 -- --

10. Dept. LPT, Vet. College, Panthnagar

11. Dept. LPT, Vet. College, Ludhiana 2005 13 -- --

12. Dept. LPT, Vet. College, Mannuthy 2004 15 2011 (2)

13. Dept. LPT, Vet. College, Srinagar (1989) 2005 9 -- --

14. Dept. LPT, Vet. College, Guwahati (2005) 2005 15 2005 1

15. Dept. LPT, Vet. College, Puducherry (1994) 2005 11 -- --

16. Dept. LPT, Vet. College, Jammu (1999) 2006 13 -- --

17. Dept. LPT, Vet. College, Nagpur 2010 4 2011 (1)

18. Dept. LPT, Vet. College, Gannavaram 2010 1 -- --

19. Dept LPT, Vet. College, Mathura 2010 3 2012 (2)

20 Dept. LPT, Vet. College, Pookot 2011 (2) 2011 --

21 Dept. LPT, Vet. College, Parbani 2003 (3)

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2.2.1. Other Institutes also involved in meat science education /research /training Many colleges or universities having Food Science and Technology programme are

also partially engaged in teaching and research related to meat science. Several institutes of ICAR, CSIR and DRDO are actively engaged in teaching or research related to meat science and a few are listed below.

1. Department of Meat, Fish and Poultry Technology, CFTRI, Mysore 2. Defense Food Research Laboratory, Mysore 3. National Research Centre on Meat, Hyderabad 4. Central Institute for Post Harvest Engineering and Technology, Ludhiana 5. Central Institute for Research on Goat, Makhdoom 6. Division of Post Harvest Technology, CARI, Izatnagar, 7. Department of Food Technology, BARC, Bombay 8. Central Sheep and Wool Research Institute, Avikanagar 9. Department of Food Technology, Jadavpur University, Kolkata

2.2.2. Pioneering Departments of Meat Science for PG education

I. Department of Meats Science (MVC, Chennai): The Department of Meat Science was created in the year 1958-59 to educate the students on various aspects of meat hygiene and meat technology. The department was recognized as post-graduate department in the year 1962 for offering Master's degree programme in Meat Science and Technology, to promote the principles of hygienic meat production as the first of its kind in India. A modern plant (with facilities for slaughter, processing of meat and meat products and storage), laboratory for quality control, meat species identification were established in the year 1972. The Ph.D programme in Meat Science and Technology was started in the year 1985. This department completed many research projects related to meat hygiene and meat processing.

II. Dept. of Food Hygiene & Public Health, Bombay: The Department of Food Hygiene and Public Health was established in the year 1975. The post graduate and doctoral programme were initiated in the year 1976 and 1985, respectively. Extensive work has been done by this department in the field of quality control and monitoring of foods of animal origin including meat species identification and irradiation preservation. Because of its contribution to this field the department has been identified by APEDA for certification of foods of animal origin and recognized as a referral laboratory by the government of India. With the adoption new VCI curriculum, a separate Department LPT was carved out from the parent department in the year 2003 to specifically deal with the production and processing for milk, meats, eggs and seafoods.

III. Division of Livestock Products Technology (IVRI, Izatnagar): The Div. LPT was created in 1975 in IVRI with the objective of basic and applied research to impart master’s and doctoral programme in the area of LPT to conduct training for technical /supporting

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personnel for the meat industry. Being a national institute IVRI took lead to establish a separate discipline of LPT in which research and education on meat and meat products and byproducts was the top priority. The LPT division started with 12 scientists was established with full fledged facilities on meat and meat products, byproducts, microbiology & quality control, a pilot plant for meat processing for research and P.G. education. This Division started MVSc and PhD programmes in 1986. Two short courses were conducted on “Meat and meat products technology” in 1977 & 1978.

IV. Department of Animal Products Technology (CAS, Hissar): The department came into existence in 1977 with a view to undertake teaching, research and extension activities. This is the first Department with the concept of animal products technology in India. The department has two sub-disciplines namely: meat technology and dairy technology in which UG and PG teaching are imparted. The research activities are oriented towards product development, extension of shelf life and development of functional meat and milk products. Training to farmers in milk and meat processing is the main extension activity undertaken by the department. Presently there are nine faculty members, nine PG students with 2 PhD Scholar.

V. Dept. of Meat Science, Tirupati: First Medicine and Meat Hygiene department was created in 1968. Later the Dept. of Meat Science and Technology was created in1979 and post graduate education was started. This department has done lot work in pork processing and products. Then it is modified as Livestock Products Technology as per VCI norms in 1999. So far 59 MVSc and 9 PhD has passed out from this department.

VI. Meat Technology Unit, Mannuthy (Kerala): was established in the year 1992 and PG Diploma course in Meat Processing Technology was started in 1995. The ICAR recognized this unit as Centre of Excellence in Meat Science and Technology in 2001. With the introduction of new VCI curriculum this Unit was recognized as Department of Livestock Products Technology and recognized as PG dept for offering MVSc in LPT from 2004 and PhD from 2010. This Department is a comprehensive facility of its kind in India related to meat science and engaged in regular hands-on–training for HRD. It has state-of-the-art facilities on various aspects of meat production, processing and byproduct utilization, meat species identification, quality management and gamma irradiation.

2.3. Meat Science Education at Below Graduate Level

There is more need of skilled butchers or trained manpower for the rapidly growing meat industry. It may be ideal to start training centers may be under the Meat Science Departments of veterinary colleges to impart in house training for 2-3 months certificate course or 1 year diploma course.

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2.3.1. Training by Veterinary Colleges/ICAR/CSIR Institutes

Several veterinary colleges / universities are conducting diploma programmes in animal science which imparts training on meat science. As part their extension activities several well established departments of meat science / LPT viz. Madras, Mannuthy, IVRI, Hissar, NRC Meat, CFTRI are conducting training for the butchers or meat industry workers either on regular basis or as per the requirement. The dept. in Kerala is conducting such in house training on regular basis for developing skilled man power. Div. of LPT, IVRI has also conducted a few such programmes. However, it needs to be more regular and systematic with proper plan and financial support to fulfill the present manpower requirement.

2.3.2. Diploma in Meat Technology (IGNOU)

The diploma in meat technology in IGNOU was developed in collaboration with the Ministry of Food Processing Industries, Govt. of India. The programme aims at imparting basic knowledge and skill for production of quality meat and meat products to develop human resources for the meat and poultry processing industry. The focus is to develop competencies in good slaughter practices, scientific handling of meat, production of quality meat and meat products, quality control of meat and meat products. Minimum duration of the course is one year, maximum duration 4 years, eligibility 10+2 pass outs.

This DMT programme with 8 courses (each four credits) covering all the aspects of meat science and technology with a total of 32 credits. The contents of each course are on per with our MVSc meat science courses. Since the programme was planned for 10+2 level who have no back ground about animals and veterinary science and other related basic subjects, therefore, the programme seems to be unsuitable for them. As per the course content it may be ideal for PG diploma in Meat Technology for veterinary graduates. As such there are very few takers for this DMT.

2.3.3. NMPPB for butchers’ training

National Meat and Poultry Processing Board was established in 2009 by the Ministry of Food Processing Industries Govt. of India. NMPPB has already taken initiative to upgrade the meat industry and has conducted several Mayors’ Conference to bring awareness amongst the administrators and policy makers about hygienic meat production. To cater to the need of the modern export oriented meat plants and for the supply of hygienic meat for the domestic market large numbers of skilled man power is required. For this purpose, training for the butchers and meat plant workers are very much necessary.

NMPPB has already conducted some programmes for the butchers and planning large scale training of butchers by utilizing the services of Dept. of LPT / Meat Science in veterinary colleges. For this purpose recently in Dec’ 11-14, 2012 a ‘Train the Trainers’ programme was conducted for the teachers from veterinary colleges and municipality officers by inviting experts from The Netherland. NMPPB is expected to be a big employer for meat technologists. It is planning to modernize 110 small and 50 large abattoirs to boost the meat and poultry sector. The board wishes to have backward linkages with farmers, traceability, disease free zone and to organize meetings, seminar, symposium, developing literature and audio visuals.

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3. Man Power Requirement For The Meat Sector

The strategies recommended by the experts for improving the domestic and export meat market finally require large manpower at different levels like animal production, disease control, inspection, slaughter & dressing, processing, packaging, quality control & food safety regulation, teaching and research. There is not much systematic study report available about the man power requirement of the Indian meat sector, though some experts projected the man power requirement at different levels based on some study and or experience. Lack of availability of trained manpower was highlighted by Singh (2001) while mentioning the constraints of meat export. With all the development efforts the meat sector is expected to have employment opportunity of 50 million people in next decade (Chatli and Biswas, 2010).

In a study by Sasidhar and Reddy, 2011 revealed that annually we need about 2500 vets and there is a shortage of about 500-600 vets per year (Table 6). India needs about 72000 vets against current 43,000 (Agarwal et al., 2010) and needs to produce 2500 vets per year.

Table 6: Annual average intake-outturn rate of veterinarians

Period Graduates Post graduates (all disciplines)

Intake Outturn Intake Outturn

1997-02 2432 1675 1575 945

2002-07 2479 1707 1704 995

Growth rate 1.90% 1.87% 8.2% 5.3% (Source: Sasidhar and Reddy, 2011)

Sasidhar and Reddy (2011) has reported that the post graduate veterinarians produced

(including all disciplines) are generally more than the requirements for the specific specialties (Table 7). However, In a recent study on man power requirement in the southern states of India Rao et al. (2012) reported that presently there are a total of 1084 faculty members in the southern veterinary colleges/universities but the actual requirements is 1900 (Table 8), similarly they have found a huge shortage of veterinarians in southern states.

Table 7: Projected demand and supply of trained veterinary manpower

Veterinarians Year

Under graduates 2007 2010 2015 2020

Supply 1707 1866 2041 2231

Demand (absorption capacity) 2500 3062 3751 4595

Gap -793 -1196 -1710 -2364

Post Graduates

Supply 995 1153 1458 1844

Demand (absorption capacity 310 352 431 528

Gap +685 +801 +1027 +1316

(Source: Sasidhar and Reddy, 2011)

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Table 8: Man power status in veterinary university and animal husbandry departmrnts in southern states

Vety Univ/colleges No. of

faculty

available

No of

faculty

required

State

DoAH

No Vets

available

No Vets

required

KVAFSU, Karnataka 206 496 Karnataka 1940 2950

TANUVAS, T.N. 407 574 Tamil Nadu 1931 2960

SVVU, Andhra Pradesh

207 365 Andhra Pradesh

2652 6220

KVASU, Kerala 206 390 Kerala 1266 1364

RAGACOVAS, Pondy

58 75 Pondicherry 51 70

TOTAL 1084 1900 TOTAL 7840 13494

(Source: Rao et al., 2012)

As we have discussed earlier the meat science education at three levels similarly man power requirement also categorized into three different levels of the meat sector and precisely presented below

3.1. Expert Level (post graduate and above)

1. In teaching and research in all veterinary colleges 2. In research and development for different central and other organization 3. Meat processing and quality control and food safety for modern meat plants 4. Consultancy services related to meat plant, machineries design and allied areas 5. Quality monitoring agencies like FSSAI, APEDA, EIC, EIA etc.

3.2. Mid level (Veterinarians) 1. Meat animal production and animal welfare 2. For meat inspection, disease control 3. In modern export oriented abattoirs, poultry dressing plants 4. In meat processing plants 5. Private meat plants for processing and quality control 6. FSSAI, APEDA, EIC, NMPPB for veterinarians trained in meat science 7. Processing of byproducts 8. Marketing of meat and meat products

3.3. Skilled manpower (below graduate)

1. Trained butchers for public and private abattoirs 2. Meat plant workers for deboning, processing etc 3. Hide and skin processing

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4. Casing and other byproducts processing 5. Rendering plants

4. Role Of Indian Meat Science Association

The Association is a professional and educational organization of Meat Scientists and Technologists was registered in 2001 in Pondicherry with the objectives of advancement of all aspects of science and technology relating to production, processing and marketing of meat and meat products to serve the humanity. The membership is open to degree and diploma holders in meat science, related discipline and to those engaged in the meat profession. It is a common platform for exchange of views related to meat science and technology and for the progress of meat industry. Incidentally the first four recommendations made in the IMSACON–I (2003) viz. 1. Establishment of NMPPB, 2. Enactment of FSSA, 2006, 3. GIA for abattoir & rendering plants and 4. Strengthening of NRC Meat is a reality today. However, the 5th point (involving IMSA in policy making) is yet to be realized. The IMSA is expected to play important role for suggesting the policy decisions related to education and research and regulations pertaining to meat and meat industry. The IMSA can play more significant role in the said areas especially in the meat science education in future which is pointed out in the later section.

5. Suggestions

Following aspects needs serious discussions for recommendations and consideration of the concern authorities and policy makers.

1. Veterinary Curriculum- needs to be splitted in to veterinary science (DVM) and a separate programme as B.Tech. (Animal Science & Technology) four years course including biotechnology, dairy technology and meat technology. In such case all the veterinary colleges need to be splited into two colleges and new curriculum should be formulated. To my knowledge no other developed country imparting an education on veterinary and animal science together.

2. Meat Science should be with animal science programme being part of agriculture. Present VPH may impart teaching on meat hygience for the veterinary (DVM) students may be 5 yrs course. This will reduce the burden of presently combined BVSc &AH course and all the aspects under different subjects can be taught with better emphasis as per the modern demand.

3. Discipline of Meat Science in ARS: ICAR being mother organization for agricultural education and research was not fare with the Discipline of Meat Science. The concept of LPT is not well accepted neither followed as a discipline in any developed country. To understand this issue let us see the disciplines which are related to LPT. The ARS system has separate discipline for Dairy Technology, Dairy Chemistry, Dairy microbiology, Dairy engineering, Food Technology, Fish Processing Technology except for Meat Science where in it is combined with dairy and fish technology as Livestock Products Technology (LPT). Hence, it is ideal to create a separate and exclusive discipline of Meat Science

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4. Deparment of Meat Science in Veterinary Colleges The concept of APT introduced in Hissar and LPT in IVRI, later made compulsory in veterinary colleges with UG courses on meat & dairy. The creation of Dept of LPT with a view to combine meat, dairy and fish technology was not a good idea and has not been a justice for the subject of meat science. The concept is not suiting for PG education also to offer degree on LPT. Since dairy science is already well developed discipline and industry, it is strongly recommended that the Dept. LPT should be bifurcated as Dept of Meat Science and Dairy Science and the courses may be reorganized and redistributed accordingly until Veterinary education is splitted to veterinary and animal science.

5. P.G. programme for both MVSc & PhD need to be strengthened in many colleges to supply the manpower for the academia, R&D institutes and industry. The PG curriculum needs to be revised as per the modern requirement with uniformity.

6. Collaboration between SAUs/SVUs and ICAR institutes for P.G. education A new development is taking place about collaboration for PG education and research between SAUs/SVUs and research institutes under ICAR. A document in this regards is almost ready for finalization, which will provide the necessary guidelines about signing MOU between colleges and ICAR institutes. Especially the research part for master’s and PhD degree can be done in any ICAR institutes taking a scientist as a guide or Co-guide after signing the MOU. The scientists can also be involved for teaching at PG level in nearby colleges and faculty may get involved in research activities and both can support each other in achieving the goal in higher education and research.

7. P.G. Diploma from IGNOU The curriculum developed for diploma in meat technology is apt for the veterinary graduates as a PG Diploma. Since they have in depth exposure in veterinary and meat science further it will suit to them under the distance learning mode.

8. Training centres. Short term training, certificate/ diploma courses in different specific areas for workers involved in different segments of meat industry is essential. Training centers should be established in every veterinary college by strengthening Dept. of Meat Science with suitable funding by the NMPPB. These ongoing hands on training activity will also help in better training for UG and PG students.

9. Corporates in meat science education Time has come now that leading meat industries should contribute and involve in the education and research related to meat science especially at lower level for producing skilled man power and in higher education and research.

10. Survey on manpower requirement An in depth survey study on the Indian meat sector and its manpower requirement involving appropriate social scientists may be from Animal Husbandry Extension, IMSA and ICAR need to be conducted with financial assistance from ICAR/MFPI(NMPPB).

(References can be collected from authors) 

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25. Incorporation of antioxidants and dietary fibre in meat products for health improvements

Divya

Central Avian Research Institute, Izzatnagar, Bareilly, U.P

The science of functional foods is at the confluence of two major factors in our society- food and health. The link between diet and disease has now been widely accepted. Functional foods used to refer to foods or isolated food ingredients that deliver specific physiological benefits that may enhance health. Meat and meat products are important sources of proteins, vitamins, and minerals. Certain approaches for modification in meat and meat products includes alteration of the fatty acid and cholesterol levels in meat, addition of natural extracts with antioxidant properties, limiting sodium chloride, incorporation of dietary fibers etc. Recently, negative image of meat foods, and their possible health hazard effects, shows that consumers are increasingly interested about health oriented functional meat products. Consumers require not only improved taste but also are attractive, safe and healthy. In this paper I will be giving more emphasis on antioxidants and dietary fiber for health benefits of the consumers’.

Natural antioxidants

Nowadays, consumers are demanding more natural foods, more natural food attracting the industry to include natural antioxidants in foods. Natural antioxidants have been used instead of synthetic antioxidants to retard lipid oxidation in foods to improve their quality and nutritional value. There has been a growing interest in natural ingredients because they have greater application in food industry for increasing the consumer acceptability, palatability, stability and shelf life of food products. Consequently, search for natural additives, especially of plant origin, has notably increased in recent years. The synthetic antioxidant market worldwide is in decline, while natural antioxidants are growing, propelled by consumer acceptance with ease and legal requirements for market access. In addition to extending the shelf life, natural antioxidants have been reported to enhance the organoleptic characteristics and consumer acceptability of meat and meat products with added health benefits.

Antioxidants in Human health

Several antioxidants have been identified as agents to overcome and reduce the incidence or controlling the harmful effect during the diseases, clinical conditions related to human health. These include cancer, cardiovascular disease, atherosclerosis, hypertension, ischemia, diabetes mellitus, hyperoxaluria, neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s diseases, rheumatoid arthritis etc. Considerable research demonstrates the human health benefits of naturally occurring antioxidant compounds. Claims of anti-viral, anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, anti-mutagenic, anti-tumour, and hepatoprotective properties

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have been substantiated, albeit mostly from in vitro trials. Oxidation reactions in the body could be linked to the build-up free radicals and fatty deposits that cause blockages in arteries that can cause heart attacks. Antioxidants may be important in preventing this and there could also be a link with the prevention of certain cancers, arthritis and other conditions. The picture is not yet clear and a great deal of research needs to be undertaken.

Pathways and biological effects of natural antioxidants

After absorption, all antioxidants undergo certain chemical reactions in order to protect other compounds from oxidation. Natural antioxidants donate electrons from two major electron rich sources: hydroxyl groups and double bonds. Vitamin C or ascorbic acid generally acts as an anti-oxidant by donating hydrogen atoms from its own hydroxyl groups. Like vitamin C, all polyphenols including anthocyanins and other flavonoid molecules also rely on the donation of hydrogen atoms from their multiple hydroxyl groups which protrude from their central ring structure. The other strategy with which antioxidants prevent oxidation is to use double bonds to donate electron density.

Many natural antioxidants have been much touted for their positive effects on health, especially applications that prevent cancer and heart disease. While each antioxidants works in a different manner, the act of preventing or reversing oxidation, which is a natural occurrence in many physiological processes, is hypothesized to have significant effects in the prevention of many diseases. When tocopherols, in particular vitamin E is consumed, it is passed through the liver and transferred to adipose where it prevents oxidation. Additionally, it is thought that carotenoids may have some regulatory function in cells, but no conclusive evidence has been found to support this hypothesis.

Natural extracts with antioxidant properties

Lipid oxidation is one of the causes for the deterioration of meat and derivatives because their appearance determines the onset of a large number of undesirable changes in flavor, texture, and nutritional value. The rate of lipid oxidation can be effectively retarded by the use of antioxidants. Synthetic antioxidants were widely used in the meat industry, but consumer concerns over safety and toxicity pressed the food industry to find natural sources. Natural antioxidants extracted from plants such as rosemary, sage, tea, soybean, citrus peel, sesame seed, olives, carob pod, and grapes can be used as alternatives to the synthetic antioxidants because of their equivalent or greater effect on the inhibition of lipid oxidation. The human intake of green tea decreases total cholesterol, increases the high-density lipoprotein (HDL) fraction, and decreases lipoprotein oxidation. The high affinity of tea catechins for lipid bilayers of muscle and their free radical scavenging abilities may provide a possible mechanism to explain the inhibition of lipid oxidation in cooked muscle food.

Another extract used in meat products is rosemary, from whose leaves a large number of phenolic compounds with antioxidant activities have been isolated. These include carnosol, carnosic acid, rosmanol, epirosmanol, isorosmanol, rosmarinic acid, rosmaridiphenol, and rosmariquinone.

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Dietary fibres in meat products

Dietary fibre consists of the remnants of edible plant cells which include cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, pectins and a variety of gums and mucilages. Fibre is the grand parent of the current wave of interest in functional meat product components. An adequate fibre diet has a variety of specific healthful benefits, the major one of which is optimizing gastrointestinal physiological function. Fibre is suitable in meat products and has previously been used in meat emulsuion products because it retains water, decreasing cooking losses without affecting flavour of cooked product. Sugarbeet, wheat, oat and pea fibre have been used, mainly in cooked meat products. Recently, commercially available Vitacel (wheat fibre) have been added in three different meat products; cooked and cured ham, fresh sausage and emulsified bologna successfully. The most important property of fibre from a technological standpoint is that of ability to bind water. The use of fibres can assist the restructuring of products and in most meat products, the uses of these fibres can help achieve the right texture in restructuring of previously ground muscle. Pork sausage products containing indigestible dextrin, a water soluble dietary fibre made from potato starch, are claimed to have beneficial effects on intestinal disorders. The viability of the use of wheat fibre gives the small or no differences between the products with and without fibre. As fibre allows more addition of water at the expense of fat and proteins, the fibre added products have a lower cost than their traditional versions. The functional properties of the fibre and the decrease in the product caloric content allows for marketing as healthy alternative , taking advantage of growing health concerns of the consumers.

By products of citrus fruits processing industries represent a serious problem, but they are also promising sources of materials which may be used in the meat industry because of their technological and nutritional properties. Limes, orange and lemons were probably the first clinically documented functional foods. Most of these materials from citrus by products could be used as functional ingredient when designing healthy foods, especially non-digestible carbohydrates (dietary fibre) and bioactive compounds (ascorbic acid and flavonoids). These have been effectively used in dry fermented meat sausage for increasing soluble fibre content. The main advantage of dietary fibre from citrus fruits when compared to alternative sources of fibre such as cereals is its higher proportion of soluble dietary fibre with about 33% in citrus fruits while only 7% is present in wheat bran. There is great interest in increasing the consumption of oat based products that contain both soluble and insoluble fibres.

Several dietary fibers have been used in meat products as potential fat substitutes also. Dietary fibers from oat, sugar beet, soy, pea etc., have been tried in the formulation of some meat products such as patties and sausages Swelite, a natural ingredient extracted from smooth yellow peas and containing 60% dietary fiber have been used in frozen hamburger. Soy hulls have been incorporated for the preparation of high fiber camel meat patties. In dry fermented sausage, the addition of inulin, a low calorie product (30% of the original), enriched with soluble dietary fibre (10% approximately) could be obtained. Rye bran as a fat substitute has been used in the meatballs and it was observed that meatballs containing rye bran had lower concentrations of total fat and total trans fatty acids.

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Inherent functional property and health beneficial effects of fibers make them a useful ingredient in the development of various meat products. But increasing fiber consumption in the diet is always a difficult challenge. That is why fiber usually used in food products, should not only supply fiber, but also provide enhanced functional properties to make high-fiber foods like taste better, thus and encouraging continued high fiber intake. Dietary fibers from oat, sugar beet, soy, pea, apple, and wheat have been included in the formulations of several meat products such as patties, sausages and bologna. In many instances, these dietary fibers not only have beneficial physiological effects, they also generate important technological properties that offset the effect of fat reduction. I have added Gum Arabic and guar gum in poultry and goat meat nuggets and observed increase in functional properties, cooking yield, reduction in oil incorporation with improvement in test and texture.

Dietary fibers in human health

Fibers are naturally occurring compounds present in variety of vegetables, fruits, cereal flours etc in abundance, and act through their solubility, viscosity, gel forming ability, water-binding capacity, oil adsorption capacity, fermentability, and mineral and organic molecule binding capacity which affect product quality and characteristics. Beside these, high-fiber intake tends to reduce risk of colon cancer, obesity, cardiovascular diseases, and several other disorders. Moreover, based on their physiochemical properties, many fibers can help to improve colour, texture and sensorial characteristics instead of nutritional benefits. Fiber inclusions could help in diminution of calorie content in foods. Meat products that contain dietary fibers are excellent meat substitutes due to their inherent functional and nutritional effects. Further, dietary fiber intake through meat substituted with fruits, vegetables and certain grains is associated with reductions in plasma and LDL-cholesterol, reduce the risk of major dietary problems such as obesity, coronary diseases, diabetes, gastrointestinal disorders, including constipation, inflammatory bowel diseases etc. The protective effect of fruit and vegetable fibers has generally been attributed to their antioxidant constituent, including vitamin C and E, carotenoid, glutathione, flavonoids and phenolic acids, as well as other unidentified compounds. Some of the dietary fibers and their physiological benefits are presented in Table 1.

Flavonoids, a group of more than 4000 polyphenolics, are products of plant metabolism and naturally occurring polyphenolics present in fruit and vegetables, are effective antioxidants because of their scavenging properties, chelators of metal ions and may protect tissues against free oxygen radicals and lipid peroxidation. Flavonoids have been cited as frequently as bioactive agents for health maintenance. Fiber intake through the consumption of meat, rich in dietary component is associated with reductions in plasma and LDL-cholesterol, attenuating glycemic and insulin response, increasing stool bulk, and improving laxation. Moreover, through its physiologic responses, dietary fiber consumption has reduced risk of most of the major dietary problems such as obesity, coronary diseases, diabetes, gastrointestinal disorders, including constipation, inflammatory bowel diseases like diverticulitis and ulcerative colitis, and colon cancer.

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When raw carrot (Daucus carota) is added as such, it provides richest source of β-carotene, iron, pectin, dietary fibre, complex carbohydrate, and various minerals. β- carotene prevents the appearance or impedes the development of cancerous cells. It has potent antioxidant effect, also provides anti-mutagenic, anti-tumoral, immunostimulant, antiulceric, degenerative properties on human health. Carotenoid possesses such important virtues as to protect our body; it is also helpful for good health of the vision, skin, teeth and gums. Besides β- carotene, iron is very suitable for human health. Iron is very digestible and also favors the formation of the red globules.

Table 1: Dietary fiber content of some important vegetables, fruits, cereals, legumes, flax seeds etc with their possible physiological effects

Meat and meat products can be modified by adding ingredients considered beneficial for

health or by eliminating or reducing components that are considered harmful. The use of these ingredients in meat products offers processors the opportunity to improve the nutritional and health qualities of their products. But sometimes (above all when these ingredients are added at high concentrations) their use results in products with lower sensory and physicochemical quality. The results suggest that many ingredients can be used in the meat industry to add functional properties to meat products, and further research is needed to understand their interactions with meat products constituents and thus to improve their safety in potential industrial applications. Functional food development is a multistage process that requires input from commercial, academic and regulatory interests, with a critical need to achieve acceptance by consumers. The vast potential for functional product will not be achieved without extensive scientific research to ensure the safety and efficacy of these meat products. Increasing consumer demand for healthier foods or food ingredients is not likely to dwindle as body boomers attempt to stave off the chronic health problems associated with ageing and realize that dietary intervention can be safe and cost effective alternative to drugs or other more traditional therapies.

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26. Current issues related to meat borne pathogenic bacteria: Strategies for control of pathogens

Bhilegonkar K. N., Dhanze H., Rawat S., Suman Kumar M. and Kumar A

Division of Veterinary Public Health, I.V.R.I, Bareilly, U.P

Foodborne pathogenic bacteria affect millions of people each year, worldwide causing huge economic losses and human suffering in terms of illness and death. CDC estimates state that contaminated food consumed in the U.S. alone causes 47.8 million illnesses and 3,037 deaths annually (Scallan et al., 2011; Mead, 1999). The estimated cost of 14 major foodborne pathogens, which represent over 95% of the annual illnesses and hospitalizations, was put at $14 billion/year. Among the 14 pathogens: Salmonella, Campylobacter, Listeria monocytogenes, Toxoplasma gondii, and Norovirus are combinedly responsible for 90% of the economic losses (Batz et al., 2011).

Meat and meat products present an ideal substrate supporting the growth of several spoilage and pathogenic bacteria. Emergence and reemergence of meat borne pathogenic bacteria are the key issues concerned with meat safety. Major emerging pathogens include Salmonella (multidrug resistant strain), C. jejuni, E. coli O157:H7, Listeria monocytogenes, S. aureus (MRSA), Vibrio vulnificus, Yersinia enterocolitica, and Arcobacter spp. The presence of these microorganisms in meat is the result of contamination from live animal, transportation, slaughtering, cutting and packaging, temperature control, and poor sanitary and hygienic practices in the plant (Bailey, et al., 1987; Reij et al., 2004; Mataragas et al., 2008; Biswas et al., 2011).

Emergence of antimicrobial resistance among the meat borne pathogens like S. Thyphimurium DT104, E. coli O157:H7 and fluoroquinolone resistant Campylobacter spp. adds to the perils of these food safety issue. These resistant bacteria can cause fatal human infections. Studies reveal that fatality rate for people infected with antibiotic-resistant Salmonella strains is 21 times greater than for the individuals infected with non-resistant strains (Helms et al., 2003). The emergence of diseases communicable to humans through consumption of meat has made the consumers more vigilant towards the wholesomeness and safety of meat. This has lead to an increase in demand for meat and poultry products processed in clean and sanitary environment. Microbiological standards do exist in our country for meat borne pathogenic bacteria but due to lack of their strict application our export consignments have been rejected many times previously. India is still not approved by EC to export poultry meat products. Interventions are needed to overcome the hurdles in meat industry caused by these emerging pathogens.

Pathogen control:

There exists a palette of strategies to deal with the emerging pathogens in meat and meat products.

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The production of safe meat begins at the farm with application of good animal husbandry practices and continues through slaughter and processing of dressed meat till it reaches the consumer. Processing strategies like decontamination with hot water, chilling, curing, fermentation and thermal processing have been used since ages to reduce microbial contamination of meat and have been proven effective against pathogens like E. coli O157:H7 and S. Typhimurium DT104 (Jay, 2000). Several new and efficient methods have evolved in last few years to deal with emerging pathogens.

Organic acids

Organic acids are employed to wash and sanitize animal carcasses after slaughter to reduce carriage of pathogens. Exposure of E. coli O157:H7 and five other genera of foodborne pathogens to 10% acetic acid at 300C for 4 days inhibited all the bacteria (Entani et al., 1998).The bactericidal effect of acetic acid can be demonstrated by its action on certain pathogens. S. Enteritidis could not be detected after 5 minutes nor could S. Typhimurium be detected after 10 minutes, when the two species were added to an oil-and-vinegar-based salad dressing (Millar and Martin, 1990).

Herbal decontaminants

The emergence of multi drug resistance in foodborne pathogens coupled with the increasing demand for chemical and antibiotic free food has paved the path for use of natural antimicrobials in the food industry. Plant extracts and essential oils have received a lot of attention in the last few years for use in meat products due to their antimicrobial and antioxidant properties (Dhanze et al., 2012). Studies have revealed the inhibitory effect of grape seed, pomegranate peel and bell pepper extracts on emerging pathogens like L. monocytogens and S. Typhimurium in meat (Shan et al., 2009; Careaga et al., 2003). Introducing this processing technology of using plant extracts as decontaminants of carcass will be very useful in providing safe meet to consumers along with the added advantage of residue free meat products.

Bacterocins

Lactic acid bacteria produce an array of antimicrobials, which also includes bacteriocins. Bacteriocins have several desirable properties like broad antimicrobial spectrum, heat and pH tolerance, which make them suitable for food preservation. In foods of animal origin such as meat, bacteriocins have been tested for carcass decontamination by washing or spraying, with varying degrees of success. Perusal of literature revealed that in meat and poultry products, application of bacteriocins like nisin in film coatings or in combination with HHP can reduce the growth and survival of Salmonella, L. monocytogens and E. coli O157:H7 (Aymerich et al.,2005; Jin et al.,2008). In spite of the large number of laboratory studies carried out with different bacteriocins, there is still a long way to industrial applications, with little innovation with respect to classical commercial preparations such as nisin and pediocin PA-1/AcH (Galvez et al., 2010).

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Phage therapy

Bacteriophages are bacterial viruses that are ubiquitous in the environment. For almost every bacterial species, there exists at least one bacteriophage that can specifically infect and ultimately destroy that particular bacterial group. Phage therapy has shown promise both as an effective pre-harvest intervention to prevent foodborne pathogens from entering the processing plants and as a post harvest intervention by controlling pathogens in meat (Goodridge et al., 2011). Literature cited revealed that application of bacteriophage mixtures dramatically reduce the levels of S. Typhimurium, L. monocytogenes, C. jejuni and E. coli O157:H7 on meat (Goode et al., 2003;O’Flynn et al., 2004; Bigwood et al., 2008). In 2006, the FDA approved a cocktail of bacteriophages as food additive for use against L. monocytogenes contamination in ready-to-eat meat and poultry products. This cocktail is to be sprayed directly on the surface of the RTE food at a level of approximately 1 milliliter (mL) per 500 square centimeters of surface area prior to packaging. The bacteriophages will remain dormant unless their specific target, L. monocytogenes, is encountered, triggering a full infection and destruction cycle (Walker et al., 2006). Though phages have potential of destroying emerging antibiotic resistant bacteria further research is needed in this field till its final industrial application against other pathogens in meat.

High hydrostatic pressure

High hydrostatic pressure (HHP) is an innovative food processing and preservation method that causes injury and killing of microbial cells (Ray, 2002). Pressure treatment at 3000 to 6000 atm has the potential to reduce all the microorganisms tested, by more than 6-log colony-forming units (cfu)/g except for Bacillus cereus spores. C. jejuni, S. Typhimurium and Y. enterocolitica are inactivated at pressures higher than 3000 atm and E. coli at pressures higher than 4000 atm (Tamotsu et al., 1991). Thus, pressure is a potential alternative to heat pasteurization as it leaves small molecules like many flavour compounds and vitamins intact. Research workers have suggested that the use of a combination of HHP with bacteriocins in meat products could improve the efficacy of HHP to destroy pathogenic bacteria like L. monocytogens at lower pressure without adverse effects on meat (Hugas et al., 2002; Garriga et al. 2002).

Irradiation

Food irradiation is the process of exposing food to radiant energy in order to reduce or eliminate bacteria, therefore making it safer and more resistant to spoilage. In 1981, the FAO, IAEA and WHO stated that irradiation of any food commodity up to an overall level average dose of 1 Mrad (10KGy) presents no toxicological hazard and introduces no special nutrition or microbiological problems, hence toxicological testing of foods treated is no longer required. Meat and meat products including chicken have been permitted to irradiate with a dose range of 2.5 to 4.0 kGy for extending shelf life and to control pathogen. Available scientific data indicate that ionizing radiation of 2.5 kGy can significantly reduced the levels

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of many of the pathogenic microorganisms of concern in meat food products, including Salmonella; E. coli O157:H7 and C. jejuni (Mulder,1977; Clavero et al.1994).

Conclusion:

The emergence and reemergence of meat borne pathogenic bacteria which are multidrug resistant has posed a mighty challenge to microbiologists and technologists associated with the meat industry. When a pathogen emerges, we need to minimize its human health impact by quickly establishing controls. If the technology or knowledge is lacking, a research effort is warranted. The availability of an array of processing strategies holds promise for the present and future. The lacunae lie in the application of many of these strategies at the industrial level. The solution lies in the collaborative efforts of research workers, stake holders and policy makers to ensure easy availability and commercialization of processing strategies and their application throughout production, processing, distribution, and final meat preparation to ensure its safety and acceptability.

(References can be collected from authors) 

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27. Challenges and opportunities in meat sector and meat food regulations

M. K. Agnihotri and N. Rana

Education Division, ICAR, KAB-II, Pusa, New Delhi

Education, employment and nutrition hold the key to sustainable human development. The fast changing global scenario on food security and safety, shrinking natural resources (land, energy, water and biodiversity), trade linked issues and the climate change effects pose a major challenge to provide quality, safe, adequate and balanced nutrition to a large human population and keeping the livestock farming economically rewarding. Ensuring food and nutritional security and eliminating hunger, including hidden hunger, is the National priority. To meet this challenge, sustained scientific and knowledge based advancements rather than input based efforts are required in meat sector. India has achieved self-sufficiency in food grain production, thus has been able to eliminate calorie hunger. But it has not been able to eliminate the protein hunger. Now the focus has been shifted from “starch to protein self-sufficiency". Meat and meat products being one of the important components of balanced diet, this sector warrants action on many fronts to increase their availability at affordable prizes (Agnihotri et al., 2011).

Growing population and rising income along with fast changing food preferences are rapidly increasing demand for meat products in the country while globalization is boosting trade in livestock inputs and their products. Demand driven growth in livestock products sector will enable millions of poor to escape poverty trap provided adequate required inputs and support services are provided at an affordable cost. During the XI Plan, meat sector registered a growth rate of 4.1% being highest (8.0%) for buffalo meat (Table 4).

Livestock Population vis-a-vis Other Resources

India, with about 11% of the world livestock population, occupies a significant place numerically in respect of livestock wealth. With 2.4% of the land area of the world, and only 4.2% of the world’s fresh water, it maintains 1.21 billion human population which is more than 18% of world’s human population and about 529.70 million livestock and 648 million poultry (Table1).

The cattle, buffalo, sheep, goat and pigs population which was 185.20, 97.90, 61.50, 124.4, 13.50 millions in 2003 reached to 199.10, 105.30, 71.60, 140.5, 11.1 millions, respectively in 2007 (18th Live stock census, DADF, M/o Agriculture). The average annual growth rate in population of these species during the corresponding period was 1.83, 1.84, 3.87, 3.10, (-) 4.74 percent. Buffalo has surpassed the cattle population growth rate for various reasons viz., use for milk, meat and draft purposes as well as PFA standards for %fat and SNF favoring buffalo milk rather than cow milk production.

Though the country possesses about 57% of buffaloes, 14 % of cattle, 16 % of goat, 6 % of sheep and 1.5 % of world pig population but on production front the progress in

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yield/animal does not match with even world averages. Country has the largest livestock population, with most milk production, 6th in Meat Production and 3rd in egg and fish production, yet has high incidence of malnutrition, food insecurity, and rural poverty. India's food security situation continues to rank as "alarming"(IFPRI, 2011).

Production of Major Livestock Products

The White Revolution in the country simultaneous to Green Revolution has trebled milk production, now exceeding 127 million tons (2010-11). The egg production has increased significantly from 30.44 billion in 2000 to about 65.50 billion in 2010-11 (Table 2). The egg production has just doubled in ten years but our share in world total was only 2.13%. On meat production front, with production of 6.18 million tons meat annually, country ranks 6th in the world contributing about 2.00% to the world total meat production of about 295 million tons (FAO, 2012). India is the 6th largest producer of poultry meat (2.22 million tons) in the world, yet percentage share in world total was only 2.61%. Despite having largest livestock population, the volume of global trade in leather stands at US$ 137.96 billion (2011-12), with India contributing only US $ 4.86 billion (3.52 %) (Council for Leather Exports, India, 2010).

Economic Contributions

Value of output from livestock sector on the basis of current prices (2010-11) was Rs. 4, 61,434 crore which is about 28.40% of value of output of Rs.16,23,968 crore from total Agriculture and allied sector. Sector contributes approximately 4% to National GDP and 25% to Agricultural. The Economic contribution of meat was Rs.72, 444.22 crore. The economic contribution of milk (Rs.2, 62,215 crore) is higher than paddy, wheat and sugarcane. It not only provides high quality animal products but also utilizes non-edible agricultural by-products to convert them into quality proteins. It also provides skin as raw material base for the leather sector as well as fat, bones, bristles, blood, wool, fibers, hairs for the cottage industry.

Meat industry in India has great economic potential but received limited attention for its growth and development. Yet the value of output from meat group is Rs. Rs.72, 444.22 crore. It is envisaged to achieve 10% growth rate in meat sector during 12th Five Year Plan period. The earnings through meat and meat products export during 2010-11 were Rs. 9033.53 crore (Table 5).

Productivity

In general, productivity of our livestock is very low, in comparison to the world averages. Except buffalo, the average carcass yield from sheep, goat and pigs is lower being 12, 10, 35 kg as against the world average of 16, 12 and 79 kg, respectively (Table-6).

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Slaughter Rate

As per FAO (2011) estimates, 10.60 million cattle, 10.89 million buffaloes, 24.45 million sheep, 59.66 million goats, and 9.40 million pigs were slaughtered for meat production.

Availability is Lower than Requirements

The per capita consumption of meat in the country was about 13.70 g/day i.e. 6.0 kg annually as against the 11 kg recommended. World average is 106.85 g. In USA, it is 337g, the highest followed by 331 g in Spain, 323 g in Australia. In China, it is about 148g/caput/day. Animal protein has its special significance in daily human diet because of its high biological value and being balanced and rich in essential amino acids, B-vitamins and certain essential minerals. The livestock products provide almost one third of protein intake by the people. However, keeping in view the growing population, the animal protein availability has to increase at least three fold (Table 3) for maintaining the nutritional level of growing children and nursing mothers in India. By increasing the production, it will serve as potential remedy for widely prevalent malnutrition in children and pregnant and nursing mothers. The price of meat, chicken, and eggs has also gone very high in the domestic market. This shows that there is significant short supply of these items in the market which is due to spurt in demands owing to increased purchasing power and growing nutrition consciousness in people.

Demand Projections by 2020

Assuming that national economy would continue to grow above 7% GDP (High income growth), Dastagiri (2004) estimated that by 2020 country would require about 227.17 million tons of milk, 47.37 million tons of mutton and goat meat, 1.45 million tons of beef and buffalo meat, 1.23 million tons of chicken and 79.10 billion of eggs. Considering 1993 as base year, during 1993-2020, the demand will grow at the annual compound growth rate of 6.71% for milk, 20.01% for mutton and goat meat, 4.41% beef and buffalo meat, 6.47% for chicken, and 8.48% for eggs (Table-7). The demand for mutton and goat meat will grow much faster among livestock products followed by eggs.

Meeting the growing demand could be possible only through improving the productivity rather than number of livestock. Increasing productivity per unit time rather than their numbers is also important from environmental view point as livestock is considered as one of the important contributors of greenhouse gases (Agnihotri and Rajkumar, 2008).

Meeting the growing demand is a challenge as well as opportunity. It could be possible through improving the productivity rather than number of livestock, improving infrastructure for handling, value addition, processing, and marketing. Increasing productivity per unit time rather than their numbers is important from environmental view point also.

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Supply Chain

Production and supply of meat for local consumption is one of the most neglected and poorly organized sectors in the country. The local slaughterhouses operate as service abattoirs where butchers slaughter the animals for a fee/ wages or get some edible/inedible by-products as a part of daily remuneration.

Meat produced in municipal slaughter houses following ante and post-mortem inspection and declared fit for human consumption is transported to shops and sold “hot” for local consumption. The consumers prefer fresh carcass meat instead of chilled or frozen due to lack of confidence on cold chain maintained during transit and storage. Though the consumption of meat and meat products is on rise, hygiene, safety and quality aspects have not changed much. Except poultry (20%), less than 1% of meat produced from buffalo, small ruminants, and pigs is under organized sector.

In private sector, there are 37 modern integrated approved abattoirs-cum-meat processing plants where quality de-boned frozen meat is produced for exports adopting OIE guidelines and international quality standards. These plants follow all the sanitary and phytosanitary (SPS) measures required by the International Animal Heath Code of OIE. In addition, 40 meat processing and packaging units that receive dressed carcasses from approved municipal slaughter houses across the states are also licensed under APEDA for exports.

Exports

There is a preference for meat exported from India because of certain inherent merits such as its lean character, relative freedom from toxic feed additive residues, OIE ‘negligible risk’ classification for BSE, eradication of RP and CBPP, cheap, and near organic meat production. Currently India has been exporting meat to more than 60 countries. Buffalo meat is exported in frozen bone-less and de-glanded form and is free from FMD virus due to its ageing for minimum of 24 hrs at 20C to bring down the meat pH below 6.0. Meat is available at very competitive prices. The Indian buffalo and lamb meat has established itself in the markets’ of South-East Asia, Middle-East and African countries.

India is the 6th largest producer of meat. The top five meat producing countries are China (80.75 million tons, 27.37 %), USA (42.17 million tons, 14.29%), Brazil (23.45 million tons, 7.95%), Germany (8.22 million tons, 2.78% and India (6.18 million tons, 2.00 %). The world total buffalo meat production is about 3.32 million tons. Out of that, India contributes about 1.50 million tons. With this much production of buffalo meat, India ranks first, followed by Pakistan (0.68 million tons) and China (0.31 million tons). Country is 5th largest exporter of bovine (buffalo) meat out of the 9.45 million tons bovine meat traded internationally. The top five bovine meat exporting countries are Brazil (1.96 million tons), Australia (1.28 million tons), USA (0.60 million tons), Ireland (0.53 million tons) and India (0.48 million tons). Buffalo meat is one of the major commodities, among livestock products, exported from the country. Among the animal products exported from India, meat

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and meat products account for more than 90% of the total exports volume. Remaining 10% are dairy products and honey (Table 5).

Export Potential

The meat exported from the country is simply chilled, de-boned, packed, and frozen for exports. In real terms there is no value addition as hardly 3% of the total meat produced is processed and converted to various value added ready-to-eat/ready-to-cook products such as cured and canned products, sausages, ham, bacon, burgers, tikka, patties, kebabs, pickle, cutlets etc. The consumption pattern of meat and poultry is quite promising for the processing industry but lacks proper organization and quality assurance. Under MFPO, 1973 there were 330 licensed meat processing units in the country as on 31-12-2010. The meat processed in these units mainly comprised of cured products, sausages and canned products. Several traditional meat products like meat kebab, chicken biryani, tandoori chicken, meat curry, etc. are already quite popular. Nowadays other products like samosa, meat tikka, meat kofta, meat pickle are also in demand. Various region specific meat products like Nihari (Delhi), Goa sausage (Goa), pork pickle (HP), Gustaba and Nate Yakhni (Kashmir), Rapka (Arunachal Pradesh) are gaining wider acceptability. Western meat products like cured ham, bacon, sausages, frankfurters, hotdog, luncheon meat etc. have also registered an increase in demand in big cities. In view of the demand of Indian delicacies across the world, processing and export of processed meat products should be emphasized rather than export of live animals and fresh meat to fetch better profit and generating more employment.

Major meat production centers in the country for exports are- Aurangabad, Nanded, Mumbai and Satara in Maharashtra; Goa; Zaherabad and Medak in Andhra Pradesh; Derabassi in Punjab; Barabanki, Unnao, Aligarh, Meerut, Saharanpur, Noida and Ghaziabad. in UP; Mourigram in West Bengal and Gurgaon in Haryana. State of UP is the largest producer and exporter of buffalo meat.

Malaysia, Philippines, Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Angola, Jordan, UAE, Kuwait are major destinations for buffalo meat. Though there is no religious biasness for buffalo meat, its demand in domestic market is very limited due to limited consumer preference. Therefore, buffalo meat offers great potential for exports especially from male buffalo calves. During 2011, on carcass weight equivalence basis, around 1.15 million tons of buffalo meat was exported.

The EU is expected to import large volume of bovine meat, over the next few years, as abolition of subsidies might lead to rapid decrease in production of livestock products .The Central America and the Caribbean, Russia, Middle East, East Asia and most of the African countries are the bovine meat deficit regions. The major demand for bovine meat is expected to come from these areas and also from the EU. South America, Oceania (Australia and New Zealand) and India are emerging as the major bovine and buffalo meat surplus countries. The continuous drought has been affecting Australia’s herd building during the last few years and BSE issue limits the potential of North America. There are also serious concerns that Brazilian bovine meat supply may not be able to keep pace with sharply increased export

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projections for bovine meat. This offers a great opportunity for India, to grow its international trade volume in meat.

Rules and Regulations for Export

The abattoirs and meat plants engaged in export production are required to be registered with APEDA, which is compulsory vide DGFT notification No. 12/ (2004-2005) dated 21st December, 2004. The plants are periodically inspected by a committee consisting of officials of various Government departments.

(a) Standards have been laid down for export of meat and meat products under Export (Quality Control and Inspection) Act, 1963. The export of Raw Meat (Chilled and Frozen) shall be allowed subject to the provision specified to the Gazette Notification 1993 on Raw Meat (Chilled and Frozen) under Export (Quality Control and Inspection) Act, 1963. The notification lays down the Standards for abattoirs, meat processing plants and the products. Offal's too are subject to the same conditions of quality control and inspection.

(b) All consignments of Raw Meat (Chilled and Frozen) and export of canned meat products need to accompany with a Pre-shipment Inspection Certificate for which the Govt. has designated three agencies (i)All State Directorates of Animal Husbandry (ii) Export Inspection Agency (iii) Directorate of Marketing and Inspection/FSSAI, Government of India, to carry out the inspection in accordance with either the standards prevalent in the exporting country or standards prescribed under the Meat Food Products Order, 1973 under Export (Quality Control and Inspection) Act, 1963 or orders made there under.

(c) Export of meat and meat products will be allowed subject to the exporter furnishing a certificate to the Customs at the time of export that the above items have been obtained/sourced from an abattoir/ meat processing plant registered with APEDA.

Export Policy

Export of Meat and Meat Products from India is, inter-alia, governed by the provisions of following Acts, Rules and Orders (Source: Indian Meat Industry: Red Meat Manual, APEDA) issued by Government of India:

(a) The Export (Quality Control and Inspection) Act, 1963;

(b) The Export of Raw Meat (Chilled/Frozen) (Quality Control and Inspection) Rules, 1992;

(c) Provision contained in Government of India Order issued vide S.O. 203, dated 15-01-1993;

(d) ITC (HS) Classification of Import and Export Items;

(e) Prevention of Cruelty Act, 1960 and Rules 2001;

(f) Various mandatory Indian Standards such as IS: 1982-1971: Code of Practice for Ante-mortem and Post-mortem Inspection of Meat Animals: IS: 2537:1995: Meat and Meat Product-Beef and Buffalo Meat-Fresh, Chilled and Frozen-Technical

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Requirements; and Codex Alimentarius: Judgment Code for Slaughter Animals and Meat.

Import Regulations under EXIM Policy

The effective animal Quarantine & Certification services are necessary to ensure that international trade in animal products takes place without incurring unacceptable risk to human and animal health. The animal disease situation in the exporting country, in the transit country and importing country must be in compliance with the SPS requirements under WTO, OIE, and International Trade. Therefore, proposals for exports/imports need to be critically examined for permissions.

The import of pig fat, poultry fat, fats of bovines, ovines, caprines etc .is totally ‘prohibited’ whereas meat of bovines, their edible offal’s, tongue, liver is ‘restricted’ for imports including guts, bladders, stomachs of bovine, caprine, ovines. The import is permitted against a license from DGFT after recommendation from Department of Animal Husbandry, Dairying and Fisheries (DADF). The meat & products, edible offal’s of swine, caprine, ovine, poultry, rabbit, liver, tongue etc of swine, caprine, ovine, pig bristles, hair, yak tail comes under the ‘free’ items and import is permitted against a Sanitary Import permit from DADF, Ministry of Agriculture, GOI..

Export Regulations under EXIM Policy

The export of beef of cows, oxen and calf and offal’s (includes heart, liver, tongue, kidneys and other organs) is ‘prohibited’ and not permitted to be exported. Meat of buffalo (both male and female) and offal of buffaloes except gonads and reproductive organs is ‘free’ to export subject to the condition that exporter has to produce a certificate from the designated veterinary authority of the State, from which the meat or offal's emanate, to the effect that the meat or offal's are from buffaloes not used for breeding and milch purposes. The quality control and inspection under (a) and (b) and (c) stipulated above under Rules & Regulations for Export are required to be fulfilled. The meat and offal’s of Indian sheep and goat is ‘free’ for export subject to fulfilling the conditions (a) and (b) and (c) stipulated above. Tallow, fat and/or oils of any animal origin excluding fish oil are ‘prohibited’ for export.

Meat Food Safety Regulations and Need for Harmonization

The following regulations are in vogue in India which are to be addressed starting from transportation of animals, for setting an abattoir/processing plant, humane slaughter, quality control & hygiene, packaging & labeling, storage, sale and exports :

(i) The Food Safety and Standard Act 2006 (Food Safety and Standards Authority of India-FSSAI)

(ii) Meat Food Product Order, 1973

(iii) Water ( Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974

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(iv) Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981

(v) Prevention of Food Adulteration Act, 1954

(vi) The Prevention of Cruelty to Animal Act, 1960

(vii) Export ( Quality Control and Inspection) Act, 1963

(viii) Export (Quality Control and Inspection) Rules, 1964

(ix) Export of Raw Meat (Chilled/Frozen) Rules, 1992

(x) The Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) :FSSAI has notified the following regulations which came in force from 5th August,2011:

(1) Food Safety and Standards (Licensing and Registration of Food Business) Regulation, 2011-Specific Hygiene and Sanitary Practices to be followed by Food Business Operators engaged in manufacture, processing, storing, and selling of Meat and Meat Products are listed in it.

(2) Food Safety and Standards (Packaging and labeling) Regulation, 2011.

(3) Food Safety and Standards (Food product standards and food additives) Regulation, 2011.

(4) Food Safety and Standards (Contaminants, toxins and residues) Regulation, 2011.

(5) Food Safety and Standards (Prohibition and restriction on sale) Regulation, 2011.

(6) Food Safety and Standards (Laboratory and sampling analysis) Regulation, 2011.

The regulations at Sl. No. (5) and (6) above does not specify the meat & meat products. MFPO 1973 regulations cover these items.

(xi) Local bye laws as slaughtering is a state subject and slaughterhouses are controlled by Local Bodies.

(xii) State animal preservation acts, rules and bye laws.

(xiii) BIS standards and specifications

Except BIS specifications, rests are mandatory in nature.

There is need for their harmonization so as to meet Codex standards for exports as well as to have single window system.

The processed meat sector, formerly regulated by the Ministry of Food Processing Industries (MOFPI), is now regulated by the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) under the aegis of Ministry of Health and Family Welfare through the Food Safety and Standards Rules and Regulation 2011. These regulations were enforced nationwide with effect from August 5, 2011, repealing the Meat and Meat Products Order (MFPO), 1973. It requires registration and licensing of meat processors and other food operators in the meat value chain. It also enforces sanitary maintenance and controls at all stages of meat

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(including fish and poultry) products production. These standards equally apply to domestic and imported meat and meat products.

FSSAI is mandated with laying down science based standards for articles of food and to regulate their manufacture, storage, distribution, sale and import, to ensure availability of safe and wholesome food for human consumption and for matters connected therewith or single Act for Consolidation of Laws relating to PFA 1954, MFPO 1973 and other food laws by moving from multi-level, multi departmental to a single line of command and control.

With the introduction of National Food Safety and Standard Authority under the provision of the Food Safety and Standards Act 2006, production, packaging, transportation, supply, marketing and storage of meat and food products under strict hygienic condition has become essential to safe guard human health.

Livestock Sector Faces Many Challenges

Due to shrinkage in pasture and grazing land, dwindling feed and fodder resources, use of course grains (which are generally used as feed ingredients) for ethanol production (for bio-energy), emerging new diseases, decreasing profitability in farming, indiscriminate use of pesticides/insecticides in various crops and their presence at higher level in various crop residues and agro industrial by-products, biotic and abiotic stress due to various other factors and climatic changes, livestock sector including meat sector faces many challenges to attain the optimum growth rate and increase the livestock products production (Agnihotri, 2011).

Today livestock is alleged as major player responsible for atmosphere and climate change by way of emitting 18% of the greenhouse gases (most of that from enteric fermentation); land degradation & deforestation by overgrazing; increasing problem of freshwater shortage, scarcity, depletion and water pollution; threat to biodiversity and to a certain extent for the shortage of food grains (use of course grains as an ingredient in livestock feed). For sustainable meat production and to get safe and quality products, it is essential to improve the resource use efficiency (water, feed, energy) of livestock production and product processing. This would not only reduce the environmental impacts but also increase the profitability and availability of livestock products to fight the malnutrition and hidden hunger on sustainable basis.

Major Bottlenecks in Meat Sector

(i) Poor productivity of livestock, shortage of quality feed and fodder, wide livestock diseases prevalence and poor access to modern livestock services to counter them.

(ii) Poor hygiene and lack of proper infrastructure for transportation, processing, packaging, and storage.

(iii) Meat Food safety and traceability

(iv) Least priority given by the states due to controversies involved with the subject (meat, poultry slaughter).

(v) Inadequate cold chain and marketing support

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(vi) Lack of credit and extension support and quality human resource

(vii) Slow results from livestock development schemes. Approaches for Sustainable Production

Meat production from buffaloes in India is a by-product of dairy farming by utilizing spent animals after finishing their productive/reproductive life except in species like sheep, goat, pig, and poultry. Meat sector is not very well organized and is generally managed by uneducated people who have no knowledge of animal rights, hygiene and meat food safety aspects. The sector is growing because of market pressure alone. The schemes for the modernization of slaughterhouses and setting up of carcass utilization centre have been going on for about last four decades in one or the other forms but due to poor response from the states to avail the funds available for this activity, not much could be done. The sector involves public sentiments associated with slaughter of meat animals and that is why not much political and administrative will has been applied for the development of proper infrastructure and facilities for slaughter, meat processing, quality control, and by-products utilization to address the animal welfare and environmental concerns.

(i) Salvaging male buffalo calves for meat production and export

Buffalo population trends, over the years, reveal positive growth. Primary importance of buffalo in the country is largely for the purposes of milk and to a small extent for meat and draft purposes. It is estimated that about 8-10 million male buffalo calves are removed annually from buffalo production system due to inadequate feeding by the farmers to save milk and feed leading to parasitism, stunted growth and untimely deaths. Livestock owners do not consider raising males to be remunerative; as a result, the country suffers a loss of about Rs.750 million per annum on this account.

In a study conducted by Central Leather Research Institute (CLRI), Chennai, high incidence of mortality ranging from 42-88% in buffalo calves has been reported (Table 8). These calves could otherwise be salvaged for meat production and recovery of hides, skins, bones etc. thereby improving economic condition of farmers and fetching quality meat for exports and domestic consumption. Raising these male buffalo calves will also generate additional employment in rural areas. In most of the states only culled, old and unproductive animals are permitted to be slaughtered. It requires change in the state’s policy so that such male calves when reared for meat purposes are allowed to be slaughtered.

Thus for enlarging raw material base and improving leather availability and boost buffalo veal export, there is great potential to salvage and rear male buffalo calves. Considering their economic value, DADF, GOI has launched a scheme to assist farmers, NGOs, professionals, and corporate bodies to rear male buffalo calves for meat production.

(ii) Focus on sheep and goat slaughter and carcass weight

There is large potential for improvement in slaughter and carcass weight in small ruminants through improved feeding and management. Among livestock products, the small

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ruminants meat demand is growing faster and is projected to be 47.37 million tons (Dastagiri, 2004) by the year 2020. With current production of 0.87 million tons, even with highest small ruminants population and average annual growth rate of more than 3.4%, it is impossible to achieve the projected production unless some stringent measures to check the slaughter of immature animals (25% sheep and goats slaughtered are below 6 months age), improvement in slaughter and carcass weight (through improved feeding and management), adequate health coverage to check very high mortality (range 2.70-77.33%), feed and fodder resource development are taken. The Sirohi, Marwari, Kutchi goat breeds under extensive system could attain an average body weight of 20 kg at 12 months but under intensive system the same breed animals attained body weight of 37, 35, 33 kg, respectively at 9 months of age and 45,41,40 kg at 12 months of age. The percent increase in body weight varied from 27-115% (Agnihotri, and Rajkumar, 2001). The Muzaffarnagari lambs, which could attain about 15 kg body weight at 6 months of age and 25 kg at 12 months, under intensive system, could attain slaughter weight of 31 kg at 6.5 months of age. Therefore, by improving feeding and management alone of indigenous goat and sheep breeds, meat production can be increased many fold. A focused approach with higher investment and developing marketing and processing facilities would provide required boost to the sector.

(iii) Thrust on pork production

Off total pig population in the country, about 15% are graded and exotic variety. There are about 158 pig breeding farms in the country run by the State Governments / Union Territories. Exotic breeds like Large White Yorkshire, Hampshire and Landrace are maintained at these farms.

The demand for pork is higher in North –Eastern states and to certain extent in Punjab. About 80 % of the total pork production in the country is consumed by people of NE region. There is mismatch between the consumption and production centers. While the major demand for pork is in NE region, the production is limited to areas in UP, MP, Jharkhand, and Andhra Pradesh. The high transportation cost adds to finished product cost, making it costlier. This is happening because of lack of feed and proper rearing and processing facilities. The NE region has one of the most prolific pig breed “Ghungroo” which could give up to 17 piglets in one farrowing. This needs to be exploited by making large investments involving community participation/self help groups.

(iv) Emphasis on backyard poultry production

Although the poultry sector has been completely commercialized, backyard poultry offers scope in the rural areas for providing not only income to weaker section of the society but also for providing much needed animal protein in the form of egg and chicken.

(v) Focus on feed and fodder development

In India, the livestock continues to be raised on crop residues and agricultural by-products. The area under cultivated fodder production is limited only to 4.60% of the total cultivable

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land. The schemes and programmes relating to feed, fodder and pasture development have recently gained momentum.

Judging by the present requirement and availability of fodder, the deficit in terms of dry matter (DM) for dry fodder, green fodder and concentrates is 39, 36 and 56 percent, respectively (Table 9) which may persist and even aggravate unless adequate measures are undertaken to augment their resources. Unless feed and fodder situation in the country improves, the livestock development efforts may not give the desired results.

(vi) Need for modernization

Legally, slaughter of animals should be done only in licensed slaughterhouses. However, illegal slaughter is common. There are 2336 registered slaughterhouses and almost equal number of unregistered slaughterhouses operating in the country (Basic Animal Husbandry Statistics report 2012, DADF,GOI). Operating authorities are also responsible for giving licenses and therefore, there is laxity in adhering to operating standards.

To regulate the illegal slaughter and improve hygiene and sanitation, modernization of existing slaughterhouses is needed at a larger scale. Environmental and animal right’s issues, through modernization of slaughter, could be addressed more effectively. To provide safe and wholesome meat to the consumers, in smaller towns, cities and the rural areas and provide pollution free environment, Department of Animal Husbandry, Dairying and Fisheries is implementing Centrally Sponsored scheme on ‘Establishment /modernization of rural slaughterhouses'. The scheme aims to address those areas not specifically and fully covered by existing scheme of Ministry of Food Processing Industries (MFPI). Issue is of Public health importance with larger dimensions and the task is huge. Therefore, a multi-pronged approach is required to supplement the efforts of the States.

(vii) Improvement in Meat food safety, quality control, and hygiene

In the interest of food safety and consumer protection, increasingly stringent hygiene measures are required at national and international trade levels. The key issues in this respect which need to be addressed are Food Traceability, Good Hygienic Practices (GHP) and Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) schemes.

Extensive knowledge of hazards, other than that of microorganisms, is indispensable in modern animal products processing. Thus, along with animal products processing hygiene including causes for product spoilage and food borne illnesses, checking the entry of harmful residues in product chain is equally important. For the purpose of consumer protection and quality control, simple test methods need to be made available that can be carried out at the small enterprise level without sophisticated laboratory set-ups. To remain competitive in the world market, animal products have to be produced adopting OIE and Codex guidelines and quality standards. While the mandate of the Codex is to develop international standards, guidelines and recommendations on food safety for international trade, OIE (World Organization for Animal Health) has the mandate to develop international standards, guidelines, and recommendations on animal health including zoonoses.

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(viii) Human Resource Development needs

Though the country has achieved the self-sufficiency in food grain production, for the burgeoning human population, equitable distribution and supply of animal products at an affordable price is going to be major challenge. The demand projections for high value livestock product commodities by 2030 indicates that to meet the challenge of providing balanced and nutritious diet to a large population, the animal products viz. meat, milk, fish, eggs etc, the current production has to be increased by about three times. This is going to be a mountainous task, yet possible to achieve through renewed thrust on animal products production.

Shortage of manpower in the animal husbandry sector is a major concern. As per an estimate done by the Planning Commission, against the requirement of 67,000 veterinarians, only 34,500 are available. Similarly, against the requirement of 7,500 veterinary and animal science specialists for teaching and research, only 3,050 are available. Availability of para-vets and other supporting staff is only 52,000 against the requirement of 2, 59,000. Leaving aside the other sub-sectors, and assuming that the demand of veterinarians would grow at the same rate as GDP, 2,647 veterinarians would be required by 2019-20 for meat processing sector (Rama Rao et al., 2011).This would not only require the enhanced resource allocation for the development of livestock sector but also on human resource development to take up the challenge of delivering the livestock services at grassroots level (Agnihotri and Rana, 2012).

Some other issues to be addressed

The climate change and effect of biotic and abiotic stresses on livestock specially buffalo meat production performance needs special attention for the research.

In most of the states only culled old and unproductive buffaloes are permitted to be slaughtered. It requires change in the state’s bovine preservation policy so that male buffalo calves when reared for meat purposes are allowed to be slaughtered.

There is an urgent need for strengthening of quality testing and monitoring laboratories to carry out the testing and monitoring of animal product samples for pesticide residues, toxic metals, veterinary drug residues and mycotoxins etc. More number of food and feed testing laboratories should be accredited with the laboratories of the developed countries to facilitate the export as well as supply of safe and wholesome products to the domestic consumers.

To remain competitive in the world market, information about trade linked animal diseases, veterinary drug residues and other harmful residues in feed and products of animal origin, their maximum permissible limits set by Codex and consequences of their presence beyond permissible limits to human health, trade and industry needs to be disseminated to farmers, feed manufacturers, field veterinarians, animal product processors and the consumers by the States.

Processing of meat into value added products, establishment of cold chains, modern storage facilities and packaging of products in durable and attractive packaging

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materials are the other important areas which will require greater attention by the industry in near future to meet the growing demand of quality ready-to-eat products. Not more than 3% of the total meat produced is processed into value added meat products. Exports mainly comprise of chilled/frozen meats. The industry should seriously think of establishing backward linkages at primary livestock production level with the farmers and processing meat in to value added products to achieve real “pink” revolution.

National Meat and Poultry Processing Board may take lead to act as facilitator between meat industry and research organizations, assist in technology transfer and adoption and organize customized training programmes for the meat workers to observe proper sanitation and hygiene while handling meat in slaughterhouses, processing plants and consumer/retail outlets.

To minimize the multiplicity of food laws, there is need for harmonization of meat and meat food standards with the CODEX standards.

Table-1: Livestock and poultry resources in the country

Species Popln. in 2003 (millions)

Popln. in 2007(millions)

Av. annual growth rate

(%)

% of world population

World anking

Cattle 185.20 199.10* 1.83 14 2nd

Buffalo 97.90 105.30 1.84 57 1st

Sheep 61.50 71.60 3.87 6 3rd

Goat 124.4 140.50 3.10 16 2nd

Pigs 13.50 11.10 (-)4.74 1.50 -

Total Livestock

485.0 529.70 2.23 11.00 -

Poultry 489.0 648.0 7.33 - 5th

Table-2: Production* of Major Livestock Products

Year Milk (million tons)

Eggs (billion Nos.)

Meat (million tons)**

1999-2000 78.30 30.44 3.99 2010-2011 127.30 65.5 6.18 Rank in World 1st 3rd 6th % Growth rate in 2009-10 over 1999-2000

63.0

115.0

28.0

Extracted from Basic Animal Husbandry Statistics Report (2012),DADF.

*Anticipated ** plus poultry

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Table-3: Demand projections for high value livestock product commodities by 2030

(in million tons)

Source: Vision 2030, ICAR (2011)

Table.4 : Growth rate in meat sector during XI plan

Table-5: Export of animal products from India

Quantity in M.Ts Value in Rs. Crore Products Year

2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 Qty. Value Qty. Value Qty. Value

Buffalo meat

462749 4839.70 495019 5480.60 709437 8412.68

Sheep and goat meat

37790 493.37 52868 747.20 11908 253.18

Poultry products

1057016 422.05 1016783 372.11 619150 301.32

Animal casings

1823 8.84 2020 31.52 1809 35.14

Processed meat

857 10.14 716 9.58 1366 21.05

Swine meat 817 9.17 1117 10.34 1115 10.51 Dairy Products

70146 980.96 34380 402. 68 36867 533.89

Natural Honey

15587 148.96 13311 146.65 31675 249.58

Total 1646790 6913 1616216 7201 1413330 9817 Source: APEDA 2012

Commodities Year Expected increase 2000 2030

Meat 4.5 15 3.3 times Fish 6 16 2.67 times Eggs 17 57 3.35 times Milk 76 182 2.4 times

1 Meat 4.1%

2 Buffalo meat 8.0%

3 Milk 4.1%

4 Eggs 5.56 %

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Table 6: Meat yield from various livestock in India

S. No. Species Average carcass weight/ per animal (kg) India World

1 Cattle 103 202 2 Buffalo 138 140 3 Sheep 12 16 4 Goat 10 12 5 Pig 35 79

Table 7: Demand projections for livestock products (in million tons) in India by 2020

Livestock Product Year Growth rates (%) from 1993 to 2020 1993 2020

Milk 45.02 277.17 6.71 Mutton & Goat meat 0.78 47.37 20.01 Beef & Buffalo meat 0.49 1.45 4.41 Chicken 0.25 1.23 6.47 Egg * 9.30 79.10 8.48

* Billion numbers in case of egg.

Growth rate of total is weighted average growth rate.

1993 is considered as base year.

Table 8: Percentage of young stock to total deaths in bovines

S. No.

State Cattle Buffalo Total death (Nos.)

Calf mortality

(Nos.)

% of calf death to

total deaths

Total death (Nos.)

Calf mortality

(Nos.)

% of calf death to

total deaths

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 1. Andhra Pradesh 146 89 61 213 171 80 2. Bihar 251 88 35 168 91 54 3. Chhattisgarh 254 82 32 67 28 42 4. Jharkhand 128 38 30 25 12 48 5. Kerala 191 89 47 7 6 86 6. Madhya Pradesh 197 66 34 173 101 58 7. Maharashtra 304 84 28 149 92 62 8. Punjab 195 146 75 887 778 88 9. Rajasthan 747 234 31 143 68 48 10. Tamil Nadu 153 61 40 42 25 60 11. Uttar Pradesh 276 95 34 467 275 59 12. Uttarakhand 281 77 27 240 129 54 13. West Bengal 410 179 44 19 10 53

Total 3533 1328 38 2600 1786 69

Source: Report of All India Survey on Raw hides and Skins, CLRI, Chennai (2005).

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Note: Field study was conducted adopting standard statistical analysis methods. The mortality reported is for young stock, not sex-wise. The above annexure provides state wise data on percent of calf deaths to the total deaths in a sample population selected for the study.

Table 9: Feed and fodder demand and supply* in India

S. No. Feed Demand Availability Gap % deficit 1 Dry Fodder 416 253 163 39 2 Green Fodder 222 143 79 36 3 Concentrate 53 23 30 56

*Dry Matter in million tons

Extracted from NABCONS report (2009).

(References can be collected from authors) 

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Abstracts

SESSION I

SUSTAINABLE MEAT ANIMAL PRODUCTION

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1.01 Value chain approach for augmenting quantity and quality of sheep meat production: A success story

GIRISH P. S., P. BASWA REDDY, C. RAMAKRISHNA, B. M. NAVEENA, Y. RAMANA REDDY, M. VENKATESHWARULU, G. VENUGOPAL AND N. KONDAIAH

National Research Centre on Meat, Chengicherla, Hyderabad

Problems faced by meat industry are multifarious: lack of quality meat animals, non availability of nutritional resources to rear meat animals, premature harvesting of meat animals, lack of infrastructure (abattoirs) for harvesting of meat animals, low level of value addition to meat and lack of knowhow on scientific meat production among the stakeholders. To tackle the above issues, NRCM implemented a World Bank funded National Agricultural Innovation Project, Component II (Production to Consumption) project entitled ‘A Value Chain for Clean Meat Production from Sheep’. Project was implemented on consortia mode with SVVU, Tirupati as consortia partner – Mandava Foundation (NGO), Venkatachalam, Department of Animal Husbandry, Nellore and Alkabeer Exports Pvt Ltd, Medak as Associate partners. Under the project to produce crop residue based complete feed for rearing ram lambs two Rural Feed Processing Units were established in Nellore and Mahabubnagar districts of Andhra Pradesh. About 5000 weaner ram lambs were reared to higher slaughter weights by nutritional intervention (intensive and semi intensive method) besides creating awareness among the traditional sheep farmers on scientific feeding and management. Work covered 86 villages in 22 mandals spread over five districts of Andhra Pradesh. Critical analysis of on-farm study results revealed that Average Daily Gain of ram lambs reared under extensive, semi-intensive (grazing with concentrate feeding @ 1% body weight) and intensive systems (complete feeding @ 4 % of body weight) of rearing were about 80 g, 100 g and 125 g respectively. To promote clean meat production, one model slaughter house was established at College of Veterinary Science, Tirupati campus. Array of value added products were developed from meat and byproducts of sheep. 18 awareness workshops/ training programmes were organized covering various areas that include scientific sheep rearing practices, hygienic slaughtering, scientific packaging and establishment of abattoirs for the benefit of traditional sheep farmers, butchers and municipal officials from different parts of Andhra Pradesh state. More than one thousand stakeholders were benefited under the programs. Several entrepreneurs were provided technical information for establishing sheep farms and slaughterhouses. Study successfully implemented Production to Consumption based ‘Value chain approach’ to bring about change in the meat sector. Several such efforts are required to promote Indian meat industry.

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1.02 Effect of feeding organic iron and zinc to develop iron and zinc enriched meat of Japanese quails as functional food

PRAKASH SANNAMANI, JAYANAIK, D. T. PAL1, K. VENKATA REDDY, H. N. N MURTHY AND C. RENUKAPRASAD

Department of Poultry Science, Veterinary College Hebbal, Bangalore 1National Institute of Animal Nutrition and Physiology, Audugodi, Bangalore

A study was carried out to develop iron and zinc enriched meat as functional food by

supplementing organic Fe and Zn to Japanese quails. A total of 600 day old quail chicks were allotted to five treatment groups (T1 to T5) of 120 chicks each with four replicates consisting of 30 birds per replicate. Control diet (T1) was formulated by incorporating inorganic iron (120 mg/kg) and zinc (25 mg/kg) according to NRC (1994) specifications. For each of the treatments, inorganic Fe and Zn of the control diet were replaced by organic Fe (Fe-methionine) and Zn (Zn- methionine) at recommended level (T2), two (T3), three (T4) and four times (T5) of NRC (1994) recommendations. The results at the end of 6th week showed that carcass characteristics, organ weights and sensory evaluation revealed no significant difference among dietary treatments. The Fe content was significantly (P≤0.05) higher in T3 (240 mg/kg Fe-methionine) for breast, thigh, liver and heart and in T4 (360 mg/kg Fe) group for gizzard and minced meat when compared to control group having inorganic Fe (120 mg/kg). The Zn content was significantly higher in T5 for breast and in T4 for thigh similarly for liver and heart. In minced meat the Fe and Zn contents were significantly higher in birds fed with diet consisting 240 mg of Fe/kg diet and 75 mg of Zn/kg diet organic Zn in comparison to all other dietary groups. The study revealed that increasing levels of iron and zinc up to 240 and 75 mg/kg, respectively, in organic form have beneficial effect on iron and zinc enrichment of meat in Japanese quails without affecting the carcass characteristics and sensory attributes.

1.03 Effect of supplementation on growth, nutrient availability, carcass traits and meat quality in Barbari kids reared under semi-intensive and intensive systems

T. K. DUTTA1, ARUN K. DAS, P. TRIPATHI AND R. K. DULAR Central Institute for Research on Goats, Makhdoom, Farah, UP

1NDRI, Eastern Regional Station, Kalyani, West Bengal.

Eighteen post-weaned male Barbari kids ((10.68±1.63 kg BW) were divided into three equal groups to study the effect of supplementation of concentrate mixture under semi-intensive and intensive system of management. The kids under T1 and T2 were allowed 5-6 hours of grazing daily. The kids under T1 (control) were supplemented with barley grain only @2% of body weight mixed with common salt and kids under T2 were supplemented with above concentrate mixture (CP-18.87%, TDN-70.33%) @ 2% of body weight. The kids (under T3), reared under intensive system, were fed with same concentrate mixture @ 2% of body weight with gram straw (Cicer arietinum) and green fodder ad libitum. Five kids from

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each group were slaughtered at 10 months of age. Average daily gain (ADG) was statistically similar among three treatment diets; although there was improvement of daily weight gain by 16.25 and 11.59 percentages in concentrate mixture supplemented T2 and T3 diets. TDN intake was significantly higher (P<0.05) in T2 and T3 than T1. The TDN intake (g)/kg W0.75 ranged from 35.17 (T1) to 48.94 (T3). However, highest (P<0.05) DCP intake/kg W0.75 was recorded in kids supplemented with concentrate mixture under semi-intensive system (T2). Though there was no significant difference among the diets, supplementary feeding improved the slaughter weight by 1-1.5 kg. Hot carcass weight was marginally higher in T2 (10.34 kg) and T3 (10.48 kg) than T1 (9.24 kg). Similarly improved dressing percentage was obtained in T2 (49.12%) than T1 (46.10%). The kids supplemented with concentrate mixture showed significantly (P<0.05) higher forequarter percentage (27.93% in T2, 27.18% in T3) than the control (25.61%). Kids under T2 had significantly (P<0.05) higher separated lean (71.65%) than T3 (66.38%) but T3 deposited more fat in the muscles. However, no differences were observed in the chemical composition of Longissimus dorsi muscle among various dietary treatment groups. It may be concluded that supplementation of concentrate mixture (@ 2% of body weight) may be used for improving nutrient utilization, growth potential and meat productivity in finisher kids under semi-intensive and intensive systems of management.

1.04 Transgenic animals: A paradigm for scaling-up ‘meat quality’ NANDANI SALARIA1, MEGHA AGARWAL2, HEENA SHARMA3 AND MEENA

GOSWAMI4 1Division of Extension Education; 2Division of Animal Biotechnology; 3Division of LPT

Indian veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Bareilly 4Division of LPT, DAVASU, Mathura

Augmentation in agronomic traits in all livestock species has been acquired during the past numerous decades via reproductive technologies like transgenesis. A transgenic animal is one into which a new gene has been introduced or in which an existing gene has been modified by human intervention. Transgenesis involves genetic modifications that are aimed at improving the efficiency of food (meat or milk) production. Many experiments have been made in which gene transfer technologies have aided efforts to improve growth rate of major farm animals - pigs, sheep, cows, goat - in a hope to increase meat production and to lower its costs. Animal production traits can be modified by the addition of transgenes to act on the food product itself or to modify existing pathways in the animal to enhance the safety and/or value and healthfulness of the animal food product. Transgenic technology application aims at the improvement of meat production by introducing several hormones like insulin-like growth factor 1, human and porcine growth hormone releasing factor, bovine, human and porcine growth hormone in pigs, human growth hormone releasing factor and ovine growth hormone in sheep. Mammals depend on dietary source for essential fatty acids as they lack the enzyme for their synthesis but transgenic pigs have been proved to be the direct source of beneficial n-3 PUFA and can produce meat with improved nutritional quality. The transgenic

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approach can also be used to enhance food safety and quality pre-harvest as well. Nutraceuticals—compounds that provide a medical assistance to humans—also could be created in the meat of livestock via transgenesis.

1.05 Designer food: Omega -3- enriched chicken meat S. EZHIL VALAVAN, B. MOHAN, P. SELVARAJ, S. C. EDWIN, K. MANI AND

A. BHARATHIDHASAN Directorate of Distance Education, TANUVAS, Chennai

A broiler biological experiment was conducted to study the effect of various n-3 lipid sources (at one, two and three per cent levels) in broiler ration at Veterinary College and Research Institute, Namakkal, Tamil Nadu. Fish, linseed and rapeseed oils used as n-3 lipid sources to enrich n-3 fatty acids in chicken meat. The supplementation of n-3 lipid sources in broiler ration had significant (P<0.01) increase on n-3 fatty acids composition such as linolenic acid, EPA, DHA, total n-3 fatty acids, total n-6 fatty acids and total n-3 / n-6 fatty acids ratio of broiler meat and a significant reduction (p<0.01) in palmitic and stearic acids concentration. The total unsaturated fatty acids concentration in breast and thigh meat of broilers showed an increase in all the treated groups due to incorporation of various n-3 lipid sources in feed. The inclusion of n-3 lipid sources in broiler ration had no adverse effect on organoleptic assessment such as appearance, juiciness, flavour, tenderness and overall acceptability scores.

1.06 Evaluation of four crossbreds chicken for different carcass quality traits and effect of age on carcass quality

M. K. PADHI, R. N. CHATTERJEE, M. NIRANJAN, S. HAUNSHI, U. RAJKUMAR, K. S. RAJARAVINDRA AND S. K. BHANNJA

Project Directorate on Poultry, Hyderabad

Backyard poultry farming in rural areas are being practised due to its many advantages. Improved birds are being developed by breeders for better returns from backyard farming. Carcass quality of the male bird is an important characteristic of backyard poultry. Present study was undertaken to evaluate male birds of four different crossbreds chicken (PD1 X PD4, PD1 X PB2, PD1 X PD3, PD1 X IWI) for different carcass quality parameters at 10 and 18 weeks of age. At 10 and 18 weeks of age 8 and 6 birds each from each genetic group, respectively, were sacrificed to measure different carcass quality traits. Effects of age on each genetic group in respect to different carcass quality traits were also studied. At 10 weeks of age statistical significance between different genetic groups were observed for body weight, feather, head, shank, eviscerated yield, liver, gizzard, abdominal fat and giblet %. Significantly higher eviscerated yield % was obtained in PD1 X PD4 and PD1 X PB2 compared to other crossbreds. Abdominal fat % was lowest in PD1 X IWI. At 18 weeks of

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age body weight differ significantly between genetic groups. Head, shank, eviscerated and liver % differ significantly between different genetic groups. Highest eviscerated % was obtained in PD1 X PB2 with lowest abdominal fat. In PD1 X PD4 there was significant reduction of shank, gizzard and giblet % at 18 weeks of age compared to 10 weeks. Age effect was significant for eviscerated yield, liver, gizzard, abdominal fat, and spleen for PD1 X PB2. In PD1 X PD3 head, shank, liver, gizzard and giblet % reduced significantly at 18 weeks of age. Similar trend was observed for PD1 X IWI. Numerically there was improvement in eviscerated yield % at 18 weeks of age in all the genetic groups. Cut up parts percentage expressed as % of eviscerated weight showed significant difference between genetic groups for leg % at 10 weeks of age. Other traits did not differ significantly between genetic groups irrespective of age. Age showed significant effect for back and leg % in PD1 X PD4 and PD1 X PB2, whereas PD1 X PD3 and PD1 X IWI showed significant effect of age for neck and leg % and back and neck %, respectively. The results indicated that genetic groups and age significantly affect different carcass qualities and PD1 X PB2 male recorded better eviscerated yield compared to other genetic groups. Leg cut % increases with increase of age.

1.07 Study of the primal cut-up-yields of White Giant, local and crossbred rabbits K. DAS, S. K. ROY AND S. K. VERMA

College of Veterinary Sci. & A.H., Anjora, Durg, Chhattisgarh

A study on the primal cut-up-yields of three breeds of rabbits maintained in cage system of rearing was undertaken at 12 weeks of age. Ten animals of each group irrespective of sex were slaughtered after perfect stunning and decapitation. The primal cut-up-yields of the rabbits were expressed in percentage of chilled carcass weight. Study of the primal cuts of different breeds revealed highest proportion of hind-legs followed by loin and breast and ribs almost in all the breeds. The cuts of fore-legs and flank came next in the decreasing order of edible splits. The average hind-leg percent were 26.90, 29.00 and 28.27 for White Giant, local and crossbreds. The loin percent in White Giant, local and crossbreds were 24.90, 23.15 and 24.80. The breast and ribs were 19.75, 17.08 and 18.29 percent in White Giant, local and crossbreds. The fore-leg percent were 16.55, 17.40 and 16.57 in White Giant, local and crossbreds respectively. The flank percent in White Giant, local and crossbreds were 7.25, 6.17 and 6.12.

1.08 Effect of pre-probiotics on growth rate, digestive enzymes activity, total protein and antibody titre of Labeo rohita

CHANDRAMOHAN .B, RAGHUNATHA REDDY .R , PALLA IMRAN .B, REEM RASHEED, PREJIT .N, VINOD .V.K

Department of VPH, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Pookode, Wayanad, Kerala

Aquaculture is an industry that encompasses the cultivation of aquatic organisms and plants in controlled systems for commercial, ornamental or resource management purposes

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and provides food and medicine for human population. The use of probiotics in the culture of aquatic organisms is increasing with the demand for more environment friendly aquaculture practices. Apart from the probiotics, microbial derived compounds (pre-biotics) such as β-glucans, lipopolysaccharide and peptidoglycan, are used as immuno-stimulants and for cellular function as well. There is paucity of reports in the effect of synbiotics (pre and probiotics) supplemented diet in the teleost (Labeo rohita) health and productivity. Hence, we concentrated to evaluate the effect of synbiotic supplemented feed on growth rate, digestive enzymes activity, total protein and total antibody titre of Labeo rohita. The growth rate in the experimental group fed with synbiotic supplemented diet was significantly (0.92±0.12) higher than the control group fed with commercial fish feed (0.27±0.03). The significant change was observed in the digestive enzymes of lipase (0.0016±0.00), amylase (0.40±0.02) and cellulose (0.76±0.03) activity in the experimental group than the control group fishes (lipase (0.001), amylase (0.19±0.02) and cellulose (0.39±0.03)). The total protein level of experimental group fishes (0.39±0.03) significantly higher than the total protein in the control group fishes (0.29±0.01) and the total serum antibody level have been raised after 35 days of treatment by the synbiotic supplement. Thus the observed health parameters indicated the better performance of synbiotics displayed by improved productivity of Labeo rohita.

1.09 Carcass traits and meat quality of Malpura lambs supplemented with microbial feed additive

GADEKAR Y P., A. SAHOO, N. M. SOREN, A. K. SHINDE, AND S. A. KARIM Central Sheep and Wool Research Institute, Avikanagar, Rajasthan

The trial was carried out on sixteen randomly selected Malpura lambs; which were divided into four groups, penned and fed individually, and were drenched with different doses of probiotic (S. cerevisae culture 3.6×109 cells/ml) at 0.0 (control); 0.5 (T1); 1.0 (T2) and 1.5 ml (T3) per kg body weight. The lambs were fed ad libitum concentrate mixture along with Pala (Zizyphus nummularia) leaves as roughage source. At six months of age, the lambs were slaughtered to evaluate carcass attributes. Average pre-slaughter weight was 21.9±2.53, 19.7±1.04, 25.2±1.46 and 24.2±3.54 kg for control, T1, T2 and T3 respectively. There was no significant effect of probiotic supplementation on pre-slaughter weights of lambs. The dressing percentage on ELW was comparable among the groups. The Loin eye area, yields of edible and inedible offals were comparable between the treatments. No significant effect was observed on the proportion of different commercial cuts due to probiotic supplementation. Yield of lean meat and fat content was comparable among the groups. Similarly, dissected bone percentage, meat: bone ratio and lean: fat ratio was comparable amongst different treatment groups. No significant difference was observed in the cooking losses, water holding capacity and shear force values between the groups. The present study suggested that supplementation of Saccharomyces cerevisae culture to Malpura lambs did not have any beneficial effect on carcass traits and meat quality.

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1.10 Effect of freeze thaw cycle on myofibrillar proteins and histology of chevon A. F. KATEKHAYE, R. K. AMBADKAR, K. S. RATHOD, RITUPARNA BANERJEE,

ANJANA MANJHI, P. G. KOKARE AND P. M. BOKDE Department of LPT, Veterinary College, Nagpur

The muscles comprising of Semitendinosus, Semimembranosus and Biceps femoris from chevon carcass were collected aseptically, packaged in LDPE bags and transferred to deep freezer (-18±2°C). The frozen chevon samples were thawed at every 5 days by three different thawing methods viz., Refrigeration temperature (4±1°C), Hot water (40±1°C) and Room temperature (35±2°C). At every freeze thaw cycle, samples were analyzed for histological alterations and isolation of myofibrillar proteins by SDS-PAGE. Myofibrillar protein extraction and gel electrophoresis study revealed that freeze thaw cycle abuse affected myofibrillar proteins. The study confirmed increased deteriorative changes in major myofibrillar proteins viz. myosin, actin, tropomyosin, troponin, α-actinin etc. The degradation products (low molecular weight polypeptide bands) were observed to increase with the increase in freeze thaw cycles. Also, the protein bearing molecular weight 66 kDa representing tropomyosin was found degraded in all freeze thaw cycle. In addition, hot water and room temperature thawing revealed low intensity band in 3rd freeze thaw cycle. Appreciable changes were found in histological architecture in first freeze thaw cycle as evident from increased interfascicular spaces and distortion in muscle fiber irrespective of methods of thawing. After the second and third freeze thaw cycle, the muscle fiber was torn and showed disordered arrangement and spacing between muscle fiber increased with graded distortion.

1.11 Effect of dietary supplementation of Fe-methionine chelate and Zn-methionine chelate on the mineral content of Japanese quail meat

PRAKASH SANNAMANI, JAYANAIK, D. T. PAL1, K. VENKATA REDDY, H. N. N MURTHY AND C. RENUKAPRASAD

Department of Poultry Science, Veterinary College Hebbal, Bangalore 1National Institute of Animal Nutrition and Physiology, Audugodi, Bangalore

Micronutrient specially minerals play a vital role in livestock and human health. The present study was conducted to evaluate the effects of supplementing different levels of Fe (Fe-methionine chelate) and Zn (Zn-methionine chelate) on mineral content of the Japanese quail meat. A total of 600 day-old quail chicks were allotted to five treatment groups (T1 to T5) of 120 chicks each with four replicates consisting of 30 birds per replicate. Birds were housed in battery cages under standard managemental conditions and fed ad libitum for a period of six weeks. Control diet (T1) was formulated by incorporating inorganic iron (120 mg/kg) and zinc (25 mg/kg) as per NRC (1994) specifications. The inorganic Fe (FeSO4) and Zn (ZnSO4) of the control diet were replaced by Fe-methionine chelate and Zn-methionine chelate at recommended level (T2), two (T3), three (T4) and four times (T5) of NRC (1994) specifications. The mineral analyses of minced meat showed that calcium, magnesium and

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iron (µg/g) content were significantly (P≤0.05) higher in the meat of T3 (240 and 50 mg/kg Fe and Zn, respectively), copper, manganese and zinc (µg/g) in T4 (360 and 75 mg/kg Fe and Zn, respectively) and cobalt (µg/g) in T4 and T5 (480 and 100 mg/kg Fe and Zn, respectively) groups consisting higher level of Fe (Fe-methionine) and Zn (Zn- methionine) in comparison to other dietary groups. The study revealed that supplementation of increasing levels of iron and zinc up to 360 and 75 mg/kg, respectively, from organic (Fe-methionine chelate and Zn-methionine chelate) sources have beneficial effect on the mineral content (Ca, Mg, Co, Cu and Mn) of Japanese quail meat and thus could be used to improve the micronutrient status in human health.

1.12 Carcass Characteristics of Krishibro birds NAGA RAJA KUMARI K AND NAGA MALLIKA E

NTR College of Veterinary Science, Gannavaram, Andhra Pradesh

Krishibro is a broiler variety developed for backyard rearing; it attains a body weight of 1.3-1.5 kg at the end of 6 weeks of age. A study was undertaken to assess the carcass characteristics of Krishibro birds reared in the Department of Poultry Science. A total of 20 birds were slaughtered in model slaughter house of Department of Livestock Products Technology. The mean slaughter weight (1.254kg), Heart carcass weight (1.156kg) and dressing per cent (67%) were significantly (P<0.05) lower than commercial broiler. The mean bleeding percentage (3.8%) was significantly (P<0.05) lower when compared to the control group. The mean total per cent yield of edible offal (Based on slaughter weight) was 7.2%. The mean per cent yield of saleable meat with bone was 54.78%. The per cent losses were 37.90 %. From the above study it can be concluded that Krishibro can best be utilised for meat production at farmers backyard.

1.13 A study on effect of pre slaughter weight on carcass composition of kanni goat P. SIVAKUMAR , ROBINSON J. J. ABRAHAM AND V. V. KULKARNI Department of Meat Science and Technology, VCRI, Namakkal, Tamil Nadu

A study on the Effect of pre slaughter weight on carcass composition of intact Kanni male goat were carried out at Department of Meat Science and Technology, Veterinary College and Research Institute, Namakkal. A total 12 goats were divided into two weight groups. Group I consisting of six goats with the pre slaughter live weight ranging from 12 to 15 kg and Group II having a weight above 15 kg and up to 18 kg. All the experimental animals were slaughtered by Halal method. A day before slaughter, the animal were starved for 12 to 16 hours with free access to water only. The head was removed at the atlanto-occipital junction and flaying was done by case on method. The bleeding, dressing and evisceration were done by using the standard procedure. The mean percent of separable lean meat weight of Group I was 27.83±0.92 and the Group II was 30.65±1.01 and found that it did not differ significantly. However the mean separable bone weight of Group I

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(12.73±0.42) and GroupII(13.89±0.29)differ significantly(p<0.05).The present study shows that pre slaughter weight had more effect on separable bone weight than separable lean meat.

1.14 A study on effect of pre slaughter weight on physico-chemical properties of Kanni goat meat

P. SIVAKUMAR, S. SURESHKUMAR, ROBINSON J. J. ABRAHAM AND V. V. KULKARNI Department of Meat Science and Technology, VCRI, Namakkal, Tamil Nadu

A study on effect of pre slaughter weight on physico-chemical properties of intact Kanni male goat meat were carried out at Department of Meat Science and Technology, Veterinary College and Research Institute, Namakkal. A total 12 goats were divided into two weight groups. Group I consisting of six goats with the live weight ranging from 12 to 15 kg and Group II having a weight above 15 kg and up to 18 kg. The animals were slaughtered by Halal method. The bleeding, dressing and evisceration were done by using the standard procedure. Longissimus dorsi muscle were separated from carcass and used to study the physico-chemical properties. The pH, water holding capacity (cm2), muscle fiber diameter (µm), sarcomere length (µm) of Group I (6.64 ± 0.09, 1.59 ± 0.12, 35.91 ± 1.84 and 1.61 ± 0.09) and Group II (6.48 ± 0.11, 1.65 ± 0.02, 36.81 ± 2.48 and 1.56 ± 0.06) was recorded in this study and it was statistically not significant. However, the shear force (kg/cm2) value of Group II (4.14 ± 0.05) was significantly (P<0.05) higher than Group I (3.75 ± 0.06) indicating comparative toughness of meat as the live weight of the animal is increased.

1.15 A study on effect of pre slaughter weight on proximate composition of Kanni goat meat

P. SIVAKUMAR, ROBINSON J. J. ABRAHAM AND V. V. KULKARNI Department of Meat Science and Technology, VCRI, Namakkal, Tamil Nadu

A study on effect of pre slaughter weight on proximate compositions of intact Kanni male goat meat were carried out at Department of Meat Science and Technology, Veterinary College and Research Institute, Namakkal. A total 12 goats were divided into two weight groups. Group I consisting of six goats with the live weight ranging from 12 to 15 kg and Group II having a weight above 15 kg and up to 18 kg. The animals were slaughtered by Halal method. The bleeding, dressing and evisceration were done by using the standard procedure. Longissimus dorsi muscle were separated from carcass and used to study the proximate composition of kanni goat meat. The proximate analysis viz., mean moisture content(%), crude protein(%), crude fat (%)and total ash (%)of Group I (76.39 ± 0.15, 19.56 ± 0.09, 2.30 ± 0.06 and 1.20 ± 0.01) and Group II (75.86 ± 0.20, 19.68 ± 0.17, 2.39 ± 0.11 and 1.27 ± 0.04) was recorded in this study and found no significant differences between the two Groups. This present study revealed that pre slaughter weight had no effect on the proximate composition of the meat.

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1.16 Poultry meat production: an overview S. EZHIL VALAVAN, D. THYAGARAJAN, T. SENTHIL KUMAR,

N. VENGADABADY, A. BHARATHIDHASAN, N. K. SUDEEP KUMAR AND A. SHYAM BABU

Veterinary College, TANUVAS, Chennai

The world’s production of poultry meat is approaching100 million metric tons for the first time in history. According to the FAO, the world meat production will grow at an average rate of 1.8 per cent per year until 2020 and the world’s chicken meat production will be 122.5 million metric tons by the year 2020. On the world stage chicken production represents about 87 per cent compared with 6 per cent for turkey meat, 4 per cent for duck meat and less than 3 per cent for the combined category of geese with guinea fowl. The world average consumption of poultry meat was 12.5 kg per person in 2011. This compares with 13.5 kg for pork, 8 kg for beef and veal combined and 1.6 kg for sheep meat. The duck meat production keeps on increasing. Asia is the main region for producing duck meat, having a market share of 84 per cent. The number of ducks produced for meat globally was 800 million in 1990, rising to 2 billion in 2000 and nearly 2.7 billion in 2010, compared with current totals of 660 million for turkeys and 625 million for geese and guinea fowl. India is the fifth largest producer of poultry meat in the world. Poultry meat production has increased from 0.069 million tonnes in 1961 to 2.33 million tonnes in 2010-11. The per capita availability of poultry meat is 2.15 kg as against the recommendation of the National Institute of Nutrition at 11 kg of meat per annum.

1.17 Carcass characteristics and meat quality of sheep fed with different levels of Zinc in the diet

P. BASWA REDDY, D. B. V. RAMANA1, B. M. NAVEENA AND A. R. SEN National Research Centre on Meat, 1CRIDA, Hyderabad

To study the effect of feeding different levels of Zinc in the diets of sheep on growth, carcass characteristics and meat quality, twenty four weaned Deccani sheep weighing around 13-14 kg have been divided into four groups of six each. The animals were fed within the stalls with adlib chopped maize straw along with concentrate mixture @ 1% of body weight. The Zinc content of the concentrate mixture varied for different groups. Group 1 was used as negative control without mineral mixture and Group 2 was used as positive control with addition of mineral mixture at 2% level in the concentrate mixture. In group 3 and 4 additional zinc content was added in the form of ZnSo4.7H2 @ 70g and 140g per 100kg respectively. Overall, the Zn contents in the total feed consumed by the animals in Group1,2,3 and 4 were 17.7,69.2,122.7 and 174.7ppm respectively. At the end of 120 days growth trial, representative animals from each group were slaughtered and the carcass characteristics and meat quality parameters were evaluated. Though the results have indicated slight increase in ADG & meat:bone ratio and decrease in drip loss & thaw loss with increase in Zn concentration in the diets, the changes were not significant. Shear force value

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decreased (p<0.05)as the Zn level in the diet increased indicating that tenderness of meat is influenced by Zn consumption by the animal. Sarcoplasmic protein (p=0.073) and Total soluble protein (p=0.055) in the meat decreased slightly over a period of 3 days under refrigerated storage in polythene bags. The results indicate that Zn content in the diets of sheep has influence on the meat quality parameters and these findings need to be validated with bigger sample size.

1.18 Effect of different levels of Selenium in sheep diets on carcass characteristics and meat quality

P. BASWA REDDY, D. B. V. RAMANA1, SUSHMA2, B. M. NAVEENA AND A. R. SEN National Research Centre on Meat, 1CRIDA, 2 College of Veterinary Science, Hyderabad

A growth cum slaughter study was conducted in ram lambs to evaluate the effect of different levels of inorganic selenium in the diets on the growth, immunity, carcass characteristics and meat quality. Twenty four weaned native ram lambs of 14-15 kg initial weight have been divided into four groups of six each. They were offered adlib roughage in the form of chopped green fodder and maize straw along with concentrate feed @ 1% of body weight for 120 days. Selenium content of the concentrate mixture differed for different groups. Sodium selenite (Na2SeO3) was added @ 0, 0.1,0.2 and 0.4 g/100kg in the concentrate mixture for group1,2,3 and 4 respectively. The body weights of animals were recorded at fortnightly intervals. At the end of the growth study, the animals were slaughtered to study the carcass characteristics and meat quality parameters. There was slight improvement in the ADG in selenium supplemented animals though the gains were statistically not significant. Dressing percentage was not influenced by the selenium supplementation. The fat percentage of the carcass was slightly higher (p>0.05) in the control group compared to the selenium supplemented groups (9.21, 7.86,8.97 and 8.40% in group 1,2,3 and 4 respectively) The immunity levels in terms of humoral response as well as skin fold thickness were significantly affected by the supplementation of selenium in the diet. The results indicate that immunity and carcass composition are influenced by supplementation of Selenium in the diets of ram lambs and these findings need to be further evaluated in larger flocks.

1.19 Increasing the meat productivity of ram lambs through intensive feeding with crop residues based complete feeds

P. BASWA REDDY, S. GIRISH PATIL AND C. RAMAKRISHNA National research Centre on Meat, Hyderabad

Slaughtering of meat animals before attaining slaughter weight is one of the main reasons for decreased productivity of these animals. A field trial was conducted with Nellore Jodpi ram lambs in the farmers fields in their native tract to study the impact of stall feeding with crop residues based complete feeds on their growth performance and meat yield. A total

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of 436 ram lambs belonging to 11 farmers in 7 villages in Nellore district of Andhra Pradesh were included in the study. Animals were divided randomly into two groups. Animals in control group were reared under the traditional system of extensive grazing and the animals under intensive rearing were stall fed with complete feeds. Locally available crop residues like maize straw and groundnut haulms were used as roughage components in the complete feeds. Animals were offered complete feeds @ 3.5-4% of body weight for 120 days. Body weights of animals in both the groups were monitored at fortnightly intervals. Representative animals from each group were slaughtered at the end of the growth trial. Average Daily Gain (ADG) in stall fed animals was significantly (p<0.05) higher (117g) than the ones under extensive grazing (80g). The dressing percentage increased slightly under intensive feeding (48% vs 50%). Meat yield per animal was higher by 2.9 kg under intensively reared animals when compared to those reared under extensive grazing system. The results indicate that the productivity of ram lambs can be increased significantly under stall feeding with completed feeds and this has the potential to increase the mutton production in the region by 25% with the existing germ plasm and without increasing the number of animals.

1.20 Effect of pre-slaughter weight on carcass characterstics and sensory qualities of Kanni goat meat

P. SIVAKUMAR1, V. CHANDRASEKARAN, ROBINSON J. J. ABRAHAM AND V. V. KULKARNI

Department of Meat Science and Technology, VCRI, Namakkal, Tamil Nadu

Twelve numbers of intact Kanni male goats were purchased from the native tract Sattur, Virudhunagar District of South Tamilnadu and they were brought to the Department of Meat Science and Technology. The experimented animals were divided into two weight groups basis on their pre-slaughter weight. The Group-I consisting of six goats with the pre slaughter weight ranging from 12 to 15 kg and Group-II having a pre slaughter weight above 15 kg and up to 18 kg. The mean carcass length, gigot width, carcass compactness of Group-II was significantly (P<0.05) higher than Group-I. But there was no significant difference in the gigot conformation of Group-I and Group-II. The per cent yield of edible offal’s viz. Blood, lungs and trachea, heart, spleen, kidney, pluck, caul fat, kidney fat and mesenteric fat of Group-I and Group-II did not show any significant difference. There was no significant difference (p>0.05) in primal cuts viz., neck & shoulder, Breast & fore shank, Rack, Loin, Leg of Group-I & Group-II. No significant difference was found between the two groups with regard to the organoleptic evaluation scores viz. color, appearance, flavor, juiciness and overall acceptability. However, the tenderness scores showed significant (P<0.05) differences between the two weight groups. This present study revealed that the carcass length, carcass compactness, gigot width of Kanni goat proportionately increased with the pre slaughter weight increased from 12 to 18 kg. Hence slaughtering Kanni goats between 15 to 18 kg live body weight will be more economical than lesser body weight groups.

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1.21 Proximate composition of meat of Coimbatore lambs

P. DEVENDRAN1, V. CHANDIRASEKARAN2 AND S. PANNEERSELVAM2

1Veterinary College, Chennai 2VCRI, Namakkal, Tamil Nadu

Coimbatore sheep are raised mostly as migratory flocks (95.5 %) and are distributed in Erode, Coimbatore and Dindigul districts of Tamil Nadu and Palakad and Thrissur districts of Kerala. Though the sheep is classified under wool-type, due to low price for wool and drudgery of shearing of wool, the animals are reared mainly for meat and raised solely on grazing. Coimbatore lambs of six and nine months (n=19) age were procured from the breeding tract and slaughtered by Halal method as per standard procedures in VCRI, Namakkal and the proximate composition of the meat samples collected from loin-eye muscle (Longissimus dorsi) was analysed as per the AOAC (1995) at the Animal Feed Analytical and Quality Control Laboratory, VCRI, Namakkal. The mean pre-slaughter live weight was 12.55 ± 0.56 and 16.75 ± 0.58 kg respectively for six and nine month lambs. The mean dressing per cent in six-month and nine-month lambs were 44.38 ± 0.73 and 43.59 ± 0.62 respectively. The traits did not differ significantly (P>0.05) between ages and sexes. The proximate composition analyses revealed that mean moisture, crude protein, ether extract and total ash contents of meat of six months lambs were 78.36 ± 0.25, 19.37 ± 0.24, 0.52 ± 0.05 and 0.98 ± 0.02 per cent respectively. The respective values at nine months were 77.86 ± 0.50, 19.39 ± 0.34, 0.66 ± 0.13 and 0.97 ± 0.04 per cent respectively. Further it was found that the differences between the ages (six and nine months) and sexes for the proximate composition of meat were not found significant (P>0.05). The meat of Coimbatore sheep was leaner than that in other sheep, as indicated by low ether extract.

1.22 Slaughter studies in Mecheri sheep V. CHANDIRASEKARAN, S. SURESHKUMAR, A. KALAIKANNAN, D. SANTHI,

P. SIVAKUMAR AND R. NARENDRA BABU

Veterinary College & Research Institute (VCRI), TANUVS, Namakkal, Tamil Nadu

Slaughter and dressing yield of the Mecheri sheep (27 males and 13 females) maintained at the model livestock farm of the Veterinary college and Research Institute, Namakkal was recorded. The sheep were slaughtered by humane method i.e. by performing electrical stunning prior to bleeding in the model slaughter house of the Department of Meat Science and Technology. Irrespective of age, the mean slaughter weight, hot carcass weight and dressing percentage were higher in males (20.21kg, 9.18kg and 45.12%, respectively) than females (14.17kg, 6.21kg and 42.43% respectively). Dressing percentage in males was significantly (p<0.05) higher than females. The mean bleeding percentages in males and females were 3.72% and 3.65%, respectively. The mean total percent yield of edible offal (liver, heart, spleen, trachea and lungs, kidneys, testicles and empty stomach and intestines) based on slaughter weight were higher in males (26.01) than females (20.26). The mean total percent yield of inedible offal (blood, head, skin and feet) based on slaughter weight

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were higher in females (25.18) than males (24.65). The mean percent yield of saleable meat with bones was higher in males (94.18) than females (90.52). The percent post-harvest losses (evaporating, cutting and trimming) were higher in females (9.43) than in males (6.88).

1.23 Slaughter studies in large White Yorkshire pigs V. CHANDIRASEKARAN, S. SURESHKUMAR, A. KALAIKANNAN, D. SANTHI,

P. SIVAKUMAR AND R.NARENDRA BABU

Veterinary College & Research Institute (VCRI), TANUVS, Namakkal, Tamil Nadu

Slaughter and dressing yield of the Large white Yorkshire pigs (27 males and 19 females) maintained at the model livestock farm of the Veterinary college and Research Institute, Namakkal was recorded. The pigs were slaughtered by humane method i.e. by performing electrical stunning/mechanical-penetrative type of stunning prior to bleeding in the model slaughter house of the Department of Meat Science and Technology. Irrespective of age, the mean slaughter weight, hot carcass weight and dressing percentage were higher in females (80.25kg, 57.30kg and 71.32%, respectively) than males (69.43kg, 47.50kg and 67.53% respectively). Dressing percentage in females was significantly (p<0.01) higher than males. The mean bleeding percentages in males and females were 1.44% and 1.01%, respectively. The mean percent yield of saleable meat with bones was higher in males (77.58) than females (75.28). The percent post-harvest losses (evaporating, cutting and trimming) were higher in females (3.01) than in males (2.82).

1.24 A study on carcass characteristics and cut-up- parts of commercial broiler (babcock) birds

B. ESWARA RAO AND M. RANGANADHAM Department of LPT, NTR College of Veterinary Science, Gannavaram, Andhra Pradesh

A total of one hundred Broiler (Babcock) birds, Fifty birds of six week and another fifty birds of seven week old were procured from the Department of Poultry Science, NTR College of Veterinary Science, Gannavaram and slaughtered at the Department of Livestock Products Technology to study the various carcass characteristics and cut-up- parts yield of broilers at six and seven week old. The mean weights of broilers of six and seven week old at the time of slaughter were 1.74±0.45 and 2.56±0.23 respectively. The mean per cent blood loss, feather along with skin and evisceration losses of six and seven week old broilers were 5.21±0.23, 25.28±0.33, 36.78±0.22 and 2.84±0.34, 22.73±0.12, 34.52±0.23 respectively. The per cent blood loss, feather along with skin and evisceration losses were significantly (P≤0.01) higher in six week old birds than broiler birds of seven weeks. The per cent carcass yields of six and seven week old broilers were 67.24± 0.45 and 72.19±0.11 respectively. The per cent carcass yields were significantly (P≤0.01) higher in seven week old birds when compared to six week old birds. There was no significant difference in the yield of giblets and various cut-up-parts of both the age groups. The dressing and drawing losses were more

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in broilers of six week old than of seven week old broilers. Therefore the by-products losses were more in birds slaughtered at six weeks than seven week old birds.

1.25 A Study on Socio-economic upliftment of meat industry workers in Krishna district of AndhraPradesh

ESWARA RAO B., VINAY BABU P., AZAD AND NAGA MALLIKA E. Department of LPT, NTR College of Veterinary Science, Gannavaram, Andhra Pradesh

A Study has been conducted on Socio-economic upliftment of Meat Industry workers in Krishna District of Andhra Pradesh. In this survey we have contacted hundred and twenty meat industry workers and recorded various aspects of their present socio-economic status in the society. Under this socio-economic upliftment we have studied Socio- economic profile, needs identification, Social vices, Adaption of innovations, Mass media exposure, Intervention diagnosis for butchers, Intervention diagnosis for non-butchers, Job satisfaction, Expectations for betterment in work environment, family welfare and financial status. Regarding Socio-economic profile almost all Meat Industry workers noticed were under Below Poverty Line (BPL). No female meat industry worker was noticed in this survery. About 40% of Muslims, 37% of Hindus and 19% of Christian were involved in this industry. Hindus were mostly non-butchers. No meat Industry worker has given any type of formal training by government or non-governmental organizations. 50% of meat workers having an experience of more than ten years. Regarding needs identification almost all meat industry workers were not aware of animal welfare and ethics. But all of them were aware about humane slaughter, mechanized slaughter, and value added meat products. Regarding social vices about 30% of workers were having the habit of liquor consumption, another 30% of workers having the habit of smoking, 10% of workers having the habit of chewing tobacco or pan. Regarding adaption of innovations, they preferred to adopt improved technologies only after they have seen it and appreciated its value. When comes to mass media exposure almost all workers were exposed to News paper, Radio, Television and Telephone but not computer. About 50% of workers expressed job satisfaction but almost all them reluctant to enter their children into this profession. With this we concluded that meat industry workers need regular formal training about awareness of various zoonotic diseases along with improved technologies for their socio-economic upliftment and hygienic meat production.

1.26 Nutritional mapping of pork carcass S. BISWAS, D. BHATTACHARYYA, G. PATRA AND P. BANDYOPADHYAY1

Department of APT, WBUAFS, 1Department of Zoology, Kalyani University, Kolkata, West Bengal

There are five wholesale cuts of a pork carcass namely Boston butt, Picnic shoulder, Loin, Bacon and Ham. The present study categorized these cuts on the basis of their yield of meat by evaluating meat: bone: fat ratio. The cuts were also placed for nutritional mapping by proximate analyses and assessment of vitamins and minerals. The cuts were also studied for

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some heavy metals and pesticides. Results show that yield wise the cuts can be categorized for commercial purpose whereas from the nutritional point of view there is differences between parts of cuts but such differences were non-significant. Heavy metal and pesticide residue levels were within the permissible limits as notified by FSSAI, (2006).

1.27 Influence of age and sex on the carcass characteristics of three way synthetic breed pig raised under swill fed regime

M. SUTHA, G. GAWDAMAN1, ROBINSON J. J. ABRAHAM1 AND K. THIRUMURUGAN PGRI&AS, Kattupakkam, Kancheepuram district, 1Department of MS & T, TANUVAS, Chennai

The objective of this study was to evaluate effect of age, sex on the carcass characteristics, cut up parts and meat cum bone ratio of three way synthetic pig breed (25% large white Yorkshire x 25% Landrace x 50% Duroc). A total of 65 pigs, which was born at various season with different age group were selected for the quantitative carcass characteristics studies. All these animals were maintained under swill fed condition, selected randomly, slaughtered hygienically and dissected manually. The parameters studied included live weight, hot carcass weight, dressed weight, edible offal, inedible offal, carcass length back fat thickness weight and cut up parts (offal, inedible offal, carcass length, back fat thickness weight and cut up parts (boston butt, picnic shoulder, ham, loin, belly) and meat cum bone ratio. In general, female had a better carcass characteristics and were leaner than males and differed (p<0.05) significantly. From this study, it was concluded that the carcass characteristics, cut up parts and meat cum bone ratio of three way synthetic breed were directly affected by age, sex and season.

1.28 Association between meat quality and calpastatin (CAST) gene polymorphism in Nellore and Deccani sheep breed

A. R. SEN, T. K. BHATTACHARYA1, P. N. NAIR, S. VAITHIYANATHAN AND S. GIRISH PATIL

National Research Centre on Meat, 1Project Directorate on Poultry, Hyderabad

Studies were conducted to explore the genotypic pattern for CAST gene and meat quality traits in local sheep breed of Nellore and Deccani. In genotyping studies two haplotypes such as AA and AB were observed. In Nellore breed, the frequency of AA genotype was 0.64 while that of AB genotype was 0.36. Consequently, the frequencies of alleles A and B were 0.82 and 0.18 respectively in Nellore sheep. The phenotypic pattern were studied by analyzing traits such as pH, Water holding capacity, drip loss %, thaw loss %, cook loss%, instrumental colour values (L*, a*, b*, hue and chroma) and shear force values. Genotype had a significant (P<0.05) influence on pH45 and the breeds significantly influenced the ultimate pH of meat. No significant difference was observed in drip los and thaw loss% of longissimus dorsi from two sheep breeds with different genotypes. Both the breed and the genotype significantly (P<0.05) influenced the instrumental redness values of mutton. The AA genotype of Nellore breed had higher redness values (14.29) as compared to

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AB genotype (11.41). Breed significantly (P<0.05) influenced the hue and chroma values of mutton. Shear force value was higher in mutton of Nellore breed as compared to that of Deccani breed. The neucleotide sequence of two alleles (AA and AB) was aligned using DNA* software to explore mutation in the CAST gene in our sheep population. Four SNPs have been observed at 183, 185, 186 and 187 position of the gene in which allele A was differed from allele B inferring nucleotide changes by G/A, C/G, A/T and A/C respectively. Out of four SNP’s, the SNP at 183rd position reveal the transitional form of mutation while 185th, 186th and 187th position unrevealed the transversion form of mutation. The allele sequences have been submitted to NCBI gene bank (id: 1533494). It can be concluded from the present study that the allele and genotype frequency for CAST gene is entirely different in two indigenous sheep breeds. Genotype had significant influence on meat quality particularly pH, instrumental redness, cook loss%. Allelic sequences are having difference in our indigenous sheep population as compared to exotic breed.

1.29 Influence of age on fatty acid profiles and cholesterol levels in emu (Dromaius novaeholland) meat

SHASHI KUMAR. M AND GNANA PRAKASH. M Department of LPT, College of Veterinary Science, SVVU, Hyderabad

The fatty acid profiles and cholesterol levels of meat samples from emu birds of different ages were estimated. Age of the bird showed significant influence on the proportion of palmitic acid, oleic acid, palmitolic, stearic and linoleic acid. However, the total unsaturated fatty acid content was not affected by age of the bird. The proportion of palmitolic and oleic acid were increased with age, while palmitic, linoleic acids decreased with age. Total percent unsaturated fatty acid palmitic, palmitolic, stearic, oleic and linoleic acid and cholesterol contents of emu meat observed at 40, 50, 60 and 70 weeks of age were 23.74 ± 0.17, 6.22 ± 0.17, 9.65 ± 0.13, 42.16 ± 0.30, 19.01 ± 0.49, 67.40 ± 0.21 and 52.81 ± 1.70, respectively. The cholesterol content (mg/100g) was 42.84 at 40 weeks and increased to 60.74 at 70 weeks of age.

1.30 Quality characteristics and composition of frozen emu meat B. M. NAVEENA, A. R. SEN, M. MUTHUKUMAR, P. S. GIRISH

AND Y. PRAVEEN KUMAR

National Research Centre on Meat, Chengicherla, Boda Uppal Post, Hyderabad

Keeping in mind, the keen interest among emu farmers and consumers to know about emu meat, this need based research work was carried out to evaluate the composition, physico-chemical properties, histological characteristics, and microbial quality of frozen-thawed emu meat during refrigerated storage under aerobic and vacuum packaging conditions. The proximate composition indicated higher protein and ash content and lowest fat content in emu meat compared to meats from other meat animals. The pH, water holding

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capacity, collagen content and solubility, protein extractability, muscle fibre diameter and Warner-Bratzler shear force values are similar to the earlier reports for meats from other food animals. The emu meat is dark cherry red in colour with significantly higher myoglobin content and the myoglobin is more prone for oxidation as evidenced by higher initial metmyoglobin content. The initial thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) values and % free fatty acids in emu meat were higher compared to meats from other species. The sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis results also indicated similarities of emu meat proteins with other meats. The initial total plate counts are also similar to those reported for other meat animal species. The study shows the potential of emu meat as a new source of low fat, quality meat proteins, however, more studies are required to elucidate the effect of age, sex, muscles, pre-slaughter and post-slaughter factors on different carcass and meat quality characteristics.

1.31 Age effect on feeding and idling behavior of weanling goat reared under stall-fed conditions

S. BINDU MADHURI1 AND N. DAS2 1Livestock Production & Management Section, IVRI, Izatnagar

2Plant Animal Relationship Division, IGFRI, Jhanshi

Weanling goats are slaughtered in developing countries mostly between the ages 9 to 12 months. Times spent feeding determines the nutrient uptake by goat, which in turn plays a large role in determining both quality and quantity of goat meat. But information on the feeding behavior of goat under stall-fed conditions is very limited. The aim of this study was to observe the feeding behavior of 18 stall housed weanling goats (9 males and 9 females) during each of three periods of their body growth viz. between 3 to 4 (G1), 5 to 6 (G2) and 8 to 9 months of age (G3). The experimental animals had free access to feed and fodder only during the daytime. The time spent eating forage increased significantly (H2 18 = 32.32, P < 0.001) with the increase age of animals; the G3 age group spent about 7.45 h day -1 19 in eating forage whereas the animals in the G2 and G3 age groups spent about 5.65 h day -120 . However the total time spent eating (both forage and concentrate) was more or less same (about 9 h day -1 ) in all the three age groups. The total time spent on different idling activities (viz. loafing, resting and sleeping) during daytime was more or less same (about 1.8 h) in both the G1 and G3 goats; whereas it was higher (2.3 h) in the G2 goats.

1.32 Carcass traits of newly identified Bareilly goats reared under intensive rearing conditions

BINDU MADHURI .S1 AND N DAS2

1 Department of Poultry Science, Veterinary College, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad 2Plant Animal Relationship Division, IGFRI, Jhansi, UP

Majority (about 75%) of the Indian goat population is considered as mixed and non-descript, these animals are also well adapted to harsh climates, long migration, tropical diseases, poor nutrition and shortages of water. Among the non-descript goats, there may be

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some unidentified strains/breeds that have been evolved over ages to suit the specific agro-ecological conditions. A preliminary study reveals that a local black colored goat is used mainly for meat production in Tarai area. The Bareilly goats have black body coat with hair tuft in the breech, broad pendulous ear, twisted short horn and Roman nose. Body weight of these goats varies from 2 to3 kg at birth, 8 to 10 kg at weaning, 10 to15 kg at 6-9 months and 20 to 25 kg at Yearling. Keeping in view that no information on the carcass traits of Bareilly goat is available in the literature, a preliminary study was conducted at Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Bareilly (UP) to study carcass traits (in male) of Bareilly goats under intensive rearing conditions. Nine (9) male goats (age 10-12 months),were slaughtered and carcass traits, viz. a) Carcass weight b) Carcass length c) Empty body weight (EBW) d) Dressing weight, e) Primary cuts (namely namely leg, loin, rack, breast and shank, shoulder and neck. f) Loin eye area, g) Organ weight, h) Edible weight (included the weight of carcass, liver, kidney, testes, dressed head and feet), i) Inedible offals and j) Bone, meat ratio were recorded. The mean slaughter weight, carcass weight and dressing percentage of Bareilly local goats was 15.39 ± 0.66, 6.39± 0.34 kg and 41.41% and mean yields of slaughter products like head, feet and skin were 1.17± 0.04, 2.16 ± 0.14 and 1.13 ± 0.07 kg and mean weight of internal organs heart, liver, kidney, spleen and testicles were 0.06± 0.0, 0.29± 0.02,0.06 ± 0.0, 0.16 ± 0.003 and 0.10± 0.01 kg and means of legs, G.I full, carcass length, neck, rack, flank, shoulder, breast and shank were 0.43 ± 0.02, 4.04±0.15, 0.53 ± 1.0 , 0.5 ± 0.05, 0.83±0.05 , 0.29 ±0.01, 0.76± 0.05, 1.35 ±0.08 , 0.45 ±0.02 kg respectively and % of bone, deboned and skin were 8.62,12.94 and 7.3%respectively.

1.33 Effect of GDF8 gene polymorphism on carcass quality traits in broiler chicken K. DUSHYANTH, T. K. BHATTACHARYA, C. PASWAN, R. N. CHATTERJEE

AND S. DHANASEKARAN Project Directorate on Poultry, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad

Growth differentiating factor-8 (GDF8) plays very crucial role in regulating muscular growth in chicken. The present study was carried to analyse the polymorphism in coding region of GDF8 gene and its association with the carcass quality traits in control broiler line maintained at PDP, Hyderabad. The PCR-SSCP and sequencing revealed 7 haplogroups with h1h3 and h1h4 possessing the lowest frequency (0.1) and h2h7 having the highest frequency (0.25). Haplogroups had the significant effect (P=0.02) on back muscle% where h2h4 group had the highest back yield (31.9%) and h1h3 had the lowest value (25.5%). However, thehaplogroups did not show any significant effect on other carcass traits such as leg muscles%, neck %, wing muscle%, gizzard%, liver % spleen % heart % and bursa %. It is concluded that GDF8 gene was polymorphic and had significant association with back muscle% in broiler chicken.

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1.34 Cost of food animal often exceeds the sale price of meat and the key to profitability is from byproducts – Evaluating the hypothesis Y. R. AMBEDKAR1 AND V. N. LAKSHMANAN2

Department of LPT, IVRI, Izatnagar, Bareilly 1Veterinary Asst Surgeon, Dummauguda, Khammam

The widely held hypothesis in meat trade states that the cost of food animal often exceeds the sale price of meat and the key to profitability is from byproducts. The present study was undertaken to test this hypothesis for sheep and goats at Bareilly through collection of data on slaughter components and market price of live animals and various slaughter products. The mean yields of slaughter componnts for nondescript market slaughter sheep and goats were collected of either sex under two age (young and adults), three size (small, medium and large) and three conformation groups. Data were collected from 69 sheep and 59 goats. The overall mean slaughter and carcass weight of market slaughter sheep were 22.36 and 10.47 kg respectively. The overall mean slaughter and carcass weight of market slaughter goats were 19.98 and 19.51 kg respectively. In both species, slaughter and carcass weight increased progressively with progressive increase in size and conformation .The overall dressing percentage in sheep and goats was 46.66 and 47.45% respectively. Skin yield was higher in sheep (2.19 kg) than goats (1.39 kg). Omental fat yield was higher in goats (330 g) than sheep (150 g); Pluck yield was higher in sheep (950 g) than goats (820 g). Goats have heavier legs than sheep. The mean live animal price of male market slaughter sheep was considerably higher (Rs.901) than female sheep (Rs.815). However, the mean live animal price of female market goats was higher (Rs.780) than male goats (Rs.731).Overall mean live animal price of market slaughter sheep was higher (Rs.861) than goats (Rs.763). Sale value of meat was also higher in sheep (Rs. 988) than goats (Rs.884). Sale value of skin was very high in sheep (Rs.143) than goats (Rs.43). Sale value of gastrointestinal tract was higher in goats (Rs.33) than sheep (Rs.18), Sale value of sum of byproducts was higher in sheep (Rs.289) than goats (Rs.197) due to huge differential in skin price. Since the sale value of meat was higher than the purchase price of live animal in both sheep and goats, it is interpreted that the hypothesis of this study does not exist for small ruminants in this part the country. Since the total sale proceeds in sheep and goats expressed as % of live animal price was found to be 149.37 and 146.01% respectively, it was concluded that small ruminants meat trade is a profitable enterprise.

1.35 IGF-1 Gene SNPs and its effect on carcass quality traits in broiler chicken T. K. BHATTACHARYA, R .N. CHATTERJEE, K. DYUSHANTH, C. PASWAN

AND S. DHANASEKARAN Project Directorate on Poultry, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad

IGF-1 is a hormone having similar molecular structure to insulin plays important role in juvenile growth with continuing anabolic effect in adult birds. An experiment was conducted to explore the effect of IGF-1 polymorphism on carcass quality traits in broiler chicken. The study was confined on 205 birds of control broiler chicken line maintained at Project Directorate on Poultry, Hyderabad. The coding region of IGF-1 gene encompassing 4 exons was screened for SNPs. A total of 16 haplotypes were found of

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which h1 haplotype was the most frequent (0.68) one and h11 was the least frequent haplotype in broiler population. The effect of haplogroup was significant (P=0.023) only on breast muscle%. The h1h6 haplogroup had the lowest breast muscle% while h1h1 and h1h8 had the highest value. The h1h1 and h1h6 haplogroup showed 22.0% superiority for this trait over the h1h6 haplogroup. The haplogroups did not show significant effect (P<0.05) on other carcass quality traits such as leg muscle%, back muscle%, neck%, wing muscle%, gizzard%, liver%, spleen%, heart% and bursa%. It is concluded that the SNPs of IGF-1 coding region had significant association with certain carcass quality trait in broiler chicken.

1.36 Evaluation of slaughter parameters in multi coloured mediocre broiler crosses M. NIRANJAN, U. RAJKUMAR, K. S. RAJARAVINDRA, M. K. PADHI

AND R. N. CHATTERJEE Project Directorate on Poultry, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad

The demand for a heavier bird for small scale intensive farming in peri urban and rural areas is assessed from the continuous feedback from the farmers at Project Directorate on Poultry. Four new promising multicloured mediocre crosses ( HC-1: Vanaraja X C1; HC-2: Vanaraja X C2; HC-3: PB-2X Gramapriya; HC-4: PB-2 X Vanaraja) were evaluated to cater to the needs of the farmers. In the present study, data on slaughter parameters collected from 24 birds at 12 weeks of age representing four mediocre broiler crosses was evaluated to identify their suitability as meat birds and meat characteristics. All the birds were maintained on broiler finisher diet on ad lib feeding till 12 weeks of age. The pre slaughter weight and dressed weight significantly (P≤ 0.05) varied among the four crosses HC-4 recorded significantly heavier pre slaughter and dressed weight (2164.83±131.69 and 1526.67±102.71 g). All cut up parts including breast, thigh, drumstick, wings significantly (P≤ 0.05) varied among the four crosses, except neck and back which showed non- significant differences. The total cut parts weight ranged from 1511.83 g (HC-4) to 1085.58 g (HC-2). HC-4 recorded significant (P≤ 0.05) higher weights for breast (353.16±24.80 g), thigh (231.75± 23.37 g), drumstick (223.42±13.98 g) and wings (172.00±11.27 g). Significant higher bone less meat was obtained from HC-4 cross, which also recorded higher bone weight without any significant variation among the four crosses. The dressing percentage and bone less meat percentage both on pre slaughter weight and dressed weight were similar without any significant variations. The dressing percentage ranged from 70.39 in HC-4 to 68.89 in HC-2 cross. The skin, feather and blood did not show any significant differences among the crosses. The study concludes that, HC-4 cross can be a viable option for small scale intensive farming under peri urban and rural areas for meat purpose.

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Abstracts

SESSION II DEVELOPMENTS IN FRESH MEAT QUALITY AND BYPRODUCTS

UTILIZATION

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2.01 Standardization of protocol for preparation of buffalo lung and liver powder

R. J. ZENDE AND D. M. CHAVHAN

Department of VPH, Bombay Veterinary College, Parel, Mumbai

The pet foods are manufactured using inferior quality/low priced carcass parts, bones and organs such as intestines, kidneys, liver, lungs, udders, spleen, and stomach. A total of 30 samples, 15 samples each of raw buffalo lung and liver were collected in a sterile plastic bag from local slaughterhouses and stored at -18oc till further use. The frozen buffalo liver was cleaned, trimmed and washed with clean potable water and small cubes of suitable size (½ cm to 1cm) were made. The cubes were pressure cooked, drained, semidried in a hot air oven and milled with a domestic food processor and kept in hot air oven for complete drying. The granular dried powder was again milled to obtain the fine liver powder. On an average 272.7 gm/kg of grayish brown coloured fine liver powder was obtained from buffalo liver. The buffalo lung was processed to make lung powder in similar way except cooking procedure. On an average 202.99 gm/kg of reddish brown colored fine lung powder was obtained from buffalo lung. Further these powder samples were subjected to microbiological analysis and study revealed that average TVC of raw lung and liver powder observed were 4.14 x 102 and 4.48 x 102 cfu/gm, respectively. However, none of the sample was found to be positive for E. coli, Salmonella spp., Staph. aureus and B. cereus in all the lung and liver powder samples. Thus, the study concluded that the average yield of buffalo liver powder was higher as compared to the buffalo lung powder.

2.02 Comparative study on adipogenesis and fibrogenesis in skeletal

muscle of Angus and Wagyu cattle M. S. DUARTE, ARUN K DAS1, X. FU AND M. DU

Department of Animal Sciences, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164, USA 1Central Institute for Research on Goats, Makhdoom, Mathura, India

Strengthening myogenesis (formation of muscle cells) enhances lean growth, promoting intramuscular adipogenesis (formation of fat cells) elevates marbling, and reducing intramuscular fibrogenesis (formation of fibroblasts and synthesis of connective tissue) improves not only the production efficiency but also overall meat quality. Intramuscular fat (marbling) and collagen content are major critical factors affecting palatability of beef, but mechanisms regulating intramuscular adipose and connective tissue deposition are far from clear. Japanese Wagyu cattle are well known for their extremely high marbling. The objective of this study was to evaluate intramuscular fat (IMF) and collagen deposition in the muscle of Wagyu (WA) compared to Angus (AN) cattle. Samples of sternomandibularis muscle were collected from WA (n = 3) and AN (n = 3) for molecular and immuno-histological investigations of adipogenesis and fibrogenesis. Our result shows that the expression of the adipogenic markers, CCAAT enhancer binding protein (C/EBP)α, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) γ and Zinc finger protein (Zfp) 423 in

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Wagyu muscle were much higher (P < 0.05) than in Angus muscle, which was consistent with higher intramuscular fat deposition in Wagyu muscle (P < 0.05). In addition, more adipocytes and pre-adipocytes were detected intramuscularly in Wagyu cattle. Similarly, fibrogenesis was also enhanced in Wagyu cattle, with a higher expression of fibroblast growth factor (FGF) 2, FGF receptor 1, transforming growth factor (TGF) β, Collagen I and III compared to Angus cattle. Wagyu muscle had higher collagen content and lower collagen solubility. In addition, muscle fiber diameter was larger in Wagyu than in Angus cattle. These results clearly show that both intramuscular fat and collagen content are enhanced in Wagyu cattle, suggesting the possibility that the commitment of mesenchymal progenitor cells to adipogenesis and fibrogenesis is enhanced in Wagyu cattle.

2.03 Effect of feeding encapsulated and non-encapsulated Pediococcus acidilactici on breast muscle pH, bone biochemical profile and sensory scores of broiler meat

Y. SATHEESH, P. V. R. MALLIKARJUNA, K. KONDAL REDDY AND P. S. P. GUPTA1

Department of LPT, College of Veterinary Science, Hyderabad, 1NIANP, Bangalore.

An attempt was made to evaluate the effect of feeding encapsulated and non-encapsulated Pediococcus acidilactici on breast muscle pH, bone biochemical parameters (tibia length, tibia weight and tibia ash) and sensory evaluation scores of meat samples in commercial male broiler chicks. Group 1 was fed with control feed (without supplementation of any probiotic organism), group 2 was fed with non-encapsulated P.acidilactici @ 106 cfu/g supplemented diet. Groups 3 and 4 were fed with encapsulated Pediococcus acidilactici diets @ 106 cfu/g and 109 cfu/g, respectively. The breast muscle pH estimated on 42nd day revealed significantly higher pH value in group 1 compared to groups 2, 3 and 4. However, there was no significant difference in breast muscle pH between groups 1 and 2, while group 3 was comparable with both groups 2 and 4. Broilers fed on encapsulated P.acidilactici supplemented diets (group 3 and 4) showed a significantly (P<0.05) higher simple index of tibia, more tibia length and more tibia weight compared to groups 2 and 1. The sensory evaluation results showed that sensory scores for group 4 were higher compared to all other treatment groups. There were no significant differences between the sensory evaluation scores of groups 3 and 4. Thus, supplementation of encapsulated P. acidilactici at different levels resulted in better meat quality compared to other group of broilers.

2.04 Nanopackaging: Innovation in meat industry

MEGHA AGARWAL1, HEENA SHARMA2, NANDANI SALARIA3 AND MEENA GOSWAMI4

1Division of Animal Biotechnology; 2Department of LPT; 3Division of Extension Education, IVRI, Izatnagar, Bareilly 4Division of LPT, DAVASU, Mathura, UP.

Nanotechnology is a technology that has the potential to revolutionize the meat industry. The expression nanoscale is used to refer to objects with dimensions on the order 1-100 nm. One nm is one thousandth of a micrometre (μm), one millionth of millimetre (mm)

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and one billionth a metre (m). Nanotechnology is used in “smart” biodegradable meat packaging as it helps in modifying the permeation behavior of foils, increases the barrier properties (mechanical, thermal, chemical and microbial), improves mechanical and heat-resistance properties, develops active antimicrobial and antifungal surfaces, enhances flavor and texture, increases nutritional delivery and sense as well as signals microbiological and biochemical changes. Several nanoparticles like titanium dioxide, silver nanoparticles, zinc and zinc oxide, silicon dioxide, carbon, platinum and gold nanowires are widely used as antimicrobial agents and nutritional additives in meat packging. Development of meat analytical methods for the detection of tiny amounts of a chemical contaminant, virus or bacteria in meat system is another potential use of nanotechnology. The significant purpose of nano-packaging is to set longer shelf life by improving the barrier function of meat packaging to reduce gas and moisture exchange and UV light exposure. Nano-packaging can also be designed to release antimicrobials, antioxidants, enzymes, flavors and nutraceuticals to extend shelf life. There is an urgent need for regulatory systems capable of managing any risks associated with nanofoods and the use of nanotechnologies in the meat industry.

2.05 Effect of addition of sodium caseinate, whole egg powder on the quality of chicken sausage made with poultry by-products

SUBHASH KUMAR VERMA, KESHAB DAS AND S. BISWS

Department of LPT, CVS&AH, Chhattisgarh Kamdhenu Vishawavidyalya, Anjora, Durg

The present study was aimed to prepare an acceptable quality chicken sausage with incorporation of edible poultry by-products (Edible poultry by-products such as skin & fat and heart & gizzard were incorporated by replacing proportionate quantity of chicken meat) and binders. Emulsion prepared from minced and chopped broiler meat with inclusion of different levels of poultry by-products and binder along with spices, condiments used for preparation of chicken sausages. Result revealed that chicken sausage containing 14% skin & fat and 3% heart & gizzard exhibited optimum sensory score as well as emulsion stability and cooking yield comparable to control. The sensory quality and physico-chemical characteristics such as emulsion stability and cooking yield chicken sausage Incorporated with 1.5 % SC and 4 % WEP binders ranked superior over higher levels. It is concluded that Acceptable quality chicken sausage could be prepared with incorporation of 14% skin & fat by replacing proportionate quantity of meat, 3% heart & gizzard was comparable to control sausage, 1.5% sodium caseinate and 4% WEP as binders resulted in significant improvement in sensory quality, cooking yield and emulsion stability of chicken sausage.

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2.06 Studies on certain quality attributes and cost of production of pork blood sausage

SADHANA CHOWDHURY1, M. HAZARIKA1, D.R. NATH1 AND J.D. MAHANTA² 1Department of LPT, ²Department of Poultry Science, College of Veterinary Science, Assam

Agricultural University, Khanapara, Guwahati, Assam

A study was conducted to develop a pork blood sausage by incorporating whole blood and to find out the best formulation of the sausage products based on microbial and sensory qualities. Four formulations were developed with 10% (A), 15% (B) and 20% (C) incorporation of whole blood and compared with the control sample (Ct) prepared with 55% lean pork, 10% lard, 5% diced pork fat, 10% rice flour, 2.5% skim milk powder, 4% spice mix, 1.5% salt, 5% ice, 4% soya and 3% egg. The ingredients were blended and stuffed into natural goat casings and cooked in hot water at 82°C core temperature for 30 minutes. The products were subjected to microbial and sensory tests. The shelf life study was assessed by storing the products at room (25+5°C) and chilling (4+1°C) temperature. The mean log total bacterial loads were significantly higher (P<0.01) in sample C followed by B, A and Ct both at room and refrigerated temperature. Sensory evaluation revealed that product with 10% blood (A) was highly preferred by the panelists followed by B, C and Ct. The products could be stored maximum for 12 hours at room temperature and for 6 days at chilling temperature. Considering the cost of all ingredients and the processing cost, the cost of production/kg were found to be about Rs.270.00 for control, Rs.260.00 for 10% blood, Rs.253.00 for 15% blood and Rs. 246.00 for 20% blood incorporated sausages. From the above study, it can be concluded that slaughter house blood which is a neglected by-product can successfully be utilized for developing safe pork blood sausage economically by replacing lean pork. Preference of consumers revealed that the product could be exploited commercially in North Eastern Region of India where blood consumption is not a taboo.

2.07 Evaluation of functional parameters of Black turkey, Beltsville small white turkey and Broiler spent hen meat

SATISH KUMAR, A. S. R. ANJANEYULU, M. N. BRAHMBHATT AND J. B. NAYAK Department of LPT, CVS & AH, Anand Agricultural University, Anand, Gujarat

In present study functional meat quality characteristics of dark and white meat from all three groups i.e. female Black turkey (BT), female Beltsville small white turkey and spent hens were studied. Turkey meat had significantly higher water holding capacity than the meat from broiler spent hens. he emulsifying capacity was significantly lower (P<0.01) in dark meat of Black turkey than its white meat as well as dark and white meat of Beltsville small white turkey and broiler spent hens. The emulsifying capacity of dark and white meat of each bird did not differ significantly (P>0.05). Extractable proteins of dark meat and white meat of Black and Beltsville small white turkey did not differ significantly (P>0.05). The extractable proteins of dark meat of broiler spent hens were significantly lower (P<0.01) than dark and white meat of Black turkey and Beltsville small white turkey. Myoglobin is the pigment found in the muscle. It was found to be significantly (P<0.01) higher in dark meat than white

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meat in all three types of birds. The myoglobin of Black turkey’s white and dark meat was significantly higher (P<0.01) than white and dark meat of Beltsville small white turkey and broiler spent hens.

2.08 A study on microbial, sensory quality and shelf-life of pork blood sausage and cost of production

SADHANA CHOWDHURY1, M. HAZARIKA1, D. R. NATH1 AND J.D. MAHANTA² 1Department of LPT, ²Department of Poultry Science,

College of Veterinary Science, Assam Agricultural University, Khanapara, Guwahati

A study was conducted to develop a pork blood sausage by incorporating whole blood and to find out the best formulation of the sausage products. Four formulations were prepared with 10% (A), 15% (B) and 20% (C) incorporation of whole blood and compared with the control sample (Ct) prepared with 55% lean pork, 10% lard, 5% diced pork fat, 10% rice flour, 2.5% skim milk powder, 4% spice mix, 1.5% salt, 5% ice, 4% soya and 3% egg. The ingredients were blended and stuffed into natural goat casings and cooked in hot water at 82°C for 30 minutes. The products were subjected to microbial and sensory tests. The shelf life study was assessed on the basis of microbial quality and by storing the products at room (25+5°C) and chilling (4+1°C temperature). The mean log total bacterial loads were significantly higher (P<0.01) in sample C followed by B, A and Ct both at room and refrigerated temperature. Sensory evaluation revealed that product with 10% blood (A) was highly preferred by the panelists followed by B, C and Ct. The products could be stored maximum for 12 hours at room temperature and for 6 days at chilling temperature. Considering the cost of all ingredients and the processing cost, the cost of production/kilogram were found to be about Rs.270.00 for control, Rs.260.00 for 10% blood, Rs.253.00 for 15% blood and Rs. 246.00 for 20% blood incorporated sausages respectively. From the above study, it can be concluded that safe pork blood sausage can be developed economically by replacing lean pork.

2.09 Effect of freezing and thawing methods on physico-chemical characteristics of frozen buffalo meat

V. CHANDIRASEKARAN1, S. SURESHKUMAR2 AND G. THULASI3

1Department of MS and T, 2 Department of AHS & CA, VCRI, Namakkal 3Department of MS and T, MVC, Chennai, Tamil Nadu Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Chennai

A study to assess the effect of different methods of thawing viz., Room Temperature (RT), Chiller Temperature (CT), Microwave (MW) and Water Bath (WB) on physico-chemical characteristics of frozen buffalo meat was carried out. Results indicated that microwave thawing was the quickest method (10 min.) followed by water bath thawing while room temperature thawing and chiller temperature thawing took longer duration of time. A highly significant difference (p<0.01) in Warner-Bratzler shear force value was observed in

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samples thawed at RT and WB, RT and MW and CT and MW treatments. A highly significant difference (p<0.01) in munsell chroma and drip loss was also observed between different treatments. The highest drip loss was recorded in WB thawing followed by RT thawing. MW thawing showed a highly significant difference (p<0.01) recording the lowest cooking loss compared to that of RT, CT and WB thawing methods. It was found that microwave thawing was the quickest compared to other methods and had lower cooking loss where as CT had the lowest drip loss amongst the treatments.

2.10 Preparation of extruded pet food using rendered spent chicken carcass meal

K. RAJENDRA KUMAR, V. V. KULKARNI AND V. CHANDIRASEKARAN Department of MS and T, VCRI, TANUVAS, Namakkal,

Pet foods for grower and adult were prepared by pallet process incorporating dry rendered Spent chicken meal (SCM) as a total replacement of protein requirement of the pet dogs, pet foods packed in LDPE bags and stored at ambient temperature (35±20C) up to 90 days. The colour of the pet foods was uniformly brown with pleasant meaty odour. The thiobarbituric acid (TBA) , tyrosine values, free fatty acid content and acid value and total bacterial counts increased gradually during storage but E .coli, Salmonella spp, Clostridium spp, Staphylococci spp and fungi not were detected during storage. The pet owners rated the pet foods as good. The body weight of the pet dogs did not decrease during the feeding trial of one month and the health condition of pets was good. The digestibility of the grower and adult pet food was 72.64 and 69.06 percent, respectively. The cost of production of pet food for grower and adult was Rs.31.30 /kg and Rs.26.2 / kg, respectively. The results indicated that a pet food (whole meal) with good nutritive quality and palatability to grower and adult dogs can be prepared by incorporating spent chicken meal which can be stored up to 90 days at ambient temperature.

2.11 Histology of fresh and frozen-thawed rabbit meat JAGDISH SWAMI, M. SHASHIKUMAR AND SUBHASH RAUT

Department of LPT, CVSc, Korutla-505326, A.P

Present investigation was carried out with a view to acertain histology of fresh and frozen-thawed rabbit meat. Rabbit meat samples were collected from retail shop and studied for histological changes. It is observed from histological studies of fresh rabbit meat, that it did not show any appreciable changes in muscle fibers. The fresh rabbit meat showed tremendous histological changes on subsequent storage in freezer. At 15th day of storage of rabbit meat, the muscle fiber showed mild kinking along with mild separation and initiation of breaking of muscle fibers. On 30 day storage, separation of muscle group with longitudinal spaces and appearance of transverse breaks were noticed. The cause of a transverse break might be due to physical stress produced by contraction and by action of autolytic enzymes. Freezing of tissue involves essentially three major possibilities of damage (Casseans, 1971)

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cellular puncture or rupture by formation of ice crystals, damage to the cell by production of increased osmotic pressure and invisible precipitation or denaturation of colloidal cell constituents. In 45 days stored muscle, the muscle fibers were observed to shows pronounced shrinkage with extensive damage, characteristic tearing with widened gaps inbetween. The occasional hylanisation was noticed in the samples on 45th day of frozen storage, which is indicative of denaturation of protein, which might have contributed in reduction of muscle protein level. 60 days frozen muscle showed a great separation of muscle groups and the muscle fibers have undergone a different configuration with pronounced increase in structural damage. The severe structural damage might be due to formation of intracellular ice crystals exerting pressure in opposite direction and tearing the muscle fiber. The prominent nucleus retaining H&E stain in all plates shows that, the tissue were not necrosed at any extent. Indirectly, it showed the palatability characteristic of the meat.

Note: Part of M.V.Sc thesis submitted to MAFSU, Nagpur

2.12 Standardising the supply chain strategy in meat industry from farm to the fork SARVADNYA RATIKANT GHONGDE, ANIL DANGE, CHANDRE GOWDA, C.T1.,

KAVITA PATIL, S.S.ZANZAD, GIRISH P.S2. AND R. D. KOKANE Bombay Veterinary College, Mumbai. 1Veterinary Collge, Hebbal, Bangalore, 2National Research

Centre on Meat, chengicherla, Hyderabad

The supply chain on meat products has received a great deal of attention lately due to issues related to public health importance. The meat supply chain is mainly composed of feed supplier, farm, slaughterhouse, fabrication plant, distribution center, supermarket or retailer, and consumer. Something that has become apparent is that in near future the design and operation of meat products supply chain will be subject to more stringent regulations and closer monitoring, in particular those destined for human consumption (meat foods), in accordance with Food safety standard act, 2006. More and more agriculture chemical pesticide is used for increasing agriculture production. Livestock are fed with toxic feed or excessive pharmaceuticals, and this is the uppermost risk to the meat quality and safety of consumer. Livestock are infected with virus, such as BSE, foot-and-mouth disease and many unknown virus from livestock are detected to be harmful to human health, and it is difficult to provide efficient prevention. And even the counterfeit and shoddy products break the supply chain. Thus livestock from unreliable origin or counterfeit meat products can harm the meat supply. Additional to this, distribution and marketing sections also needs some improvements to reach the hygien standards. The supply chain of meat-foods, as any other supply chain, is a network of organizations working together in different processes and activities from the farm to the slaughter, processing and to the plate of consumer in order to bring products and services to market, with the purpose of satisfying, safeguard the consumers needs and demands.

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2.13 Development of snack ( Murukku) by incorporation of chicken skin

CYTYARASAN S., MANDAL P. K., PAL U. K. AND DAS, C. D.

Department of LPT, RAGACOVAS, Kurumbapet, Pondicherry

In India large amount of chicken skin is available as byproduct with the increase in the poultry production and processing activities. Chicken skin is less preferred due to high fat content and aesthetic reasons. Therefore, it can be tried to use in the development of cost effective convenient chicken food products. Utilization of byproducts would mean additional gain, besides minimizing the environmental pollution from meat industry. Hence, the present study was proposed to utilize chicken skin in the development of murukku and to study its possible effects on the quality of the products during room temperature storage. Incorporation of raw chicken skin at different levels (0, 10, 20, 30%), revealed that cooking yield, pH, water solubility index were not affected but, moisture, hydratability, water absorption index decreased significantly (P<0.01) and whereas protein, fat and ash content increased significantly (P<0.01) as the level of incorporation of raw chicken skin increased. Sensory evaluation scores showed that, products up to 10% raw chicken skin incorporation were highly acceptable. Incorporation of chicken skin powder at different levels (0, 2.5, 5, 7.5 %) did not show any changes in water solubility index. Ash content, pH were not affected but cooking yield, moisture, hydratability, water absorption index decreased significantly (P<0.01) and protein, fat content significantly (P<0.01) increased as the incorporation of chicken skin powder levels increased in the product. Sensory evaluation results revealed that, the products up to 7.5% chicken skin powder incorporation were rated moderately to highly desirable for appearance, flavour, texture crispiness, acceptability. Utilization of chicken skin in murukku would not only be economical for poultry industry, but also eco friendly, since it would contribute in reducing the environmental pollution.

2.14 Carcass traits and meat quality attributes of market broiler chicken of different body weights

M. MUTHU KUMAR, B. M. NAVEENA, I. PRINCE DEVADASON, C. RAMAKRISHNA AND Y. BABJI

National Research Centre on meat, Hyderabad

An experiment was carried out to study the effect of body weight of broiler chicken on carcass traits and meat quality attributes. Broiler chickens of three body weight groups (small-1.5, medium - 2.0 and heavy - 2.5 kg) comprising 12 birds (6 males and 6 females) from each group, i.e a total of 36 birds were obtained from retail markets of Hyderabad. Carcass traits revealed higher slaughter and dressed carcass weight for males compared to females. The mean live weight (kg), dressed carcass weight (kg), dressing percentage, boneless meat yield (%) of small, medium and heavy body weight group were 2362.92, 1976 and 1533.17; 1685.1, 1372.01 and 1037.4; 71.29, 69.3 and 67.66 & 32.65, 30.36 and 28.94, respectively. The yield (%) of high valued primal cuts like breast, thigh, drumstick and

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drummets on the basis of dressed carcass weight, increased with slaughter weight. The yield of lean meat from breast and thigh were higher in heavy weight group than medium and low weight groups. The broilers of heavy body weight showed higher shear force value (28.40 kg/cm3), water holding capacity (42.25 %), cooking yield (77.47 %) and lean protein content (19.64). The redness value of muscle colour was also increased with body weight. This study showed that meat produced from heavy weight broilers (> 2000 g live weight) will be beneficial on yield and several quality characteristics and can be economically utilized for production of processed poultry products.

2.15 Estimation of keeping quality of buffalo meat available in and around Korutla town by resazurin dye reduction test

KUMAR, E1 SUPRIYA, R. A.1 VIJAYA KUMAR, A.1 AND SHASHIKUMAR, M.2 1Department of VPH& E, 2 Department of LPT, College of veterinary Science, Korutla, A.P.

The present study was undertaken with an objective to estimate the keeping quality of fresh buffalo meat available in and around the Korutla town. The fresh beef meat samples were collected aseptically in sterilized sample containers from different retail meat shops and samples were brought to the microbiological laboratory and the keeping quality of meat samples was evaluated by estimation of resazurin dye reduction time and total viable counts. The total viable count of fresh beef meat was 6.08 ± 0.21 log CFU/g with acceptable colour and odour and time taken for complete reduction of resazurin dye was 15.35 ± 0.21 hours. The meat samples were showing the deteriorative changes with slight discolouration and slight off odour at 11 hours of storage at ambient temperature and 4th day at refrigeration storage. Meat samples were completely spoiled with greenish discolouration and complete off odour at the end of 17 hours at ambient temperature and 5th day at refrigeration storage. At the time of spoilage of meat samples, resazurin dye reduction periods were 4.05 ± 0. 29 and 3.15 ± 0.21 hours with corresponding total viable counts 8.65 ± 0.52 and 7.75 ± 0.46 log CFU/g at ambient and refrigeration storages, respectively. Overall, there was a positive correlation noticed between the time required for the resazurin dye reduction and total bacterial load as there is an increase in the bacterial population which was associated with decrease in reduction time of resazurin dye, irrespective of storage temperatures of meat samples. Thus, it can be concluded that the resazurin dye reduction test can be used as a tool for prediction of early spoilage of meat.

2.16 Carcass characteristics and meat quality attributes of desi chickens

SUNIL KUMAR, K., CHANDRE GOWDA, C. T, KIRAN, M., M. MUTHUKUMAR1., NAVEENA, B. M. AND NADEEM FAIROZE

Veterinary College, Bangalore, 1NRC Meat, Chengicherla, Hyderabad Though food consumption pattern has changed over the decades, the consumers are still showing interest towards traditional meat and meat products. Desi chicken meat is

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known for its unique taste, which makes high demand and fetch high price in the market. However there is little information on carcass characteristics and meat quality attributes of desi chicken. Hence, the present study was focussed on exploration of carcass characteristics and meat quality attributes of desi chicken. Fifteen male desi chickens having uniform body weight between 1.2-1.3 kg were randomly selected from local markets of Hyderabad. The different carcass characteristics were recorded and the mean weights (kg) of slaughter, dressed carcass and chilled carcass were 1.24±0.09, 0.87±0.009 and 0.85±0.010, respectively. Further mean weights (g) of cut up parts viz., breast, drumstick, back, wings, drummet and neck were 190±0.003, 170±0.004, 140±0.003, 90±0.002, 130±0.003 and 40±0.001, respectively. Mean dressing percentage was found to be 70.34±0.420.The moisture, ash, water holding capacity, fat , protein, ultimate pH, muscle fiber diameter, myoglobin, sarcoplasmic protein, total protein and cooking yeild were 74.95%, 4.286%, 18.70%, 1.65%, 20.61%, 5.68, 64.68 µm,0.76 mg/g, 8.16 mg, 8.8 mg and 75.74 %, respectively. The sensory evaluation of desi chicken received better acceptability remarks. It was found that desi chickens are having lean carcasses with moderate meat yield and good amount of muscle protein.

2.17 Optimizing drying process for acid stabilized chicken soft offal

DECHAMMA, K.P., NADEEM FAIROZE AND KRISHNAMOORTHY1, U

Department of LPT, 1 Dept. of LPM, Veterinary College, Bangalore

A study was undertaken to assess feasibility of stabilizing chicken soft offal by acidification followed by drying to address environmental pressure due to the unscrupulous dumping of protein rich intestines from the chicken wet market. Formic acid, phosphoric acid and a mixture of both acids in equal quantity were evaluated to stabilize the soft offal at room temperature up to 4 days. Intact intestines harvested from local retail outlets were subjected for acidification using formic acid (3 per cent), phosphoric acid (4.5 per cent) and acid mixture (equal proportion of formic and phosphoric acid) and were held in sealed containers for 4 days. Then the acidified offal was sundried, oven dried (at 400C, 600C and 800C) and air dried until there was no further reduction in the moisture content. Sundried product acidified with all the three treatments revealed optimum pH (3 to 4.5), moisture (9-10 per cent) crude protein (34-39 per cent) and ether extract (34-44 per cent) followed by oven dried offal with moisture 10-15 per cent, crude protein of 33-51 per cent and ether extract 26-44 per cent. TBARS (0.5mg malonaldehyde/kg) and tyrosine values (27-34 mg tyrosine/100g) of the resultant dried products were found to be satisfactory. There was total elimination of Salmonella and fecal coliforms following the process. It was concluded that the offal treated with formic acid at 3 per cent (v/w) followed by sun drying or oven drying at 400C to be the best mode of stabilization.

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2.18 Effect of ageing on the quality of buffalo meat from young and spent animals

KIRAN, M1., B. M NAVEENA2., K. SUDHAKAR REDDY1., K. KONDAL REDDY1., M SHASHIKUMAR3., V. RAVINDER REDDY3. AND Y. PRAVEEN KUMAR2

1 College of Veterinary Science, 2 NRC Meat, Hyderabad, 3 CVS, Korutla, Karimnagar

Current investigation was carried out to study the changes in physico-chemical parameters during conditioning/ageing at 4 °C in young and spent buffalo meat. Hot boned buffalo meat from young and spent animals was subjected to ageing for 6 days and evaluated at 0, 2, 4 and 6 days of interval. Overall pH of young buffalo meat was found to be higher (5.55±0.01) in comparison to spent buffalo meat (5.41±0.06) throughout the ageing period. Water holding capacity has decreased (p<0.05) from 31.33±1.76 % and 35.33±2.40 % to 17.00±1.00 % and 17.00±1.20 % during ageing in both young and spent buffalo meat respectively. Protein extractability was significantly (p<0.05) higher in spent buffalo meat compared to young buffalo meat, with no (p>0.05) change in protein extractability in both young and spent buffalo meat throughout the ageing period. Muscle fibre diameter was higher in spent buffalo meat compared to young buffalo meat. Myofibrillar fragmentation Index was significantly (p<0.05) higher at 6 day ageing in both young and spent buffalo meat compared to 0, 2 and 4 day aged meat. The significantly higher cooking yield was observed in spent buffalo meat compared to young buffalo meat. There was significant reduction (p<0.05) in Warner-Bratzler shear force of hot boned and 6 day aged buffalo meat in both young and spent buffalo meat. The SDS PAGE pattern of proteins at different ageing periods showed no change in band pattern of young and spent buffalo meat. This study suggests that with ageing period there is improvement in tenderness of both spent and young buffalo meat.

2.19 A novel superchilling and vacuum packaging process for improving the shelf-life of fresh mutton chunks

B. M. NAVEENA, A. R. SEN, M. MUTHUKUMAR, C. RAMAKRISHNA, Y. BABJI, AND S. VAITHIYANATHAN

National Research Centre on Meat, Chengicherla, Hyderabad

Fresh meat is highly perishable and requires well established cold chain for prolonged storage and distribution and to provide safe, wholesome and quality meat to consumers. This invention was carried out with an objective to extend the shelf-life of fresh, boneless mutton chunks using vacuum packaging and superchilling (-1 ºC) process without freezing and to compare its efficacy with that of existing chilling (4 ºC) and freezing (-18 ºC) methods. An innovative blast chilling followed by storage at -1.5 ºC was optimized under this experiment. Superchilling resulted in uniform, smaller ice crystals on the surface of meat which insulates the product from minor temperature abuse during storage. The superchilling was efficient in maintaining the freshness of mutton chunks without adversely affecting any physico-chemical, sensory and microbial quality parameters up to 80 days of storage. This novel

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process may be utilized by the buffalo meat processors and exporters for efficient storage and intercontinental transport of fresh sheep meat as an alternative to freezing technology with less labour, space, energy and premium price for the produce.

2.20 Characterization of buffalo meat proteome using 2-Dimensional gel electrophoresis

KIRAN, M.1, K. SUDHAKAR REDDY1., B. M. NAVEENA2., M. SHASHIKUMAR3.

AND V RAVINDER REDDY3 1 College of Veterinary Science, 2 NRC Meat, Hyderabad, 3 CVS, Korutla, Karimnagar

Our limited understanding of the biological impact of the proteome profile on meat quality presents an important problem in the improvement of meat quality attributes. As a result, there is a need to identify biomarkers that can determine the meat quality. The realization that tenderness is a product of the proteome profile has important implications. In 2-DE proteins within a complex mixture are resolved first by charge, or isoelectric point (pI) and then by relative molecular mass (Mt). In the current study attempt has been made to unravel proteome profile of Indian buffalo meat to identify protein biomarkers influencing tenderness using 2-DE. The extraction and purification of proteins from Longissimus dorsi muscle of spent female buffalo meat was standardized using different treatments like tissue lysis, homogenization, vortexing and centrifugation for total protein purification. The extracted proteins were quantified by 2D Quant Kit. About 800 µg of proteins diluted in rehydration buffer was loaded onto IPG (Immobilized pH Gradient) strips (11 cm, 3-10 pH range) for overnight to undergo passive rehydration followed by IEF (Isoelectric Focusing) with standardized protocol. Focused strips are equilibrated using equilibration buffer 1 and 2 containing Dithiotheritol (1%) and Iodoacetamide (2.5%) respectively. SDS PAGE (Sodium dodecyl sulphate Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis) of equilibrated strips was performed at a constant voltage mode of 100 V at 60 mA current until the tracking dye reached the lower end of the gel. After complete running, gel was carefully removed and stained using standard coomassie and silver staining procedures. After thorough destaining the gels were scanned using Labscan 6.0. and were analyzed using Imagemaster 2D platinum 7.0 software. Using 2-DE technique, we have successfully separated about 496 and 415 protein spots in coomassie and silver stained gels respectively. These protein spots will be further characterized using mass spectrometry.

2.21 Abattoir material: a source of regenerative medicine

NANDEDKAR P.V., MOHITE N.R., SHAILESH BAGALE, SHAIKH G.M., DHUTRAJ P.G. AND A. AZIZ

College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences (MAFSU), Parbhani

Stem cells are believed to revolutionize the way medicine is practiced in the near future. Antibiotics and drugs may soon be replaced by cell-based therapies. Extensive research is ongoing to realize their clinical potential. Embryonic stem cells are believed to be highly versatile and possess

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maximum therapeutic potential. These embryonic stem cells are isolated from the inner cell mass of blastocyst which are a precious commodity and are source material used in regenerative medicine. In vitro maturation and in vitro fertilization of oocytes obtained slaughtered buffalo ovaries have recently provided a practical means for producing large number of bovine zygotes at low cost for research and commercial settings. Application of this assisted reproduction technology in buffalo will not only improve productive and reproductive potential but will also help rescue the precious germ plasm going to waste by indiscriminate slaughter of this animal. In the present study we have used buffalo ovaries and testis obtained from the abattoir to establish sophisticated procedures of in vitro maturation, in vitro fertilization of eggs, and embryo culture. To optimize in vitro embryo production of buffalo, study was designed with an objectives (1) to compare the oocyte maturation rates in media containing buffalo estrus serum and foetal bovine serum; (2) to compare the embryonic development of presumed zygotes by co-culturing with and without cumulus cells in the media. Immature oocytes were graded on the basis of cumulus expansion and grade A & B oocytes were matured in TCM 199 supplemented with hormones and growth factors divided in two groups. Twenty-four hours post in vitro oocyte maturation in the medium (TCM-199+ 5µg FSH+ 1µg 17β-estradiol + Gentamicin, 50µg/ml + 0.8mM sodium pyruvate + 5 per cent follicular fluid) supplemented with 10% FBS and 10% EBS, MII stage oocytes were 55.91 and 62.11 per cent, respectively. Total 108 in vitro matured oocytes were fertilized with capacitated spermatozoa and were divided into two groups 1) 54 zygotes cultured in mCR2 medium with cumulus cells and 2) 54 zygoytes cultured in mCR2 medium without cumulus cells. In Ist group a total of 29 (53.70 per cent) zygotes were cleaved, 9 (16.67 per cent) zygotes were reached upto morula stage of embryo and 16 (29.63 per cent) zygotes were arrested at different stages of embryonic development, where as in IInd group total 31 (57.41 per cent) zygotes were cleaved, 10 (18.52 per cent) were reached upto morula stage and 13 (24.07 per cent) zygotes were arrested at different embryonic stages of development. Results in the present study upto morula stage of embryonic development are satisfactory and showing marked differences in the both the groups. In-vitro maturation, fertilization and embryo culture procedures on oocytes obtained from abattoir ovaries (inedible part of carcass) has created resource material to develop blastocyst as source of embryonic stem cells used in regenerative medicine in near future.

2.22 Changing consumption pattern and demand for non-vegetarian food of Indian households

SIVARAMANE N.1, B. M. NAVEENA2, D. R. SINGH3 AND PRAWIN ARYA3 1NAARM, 2National Research Centre for Meat, Hyderabad, 3IASRI, New Delhi.

In India, cultural and religious aspects play a great role in the consumption of non-vegetarian produce. A considerably large section of population is vegetarian (lacto-vegetarian) in India. The consumption of beef is considered a taboo for Hindus, while pork is taboo for Muslims. Even the non-vegetarian in this country consume less quantity of non-veg products and avoid consuming meat, fish and eggs on particular days of a week and particular fortnight or months in a year for religious obligation. However, animal products like milk, milk products and honey are generally considered as part of the vegetarian diet. On the other

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hand, some section of the people considers egg or fish as part of the vegetarian diet. According to the 2006 Hindu-CNN-IBN State of the Nation Survey, 31 per cent of Indians are vegetarians, while another 9 percent consumes eggs. Among the various communities, vegetarianism was most common among Jain community and then Brahmins at 55 percent and less frequent among Muslims (3 percent) and residents of coastal states. While about two-third of the population in India is non-vegetarian by choice, the actual consumers are close to 58 per cent due to non-availability or affordability constraints. Eateries in India clearly specify vegetarian and non-vegetarian food served and it has become mandatory to label the food products based on the contents of animal products namely, green dot for vegetarian, brown for non-vegetarian (meat/fish) and yellow for egg ingredients. The change in consumption pattern was studied using data available through the quinquennial rounds of National Sample Survey Data based on the nation-wide large sample consumer survey conducted regularly once in five years starting from 1972-73. So far eight quinquennial surveys on household consumption expenditure have been conducted so far during 27th, 32nd, 38th, 43rd, 50th, 55th, 61st and 66th rounds of NSS pertaining to the years 1972-73, 1977-78, 1983, 1987-88, 1993-94, 1999-2000, 2004-05 and 2009-10 respectively. The results showed that there is a huge rise percentage of expenditure on non-veg products including egg, fish and meat from 5.27 percent and 6.20 percent during 1993-94 to 8.31 percent and 8.17 percent during 2009-10 for rural and urban consumers respectively. The annual compound growth rate worked out for non-veg products showed that chicken meat witnessed very high growth of about 12 per cent since 1993-94 and egg also witnessed a high growth rate of about 11 and 9 percent for rural and urban consumers respectively. The average per capita monthly consumption of chicken meat increased from 20 grams and 30 grams during 1993-94 to 123 grams and 180 grams during 2009-10 for rural and urban consumers respectively. Similarly, the consumption of rural and urban households increased from 0.64 and 1.48 eggs per capita per month during 1993-94 to 1.73 and 2.67 eggs per capita per month during 2009-10. On the other hand, beef and buffalo meat consumption has witnessed negative growth during 1993 to 2010. The study also showed that consumers of egg, fish group (fish and prawn types) and chicken form the majority of non-veg population. However, a critical examination revealed that while the proportion of households consuming chicken has increased by leaps from just 7.5 percent and 9.0 percent of rural and urban households during 1993-94 to 16.6 percent and 21.5 percent during 2009-10, the proportion of household consuming fish has considerably come down. The demand for different type of non-veg products were analyzed using the household survey data pertaining to the period 2009-10 using Linear Approximated Almost Ideal Demand System model. The expenditure elasticity close to 2 indicates that the demand of poultry meat has high potential to increase tremendously in the future given the price level and the rising per capita income of Indian consumers.

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2.23 Extraction and purification of myoglobin from cardiac or skeletal muscles of Indian Buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis)

B. M. NAVEENA AND K. USHA RANI

National research Centre on Meat, Chengicherla, Hyderabad

The isolation and purification of myoglobin is necessary to study the species-specific auto-oxidation mechanism of myoglobin which is the main factor for meat discoloration. The meat pigment, myoglobin is primarily responsible for meat color and it is a sacroplasmic, heme protein. In order to understand the reasons for darkness of buffalo meat this study was conducted with an objective to estimate the myoglobin concentration, meat colour and to extract and purify the myoglobin from cardiac or skeletal muscles of Indian buffaloes. The complete procedure was carried out at 4 °C. Fresh cardiac/skeletal muscle was minced and homogenized with homogenization buffer containing10mM Tris-HCL and 1mM EDTA, pH 8.0 and centrifuged at 5000g for 10 min. The supernatant was brought to 70% ammonium sulfate saturation and centrifuged at 18,000g for 20 min. The resulting supernatant was saturated with 100% ammonium sulfate and centrifuged at 20,000g for 1 hour. The precipitate was resuspended in homogenization buffer and dialyzed against buffer containing 5mM Tris-HCL and 1mM EDTA, pH 8.0 for 24 hours with frequent changes at regular intervals. The dialyzed sample was filtered through 0.45 µm and 0.2 µm syringe filters and loaded on Toyopearl-HW 50F resin for size exclusion chromatography (Column: 2.5 x 100 cm). The 5mM Tris-HCL with 1mM EDTA, pH 8.0 was used as a elution buffer at a flow rate of 60ml/h. The purified myoglobin will be used for further characterization using mass spectrometry.

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Abstracts

SESSION III INNOVATIONS IN VALUE ADDITION TO MEAT

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3.01 Comparison of antioxidant and antimicrobial properties of heated turmeric with nitrite in chicken mince

GOSWAMI MEENAa , PRABHAKARAN. P.b AND V.K. TANWAR c

aDepartment of LPT, DAVASU, Mathura bDivision of LPT, IVRI, Izatnagar, Bareilly c Department of LPT, GBPUA&T, Pantnagar

The nutritional and gastronomic value of cured meat has been adversely affected as

nitrite is considered as potential health hazards due to it’s tendency to get converted into known potent carcinogens like nitrosamines. Lots of efforts have been made to replace the nitrite with other phyto-chemicals from consumer health point of view. In present study also, the antioxidant and antimicrobial properties of heated turmeric 1000ppm (1200C for 15 minutes) (HT) were compared to Turmeric 1000ppm (T) and Nitrite 200ppm (N) on minced chicken stored at 4±10C. Physico-chemical properties (pH, TBA, PV and FFA) were evaluated on 0, 3, 6 and 9th day of storage. Antimicrobial studies as TVC, E. coli count, Clostridium sporogens count and Clostridium perfringenes count were carried out on 1, 4, 7 and 10th day of storage. Highly significant difference (P<0.01) was noticed between treatments and between storage periods in pH (5.922±0.03-HT as compared to C-5.898±0.05and N-5.899±0.02), TBA(0.559±0.09- HT as compared to C-1.569±0.04m and N-0.614±0.11), PV(1.566±0.17- HT as compared to C-2.595±0.41and N-2.03±0.21), FFA(1.176±0.19-HT as compared to C- 2.284±0.40 and N-1.446±0.24 and N- 7.194±0.68), TVC(log CFU/g) (7.588±0.73-HT as compared to C-8.583±0.49 and N-6.446±0.53), E. coli(log CFU/g) (6.435±0.54-HT as compared to C-7.658±0.71 and N-6.609±0.61), Clostridium sporogens count (log CFU/g) (8.102±0.65-HT as compared to C-8.681±0.74 and N-) and Clostridium perfringenes count(log CFU/g) (7.663±0.84 - HT as compared to C-8.790±0.53 and N-6.864±0.58). Heated turmeric was found to be highly effective than turmeric in terms of antioxidant and antimicrobial properties. Heated turmeric also had excellent potential to replace nitrite as natural antioxidant with other advantages. It was highly effective against E. coli. It was found to be effective against Clostridium perfringenes, Clostridium sporogens and TVC, but not upto the mark as in case of nitrite. Further research can be taken into consideration to replace nitrite with other spices and condiments for the production of safe and wholesome processed meat products.

3.02 Studies on development of Emu (Dromaius novaehollandiae) meat sausages S. S. ZANZAD, R. D. KOKANE, S. K. MANER, K. A. PATIL, N. D. DANGE

S. G. GONGADE AND Y. P. GADEKAR1 Department of LPT, Bombay Veterinary College, Mumbai.

1Central Sheep and Wool Research Institute, Avikanagar, Rajasthan.

The present study was aimed to find out optimum process for preparation of sausages from Emu meat. The sausages were made by two methods viz., steam cooking (15 psi for 15 min, T1) and water bath cooking (800C for 30 min, T2). The emu meat emulsion had an average composition as, protein 20.46 %, fat 8.76 %, ash 2.36 % and moisture 66.44 %. The pH was in the range of 6.0 for Emu meat emulsion. The WHC (%) of the emulsion found to

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be slightly lower than that of Emu meat 65.43 %. The emulsion stability averaged 95.81 %. The cooking yield was 96 % and 96.62 % in T1 and T2 respectively. Proximate composition was comparable. During storage, TBARS values were 0.11 and 0.29 on day 1 and increased to 0.14 and 0.38 on day 15 whereas, tyrosine values were 0.12 and 0.31 on day one and increased to 0.13 and o.44 on day 15. Similarly, total plate and yeast and mold count were 2.55, 1.77 on day 1 which increased to 2.58, 2.18 cfu/g on day 15 in T1 and T2 respectively. However, sensory analysis revealed that steam cooked sausages (T1) were significantly superior in almost all the sensory attributes over water bath cooked sausages (T2). This study revealed that the acceptable quality of sausages from Emu meat can be made by steam cooking under pressure.

3.03 Physical, chemical, microbiological and sensory characteristics of chicken curies

processed in retort pouches I. PRINCE DEVADASON, A. S. R. ANJANEYULU, Y. BABJI AND A. R. SEN

National Research Centre on Meat, Chengicherla, Hyderabad

Chicken curries filled in transparent flexible pouches were impulse sealed and

processed at a Fo Value of 6.50 with a processing time of 48 min in a water cascading retort sterilizer. The products were kept at ambient temperature and the physico-chemical, sensory and microbiological qualities were analysed in one month interval for a period of 18 months. The initial pH was 6.48± 0.03 at 0 day and there were no significant decline of pH at the end of 18 months. However TBARS values and Tyrosine values increased gradually from 0 day to the end of 18th month with the values of 0.18 ±0.04 and 0.28±0.02 at 0 day to 0.62±0.03 and 0.69±0.01 at the end of 18th month respectively. The sensory studies revealed that products were acceptable up to a period of 12 months with an overall acceptable score of 6.5±0.01 at the end of 12th month. However after 15 months there was decline in the texture characteristics. The microbial studies were conducted for anaerobes, total plate counts and yeasts and moulds. The results showed that there was no growth till the end of 18th month. The study indicated that chicken curries processed at a Fo Value of 6.50 were acceptable up to a period of 12 months.

3.04 Scanning electron microscopic study in correlation with texture and sesnory

characterisitcs of mutton curries processed in transparent retort pouches at different temperatures

I. PRINCE DEVADASON, A. S. R. ANJANEYULU, Y. BABJI AND A. R. SEN National Research Centre on Meat, Chengicherla, Hyderabad

In thermally processed foods, due to exposure to high temperature the textual and sensory characteristics of meat get altered. Mutton curries processed at a Fo value of 6.75 at four different temperatures of 110oC, 115 oC 118 oC and 121.1 oC. The mutton chunks were examined by scanning electron microscopy, shear force value and sensory characteristics for changes in the quality profiles. It was found that curries processed at 121.1 oC with a total processing time of 47 min showed intact muscle fibers and highly acceptable sensory profiles

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in the descending order of 118 oC,115 oC and 110 oC. The study has revealed that high temperature with lesser processing time have better textural and sensory characteristics when compared to products processed at lesser temperature with longer processing time.

3.05 Shelf life quality characteristics of chicken nuggets processed in retort

pouches by thermal processing I. PRINCE DEVADASON, A. S. R. ANJANEYULU AND A. R. SEN

National Research Centre on Meat, Chengicherla, Hyderabad

The shelf life of chicken nuggets processed in 3-ply transparent retort pouches at F0=6.75 in a still retort sterilizer were evaluated at 15 days interval for physico-chemical ,microbiological and sensory attributes for a period of 12 months. The pH of the product was 6.28 at 0 day and a gradual decline was noticed during storage. Texture of the product as indicated by shear force values had decreased slowly. The residual nitrite content had significantly declined from 82.67 ppm at 0 day to 45.00 ppm on 12th month of storage. The TBARS values were 0.24 and 0.67 mg malonaldehyde /kg , respectively at 0 day and 12th month of storage .Tyrosine value had increased from 0.37 mg/100 g at 0 day to 0.58 mg/100 g at the end of 12 months of storage. The sensory studies indicated that the products were well acceptable up to a period of 12 months. As the storage period increased pH, residual nitrite, sensory attributes declined significantly and TBARS value, tyrosine value and free amino acid content significantly increased. Mesophillic aerobes and anaerobes were found to be absent. The shelf life study indicated that the products were well acceptable up to a period of 12 months based on the assessment of physico-chemical, microbiological and sensory attributes.

3.06 Development of ready to eat (RTE) meat products in retort pouches by thermal

processing I. PRINCE DEAVADSON, Y. BABJI, A. R. SEN AND V. V. KULKARNI

National Research Centre on Meat, Chengicherla, Hyderabad

Thermal processing paved the way for the development of ready to eat (RTE) meat

products. In the earlier days processors were using metal cans as packaging material for thermal processing. In the last four decades retort flexible packages have vastly replaced the dominance of metal cans due to their unique advantages such as cost effectiveness, thin profile, less processing time, more nutrient retention, convenience in use and easy to dispose. All kinds of products can be retort processed. The National Research Centre on Meat, Hyderabad is actively in the development of ready to eat (RTE) meat products in the last four years. Different kinds of meat products such as emulsion products namely sausages, nuggets and patties and many traditional meat products such as curries, kheema, soups, briyanis have been developed and the product's shelf life quality were studied upto a period of 12 to 18 months. NRC Meat, Hyderabad is also giving training to entrepreneurs who are interested to start their own enterprise. Royal Heritage Foods, Srinagar, J&K employees got trained at

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NRC Meat and are successfully running a retort processing unit processing Kashmere delicacies called "wazwan". NRC Meat is also offering trainings regularly for entrepreneurs, students from SAUs and researchers from various facet of food industries.

3.07 Development and quality evaluation of protein rich mutton bar

K. JAYATHILAKAN, RAJKUMAR AHIRWAR, P. T. HARILAL, K. A. SRIHARI, M. C. PANDEY AND K. RADHAKRISHNA

Department of FD&APT, DFRL Mysore

Demand for high quality foods that are less heavily processed, containing lower levels

of preservatives and requiring minimal preparation at the user end had been on the increase world over, including India. Extension of shelf life of perishable foods and maximum retention of desirable qualities in the processed foods are the primary aims of all methods of preservation. Standardization of innovative technologies for the development of convenient shelf stable meat products is a challenging task for meat technologists to meet the demands of domestic and export meat sector. Studies were conducted to optimise the process parameters and ingredients for the development of protein rich mutton bar. Compression conditions were optimised for mutton bar and established its shelf stability by evaluating the physico-chemical, microbiological and sensory attributes. Deboned mutton pieces were marinated and subjected for cooking and mincing. Minced meat was hot air dried at 75 oC for 6 hours to obtain a moisture content of 9.83 g/ 100 g. Microbiological studies were carried out at different stages of processing by incorporating control measures to attain microbial safety. Powdered and mixed with other optimised ingredients and subjected for compression in Carver hydraulic press using 1 ½” mold. The bar was packed in cellophane and paper fold polythene and subjected for storage evaluation at 45 oC, 37 oC and RT (30±2oC). The compression characteristics like pressure, moisture, dwell time etc were optimised to achieve a bulk density of 0.9928 g/cc and a compression ratio of 2.017 using 1 ½ ” mould for 25 g bar. The optimised bar is a good source of protein (35.31 ± 0.36), carbohydrates (38.98 ± 0.15) and a moderate source of fat (10.14 ± 0.01) and provides 391 kCal/100 g. The aw of the product was found to be 0.53. Oxidative and hydrolytic rancidity parameters like TBARS, Non-heme iron and FFA did not vary significantly (p>0.01) upto 6 months of storage at RT and 37oC. Textural characteristics revealed a significant increase (p<0.01) in firmness in terms of Newton during storage at 45 and 37oC. Hue angle and Chroma values obtained from L*, a* and b* values indicated discoloration of the product stored at 45oC after 3 months. The product exhibited good microbiological safety throughout the storage periods at all temperatures. GLC profile of fatty acids revealed a ratio of 1:0.95:0.35 of SFA: MUFA: PUFA. Unsaturated fatty acids did not vary significantly (p>0.01) upto 6 months at RT and 37oC. Mutton bar stored at 45oC exhibited a shelf stability of 3 months in terms physico-chemical and sensory attributes. The product exhibited an overall acceptability score of 7.8±0.31 on a 9-point hedonic scale after 6 months of storage at 37oC. Mineral analysis of the product revealed a good source of zinc (155.2 µg/g) and iron (46.2 µg/g). The Ready-To-Eat product with quality protein and micronutrients developed by this technology can definitely

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meet the requirements of domestic and export meat products market and will be having lot of potential in civilian and service sectors.

3.08 Shelf life study of duck meat salami under refrigerated storage NASHRIN JEBIN, S. K. LASKAR, D. R. NATH, Z. RAHMAN, D. M. CHAVHAN

AND D. J. KALITA. College of Veterinary Science, A.A.U, Khanapara, Guwahati- 22, Assam

In the present study duck meat salamis were prepared by incorporating

simultaneously glutinous rice flour in the increasing order i.e. 0, 5, 7 and 10 % and duck fat in the decreasing order i.e. 15, 10, 8 and 5 % in the formulations viz. Control, T1, T2 and T3 respectively. These products were packed in food grade polyethylene bags and analyzed for shelf life study at refrigerated storage temperature (4 ± 1 ⁰C) with following parameters viz.

pH, water holding capacity (WHC), water activity (aw) and total viable psychotrophic bacterial count (TVPBC). It was observed that there was highly significant (P < 0.01) increase in pH from 1st (5.85) to 15th day (6.13) of storage. Increase in WHC were also found to be highly significant (P < 0.01) on 15th day (31.23) as compared to the day 1 (23.98). The correlation studies revealed a marked significant positive correlation between WHC and pH (r = 0.966 **). Moreover, aw values revealed a highly significant (P < 0.01) decrease from 0.9282 in 1st day to 0.8875 in 15th day of storage. The duck salamis however, revealed a significantly (P < 0.01) increasing trend in TVPBC from 5th (1.03) to 15th day (3.47) log10 cfu/g of storage with no TVPBC on the 1st day of storage. The results of correlation studies revealed a significantly negative correlation between aw and total viable psychotrophic bacterial count (TVPBC) (r = - 0.988**). Finally, it could be concluded that low fat duck salamis incorporated glutinous rice four can be prepared with shelf life upto 10th day at refrigerated storage temperature.

3.09 Effect of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) extension on the quality attributes of chicken

block SUMIT KAUR, PRANEETA SINGH, V. K. TANWAR, Y. V. SINGH AND K. P. SINGH Department of LPT ,CV&AS, G.B.Pant University of Agriculture & Technology, Pantnagar

Broiler meat industry has been the fastest growing industry for last few decades. The production has increased from 0.9 million tonnes in 2001, to 2.19 million tonnes in the year 2010. Plant proteins when added to meat emulsion, affect the properties of emulsion and its texture and alter the taste, flavor, appearance and nutritional qualities of the final product. Legumes are generally included in the diet of human beings as a source of rich quality protein. Therefore, keeping in view the above facts, the present study was envisaged to study the effect of extension of chicken block with cowpea on the product quality and consumer acceptability. Cowpea seeds were soaked and dehulled. These dehulled seeds were pressure cooked and grounded into paste. This paste was incorporated in the chicken mince at 0%(control), 5% and 10% level in the standard formulation replacing lean meat. The whole

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mixture was mixed with suitable ingredients and converted into emulsion. This emulsion was steam cooked in a mould to convert it, into a block. The blocks of three formulations were analysed for physico-chemical and sensory characterstics. On increasing the amount of cowpea incorporated in the emulsion ,significant (P<0.05) decrease in the pH was observed. Water activity also decreased ,though the difference was found to be non significant. Addition of cowpea paste showed significantly (P<0.05) higher cooking yield and emulsion stability. The values of emulsion stability at 0%, 5% and 10% level were 93.26%, 94.36% & 97.16% and of the cooking yield were 69.07%, 70.8% & 72.58% respectively. Significant (P<0.05) difference was observed in the TBA values of control and 10% level. The product produced was also anlysed for proximate composition. Analysis revealed that, moisture content decreased significantly (P<0.05) on addition of cowpea. There was a significant rise in the protein content on increasing the amount of cowpea in the emulsion i.e., 0, 5 and 10%. It was observed that control product had significantly (P<0.05) higher amount of fat than 10%, though, the value decreased non significantly at 5% level. Ash content was not significantly affected with cowpea addition, moisture:protein ratio decreased significantly (P<0.05) on addition of cowpea. Sensory analysis, on nine-point hedonic scaling by a panel of 10 members, revealed that, the mean values for all the attributes viz. colour and appearance, flavor, texture, juiciness and over all acceptability were higher for 5% level of cowpea paste addition, though the difference in the treatments was non significant. Therefore, it can be concluded that dehulled and pressure cooked cowpea can be incorporated into chicken block at the rate of 5% to make an economic product of similar texture and good nutritional properties without any adverse effect on the consumer acceptability.

3.10 Comparison of product profile of extended restructured mutton chops incorporated with pre-optimized level of different bind enhancing agents

HEENA SHARMA, B. D. SHARMA, SUMAN TALUKDER AND GIRIPRASAD R. Division of LPT, IVRI, Izatnagar, Bareilly U.P.

The main problem with restructured meat products is related to binding of meat pieces

and extension of the product is generally associated with poor binding and texture of the product. Here, the non-meat ingredients play pivotal role and can improve the appearance, palatability and texture of the finished products. In this study, extended restructured mutton chops were prepared to compare the efficacy of various bind enhancing agents at pre-optimized levels of incorporation viz., tamarind seed powder (1%), flaxseed flour (1%), gum tragacanth (0.1%) and gum acacia (0.5%) by replacing lean meat in pre-standardized restructured mutton chops formulation. The products were subjected to analysis for physico-chemical, sensory attributes, textural properties and colour parameters. The incorporation of tamarind seed powder resulted in highest cooking yield and protein percentage among other bind enhancing agents (P>0.05). Flaxseed flour led to increase in fat percentage and resulted in highest shear force value of the product but results were comparable to tamarind seed powder and gum acacia incorporated product. pH of the product was not statistically different among bind enhancing agents. Among the sensory attributes, control product had

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significantly lower value (P<0.05) for all attributes. All the bind enhancing agents were equally efficacious in improving binding and texture of the product, however, best general appearance of the product was obtained with flaxseed flour (P<0.01). Springiness, and chewiness of the product were highest for tamarind seed powder product (P<0.01), while gumminess was comparable to gum acacia product. The maximum redness in the product was obtained with the incorporation of tamarind seed powder (P <0.01). The water activity values of the product incorporated with bind enhancing agents were comparable (P>0.05).

3.11 Development and evaluation of extended restructured chicken meat block

incorporated with lotus (Nelumbo nucifera) root powder SUMAN TALUKDER, B. D. SHARMA, S. K. MENDIRATTA, R. R. KUMAR,

KANDEEPAN .G, O. P. MALAV, HEENA SHARMA, GOKULAKRISHNAN. P, R. DEV AND P. TALUKDER

Division of LPT, Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Bareilly

Restructured meat products are convenient, economic and nutritious. To improve the functionality and acceptability of the product, variety of vegetative extenders can be effectively utilized. The present study was envisaged to incorporate hydrated lotus root powder (HLRP) at three different levels viz., 5, 7.5 and 10% in extended restructured chicken block (ERCB), by replacing lean meat in pre-standardized formulation. The products were subjected to analysis for physico-chemical, sensory, textural properties and the storage quality. Cooking yield, water activity and shear force values of the treatment products increased and pH value decreased significantly (P<0.05) with increasing level of HLRP in comparison to control, however, protein and fat percent of the 10% HLRP added products decreased significantly (P<0.05). Among the sensory attributes, product with 7.5% HLRP showed significantly higher values (P<0.05) for flavor and texture whereas for overall acceptability it was comparable with the control. In treatment products the hardness increased and the adhesiveness decreased significantly (P<0.05) in compare to control product. The microbial quality was studied and it was found that product could be safely stored under refrigeration (4±1°C) temperature in LDPE pouches for 15 days without marked deterioration in quality. On the basis of sensory, physico-chemical and microbiological quality of the RCMB the optimum incorporation level of HLRP was adjudged as 7.5%.

3.12 Consequences of nitrogen flushing on physical and sensory attributes of mutton

based snacks S. K. MESHRAM, S. K. MENDIRATTA, S. CHAND, B. D. SHARMA

AND P. P. PRABHAKARAN Division of LPT, Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Bareilly

During storage of mutton based microwaved snacks, the moisture % and water activity were increased and pH decreased irrespective of method of packaging. Initially TBA value decreased and thereafter increased throughout storage. Irrespective of packaging method, sensory attributes gradually decreased during the storage, however modified atmosphere packaged snacks (packaged with100% nitrogen) had higher scores than

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aerobically packaged snacks on any particular days of storage. In aerobically packaged snacks, redness decreases during the storage, however in modified atmosphere packaged snacks it decreases up to 15th day and thereafter increased. Yellowness also increased significantly irrespective of the packaging. Thus, it can be concluded that technology of modified atmosphere packaging for shelf stable microwaved ready-to-eat mutton based snacks ensure better sensory quality and safety than aerobically packaging.

3.13 Study on effect of storage on rancidity and microbiological quaility of tenderized

spent hen meat pickcle M. MURUGAN1, K. S. JAYASREE, K. NARAYANANKUTTY AND A. K. K. UNNI

Department of Poultry Science, CV and AS, Mannuthy, Thrissur

An experiment was carried out to study the influence of ambient temperature storage

of 64 days on rancidity and microbiological quality of chicken pickle using tenderized (papain treated) and untenderized boned broiler breeder (New Hampshire) spent hen meat. The 2-thiobarbituric acid (TBA) number of untenderized and tenderized meat pickle were

ranged from 0.26 0.01 to 0.89 0.01 and 0.220.00 to 0.86 0.00 for zero to 64 days of storage. The TBA values between untenderized and tenderized groups were not differed significantly (P<0.01). The TBA values were increased, as duration of storage increased in both the groups. The TBA number of untenderized and tenderized groups was influenced by storage periods and differences in TBA numbers between zero and any other period of storage was statistically significant (P<0.01). The total bacterial count in untenderized and

tenderized group were 2.60 0.04, 4.43 0.04 and 2.60 0.03, 4.20 0.06 (log number) at zero and 64 days of storage. However, a trend of significant increase in total plate count was observed both in untenderized and tenderized meat groups with the advancement of period of storage except second and third week of storage. But there is no significant differences existed in counts between untenderized and tenderized groups at all periods of storage. Fairly low counts were observed in untenderized and tenderized groups even at 64 days of storage and this might be due to inhibitory actions of the pickle additives like salt. Note: Part of thesis submitted for Master of Veterinary Science (Poultry Science) to Kerala Agriculture University, Thrissur, Kerala

3.14 Study on effect of ambient temperature storage on nutritive value of tenderized

chicken meat pickcle. M. MURUGAN, K. S. JAYASREE, K. NARAYANANKUTTY AND A. K. K. UNNI

Department of Poultry Science, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, Thrissur A study was carried out to examine the feasibility of preparing chicken pickle using

tenderized (papain treated) and untenderized broiler breeder spent hen meat and to evaluate its nutritive quality for a period of 64 days storage at ambient temperature. It was observed that period of storage significantly increased the proximate composition viz., per cent crude protein, ether extract, and total ash and decreased the moisture content of the product

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(P<0.01). The mean percent moisture, protein, fat and total ash of untenderized and tenderized spent chicken meat pickle were 54.31± 0.50, 26.65± 0.34, 14.58± 0.27 , 3.66± 0.02 and 54.59± 0.15, 24.42 ±0.29, 14.46 ±0.37 and 3.61 ± 0.07 respectively. The proximate composition of untenderized and tenderized meat pickle did not differ significantly between the same periods of storage. But, with in the untenderized and tenderized groups, the proximate composition were found to be differ significantly (P<0.01) between the periods of storage. In untenderized and tenderized groups, the moisture content on zero day decreased

from 64.59 0.49 to 54.31 0.50 and 64.97 0.20 to 54.59 0.15 per cent on 64 days of storage. Storage of pickled meat had caused gradual, but significant (P<0.01) reduction in the moisture of both the groups. Storage of pickled meat caused significant increase in the protein and fat content in control and treatment groups. Reduction in the moisture content of pickled meat during storage contributed the higher levels of protein and fat in pickled meat. In both, untenderized and tenderized groups significant increase in total ash was observed during storage, which was due to the diffusion of salt of the recipe in the pickled meat. Note: Part of thesis submitted for Master of Veterinary Science (Poultry Science) to Kerala Agriculture University, Thrissur, Kerala

3.15 Study on processing yields and cooking losses of pure bred New Hampshire broiler breeder spent hen

M. MURUGAN, K. S. JAYASREE, K. NARAYANANKUTTY AND A. K. K. UNNI Department of Poultry Science, CV and AS, Mannuthy, Thrissur

New Hampshire is one of the promising breed in broiler industry especially used for developing broiler breeder male lines because of its superior meat type qualities. Spent or culled broiler breeder spent hens are also good source of meat, inspite of its low tenderness. To assessing the processing yields and losses of broiler breeder spent hen, a study was undertaken with six New Hampshire broiler breeder spent hen of 72 weeks old, reared under intensive deep litter management, slaughtered as per the standard methods. The mean live weight of broiler breeder spent hen was 2.10 ± 0.33 kg. The shrinkage after 8 hours feed withdrawal was 3.20 ± 0.12 per cent. Dressing yield was 89.50 0.10 and blood and feather loss were 2.60 ±0.95 and 7.80± 0.80 per cent respectively. Eviscerated yield was 65.40± 0.34 and Ready to cook yield (Eviscerated yield plus Giblet) was 70.50± 0.34, and Giblet yield was 5.05± 0.09 per cent respectively. The Head and Feet yield were 3.90± 0.08 and 4.50 ±0.05 per cent. The Total loss was 29.50± 0.32 of which loss due to inedible offal was19.10± 0.21 per cent. The cooking loss of the broiler breeder spent hen was 25.75 per cent.

3.16 Storage stability of soy protein extended chevon patties at refrigeration

temperature SAKET YADAV, PRANEETA SINGH AND V. K. TANWAR

Department of LPT ,CV& AS ,G.B.Pant University of Agriculture & Technology,Pantnagar

Goat meat (chevon) supplies a high quality protein and healthy fat, with minimal risk of cholesterol intake along with these, it’s a rich source of number of minerals and vitamins

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viz., iron, potassium, sodium and thiamine. Thus, it is used in different processed forms like, patties, sausages, nuggets etc. Though, the use of soy protein in muscle food is being practiced for centuries, but nowadays its utilization in food industry is becoming more common, due to it’s nutritional as well as functional qualities. Along with these qualities, soy protein is known to possess antioxidant property. Keeping in view the aforementioned facts the, present study was envisaged to assess the storage stability of chevon patties extended with 30% soy protein (soy 30) as compared with control (soy 0) at refrigeration (4±1oC) temperature.Chevon patties were prepared as per standard procedure with two sets of product viz., control (soy 0) and treatment (soy 30 i.e., chevon was replaced with soy crumbles @ 30%). These chevon patties were packed aerobically in sterilized LDPE bags and stored at refrigeration temperature (4±1oC). During storage these were subjected to various physico-chemicals, microbiological and sensory studies at every seven days interval till the product was unacceptable.During storage period the TBA values of control and soy 30 product increased significantly (P<0.05) from 0.417 to 1.03 and from 0.392 to 0.776, respectively. There was a significant (P<0.05) difference between TBA value of control and treatment group. Free fatty acid content increased significantly (P<0.05) in both the groups, but, the difference between the values of FFA content of control and treatment was non significant. The peroxide value showed a highly significant (P<0.01) effect of treatment and storage. The over all mean values during storage were 17.59 and 11.52 for control and soy 30, respectively. Which were significantly (P<0.05) different. There was a significant (P<0.05) increase in pH during storage period, but, difference between two groups was non significant. Microbiological analysis of the product revealed that during storage there was a significant (P<0.05) rise in the values of total plate count, coliform count and yeast and mould count from 0 to 14 days. Both coliform and yeast and mould were detected on 7th day. But the counts for control and soy 30 did not differ significantly. The products were also subjected to sensory analysis and it was observed that all the scores of sensory attribute viz. appearance/ color, flavor, texture, juiciness and overall acceptability, showed significant (P<0.05) decline during the storage period. But, the mean value for overall acceptability was significantly (P<0.05) higher for soy 30 (6.58±0.185) than control (6.17± 0.114). Hence,it can be concluded that antioxidant property of soy protein showed a beneficial effect, on the physico-chemical and sensory characteristics of chevon patties , during storage period.

3.17 Microbial and sensory qualities of pork patties incorporated with dietary fiber

from wheat bran RUPU SAHA, S. K. LASKAR AND D. R. NATH

Department of LPT, CVS, Assam Agricultural University, Guwahati

In this study pork patties enriched with dietary fiber were evaluated for microbial and sensory quality. Wheat bran (WB) was used as the source of dietary fiber. In the treated formulations, the fiber was added at three different levels (2, 3 & 4%). The lean meat was replaced with wheat bran (WB) in the preparation of pork patties. These were evaluated in relation to the control (CT) one containing no dietary fiber (0%). Emulsion was prepared by

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mixing the ingredients with minced meat and fat and then patties were cooked in pre heated hot air oven at 185 ± 5°C until the internal temperature reaches to 75 ± 2°C. The cooked patties were packed in food grade polyethylene bags and stored at 4 ± 1⁰C up to 15 days. The Total Viable Psychotropic Bacterial Count (TVPBC) (log cfu/g) recorded in the study were higher (P < 0.01) in the CT products. All the treated products recorded progressive increase bacterial counts (P < 0.01) along with the increase storage periods. No colititre values were recorded both in the CT or treated formulations and also on subsequent storage days. There was significant decreasing trend (P < 0.01) in all the sensory qualities i.e. colour, flavour, juiciness, tenderness and overall acceptability scores from the CT to the treated formulations containing WB at an increasing rate. The scores also decreased along with the increase storage periods, but were within the acceptable limits. It is concluded that pork patties can be prepared by replacing lean pork with dietary fiber from wheat bran up to 4% level, but CT one showed highest acceptability followed by 2% level.

3.18 Effect of addition of oat bran fiber on the physico-chemical qualities of pork patties

RUPU SAHA, S. K. LASKAR AND D. R. NATH Department of LPT, CVS, Assam Agricultural University, Guwahati

Pork patties were prepared using oat bran (OB) fiber at three different formulations

i.e. OB1 (2%), OB2 (3%) & OB3 (4%) and compared with control (CT) containing no fiber (0%). Increased level of incorporation of oat bran fiber showed significant (P < 0.01) differences (P < 0.01) in the emulsion stability between the CT and treated products. Increased duration of storage resulted in improved Water Holding Capacity (WHC) for both the CT and treated products. Irrespective of CT and treated formulations, an increasing trend in pH values along with the increase in storage period was recorded. Water activity (aw) showed significant differences (P < 0.01) between the CT and treated products, besides increased duration of storage had resulted significant decrease in aw. The Thiobarbituric Acid (TBA) values increased significantly (P < 0.01) on storage from day 1st to 15th in both the control and treated formulations. A significant decreasing trend (P < 0.01) in cooking loss from the control to the treated formulations was observed. It is concluded that pork patties can be prepared satisfactorily with the addition of oat bran fiber up to 4% level.

3.19 Organoleptic evaluation and meat traits of pressure cooked and microwave cooked

chicken fillets V. S. WASKAR1, P. P. GOSAVI1 AND A. A. DEVANGARE2

1Department of VPH 2Department of LPT, CVAS, MAFSU, Latur

Advent of technology has entered in our kitchen with man consumers are adopting

modern tools in cooking in addition to traditional means. The present study was carried out to compare the effect of traditional cooking with modern cooking methods. Fillets were hygienically separated from breast portion of broilers were marinated using mix of common salt-spices-condiments and divided in two lots. One lot was subjected to traditional pressure cooking while remaining lot was microwave cooked using standard power-time conditions.

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Moisture, protein and fat values were found to be reduced by 12.34%, 3.31% and 1.02% after pressure cooking, while reduction was 0.86%, 1.17% and 4.29% after microwave cooking. Cooking loss was 16.49% more after pressure cooking than microwave cooking. Organoleptic evaluation by a sensory panel indicated that scores of appearance, colour, odour, juiciness, texture, tenderness, flavour as well as overall acceptability of microwave cooked chicken fillets were proportionately higher than pressure cooked chicken fillets.

3.20 Physico-chemical, sensory and keeping quality of plain and enrobed chicken balls

V. S. WASKAR Department of Veterinary Public Health, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Udgir, Dist.

Most of the consumers require variety in daily meals and so preference is given for ready to eat or ready to cook meat products. Culinary habits of the people have changed with availability of fast foods at every corner. Meat based preparations are given preference owing to their appearance, satiety and nutritional value. In the present study, chicken balls were prepared by emulsifying boneless minced chicken with permissible binders, extenders, spices and condiments added in appropriate quantities. Chicken balls roughly weighing 50 g were prepared and divided in two batches, one batch of balls was directly deep fried in refined edible oil while another lot was enrobed with thick paste of gram flour in water and deep fried. Both the types of chicken balls were evaluated for the physico-chemical and sensory attributes. For keeping quality studies, the balls were packed in LDPE pouches, stored at room temperature and drawn at three hourly interval. The results indicated that plain chicken balls without enrobing showed 12.20% higher cooking yield and 8.43% lower cooking loss than the chicken balls enrobed with gram flour. Sensory attributes viz. appearance, colour, flavor, texture, juiciness and overall acceptability were adjudged significantly (P<0.05) low for enrobed chicken balls than plain chicken balls. On the basis of sensory qualities, plain as well as enrobed chicken balls were acceptable up to 9 hours at ambient storage indicating moreover similar shelf life. It can be concluded that consumers tend to have more preference to plain and fried chicken balls than enrobed material.

3.21 Studies on quality attributes of chevon nuggets containing arabic and guar gum

DIVYA Avian Nutrition and Feed Technology CARI, Izatnager Bareilly-243122

The present study was conducted to determine the effect on quality of chevon nuggets after incorporation of two types of gum viz. gum Arabic and Guar gum @ 0, 0.5%.1.0% and 1.5%. Physico-chemical attributes such as cooking yield, emulsion stability, proximate composition and colour etc. was recorded in all the formulations. Storage stability of the products was evaluated at 0 oC for 2 months storage period. Cooking yield was significantly (P<0.05) higher in nuggets containing 0.5 % gum Arabic. However, there was a slight decrease in yield at the higher level of incorporated gums. Emulsion stability was higher in samples containing Guar gum at the level of 0.5 % and 1.0 % addition than that of gum

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Arabic at the similar level. No significant difference in moisture content of cooked nuggets was observed at all levels of gum Arabic incorporation. However, the products added with Guar were having significantly higher (P<0.05) moisture content than that of control. Irrespective of levels of addition of both type of the gums, the hardness values decreased significantly (P<0.5). However, the decrease in hardness was more pronounced in the products with guar gum than that of gum Arabic. Other texture profiles of nuggets like springiness, cohesiveness, gumminess, adhesiveness and chewiness also decreased after addition of gums. There was no significant difference in colour of nuggets having Guar gum at all levels where as gum Arabic at 0.5% level of addition had significantly (p<0.5) higher redness values than other formulations. During storage, aerobic plate counts, coliforms and yeast and mould counts were recorded upto 60 days of storage. The aerobic plate counts were observed in the range of log 2.35 and log 2.65 and were within the acceptable limits. In the present study, no coliforms were detected in nuggets throughout the storage period. It can be concluded from the study that it is possible to reduce the addition of fat level in meat products through incorporation of natural gums without sacrificing the texture profile and sensory attributes of chevon nuggets.

3.22 Healthy low fat functional chevon nuggets: Design, development and quality evaluation

ARUN K. VERMA, V. RAJKUMAR, R. BANERJEE1 AND ARUN K. DAS CIRG, Makhdoom, 281 122, Mathura, India 1Department of LPT, Nagpur, 440006, India

An approach was made through present investigation to develop healthier low fat functional chevon nuggets with balanced PUFA/SFA ratio and to evaluate their various physicochemical, colour, textural and sensory properties as well as fatty acids profile against control. Low fat chevon nuggets were prepared with incorporation of goat fat (Control nuggets) and combination of goat fat and refined vegetable oil (Functional nuggets). Functional chevon nuggets had higher (P<0.05) emulsion stability, product yield, fat and ash content as compared to control nuggets. Ash content in functional emulsion was lower (P<0.05) than control. Hunter colour lightness value was higher (P<0.05) for functional chevon nuggets than control. Textural profile analysis revealed lower (P<0.05) hardness and work of shear values for functional nuggets as compared to control nuggets. Functional nuggets had lower (P<0.05) fatty acids such as (C10:0), (C14:0), (C14:1), (C15:0), (C16:0), (C17:0), (C17:1), (C18:0), (C18:1) and (C18:3) while fatty acids such as (C18:2), (C20:0), (C18:3), (C20:2), (C22:0), (C22:1), (C20:3), (C20:4), (C22:2) and (C24:1) were significantly higher. Medium chain triglycerides (MCT) and saturated fatty acids (SFA) were lower (P<0.05) in functional nuggets whereas polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), omega-6 fatty acids, PUFA/SFA ratio (1.06±0.05) and omega-6/omega-3 fatty acids ratio (4.46±0.66) were significantly higher. Sensory evaluation of both the products revealed statistically non-significant differences (P>0.05) among all the attributes except flavour which was higher (P<0.05) for functional nuggets. Thus, use of combination of goat fat and vegetable oil in chevon nuggets makes them lighter, softer and flavourful as well as functional with balanced PUFA/SFA ratio.

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3.23 Evaluation of the efficacy of pumpkin on the physico-chemical and sensory attributes of chicken sausages

FAYAZ AHMAD ZARGAR1, SUNIL KUMAR2, PARVEEZ AHMAD PARA3, WASEEM HUSSAIN RAJA4, PAVAN KUMAR5, NISAR AHMAD NISAR6, RIZWANA ZARGAR7, AND

LATEEF AHMAD GANAIE8 1, 2,3,4,5 & 8Division of LPT, 6Division of VP&T, 7Division of VB &P, SKUAST-Jammu

Three different levels of pumpkin viz. 6, 12 and 18 percent were used for the

replacement of corresponding amount of lean meat in preparation of chicken sausages. The proximate composition, physico-chemical and sensory properties of sausages were analyzed. Amongst the different physico-chemical and proximate parameters pH, emulsion stability, cooking yield, crude protein and ash content were significantly (p<0.05) lower in treated products as compared to control, where as the moisture content was significantly (p<0.05) higher in treated products. Crude fibre increased significantly (p<0.05) at 12 and 18% level of inclusion. Appearance and colour and flavor scores showed a non significant (p>0.05) effect with different levels of incorporation. The juiciness scores were significantly (P<0.05) higher at 18 percent level, whereas texture and overall acceptability was significantly (P<0.05) lower. However reduction was not significant (p>0.05) between the variants prepared by incorporation of 0 and 6 percent levels of pumpkin. The sausages with 12% level of pumpkin incorporation had highest (P<0.05) overall acceptability score. Hence 12% incorporation level of pumpkin was found optimum for preparation of chicken sausages.

3.24 Comparative efficacy of optimum levels of kohlrabi, pumpkin and carrot

separately in chicken sausages. FAYAZ AHMAD ZARGAR1, SUNIL KUMAR2, PARVEEZ AHMAD PARA3, WASEEM HUSSAIN RAJA4, ARVIND KUMAR5, NISAR AHMAD NISAR6, RIZWANA ZARGAR7,

AND MUZAFFER KHAN8

1, 2,3,4,5 & 8Division of LPT, 6Division of VP & T, 7Division of VB & P, SKUAST-Jammu A study was conducted to evaluate various physico-chemical properties and sensory attributes of the chicken sausages incorporated optimum levels of carrot (i.e.12%), pumpkin (i.e.12%) and kohlrabi (i.e.6%) and were compared amongst each other for physico-chemical properties and sensory acceptability. The pH of sausages with 6% added kohlrabi was significantly (P<0.05) lower as compared to control. Cooking yield in carrot treated sausages was significantly (p<0.05) lower than control. However it was significantly (P<0.05) comparable in the sausages with 12% added pumpkin and 6% added kohlrabi in the formulation. The moisture content in carrot and pumpkin containing sausages was comparable and significantly (P<0.05) higher than moisture content in kohlrabi containing sausages. The crude protein content in sausages with carrot and pumpkin was significantly (P<0.05) lower and comparable with each other, where as it was significantly (P<0.05) higher in control and kohlrabi containing chicken sausages. Ether extract content in the sausages with 12% added carrot was significantly (P<0.05) lower than rest of the treatments. The ash

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content in sausages with 12% carrot and 12% pumpkin was (P<0.05) significantly lower and comparable than sausages with 6% added kohlrabi and control. The crude fibre content was significantly (p<0.05) lower in control than the rest of the treatments. The mean overall acceptability score was significantly (P<0.05) higher in the products containing 12% pumpkin. Hence 12% incorporation level of pumpkin was found optimum for preparation of chicken sausages. Therefore, keeping all objectives in mind, the formulation with 12 percent pumpkin was adjudged as the best for development of fibre enriched chicken sausages.

3.25 Assessment of quality of okara incorporated chicken patties

JYOTI POONA, ANITA, ANCHAL PANWAR, V. K. TANWAR AND S. K. BHARTI Department of LPT, CVASc, GBPUAT, Pantnagar

A study was carried out to evaluate the quality of chicken patties, incorporated with

okara as extender. Okara is a white yellowish soy pulp consisting of insoluble part of soybean and obtained as a soy milk by-product. It contains 24% protein, 8-15% fat and 12-14.5% crude fibre. On the basis of standardization trials, 20% okara added patties were prepared as treatment and simultaneously 20% gram dal added patties were prepared as control. Results revealed that moisture retention and water holding capacity of treatment was 89.52± 0.0122 and 55.966±0.1428 respectively, which were significantly (P>0.05) higher than control for which values were 88.323±0.1443 and 54.663±0.1819. Whereas, cooking losses, pH and shrinkage values showed non-significant differences between treatment and control. Fat and ash content of treatment were 12.660±0.7671 and 3.200±0.9001 respectively which were significantly (P>0.05) higher than control (6.900±0.01513 and 1.7000±0.5131). Crude fibre content of treatment and control were 5.2233±0.1154 and 3.4600±0.1000 respectively and differences between these values were significant (P>0.05). Protein and moisture content showed non-significantly higher values for treatment than control. For the sensory characteristics treatment samples recorded significantly (P>0.05) higher juiciness values i.e. 6.7666±0.0882 for treatment than control i.e. 6.1333±0.0577. Flavour and texture values were also higher for treatment. However differences were not significant. Overall acceptability score of treatment (7.0333±0.0333) was lower than control (7.3000±0.0666) but differences between these values were not significant. It can be concluded that okara addition in chicken patties improves moisture retention, water holding capacity and sensory characteristics i.e. juiciness of chicken patties. Crude fibre content of product also increases, thus okara can be added as extender in meat products for value addition and as fibre additive.

3.26 Effect of incorporation of potato on quality of chicken cutlets

ANITA, CHETANA PANT, YOGESH KUMAR, V. K. TANWAR AND SUMIT KAUR Department of LPT, CVASc, GBPUAT, Pantnagar

A study was carried out to assess the effect of addition of different level of potato

(0%, 25% and 50%) on quality of chicken cutlets. Chicken cutlets containing 25% and 50% boiled potatoes were prepared as treatments (T25, T50) and cutlets without adding potato were

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prepared as control (C) and compared for physicochemical characteristics, proximate composition and sensory quality. Results of physicochemical analysis indicated that pH values of both the treatments were higher than control and differences were highly significant (P>0.01). Cooking losses of T25 and T50 were 12.7666±0.1666 and 13.2400±0.1258 respectively; which were significantly (P>0.05) lower than that of control (14.5600±0.4313). Highly significant differences (P>0.01) were observed in WHC of treatments and control whereas; WHC of T25 and T50 did not differ significantly. Shrinkage of T25 and T50 were significantly (P<0.05) lower than that of control whereas; moisture retention of T25 and T50 were significantly higher (P<0.01) than that of control. Fat retention was significantly (P<0.05) higher for both the treatments than control, however, protein content of T25, T50 and C did not differ significantly. Moisture content of T25 and T50 were significantly (P>0.05) higher than C but values did not differ significantly between T25 and T50. However, no significant differences were observed in ash content of all the samples. Sensory evaluation revealed that highest (P>0.01) score for colour and appearance, juiciness and overall acceptability were observed for T25. However, no significant differences were observed for texture value of T25 and C; whereas; it was significantly (P>0.05) lower for T50. It can be concluded that incorporation of potato for value addition of chicken cutlets at 25% level improves quality of chicken cutlets and also decreases the cost of production.

3.27 Development of shelf stable noodles from spent hen meat K. A. PATIL, R. D. KOKANE, S. JOSE, S. S. ZANZAD, S. K. MANER, N. D. DANGE,

S. G. GONGADE AND 1Y. P. GADEKAR Department of LPT, Bombay Veterinary College (BVC) Mumbai, 1CSWRI, Avikanagar

The study undertaken to develop value added shelf stable noodles from spent hen meat. Spent hen meat emulsion and two flour mixtures (wheat flour and maida) were admixed in 60:40, 50:50 and 40:60 proportions to process dough through single screw cold extruder. Noodles contained 20-25% protein. These noodles after steam cooking were dried in a heat pump drier operated under lower humidity and temperature to retain as much as aroma as possible. The microbial quality of spent hen noodles stored at ambient temperature revealed that the total viable count significantly increased as the storage period advanced. The storage study was restricted up to 30 days due to high microbial load. However, the cost of one kg noodles in the present study varied from Rs. 65.55 to 75.20 per kg depending on the proportions of spent hen meat in the dough formulations. A value added shelf stable flour noodles can be economically extruded with incorporations of spent hen meat emulsions in different proportions.

3.28 Cabbage powder (Brassica oleracea var. capitata alba) as a source of antioxidant dietary fibre in goat meat nuggets

RITUPARNA BANERJEE1 AND ARUN K. VERMA2 1Department of LPT, NVCollege, Nagpur 2GPT Lab, CIRG Makhdoom, Farah, Mathura

In the present study antioxidant potential of cabbage powder (CABP) was explored and further effects of its incorporation in goat meat nuggets as an antioxidant dietary fibre at

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three different levels i.e. 2% (Treat-I), 3% (Treat-II) and 3% (Treat-III) was evaluated against goat meat nuggets without cabbage powder (Control). Cabbage powder extract in water had 15.33 mgGAE/gm total phenolics while value in acetone water mixture (1:1) extract was 13.12 mgGAE/gm. DPPH radical scavenging activity and ferric reducing antioxidant power assay of both the extracts showed concentration dependent radical scavenging activity (RSA%) and absorption (A700). Cabbage powder contained rich amount of total dietary fibre (37.16%) which is comprised by 21.32% insoluble and 15.84% soluble fractions. Incorporation of CABP in goat meat nuggets improved (P<0.05) the moisture content, total phenolics and dietary fibre while ash content was decreased. Products redness value was decreased (P<0.05) whereas yellowness value was increased due to added CABP. Texture profile analysis revealed that addition of CABP significantly decreased (P<0.05) products hardness, gumminess and chewiness values. Sensorial parameters of the goat meat nuggets were not affected significantly due to added cabbage powder. Storage study of the products showed decreased (P<0.05) thiobarbituric acid reactive substance (TBARS) number with higher concentrations of CABP which was maintained throughout the 12 days refrigerated storage (4±1°C) period. Thus cabbage powder can be used as an antioxidant dietary fibre in goat meat nuggets to improve its sensory characteristics, functional and health values as well as storage stability.

3.29 Effect of pomegranate ellagic acid on physico-chemical and sensory attributes of

chicken nuggets A. A. SHEWALKAR, R. K. AMBADKAR, R. BANERJEE, K. S. RATHOD, H. P. NARKHEDE

AND R. V. WAGH Department of LPT, Nagpur Veterinary College, Nagpur-440006

An experiment was conducted to assess the physico-chemical and sensory properties of chicken nuggets made with or without incorporation of BHA (100mg/kg) and Pomegranate ellagic acid (PEA) at three different levels viz. 8 (T1), 10 (T2) and 12 mg/kg (T3). Irrespective of treatment, pH, cooking yield and proximate composition showed insignificant effect. The free fatty acid content was found to be significantly (P<0.01) lower in PEA nuggets in comparison to control and BHA. Significant (P<0.01) decrease in peroxide value was observed in the order of control>BHA>T1≥T2>T3. Significant (P<0.01) reduction in TBARS values were observed in PEA nuggets, however, values were not affected significantly irrespective of levels of PEA. Although, appearance was not found to affected by the addition of PEA, flavour, juiciness, texture and overall palatability increased significantly (P<0.01) in PEA nuggets. The optimum scores for sensory attributes were observed in T3.

3.30 Effects of addition of grape seed extract and dried holy basil powder as natural

antioxidants in chicken nuggets H. P. NARKHEDE, R. K. AMBADKAR, RITUPARNA BANERJEE, K.S. RATHOD,

P. G. KOKARE, P. M. BOKDE AND ANJANA MANJHI

Department of Livestock Products Technology, Nagpur Veterinary College, Nagpur-440006

An experiment was conducted to assess the shelf life of chicken nuggets made with or without incorporation of BHA (100mg/kg), Grape seed extract (9g/kg) (GSE) and Dried holy

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basil powder (4g/kg ) (DHBP) at refrigeration temperature (4+1oC) for 25 days. A significant increase in pH of the treatment products during the refrigerated storage (4±10C) period has been observed. Thiobarbituric acid (TBA) number (mg MDA/kg), Free Fatty Acid content (FFA) (% Oleic acid) and Peroxide Value (meq/kg fats) showed a similar gradual increasing trend during the storage period. Among the treatments, TBA number was found to be non-significant (p>0.05) in GSE, DHBP and BHA nuggets whereas all the samples varied significantly (p<0.05) when compared with control product. Peroxide values and FFA were found to be significantly (p<0.05) different among all the treatment groups. Of these, GSE treated chicken nuggets had the lowest values followed by DHBP, BHA and control product. Total Plate Count (log10 cfu/g) and the Psychrophilic Count (log10 cfu/g) were observed to follow a gradual significant (p<0.05) increase. A quite similar pattern of significant (p<0.05) inhibition of microbial spoilage in chicken nuggets was observed in both TPC and PC counts, among which GSE nuggets had the lowest count followed by DHBP, BHA and control product respectively. E. coli and Salmonella organisms were not detected in any samples throughout storage. Sensory studies revealed that GSE secured significantly (p<0.05) highest scores in appearance, juiciness and overall palatability followed by DHBP, BHA and control product. Whereas, DHBP nuggets reported significantly (p<0.05) highest scores in flavour and texture followed by GSE, BHA and control. From the above study, it can be concluded that GSE and DHBP can be opted by the meat processing industry in near future over synthetic established antioxidants.

3.31 Standardization of acidity level in hurdle treated chicken croquettes

using lactic acid S. SHARMA, J. SAHOO, AND M. K. CHATLI

Department of LPT, College of Veterinary science, GADVASU, Ludhiana Study was conducted to standardize the acidity level of hurdle treated chicken

croquettes (treated with humectants in combination of 0.5% carrageenan + 5% texturized soya protein) using lactic acid. Three different treated meat batters having pH 6.0(T1), 5.6(T2), 5.2(T3) along with control(C )were prepared using chicken meat along with other ingredients viz. refined soyabean oil, salt, sugar, sodium nitrite, TSPP, skim milk powder, maida, spice mix, condiments in required quantity .The products were examined for different physico-chemical quality, texture &colour profiles and sensory quality. It was revealed that water activity was significantly (P<0.05) lower in T3 than in T2 ,T1and C, but is comparable with T1 and T2. Product pH , emulsion stability and cooking yield was significantly (P<0.05) lower in T3 as compare to other treatments and control products. The colour profile showed a significantly (P<0.05) higher L* value and lower a* value in T3 as compare to C, T1 and T2.,while the texture profile exhibited a significantly (P<0.05) lower value for hardness, cohesiveness, chewiness, gumminess and resilience and non-significant difference in springiness and stringiness in the T3 product as compared to other batches. The evaluation of sensory attributes showed a significantly (P<0.05) higher score for flavour, texture,

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juiciness and overall acceptability in respect of T2 samples. Hence it was concluded that meat batter having pH 5.6 was the preferred pH for the preparation of chicken meat croquettes.

3.32 Effect of oats quaker on the quality characteristics of chevon cutlets SUNIL KUMAR, PRAMOD KUMAR SINGH, PAVAN KUMAR, Z. F. BHAT

AND ARVIND KUMAR Division of LPT , Faculty of Veterinary Sciences and Animal Husbandry, SKUAST- Jammu

A study was conducted to evaluate the effect of oats quaker on the quality

characteristics of chevon cutlets. Three levels of oats quaker viz. 2%, 4% and 6% were incorporated by replacing the lean meat. The quality of the products developed was assessed for various parameters including proximate parameters, texture profile, colorimetric values, water activity and sensory attributes. The mean moisture values of the cutlets showed a significantly (p<0.05) decreasing trend with increasing levels of incorporation of oats quaker. The fat content of the cutlets also decreased significantly (p<0.05) with increasing levels of oats quaker. The addition of the oats quaker significantly (p<0.05) improved the fibre content of the products besides enhancing the colour and texture. Mean scores of various sensory parameters i.e. flavour, juiciness and overall palatability showed a decreasing trend with increasing levels of incorporation however, no significant (p>0.05) change was observed up to the 4% incorporation level. The mean scores for appearance and color and texture showed an increasing trend with highest scores for the cutlets containing 4% oats quaker. Almost all the sensory parameters decreased significantly at 6% level of incorporation. Thus, based on various physicochemical and sensory parameters, incorporation of oats quaker at 4% level was considered as optimum for the development of chevon based cutlets.

3.33 Effect of aloe vera, amla powder and chitosan on the storage quality of modified

atmosphere packaged refrigerated low-salt restructured ham slices J. SAHOO, M. K. CHATLI, J. SINGH, AND DEEPIKA RANI

Department of LPT, College of Veterinary science, GADVASU, Ludhiana

Four batches of restructured ham slices (RHS) were prepared viz. C (high salt

control), T1 (low-salt), T2 (LS + aloe vera + amla powder) and T3 (LS + aloe vera + amla powder + chitosan), modified atmosphere packaged (70% N2+30%CO2), stored at a refrigerated temperature of 4+1o C for 42 days and examined for different quality characteristics. It was observed that the low-salt restructured ham slices (T1) had significantly (P<0.05) higher a* value, b* value, springiness and stringiness and significantly lower hardness, chewiness, colour score, flavor, juiciness and acceptability score as compared to high salt control (C ) during the storage period. There was a significantly (P<0.05) lower TBARS number, free fatty acids and higher pH in T3 samples as compared to C, T1, T2 batches. The colour profile indicated a significantly lower L* value, b*value and higher a*value in T3 batch when compared to C, T1 and T2 products. The redness (a*value) of product was significantly improved due to the effect of aloe vera and amla powder as

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evidenced in T2 sample. All the low salt products (T1, T2 and T3) showed a significantly higher a* value as compared to control sample. There was a significant (P<0.05) increase in hardness, stringiness, gumminess and chewiness of T3 samples at the end of storage. In general the hardness of the product increased as the storage period progressed. There was no significant variation between C and T1 in respect of SPC and staphylococci count. However the natural preservatives aloe vera, amla powder and chitosan improved the microbiological quality. The T3 products showed a significantly lower SPC and staphylococci count as compared to C,T1 and T2 batches during refrigerated storage. The coliform count and yeast and mould were not detected in any of the product variants. The sensory attributes in respect of colour, flavor, texture, juiciness and overall acceptability remained significantly(P<0.05) higher in T3 batch as compared to C, T1 and T2 samples. Based on the findings it is concluded that use of aloe vera, amla powder and chitosan as natural preservatives is very useful to improve the quality of MAP low salt restructured ham slices up to 35 days in refrigerated storage.

3.34 Utilization of aloe vera pulp in the development of designer chicken nuggets Z. F. BHAT, SUNIL KUMAR, PAVAN KUMAR, ARVIND KUMAR

AND PRAMOD KUMAR Division of LPT , Faculty of Veterinary Sciences and Animal Husbandry, SKUAST- Jammu

The study was conducted to explore the utilization of Aloe vera (Aloe barbadensis) in

the development of designer chicken nuggets. Three levels of Aloe vera pulp (Aloe barbadensis) viz. 5, 10 and 15 percent were used in the formulation replacing lean meat. pH of both raw as well as cooked chicken nuggets decreased significantly (P<0.05) with increasing level of incorporation of Aloe vera pulp. Proximate parameters i.e. protein, fat and ash percent decreased significantly (P<0.05) whereas moisture content increased significantly (P<0.05) with the increasing level of incorporation. The sensory parameters decreased significantly (P<0.05) with increase in the level of Aloe vera incorporation however, most of the sensory attributes of the nuggets containing Aloe vera upto 10 percent pulp were comparable with control. The developed chicken nuggets containing optimum level of Aloe vera pulp (10 percent) along with control samples were aerobically packaged in low density polyethylene (LDPE) pouches and were analyzed at a regular interval of 0, 7, 14 and 21 days during refrigerated storage at 4�10C. The mean pH values of the product showed a significantly (P<0.05) increasing trend however, Aloe vera enriched nuggets showed significantly (P<0.05) lower values in comparison to the control samples on all days of storage. The mean scores of all the sensory parameters decreased significantly (P<0.05) with storage. Total plate count and psychrophillic count increased significantly (P<0.05) throughout the period of storage although, the Aloe vera enriched samples showed significantly (P<0.05) lower values than control samples. Coliforms were not detected throughout the period of storage. Free fatty acid (% oleic acid) and thiobarbituric acid reacting substances value (mg malonaldehyde/kg) also increased significantly (P<0.05) with

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storage period but the Aloe vera enriched samples showed significantly (P<0.05) lower values in comparison to the control samples.

3.35 Evaluation of the comparative efficacy of optimum levels of different flours as enrobing material on the quality characteristics of chicken nuggets containing optimum

level of papaya pulp. PARVEEZ AHMAD PARA1, SUNIL KUMAR2, WASEEM HUSSAIN RAJA3, FAYAZ

AHMAD ZARGAR4, PAVAN KUMAR5, NISAR AHMAD NISAR6, RAHEEQA RAZVI7, AND LATEEF AHMAD GANAIE8

1, 2,3,4,5 & 8 Division of LPT, 6Division of VPT, 7Division of VA, SKUAST-Jammu

A study was conducted to evaluate various physico-chemical properties and sensory

attributes of the chicken nuggets enrobed with optimum levels of pea flour, black bean flour and green gram flour (25%w/w, 25%w/w and 25%w/w, respectively), containing optimum level (6%) of papaya pulp. The nuggets enrobed with 25% (w/w) green gram flour had significantly (p<0.05) higher pH values whereas the pH of nuggets enrobed with 25% (w/w) pea flour and 25% (w/w) black bean flour showed a non significant (p>0.05) difference with each other. The nuggets enrobed with 25% (w/w) green gram flour and 25% (w/w) black bean flour had significantly higher (p<0.05) cooking yield. The moisture content in nuggets enrobed with 25% (w/w) pea flour and 25% (w/w) black bean flour was comparable and significantly lower than the moisture content in nuggets enrobed with 25% (w/w) green gram flour which had significantly (p<0.05) higher moisture content. The extract content of the nuggets enrobed with 25% (w/w) black bean flour was significantly (p<0.05) higher. However the selected levels of pea flour (25% w/w) black bean flour (25% w/w) and green gram flour (25% w/w) had a non significant effect (p>0.05) on crude protein, ash and crude fiber content. The nuggets enrobed with optimum level of black bean flour in the batter had significantly (P<0.05) higher coating thickness value as compared nuggets enrobed with optimum levels of pea flour and green gram flour in the batter mix. Juiciness and overall acceptability was significantly (p<0.05) higher in the products enrobed with 25% (w/w) green gram flour. So 25% level of incorporation of green gram flour in the batter mix was considered optimum for preparation of enrobed chicken nuggets.

3.36 Effect of high pressure on instrumental colour, texture and microbiological qualities of chicken meat

SURESH DEVATKAL1, RAHUL ANURAG1 AND P. SRINIVASA RAO2 1Division of ASEC, CIPHET PAU Campus. Ludhiana, 2 Department of AFE. IIT Kharagpur

High pressure processing (HPP) is a non-thermal technology used for manufacture of pasteurized meat products with natural taste and flavour. High pressure processing involves an application of elevated pressure (100-900 MPa) at process temperature of less than 45 °C. High pressure modifies only non-covalent bonds and does not affect small molecules such as flavor compounds and vitamins; therefore, leads to less degradation in nutritional and sensory qualities as compared to thermal processed meat products. A preliminary study was

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conducted to evaluate the instrumental colour, texture and microbial quality of chicken leg and breast meat treated at 300 MPa for 5 min. Vaccum packaged and chilled meat samples were subjected to a pressure of 300 MPa in a high pressure vessel with a dwell time of 5 minutes and depressurized immediately. The highest temperature reached during the pressurization cycle was 40 °C and after depressurization, temperature dropped back to near ambient. Visual observation showed an accumulation of exudates in pressure treated leg meat. Colour studies indicated a significant increase in Lightness (L) (56 to 72 ) and yellowness (b) (8.3 to 13.6 ) of pressurized breast and leg meat. Redness (a) value also increased (0.88 to 2.54) in leg meat treated with high pressure. Peak cutting force was 242 N in pressure treated as compared to 110 N in untreated leg meat. Pressure treatment further increased gumminess, springiness and chewiness values in poultry leg meat.Microbiological studies showed a reduction of 3.0-log, 1.6 -log and 1.0-log in total plate counts, Enterobacteracea and Pseudomonas counts respectively. Further detailed investigations are being carried out to improve the quality and safety of chicken meat using high pressure processing.

3.37 Studies on shelf life of chicken meat emulsion incorporated with grape (Vitis vinifera) seed extract during refrigerated storage (4±1°C)

G. V. BHASKAR REDDY, A. R. SEN1, K. SUDHAKARA REDDY, K. KONDAL REDDY, T. MADHAVA RAO AND N. KONDAIAH1

Department of LPT, College of Veterinary Science, 1NRC on Meat, Hyderabad

In the present investigation, antioxidant and antimicrobial efficacy of grape seed extract (GSE) comparing with synthetic antioxidant i.e Butylated Hydroxy Anisole (BHA) was studied in chicken meat emulsion during refrigerated storage (4±1°C). Grape seed extract (GSE) had significantly (P<0.05) lower 2- thiobarbituric acid reactive substance (2-TBARS) values and free fatty acid (FFA) per cent compared to control (C) and Butylated Hydroxy Anisole (BHA) during refrigerated storage (4±1°C) of aerobic packaged chicken meat emulsion. Addition of GSE significantly (P<0.05) reduced the total plate counts, total psychrophilic counts and coliform counts during 14 days of refrigerated storage (4±1°C). GSE recorded significantly (P<0.05) superior scores of colour, flavour, juiciness and overall palatability than C and BHA. As the progressing of storage period, 2-TBARS values, FFA per cent and microbial counts increased significantly (P<0.05) and sensory scores were decreased significantly (P<0.05) with irrespective of treatments during entire refrigerated storage (4±1°C). But, these quality changes were within limits and not caused any significant quality deterioration during 14 days of aerobic packaged chicken meat emulsion. The results of this study concluding that addition of natural antioxidant i.e grape seed extract @ 0.01% is delayed the rancidity development, actively inhibiting the growth of micro organisms and further increasing the shelf life up to 14 days during refrigerated storage (4±1°C).

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3.38 Influence of tumbling and massaging on physico-chemical and textural quality of restructured mutton slices

G. V. BHASKAR REDDY, A. R. SEN1, P. N. NAIR1, K. SUDHAKAR REDDY, K. KONDAL REDDY AND T.MADHAVA RAO

Department of LPT, College of Veterinary Science, 1NRC on Meat, Hyderabad

The increasing success of restructured meat products has been based on the efficient use of tumbling and massaging of meat with salt and phosphates for extraction of salt-soluble proteins which bind meat chunks in order to produce a texture similar to the more desirable steaks and chops. The present investigation was undertaken to evaluate the physico-chemical, binding and textural quality of restructured mutton slices processed with hand mixing (control), tumbling (1hour), Massaging (1 hour) and Tumbling + Massaging (30 minutes each). Both tumbled and massaged formulation recorded significantly highest (P<0.05) cooking yield (90.48%), batter stability (85.52%) and water-holding capacity (57.04%) than slices restructured by hand mixing, tumbling and massaging only. The pH of restructured mutton slices did not significantly (P>0.05) influenced by various mechanical processing methods. The total moisture, protein and fat per cent values were slightly highest in restructured mutton slices processed by hand mixing but there is no significant difference (P>0.05) were found between control, tumbling, massaging and both tumbled and massaged meat. The highest total protein extractability was recorded in restructured mutton slices processed by both tumbling and massaging (24.69%) which is significantly (P<0.05) more than tumbled (17.15%), massaged (14.24%) and hand mixing (06.51%) samples. There is no significant (P>0.05) difference was noticed in collagen content of all formulations but collagen solubility was significantly (P<0.05) highest in restructured mutton slices processed by both tumbling and massaging. Restructured mutton slices processed with both tumbling and massaging significantly (P<0.05) recorded more adhesiveness, chewiness, cohesiveness, springiness and less hardness scores compared to the slices processed by hand mixing, tumbling and massaging only. In sensory scores, appearance/colour, flavour and mouth coating scores were did not significantly (P>0.05) influenced by method of restructuring process but chewiness, cohesiveness, juiciness and overall palatability scores were significantly (P<0.05) highest in restructured mutton slices processed with both tumbling and massaging. Findings of this investigation revealed that processing of restructuring of mutton slices by both tumbling and massing process is suitable for successful production of restructured mutton slices with good textural integrity and palatability.

3.39 Effect of incorporation of rice flour on the physico-chemical quality of chicken meat caruncles

SINGH. P, SAHOO. J, CHATLI, M. K AND BISWAS, A. K Department of Livestock Products Technology, College of Veterinary Science, GADVASU, Ludhiana

The present study was carried out using spent hen meat which is a good source of

animal protein and omega-3 fatty acids. Four different batches of chicken meat caruncles

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(CMC) were prepared from spent hen meat viz. C = 35% Refined wheat flour (RWF), T1 = 22.75% RWF + 12.25% Rice flour (RF); T2 = 17.50% RWF + 17.50% RF and T3 = 12.25% RWF + 22.75% RF and their physico-chemical quality characteristics were examined. There was no significant difference (P>0.05) of emulsion stability(%), cooking yield (%) and water solubility index (WSI) among the control and treated CMC. The pH was significantly (P<0.05) lower in treated samples than control CMC. The aw of control sample was significantly(P<0.05) lower than the treated sample but it did not significantly vary among T1, T2 and T3 batches. The hydratability significantly (P<0.05) decreased in T1, T2 and T3 samples (0.96-1.27) as compared to control batch (1.63). Water Absorption Index (WAI) was significantly higher (P<0.05) in control than T1 (3.79), T2 (3.80) and T3 (3.53) samples. The study showed that incorporation of rice flour improved the physico-chemical quality of chicken meat caruncles.

3.40 Effect of clove powder and modified atmosphere packaging on the sensory attributes of chicken meat caruncles during ambient storage (35±2°c) conditions

SINGH. P, SAHOO. J, CHATLI M. K AND BISWAS A. K Department of Livestock Products Technology, College of Veterinary Science, GADVASU, Ludhiana

Chicken meat caruncles were prepared in different batches i.e. CA (control, aerobic packaging), CMAP (Control, 50:50 CO2/N2 modified atmosphere packaging), TA (treated with 0.2% clove powder, aerobic packaging) and TMAP (treated with 0.2% clove powder, 50:50 CO2/N2 modified atmosphere packaging) and were stored at 35±2°C and 70% R.H. The sensory attributes were judged on an 8-point hedonic scale. Colour / appearance was significantly higher (P<0.05) in TA batch than CMAP and TMAP. Flavour score of TA sample was significantly higher (P<0.05) than CA. Crispiness of TMAP was significantly higher (P<0.05) than TA. The scores of After-taste, Meat flavour intensity and overall acceptability did not vary significantly among themselves. With the advancement of storage period, all the sensory attributes namely colour, flavour, crispiness, after-taste, meat flavour intensity and overall acceptability decreased irrespective of the type of product. The present study proved that treatment with clove powder and MAP could be effective to a great extent in improving the scores of sensory attributes of chicken meat caruncles.

3.41 Effect of process variables on texture profile of chicken meat caruncles SINGH. P, SAHOO. J, TALWAR. G, CHATLI M. K. AND BISWAS A. K.

Department of Livestock Products Technology, College of Veterinary Science, GADVASU, Ludhiana

The effects of processing factors such as spent hen meat level, oil level and cooking

time on textural attributes of shelf-stable ready-to-eat chicken meat caruncles were studied using Box-Bhenken design of Response Surface Methodology. The texture profile included Hardness (N), Adhesiveness (mJ), Adhesive force (N) and Stringiness (mm). All the textural parameters followed quadratic relationship with the process variables and having R2 value >90%. Linearly meat level showed significantly higher (p<0.05) effect on adhesiveness; oil

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level on adhesiveness and stringiness; and cooking time on adhesive force of chicken meat caruncles. Interaction of oil level and cooking time significantly (p<0.05) increased hardness, adhesiveness and adhesive force of chicken caruncles. Quadratically the effect of oil level was significantly higher (p<0.05) on all the textural attributes. The desirable product quality was achieved by 65% meat level, 5% oil level and a cooking time of 4 minutes where optimized values of hardness, adhesiveness, adhesive force and stringiness were 102N, 76mJ, 9N and 0.3 mm, respectively.

3.42 Traditional meat products of India – Using geographical indications (GI’s) as a tool

for enhancing their outreach & markets – A case study on ‘Hyderabad Haleem’ RAVI S1 AND MUTHU KUMAR M2

1Registered Geographical Indications Agent / Attorney, 2NRC on Meat, Hyderabad

Geographical indication (GI) is a name or sign used on products which possess certain qualities, uniqueness and enjoy a certain reputation due to its geographical origin. There are some very popular meat products in our country with unique characteristics to a given particular area / territory. A well-known example for such product is Hyderabad Haleem, the famous meat based product from Hyderabad. In Hyderabad region, it can be observed that the fasting (roza) undertaken by Muslims, during the holy month of Ramzan is culminated in the evenings (iftar) by having Haleem. Considering the uniqueness, special flavour and taste connected with the region of Hyderabad and traditional way of preparation, Hyderabad Haleem was identified for protection under Indian GI act and an application was filed for Geographical Indication with Indian Geographical Indication registry. Later, it was discussed with few prominent producer groups who have been involved in the manufacture of the product in the most traditional manner without any compromise whatsoever on the well laid out manufacturing procedures since historic days, for the embarking and initiation on the GI application. An association, Haleem Maker’s association, Hyderabad, to represent the best interest of the producers of authentic Hyderabad Haleem was formed and registered as per the requisites of the Indian GI Act. The field study was conducted for various parameters for uniqueness and historic details of the product. The various processes and stages involved in the making of Hyderabad Haleem right from procurement of goat meat to boiling of meat with potable water in traditional utensils, addition of ingredients, processing, adding of spices at appropriate quantities at the required time, mixing of ingredients using special devices, stirring, mashing of final product for fine texture and final packaging were thoroughly studied and analysed. The Statement of Case (SOC) document which is a key for any GI application was prepared by evolving a standard method of manufacture of the product in its every stage. National Research Centre on Meat, Hyderabad had expressed consent to be one of the main inspection bodies for up keeping of the quality of authentic Hyderabad Haleem. Samples were analysed for the specific quality attributes of authentic ‘Hyderabad Haleem’ by the institute. In recognition of its cultural significance and popularity, in 2010 ‘Hyderabad Haleem’ was granted Geographical Indication status by the Indian GI registry, making it the

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first processed non-vegetarian food in India to be listed as a registered Geographical Indication of India.

3.43 Effect of marinating chicken meat with garlic paste at room temperature on

common food borne pathogens SUDARSHAN S1, NADEEM FAIROZE2 AND RENUKAPRASAD C3

1Dept of LPT, Vet. College, Bidar; 2Dept of LPT, Vet. Col., Bangalore 3VC, KVAFSU, Bidar

To enhance the flavor addition of spices in food has been practiced from time

immemorial. But the role of spices as a biopreservative has been a recent concept. The incidence of pathogens in Chicken meat especially of Salmonella and E.coli has been reported in India and elsewhere. Among the commonly used spices the role of garlic in different forms as an antibacterial has been well documented. The present study was underpinned with an objective of determining the antibacterial efficacy of garlic paste on common food borne pathogens in Chicken meat by marinating under ambient temperature. Chicken meat was marinated with 1.5 and 2.5 percent of garlic paste (w/w) wrapped in aluminum foil for different durations. Microbial analysis was carried out at 0, 2, 4, and 6 hr interval at room temperature (26 ± 20 C). The overall mean ± SE values (log10 cfu/g) of Total Viable Count, Staphylococcus , E. coli and Salmonella counts of chicken meat as influenced by marinating with 1.5 per cent garlic paste were 5.24 ± 0.07, 4.34 ± 0.07, 3.08 ± 0.09 and 3.02 ± 0.03, respectively, for 2.5 per cent garlic paste were 4.95 ± 0.04, 4.14 ± 0.17, 2.94 ± 0.08 and 2.85 ± 0.06, respectively. Among the different groups of garlic paste concentrations and time combinations, the analysis of the data showed a significant (P< 0.01) reduction in colony forming units at 4 hr duration of marinating with 2.5 percent garlic paste for TVC, Staphylococcus, E. coli and Salmonella. This result can be recommended to the regulatory agencies, meat processors as well as the households to produce high quality food items by marinating Chicken meat with garlic paste at room temperature to reduce the microbial load.

3.44 Acceptability of ready to eat chicken curry from Krishibro birds

NAGA MALLIKA. E AND NAGA RAJA KUMARI K1 Department of LPT, 1Department of PS, NTR College of Veterinary Science, Gannavaram.

Krishibro is broiler type suitable for backyard rearing. Considering the scope and utilization of this variety for domestic consumption, an attempt was made to prepare ready to eat chicken curry using krishibro meat and to evaluate its quality in comparison with commercial broiler meat. Fresh chicken pieces washed with clean potable water kept in marinating mixture containing Vinegar as acidulant. The curry was prepared with addition of salt, spices and condiments to suit local taste. The sensory quality of ready to eat chicken curry of both commercial broiler and Krishibro were evaluated using 9 point Hedonic scale. The juiciness, texture and overall acceptability scores of Krishibro were almost consistent with commercial broiler (P<0.01). Significantly higher flavour scores were recorded in the curry prepared with krishibro meat. However colour scores did not show any significant variation (P<0.01). Over all pH of cooked curry was in range of 5.71 to 5.91 in gravy and

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pieces. Product pH in control commercial broiler and Krishibro did not reveal any significant difference. There was no significant variation in the proximate composition of the samples. Based on these findings it can be concluded that Krishibro meat can be utilized for domestic chicken meat preparations effectively.

3.45 Studies on effect of fermented bamboo shoot extract on shelf-life of pork

pickle CHAVHAN. D. M1, HAZARIKA. M2, BRAHMA. M. L3, RAHMAN. Z4 AND JEBIN. N5 1Department of VPH, BVC, Mumbai, 2CVS, AAU, Guwahati 3BU, Assam, 4SV Dispensary,

Sonabarighat, Cachar, Assam, 5National Research Centre on Pig, Rani, Guwahati

The fermented bamboo shoot extract (FBSE) which possesses strong antibacterial and

flavouring properties is used for preservation of animal products since time immemorial in North Eastern Region of India. The tribal people relish the distinctive flavour of FBSE. A chemical preservative (Vinegar) which is normally used for preparation of pickle was substituted by FBSE at the level of 50 and 100% so as to determine its suitability as preservative without affecting the important quality parameters of pork pickle. The shelf life was studied for a period of 90 days at room temperature and was determined on the basis of pH, titrable acidity, thiobabituric acid (TBA) values and total viable bacterial and mould counts. No significant differences (P> 0.01) with respect to mean values of pH, titrable acidity and TBA values of pork products with 50% and 100% replacement of bamboo shoot extract were found when compared to the control products. Pork pickles with 100% FBSE was found to be more stable than the control samples during the 90 days of storage period at ambient temperature. The total viable bacterial counts were found to be significantly(P >0.01) lower in 50 and 100% FBSE incorporated samples however the loads were within the acceptable range in all the products. The yeast and mould counts were almost nil during the entire storage period. Based on the above study, it can be concluded that FBSE can successfully be used as organic natural preservative to replace the conventional chemical preservative (vinegar) even at ambient storage temperature.

3.46 Preparation and storage stability of retort processed, Indian traditional type

chettinad chicken product S. RAJAN, V. V. KULKARNI AND V. CHANDIRASEKARAN

Department of Meat Science and Technology, VCRI, Namakkal

Chettinad chicken was prepared using boneless meat derived from spent chicken and boiler breeder packed in retort pouches (250g), and processed in retort at the product temperature of 121.1ºC and the corresponding F0 value of 5.2. The product was stored at ambient temperature (35 ± 2 o C) up to 180 days. The sensory scores for texture of the Chettinad chicken prepared from spent chicken and broiler breeder meat decreased significantly however the scores were rated very acceptable even on 180th day. The thiobarbituric acid (TBA), tyrosine values and acid value increased gradually during storage

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but E. coli, Salmonella spp, Clostridium spp, Staphylococci spp, Streptococci spp, yeast and mould could not be detected during the entire storage period. The cost of production of Chettinad chicken (250 g) prepared from spent chicken meat and broiler breeder meat was Rs.37 and Rs.50, respectively. It was concluded that the retort processed Chettinad chicken prepared from spent chicken and broiler breeder meat can be safely stored up to 180 days at ambient temperature.

3.47 Effect of modified atmosphere packaging on the storage quality of goat meat Waddi

at ambient temperature (35oC) SAHOO. J, CHATLI. M. K, BISWAS. A. K, SINGH. J AND KAUR. M Department of LPT, College of Veterinary Science, GADVASU, Ludhiana

Goat meat waddi (GMW) is a shelf stable meat product. It was prepared using different ingredients such as minced goat meat, refined soyabean oil, salt, sugar, STPP, sodium nitrite, spice mix, baking powder, whole egg liquid, maida, carragenan, chilled water in required quantities as per formulation standardized in the laboratory. Four batches of GMW i.e. aerobic packaged ( C ), MAP 100% CO2 (T1), 100% N2 (T2), 50% CO2+50% N2 (T3) were prepared, stored at temperature 35±20C for 120 days and the samples were examined at 15 days interval for different physico-chemical, colour and texture profiles, microbiological quality and sensory quality. It was found that the pH of T1 products was significantly (p<0.05) lower than other products from day 75 onwards. TBARS, FFA, PV followed an increasing trend throughout the storage irrespective of the packaging conditions. However, all the parameters were significantly (p<0.05) higher in aerobically packaged control product than MAP products. ABTS and DPPH value followed a declining trend during storage. However, the decline was significantly (p<0.05) lower in treated products than control. The colour profile (L*, a* and b* values) was comparable in all the treated products and control. The texture profiles i.e. hardness was lower in control product than treated product; however hardness followed an increasing trend during the storage. Springiness was comparable in all the batches irrespective of storage conditions and storage period. Cohesiveness, chewiness did not follow any trend during storage. The microbiological quality parameters including SPC, Yeast and mould and Staphylococci count were comparable in all the treated products; however it was lower than control batch. The sensory evaluation conducted by sensory panel members revealed that the colour and appearance, flavour, texture, juiciness and overall acceptability were better maintained in treated products than control during storage. Among treated products, the product stored under 100% CO2 (T1) maintained better appearance and colour and juiciness attributes. It is concluded that quality of GMW can be well maintained up to 120 days at ambient temperature (35oC) under different MAP conditions with100% CO2 is being preferable.

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3.48 Extension of shelf life of hurdle treated restructured chicken meat slices using modified atmosphere packaging technology

JIMOMI. U, SAHOO. J, BISWAS. A. K AND CHATLI M. K Department of LPT, College of Veterinary Science, GADVASU, Ludhiana

Six variants of hurdle treated restructured chicken meat slices (RCMS) viz. aerobic control (T1), aerobic hurdle treated (T2), aerobic hurdle treated+chitosan (T3), MAP control (T4), MAP hurdle treated (T5), MAP hurdle treated+chitosan (T6) were prepared using different ingredients i.e. chicken meat mince plus chunks, refined soybean oil, salt, sugar, TSPP, sodium nitrite, spice mix, condiments, whole egg liquid, skim milk powder, amla powder, aloe vera gel, chitosan, chilled water of required quantity as per product formulation, packaged in LDPE or laminated pouches, stored at a refrigerated temperature of 4±1°C for a period of 35 days examined for different quality characteristics at a storage interval of 5 days. The aw was found to be significantly (P<0.05) lower in hurdle treated+chitosan samples (T3 and T6) and also lower microbial load. T3 and T6 samples showed significantly (P<0.05) lower TBARS number and higher values for ABTS, DPPH, SASA (% inhibition) and total phenolic content as compared to T2, T5 and control batches both before and after storage indicating antioxidant efficacy of the natural preservatives used. Colour profiles indicated significantly (P<0.05) lower L* and higher a* and b* values in T3 and T6 products. Texture profiles indicated that hurdle treatment with incorporation of chitosan in RCMS significantly (P<0.05) improved the hardness character. Sensory attributes scores were significantly (P<0.05) higher in T3 and T6

samples during all the storage intervals regardless of the mode of packaging. SPC was significantly (P<0.05) lower in T6 as compared to T3 on day 20 and also it was lower in T6 as compared to T4 on day 35 indicating superiority of chitosan incorporation and MAP to improve quality of RCMS. Coliform count was not detected in T3 and T6 samples throughout the storage period indicating that hurdle treatment along with incorporation of chitosan could effectively check the growth of coliforms in the RCMS. It is concluded that hurdle treatment along with incorporation of chitosan and MAP could extend the shelf life of RCMS up to 30 days against 10 days in aerobic control sample.

3.49 Development and quality characteristics of tofu extended chicken meat nuggets

N. K. NAYAK, V. PATHAK, V. P. SINGH, M. GOSWAMI, PRAMILA AND TANUJA Department of LPT, U.P. Pt. Deen Dayal Upadhayaya Pashu Chikitsa Vigyan Vishwavidyalaya

Evum Go Anusnadhan Sansthan, Mathura

The study was conducted with an aim to reduce the cost of chicken nuggets by replacing part of lean meat with soy paneer (Tofu) and soy flakes. Tofu and water soaked soya flakes at the rate of 20% each were used in the formulation of chicken nuggets. The proximate composition of chicken nuggets revealed that fat and ash content were higher and protein content was significantly (P<0.05) lower in tofu extended chicken nuggets, however there was no significant variation (P>0.05) in moisture content in either of the extended nuggets. Initially TBA value was observed significantly (P<0.05) lower in both extended

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nuggets but there was no significant (P>0.05) difference in pH. Under refrigeration TBA, pH and TPC subsequently increased upto 12 days of storage however, did not exceed the safer limit throughout the study period. The overall acceptability was highest and cost of formulated products was lowest in tofu extended chicken nuggets.

3.50 Studies on quality of emu meat sausages standardized in comparison with broiler meat and spent hen meat sausages in refrigeration (4±10c) and freezing(-18±10c)

GOVIND. V, PRABHAKAR. K, ESWARA RAO. B , SRINIVASA RAO. T AND NAGAMALLIKA .E

Department of LPT, NTR College of Veternary Science, Gannavaram, A.P

Emu meat available in the market at present is tougher, less juicy and darker in

colour.Converting emu meat into emulsion based products like sausages offers better prospects as colour and palatability can be manipulated to enhance acceptability and marketability. Hence this study was undertaken in two phases.In phase I trials were conducted to standardize the recipe with the incorporation of corn flour and oat flour at 3% and 5% levels along with spices and condiments.Recipe with 5% corn flour incorporation was selected based on quality and economic considerations to study certain physic-chemical and organoleptic parameters at both refrigeration storage and frozen storage in comparison to the broiler and spent hen meat sausages of similar composition. Formulation with 5% corn flour had better colour (6.684±0.06), tenderness (7.441±0.077), juiciness (7.647±0.072), flavour (7.723±0.056), and overall organoleptic sensory acceptability (7.279±0.017) along with better emulsion stability (94.189±0.269), lower cooking loss (5.583±0.2) and lower fat percent (6.957±0.134). Storage studies were conducted for this formulation as it is more economical employing refrigeration and freezing in comparison to other two meat sausages. Irrespective of formulations, mean pH, Tyrosine, TBARS values and TVC of all three meat sausages had increased during refrigerated and frozen storage.Emu sausages recorded significantly higher pH (6.206±0.006), Tyrosine value (0.842±0.009) and lower TBARS (0.560±0.023) in comparison to spent hen meat sausages. Total viable counts (4.594±0.020) ,flavour (7.083±0.027) and Juiciness (7.072±0.028) score of emu meat sausages were significantly (p<0.01) higher in comparison to other formulations. This study indicates that corn flour incorporation at 5% level in emu meat can contribute to significant economic gains, with the advantage of low fat meat formulation can be satisfactorily stored for 3 days in refrigeration and 3 months in frozen storage and equal quality in comparison to broiler meat sausages and better in quality comparison to spent hen meat sausages.

3.51 Effect of incorporation of pumpkin on quality characteristics of chicken meat patties. AKHILESH K. VERMA, V. P. SINGH AND V. PATHAK

Department of LPT, U.P. Pt. Deen Dayal Upadhayaya Pashu Chikitsa Vigyan Vishwavidyalaya Evum Go Anusnadhan Sansthan, Mathura

The reported study was envisaged to reduce the cost of formulation of meat patties by incorporation of pumpkin without compromising on the acceptability. Four different variants

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were prepared replacing lean meat with pumpkin at the levels of 0, 10, 20 & 30 percent in the formulation. The formulation without pumpkin was taken as control. The analysis performed on the product revealed significant (P<0.05) increase in moisture, ash and moisture: protein ratio while fat and protein content significantly (P<0.05) decreased with enhancement in the level of pumpkin in formulation. Processing characteristics of control chicken patties were also significantly (P<0.05) different with the pumpkin incorporated products. The moisture retention in the products was significantly (P<0.05) increased with the increase in levels of pumpkin in patties. These products were microbiologically safe and counts were very well under the prescribed limits of processed meat products. All variants were very well accepted by the sensory panellists and were stable during 9 days storage period under refrigeration. The formulation containing 20 percent pumpkin was found best on the basis of various estimated parameters.

3.52 Application of hurdle concept in development of chicken lollipop V. P. SINGH, V. PATHAK, N. K. NAYAK, M. GOSWAMI, TANUJA AND PRAMILA

Department of LPT, U.P. Pt. Deen Dayal Upadhayaya Pashu Chikitsa Vigyan Vishwavidyalaya Evum Go Anusnadhan Sansthan, Mathura

Chicken lollipop is one of most relished chicken meat products throughout the globe.

The study was conducted to increase the shelf life of lollipops using combination of hurdles. The chicken wings were collected and shaped into the lollipop. Three different combinations were used i.e. control (lollipop without glycerol), T1 (lollipop with glycerol and corn flour) and T3 (lollipop with glycerol and bread crumbs). The chicken wings shaped in lollipop were then marinated for two hours. After marination lollipop were rolled over the corn flour/bread crumbs followed by cooking in controlled time temperature combination. Developed lollipops were subjected to physico-chemical, microbiological and sensory evaluation. The initial total plate counts did not differ significantly in any variants however significant (P<0.05) differences in TPC were observed between the control and other variants during storage under refrigeration. The product developed using glycerol and bread crumbs were found best in terms of sensory evaluation and microbiological quality.

3.53 Effect of different cooking methods on the quality attributes of chicken lollypops

TARUNPAL SINGH, MANISH K. CHATLI AND JHARI SAHOO Department of LPT, CVS, GADVASU, Ludhiana

Poultry wings are low-value cuts and development of value added products such as

chicken lollypops can improve its marketability. The present study was conducted to evaluate the effect of different cooking methods on the processing, sensory and instrumental texture & colour profile of chicken lollypop. Initially wings were marinated (salt, spice mix, condiments, curd, barbeque sauce, STPP) for 2 hours and then dipped in batter and brushed with bread crumbs and thereafter cooked into three batches viz; T-1; oven cooking (175ºC, 24 min.), T-2 -deep fat frying (165ºC, 6 min.) and T-3; Combination (oven cooking at175ºC, 12

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min. & shallow frying at 165ºC, 1.5 min.). The products were compared for physico-chemical (pH, cooking yield, water activity, texture and colour profiles) and sensory properties. Results exhibited that cooking yield was significantly higher (p<0.05) in T-1 amongst all the treatments. Water activity recorded highest for T-1, whereas lowest for T-2. Instrumental colour parameters lightness (L* values) was measured highest for T-1, redness (a*values) and b* values were highest in T2 and T3 respectively. The textural profile characteristics were comparable in all the treatments.The sensory quality attributes including overall acceptability were significantly (P<0.01) higher in T2 than T1 and T3. Results concluded that the sensory attributes of deep fat fried chicken lollypops were better with improved redness and lower water activity value, however it has lower cooking yield.

3.54 Efficacy of Apple (Malus domestica) peel extract as an antioxidant in pork emulsion

MANISH K. CHATLI, GAURI JAIRATH, RAVNEET KAUR AND JHARI SAHOO Department of LPT, CVS, GADVASU, Ludhiana

Lipid oxidation deteriorates the colour and flavour of meat and meat products. Natural

antioxidant can be explored to improve the oxidative stability of meat during aerobic refrigeration storage. The present study was conducted with an objective to evaluate the antioxidant potential of apple peel extract (APE) prepared in different solvents viz. acetone (T-1), methanol(T-2) and ethanol(T-3) in comparison to control (C) in raw pork emulsion during refrigerated storage (4±1°C) under aerobic packaging conditions. APE was incorporated at 3% concentration level in pork emulsion (lean meat:fat:: 80:20, salt;1.5%). The samples were drawn on 0,2,4 and 6th day and evaluated for various physiochemical (Total phenolics; TP, 2-2-azinobis-3ethylbenthiazoline-6-sulphonic acid radical scavenging activity; ABTS, pH, titratable acidity, Thiobarbituric acid reactive substances; TBARS, visual colour & odour scores, instrumental colour profile) and microbiological parameters (Standard Plate Count; SPC, Coliforms, Staphylococcus spp, yeast & mould count). TP content was extracted highest in T-1 and lowest in T-3. The indicators of oxidative stability of pork emulsion; ABTS and TBARS value were significantly (p<0.05) improved in treated products than control. ABTS value was measured highest for T-2 and lowest for T-1 among treated products. TBARS values were comparable in T-1 and T-2 however, it was significantly lower than T-3 and control. TBARS values followed an increasing trend whereas ABTS decreased during storage. The visual and instrumental colour profile was comparable in control and treated products on day 0, however it remained stable in treated products whereas it declined in control throughout storage. pH was significantly (p<0.05) higher in control than treated products. SPC, Coliforms, Staphylococcus and yeast & mould count were significantly lower in all the treated products than control irrespective of the type of solvent used for the extract preparation. Results concluded that APE prepared with methanol has stronger antioxidant potential with better microbial quality without any deteriorative effect on the odour of the pork emulsion during refrigerated storage under aerobic packaging conditions.

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3.55 Oxidative stability of pork emulsion incorporated with different Apple (Malus domestica) pomace extract

GAURI JAIRATH, MANISH K. CHATLI, RAVNEET KAUR AND JHARI SAHOO Department of LPT, CVS, GADVASU, Ludhiana

Lipid oxidation-induced quality problems can be minimized with the use of natural

antioxidants. Antioxidant potential of apple pomace extract was prepared in acetone (T-1); methanol (T-2) and ethanol (T-3) and was incorporated at 3% level in raw pork emulsion (lean meat: fat - 80:20,salt 1.5%) stored at refrigeration temperature(4±1°C) under aerobic packaging conditions and was compared with control (C). The pork emulsion was stored for 6 days and the samples were drawn at 2 days interval to evaluate (Total phenolics; TP, 2-2-azinobis-3ethylbenthiazoline-6-sulphonic acid radical scavenging activity; ABTS, pH, titratable acidity, Thiobarbituric acid reactive substances; TBARS, visual colour & odour scores, instrumental colour profile) and microbiological parameters (Standard Plate Count; SPC, Coliforms, Staphylococcus spp, yeast & mould count). TP content was measured highest for T-1 whereas ABTS value was highest for T-2 and these followed a declining trend throughout the storage. TP content and ABTS value were significantly (P<0.05) higher in T-2 than all the treatments on last day of storage. TBARS value was comparable in T-1 and T-2 however it was significantly (p<0.05) lower in treated products than control. Visual and odour scores were comparable in treated and control product on day 0, however it decreased with the increase in storage days w.r.t. control. SPC, Coliforms, Staphylococcus and yeast and mould count were significantly lower in treated product than control and similar trend followed throughout storage. Our results indicated that apple pomace extract prepared in methanol have better antioxidant potential and can be successfully utilized in raw pork products to minimize lipid oxidation, off-odor development, and surface discoloration.

3.56 Comparative evaluation of various Apple (Malus domestica) pulp extract as an antioxidant in pork emulsion

RAVNEET KAUR, MANISH K. CHATLI, GAURI JAIRATH AND JHARI SAHOO Department of LPT, CVS, GADVASU, Ludhiana

Pig meat is rich in unsaturated fatty acids, therefore highly susceptible for oxidation. It can be minimized with the use of natural antioxidants. Therefore present studies was conducted with an objective to evaluate the antioxidant potential of apple pulp extract prepared in different solvents viz. acetone, methanol and ethanol in raw pork emulsion during refrigerated storage (4±1°C) under aerobic packaging conditions. The extract was prepared using fresh apple pulp with above mentioned solvents in ratio of 1:9. The extract was incorporated up to 3% in pork emulsion and the samples were drawn at 2 days interval for evaluation of various physiochemical, visual colour and odour scores, instrumental colour profile and microbiological characteristics. TP content extracted highest in pulp-ethanol extract however, ABTS value was higher with pulp-methanol extract. pH was measured lowest with pulp-methanol extract and followed a increasing trend upto day 4 and thereafter decreased on subsequent storage. TBARS value was significantly (P<0.05) lower in treated

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products than control and measured lowest with pulp-acetone extract on day 6th of storage. Visual and instrumental colour profile were comparable in all the treated and control products. SPC, Coliforms, Staphylococcus and yeast and mould count was numerically lower with pulp-methanol extract than other treated samples however, it was significantly (P<0.05) lower in all the treated products than control. Hence, it can be concluded from the results that the pulp-methanol extract can be effectively used as an antioxidant in pork emulsion without any deteriorative effect on colour and odour of the meat. 3.57 Effect of clove oil (0.1%w/w) on the quality characteristics of papaya pulp enriched

enrobed chicken nuggets at refrigerated storage (4±1oc). PARVEEZ AHMAD PARA, SUNIL KUMAR, WASEEM HUSSAIN RAJA,

FAYAZ AHMED ZARGAR AND ARVIND KUMAR Division of LPT, SKUAST-Jammu.

The addition of clove oil in the meat emulsion showed a significant (P<0.05) effect on

some physico-chemical properties, microbiological properties and sensory attributes of

chicken nuggets. The products were stored under refrigeration temperature (410C), aerobically packaged in low density polyethylene pouches (LDPE) and were analyzed for physico-chemical, microbiological and sensory parameters till spoilage at 0, 7, 14, 21 days. In the present study, the pH value followed a gradual decreasing trend with the advancement of storage period. However in almost all treatments the pH value was significantly lower on day 21st of the storage. Clove oil treated products had higher acceptability with lower thiobarbituric acid reacting substances value (TBARS), free fatty acid (FFA) values and also lower total plate count (TPC), Psychrophilic count (PC) and yeast and mould (YMC) counts. Sensory scores reduced gradually with increase in the storage days. The sensory ratings remained between fair to very good upto 14 days during the storage period. On the basis of the various sensory scores and microbiological parameters the product was declared spoiled on 21st day of storage period. Thus, clove oil treated products could be stored safely in LDPE

pouches for 14 days under refrigeration (410C) without any marked loss of physico-chemical, microbial and sensory quality.

3.58 Effect of feeding organic iron and zinc on protein and ash content of the japanese

quail meat PRAKASH SANNAMANI, JAYANAIK, D. T. PAL1, K. VENKATA REDDY

AND H. N. N MURTHY Department of PS, Veterinary College Hebbal, 1NIANP, Adugodi, Bangalore

An experiment was carried out to evaluate the effects of feeding different levels of organic Fe (Fe-methionine) and Zn (Zn-methionine) on protein and ash content of the Japanese quail meat. A total of 600 day old quail chicks were allotted to five treatment groups (T1 to T5) of 120 chicks each with four replicates consisting of 30 birds per replicate. Birds were housed in battery cages under standard managemental conditions and fed ad

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libitum for a period of six weeks. Control diet (T1) was formulated by incorporating inorganic iron (120 mg/kg) and zinc (25 mg/kg) according to NRC (1994) specifications. The inorganic Fe (FeSO4) and Zn (ZnSO4) of the control diet were replaced by organic iron and zinc at recommended level (T2), two (T3), three (T4) and four times (T5) of NRC (1994) specifications. All the five experimental diets were formulated to be isonitrogenous (24% CP) and isocaloric (2900 Kcal/kg ME). The protein content of the meat (%) was highest (P≤0.05) in T3 group fed with organic Fe (240 mg/kg) and Zn (50 mg/kg) when compared to both higher (T4 and T5) and lower levels (T1 and T2) of iron and zinc fed groups, and it was lowest (P≤0.05) in inorganic (control) iron (120 mg/ kg) and zinc (25 mg/kg) fed group. Ash content of the meat was lowest (P≤0.05) in inorganic iron and zinc fed control group when compared to organic Fe and Zn fed groups (T2 to T5). However, among organic Fe and Zn fed groups, birds fed with highest level (T5) of Fe (480 mg) and Zn (100 mg) had lowest (P≤0.05) ash content in meat than other experimental groups (T2 to T4). The study revealed that supplementation of increasing levels of iron and zinc up to 240 and 50 mg/kg, respectively, in organic form have beneficial effect on protein content of the Japanese quail meat.

3.59 Study of physico-chemical properties of the vacuum packed guinea fowl meat

sausages at refrigeration temperature RUMA DEVI, V. K. TANWAR, P. K. SINGH, PRANEETA SINGH, ANITA,

AND P. P. PRABHAKARAN Department of LPT, CVAS, G. B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar

In the busy world of today, there is a great need of value added ready to eat food

products, having increased shelf life because globalization has changed the lifestyle of people to great extent. In this regard sausages are better alternate to other conventional food types. Guinea fowl meat has a unique taste to introduce variety on the dinner table rather than always having chicken, and the taste is similar to pheasant, without the excessive gamey flavour. The Guinea fowls mature at an early age, and are extremely delicate and flavourful being firm and plump, the Guinea fowl is easy to prepare and does not require defatting. In recent years there has been an increased demand for guinea fowl meat because it is lean and rich in essential fatty acids. The muscle is low in calories with only turkey meat having fewer calories than it. The meat is rich in vitamins such as vitamins E, B & B2 and minerals such as magnesium, calcium and iron. Guinea fowl meat is a good source of iron and protein. The present investigation was envisaged to assess the Physico-Chemical properties of guinea fowl meat sausages under vacuum packaging condition. Guinea fowl meat sausages were subjected to two different types of packaging treatment i.e. aerobic packaging with low density polyethylene bags (control) & vacuum packaging using barrier bags (Treatment) & stored at refrigeration temperature (4±10C). Physico-Chemical properties were analysed on 0th, 3th, 7th, 14th, 17th, 21th, & 30th day. pH of the aerobically packaged product was found to be non-significantly higher (P>0.05)than vacuum packaged product during storage period. Water activity was found to decreased during the storage period both in vacuum as well as

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aerobically packaged product, but the values were non-significantly higher (P>0.05)for aerobically packaged sample as compared to vacuum packaged product. The vacuum packaged product showed a highly significant (P>0.01) lower TBA & FFA value than aerobically packaged product throughout the observation period. Hence it can be concluded that vacuum packaging has a beneficial effect on Physico-Chemical properties of the product better than aerobic packaging.

3.60 Studies on processing and quality evaluation of meat surimi products

R. C. KESHRI AND S. K. MENDIRATTA Division of Livestock Products Technology, IVRI, Izatnagar

Attempts were made to develop suitable processing conditions and formulations of

meat surimi products of indigenous nature and the quality of the products were evaluated in fresh and stored conditions. Surimi is a much enjoyed food product in many countries and is available in many shapes, forms and textures. Generally, fish or meat of land animals are used for preparation of surimi products. The separated meat is minced or beaten to form a gelatinous paste. Depending upon the desired texture and flavour of the product, the paste is mixed with differing proportions of additives. This is then processed into surimi products. Meats of aged chicken were tried in the present investigation. The convenience, suitability and performance of surimi products such as meat balls, nuggets and patties were studied. The physicochemical (pH, TBA values and proximate composition) and sensory quality (appearance & colour, flavour, juiciness, texture and overall acceptability) of the standardized products were evaluated. Enhancement of the quality by further addition of preservatives (BHA plus BHT) and storability of the product in refrigeration (4±1ºC) and frozen (-18 ± 2ºC) conditions on the basis of physicochemical, sensory and microbial parameters were carried out. Ready to eat meat products namely patties, meat balls and nuggets of high sensory acceptability could be prepared by mincing the meat and fish flesh once mechanically passing through 8 mm sieve plate of a grinding machine followed by manual beating with wooden hammer to obtain better textural and binding properties in the final products. Meat patties, meat balls and meat nuggets of optimal quality could be prepared from emulsion having combination of fish flesh and chicken meat at 20:80 levels respectively, along with other ingredients, seasonings and condiments. Ready-to-eat products processed from chicken meat plus fish flesh (80:20) were found to contain 56.48 to 68.18 percent moisture, 14.23 to 22.17 percent protein and 8.91 to 11.44 percent ether extracts. The overall sensory acceptability was “Good to Very good”. The microbial enumerations ( TPC ) of these finished products in fresh conditions were 1.71 ± 0.12, 2.04 ± 0.07 and 1.92 ± 0.09 log cfu /g respectively, for the patties, nuggets and meat balls. The ready to eat products so prepared could be safely stored up to 20 days at refrigeration temperature (4°C) and for 60 days at frozen temperature (-18°C) without any adverse effect on physico-chemical, sensory and microbial qualities. The finished product’s cost could, thus, also be reduced to 10 % of the cost of the major meat after incorporating fish in the formulation.

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3.61 Effect of humectants on the physico-chemical characteristics of buffalo meat sausage

S. SURESHKUMAR, A. KALAIKANNAN AND V. VENKATARAMANUJAM VCRI, Tamil Nadu Veterinary and Animal Sciences University Namakkal,

A study was conducted to optimize the effect of aw, antibacterial, antioxidant and vacuum packaging during the development of shelf stable buffalo meat sausage. In the experiment, humectants viz. ISP (3 per cent), sugar (1 per cent) and sodium lactate (2 per cent) were employed for the preparation of sausages to adjust the aw to 0.90 and 0.88 along with extended cooking time. The effect of aw on the storage stability of the sausage stored at ambient temperature (35±2°C) was studied. The mean values of physico-chemical characteristics of buffalo meat sausage with added humectants and the analysis of variance recorded. Aw and the product yield of control, treatment 1 (ISP (3%), Sugar (1%)) and treatment 2 (ISP (3%) Sugar (1%) and sodium lactate (2%)) were 0.930±0.001, 0.902±0.001,

0.883±0.001 and 90.69±0.27, 93.00±0.75, 89.26±0.86, respectively. The emulsion stability for the control, treatment 1 and treatment 2 were 90.46±1.07, 95.27±0.29 and 90.86±1.39, respectively. Among the treatments, treatment 1 recorded the highest emulsion stability. The

emulsion and product pH for the control, treatment 1 and treatment 2 were 6.700.05,

6.810.05, 6.520.08and 6.78±0.05, 6.88±0.05 6.64±0.05, respectively. Shear force value (kg/cm2) values were 1.53±0.12, 1.48±0.16 and 1.17±0.02, respectively for control, treatment 1 and treatment 2. The overall acceptability scores were 7.07±0.24, 6.00±0.31 and 7.03±0.10, respectively. On analysis of variance there were highly significant (P ≤ 0.01) differences between the control and treatments in aw, product yield, emulsion stability, product pH, texture and overall acceptability scores while a significant (P ≤ 0.05) difference was noticed between the control and treatments in emulsion pH. There was no significant (P ≥ 0.05) difference in shear force values, among control and treatment groups. No significant (P ≥ 0.05) difference was noted in appearance, flavour and juiciness.

3.62 Effect of antibacterial and antioxidants on the storage qualities of buffalo meat sausage

S. SURESHKUMAR, A. KALAIKANNAN AND V. VENKATARAMANUJAM VCRI, Tamil Nadu Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Namakkal, Tamil Nadu

A study was conducted to optimize the effect of aw, antibacterial, antioxidant and

vacuum packaging during the development of shelf stable buffalo meat sausage. The influence of nisin and BHA combination at different levels on the physico-chemical and sensory qualities of buffalo meat sausage were studied. Aw of control, treatment A (Nisin 100 ppm + BHA 100 ppm), treatment B (Nisin 100 ppm + BHA 50 ppm), treatment C (Nisin 50ppm + BHA 100 ppm) and treatment D (Nisin 50 ppm + BHA 50 ppm) were 0.880±0.000,

0.879±0.001, 0.880±0.001, 0.880±0.001 and 0.879±0.000, respectively. The mean values of

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product yield was 89.59±0.66, 90.93±0.73, 90.85±0.66, 89.88±0.71 and 90.21±0.34 for control, treatment A, B, C and D, respectively. The mean values of emulsion stability was 92.82±0.75, 92.39±0.57, 92.51±0.66, 93.34±0.42 and 92.90±0.82 for control, treatment A, B, C and D, respectively. The emulsion pH for the control, treatment A, treatment B, treatment C and treatment D were 6.07±0.01, 6.09±0.01, 6.12±0.02, 6.16±0.02 and 6.03±0.01, respectively. The product pH of the control, treatment A, treatment B, treatment C and treatment D were 6.15±0.02, 6.16±0.01, 6.18±0.02, 6.21±0.01 and 6.16±0.20, respectively. Shear force values were 1.13±0.01, 1.15±0.01, 1.10±0.02, 1.15±0.01 and 1.10±0.02 (kg/cm2), respectively for control, treatment A, treatment B, treatment C and treatment D. Considering the sensory attributes of treatments, the treatment B fetched a high score for texture attribute, while treatment A received a high score for juiciness. The overall acceptability scores for control, treatment A, treatment B, treatment C and treatment D were 7.50±0.14, 8.67±0.12, 8.06±0.16, 8.06±0.16 and 8.45±0.19, respectively. On analysis of variance highly significant (P ≤ 0.01) differences was noticed between treatments in emulsion pH, juiciness and overall acceptability scores. Significant (P ≤ 0.05) differences between the treatments in shear force value and texture scores and no significant (P ≥ 0.05) differences between the treatments in aw, product yield, emulsion stability, product pH, appearance and flavour scores of buffalo meat sausages was noticed.

3.63 Study of physico-chemical properties of the vacuum packed guinea fowl meat

sausages at refrigeration temperature RUMA DEVI, V. K. TANWAR, P. K. SINGH, PRANEETA SINGH, ANITA

AND P. P. PRABHAKARAN Department of LPT, CVASG. B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar

In the busy world of today, there is a great need of value added ready to eat food products, having increased shelf life because globalization has changed the lifestyle of people to great extent. In this regard sausages are better alternate to other conventional food types. Guinea fowl meat has a unique taste to introduce variety on the dinner table rather than always having chicken, and the taste is similar to pheasant, without the excessive gamey flavour. The Guinea fowls mature at an early age, and are extremely delicate and flavourful being firm and plump, the Guinea fowl is easy to prepare and does not require defatting. In recent years there has been an increased demand for guinea fowl meat because it is lean and rich in essential fatty acids. The muscle is low in calories with only turkey meat having fewer calories than it. The meat is rich in vitamins such as vitamins E, B & B2 and minerals such as magnesium, calcium and iron. Guinea fowl meat is a good source of iron and protein. The present investigation was envisaged to assess the Physico-Chemical properties of guinea fowl meat sausages under vacuum packaging condition. Guinea fowl meat sausages were subjected to two different types of packaging treatment i.e. aerobic packaging with low density polyethylene bags (control) & vacuum packaging using barrier bags (Treatment) & stored at refrigeration temperature (4±10C). Physico-Chemical properties were analysed on 0th, 3th, 7th, 14th, 17th, 21th, & 30th day. pH of the aerobically packaged product was found to be

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non-significantly higher (P>0.05)than vacuum packaged product during storage period. Water activity was found to decreased during the storage period both in vacuum as well as aerobically packaged product, but the values were non-significantly higher (P>0.05)for aerobically packaged sample as compared to vacuum packaged product. The vacuum packaged product showed a highly significant (P>0.01) lower TBA & FFA value than aerobically packaged product throughout the observation period. Hence it can be concluded that vacuum packaging has a beneficial effect on Physico-Chemical properties of the product better than aerobic packaging.

3.64 Processing and quality evaluation of pickle prepared from dried yak meat

KANDEEPAN G.1, SANGMA S. AND RAMESHA K. P.2 NRCY, Dirang, 1 Division of LPT, IVRI Izatnagar, Bareilly, 2Southern Regional Station, NDRI, Bangalore

Yak is the major source of meat for its rearing community. Yak meat has great

demand among the consumers especially during Lossar, a major festival of west kameng and tawang districts of Arunachal Pradesh, India. Yak meat is utilized by the local people in various forms and dishes viz. dried meat (shia sangbu), curry (shia kamtang), sausage (juma), chutney, momo and thukpa. Dried meat is available in surplus during the festival season. Local people use them only for the preparation of curry form and none other technology is available in this region to utilize the excess meat in a different form. Meat pickle is good option for utilizing this surplus dried yak meat. Meat pickle is a shelf stable product and can be stored and consumed for a longer period compared to any other meat products. There is hardly any scientific information available on processing and quality evaluation of this meat product. Moreover, this technology would ensure the post harvest losses due to poor shelf life of fresh meat and high contamination by the spoilage microbes. Value addition would also bring about variety to the meat product available in the market. Therefore, a program was designed to develop pickle from yak meat and its quality was evaluated. A standardized processing protocol was utilized for the preparation of yak meat pickle. Dried meat was rehydrated and used in the experiments. The pickle was prepared in both chunk and mince form. The yak meat pickle has pH of 4.65, titratable acidity 0.138%LA, moisture 51.57%, protein 19.04%, fat 27.12% and ash 1.90%. The microbial profile of yak meat pickle comprises standard plate count of 1.54 log cfu/g and yeast and mold count of 1.96 log cfu/g. Yak meat pickle is a shelf stable product which can be stored for around 6 months at ambient temperature. Processing of pickle is the best way to utilize the surplus dried meat in the region where sophisticated meat processing equipments are beyond reach by the poor local people.

3.65 A study on packaging and shelf life of duck ham M. SINHAMAHAPATRA, D. BHATTACHARYYA AND S. BISWAS

School of Agriculture, Indira Gandhi National Open University, Maidan Garhi, New Delhi

A study was conducted to assess the shelf life of duck ham packed in PET/Poly and laminate of metalized PET/Poly with polyethylene pouches under aerobic and vacuum

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packaging and kept in refrigerator (4±1° C) and freezer (-18±1° C). The samples were analyzed for pH, TBA value, tyrosine value, proximate composition (moisture, protein and fat content), microbiological parameters (TPC, TPSC, TCC and YMC) and sensory qualities (colour, flavour, tenderness and overall acceptability). In case of pH, TBA value, tyrosine value, TPC, TPSC, YMC, protein and fat content, hams showed an increasing trend throughout the storage period in refrigerator and freezer temperatures. Moisture content and the scores of colour, flavour, tenderness and overall acceptability of hams decreased during storage with the advancement of the storage period in both the storage temperatures. While comparing the effect of packaging materials on storage quality of duck ham, laminate resulted in a better edge over that of PET/Poly pouches, though the difference was statistically insignificant. Irrespective of packaging materials, duck hams were acceptable upto 20th and 40th day of refrigerated storage in aerobic and vacuum packaging respectively and upto 3rd month and 5th month of frozen storage in aerobic and vacuum packaging respectively.

3.66 Effect of mousambi based natural antioxidant fortification on product

characteristics and storage quality of restructured buffalo meat steaks GIRIPRASAD R., B. D. SHARMA, SUMAN TALUKDER AND S. K. MENDIRATTA

Division of Livestock Products Technology, Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, UP

This study was conducted to explore the possibility of fortification of antioxidant through mousambi (Citrus limetta Risso) peel powder in restructured buffalo meat steaks. Three different levels of hydrated (1:5) mousambi peel powder viz. 0.25, 0.5 and 0.75 % were incorporated separately replacing the lean meat in standardized formulation. The steam cooked buffalo meat steaks were assessed for physico-chemical, sensory and storage properties. The cooking yield and moisture percent showed increasing trend with increasing level of mousambi peel powder which was significantly higher (P<0.05) at 0.5% and 0.75% levels as compared to control. The decrease in pH of treatments products was relatively small . The total phenolics (µg) content, which is the indicator of antioxidant capacity of mousambi peel powder showed significantly increasing trend (P<0.05) with increasing levels of incorporation, with the maximum value (343.11µg) at 0.75% level. Among the sensory attributes, general appearance, juiciness, texture and binding scores of treatment products showed an increasing trend with increasing levels of mousambi peel powder, whereas increase in flavour and overall acceptability scores was observed only upto 0.5% level. On the basis of physico-chemical and sensory properties, the optimum level for incorporation of mousambi peel powder was adjudged as 0.5%. The texture attributes like hardness, adhesiveness, springiness, cohesiveness, gumminess and chewiness of optimized mousambi peel powder added was comparable to control. The optimized product in aerobic packaging was stored at refrigeration temperature (4±1◦C) for 20 days and during the period of storage, thiobarbituric acid reactive substances in optimized product remained significantly lower (P<0.05) in comparison to control product. The total plate count and coliform count were significantly less (P<0.05) than control from 15th day onwards, whereas psychrophilic count

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was also less at 20th day. These findings indicated that the restructured buffalo meat steaks could be fortified with antioxidant using mousambi peel powder at 0.5% level and can be safely stored for a period of 20 days at refrigeration temperature (4±1◦C) with very good overall acceptability.

3.67 Assessment of qualitative characteristics of dark and

white muscle of spent turkey meat S. SANJIVI KUMAR, G. GAWDAMAN, V. KESAVA RAO, U. K. PAL

AND S. SELVAMUTHU Department of LPT, RAGCVAS, Puducherry

A study was undertaken to assess the physico-chemical properties of dark and white

muscle of spent turkey meat. Samples were evaluated for different parameters like pH, WHC, proximate composition, protein fractionation, collagen content, total pigment, muscle fibre diameter and microbial quality viz., standard plate count and coliform count (log cfu/g) of dark and white muscle of fresh turkey meat and the data were statistically analyzed. Highly significant (P<0.01) difference recorded with respect to pH of both dark and white muscle type. However, no significant differences were observed in WHC, collagen content and total pigment in both the type of muscle. Moisture (73.63% and 75.02%) and salt soluble protein (8.87 and 10.45%) contents of dark and white muscles, respectively varied significantly (P<0.01). Both protein (18.79 and 21.34%) and fat (5.98 and 2.27%) contents also showed highly significant (P<0.01) difference between dark and white muscles. The microbial loads of fresh turkey meat were within the safety level in both the white and dark muscle type. It was observed that white muscle is superior with respected to physico-chemical properties than the dark muscle of the turkey meat.

3.68 Effect of whole egg malange incorporation on physico-chemical, sensory and

microbiological properties of chicken meat nuggets from spent hen meat G. GAWDAMAN, V. KESAVA RAO, ROBINSON J. J. ABRAHAM*, S. SANJIVI KUMAR,

AND J. SELVAMUTHU *Department of MS and T, MVC, Chennai, Department of LPT, RAGCVAS, Puducherry

A study was undertaken to determine the optimum level of incorporation of whole egg malange for the preparation of chicken meat nuggets with 80 per cent deboned spent hen meat and 20 per cent chicken fat which was considered as control, to these three different levels (3, 5, 7%) of whole egg malange were added to replace the lean. The analysis revealed that nuggets with 5% level of whole egg malange was found to be optimum with respect to physico-chemical and sensory properties so which was further subjected to storage studies under refrigerated condition for10days. During the refrigerated (4±1˚C) storage period pH, TBA value, tyrosine value and microbial counts gradually increased but well within the acceptable limit. Based on the finding it is concluded that 5% whole egg malange incorporated nuggets could be stored upto 10days by aerobic packing in LDPE bag at

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refrigerated (4±1˚C) without any appreciable deterioration in the quality and acceptability of the product.

3.69 Comparative study on the shelf life of sun dried and oven dried chevon meat

chunks stored at room temperature G. GAWDAMAN*, S. SANJIVI KUMAR, V. KESAVA RAO, ROBINSON J. J. ABRAHAM

AND U.K. PAL *Department of M S and T, MVC, Chennai, Dept. of LPT,RACVAS, Puducherry

A study was undertaken with the objective to compare the shelf life determination of

sun dried and oven dried meat (chevon) chunks at room temperature storage. Chevon purchased from local market were brought to the lab, excessive fat and connective tissue removed, cut into small chunk and washed with potable water, to this 2.5% salt and pinch of turmeric powder added and subjected to two different drying (sun drying and oven drying) till the moisture level comes to 9-10% packed aerobically and stored at room temperature for 30days. The analysis revealed that there was a gradual increase in pH, TBA value, tyrosine value, total viable count, and staphylococcal count and yeast and mould counts with increase in storage period at ambient. Chunks dried at oven were superior in sensory and microbial quality than the sun dried meat chunks and significantly (P < 0.01) differed. Based on the finding it is concluded that sun dried and oven dried chevon meat could be stored upto 20 and 30days by aerobic packing in LDPE bag at room temperature without any appreciable deterioration in the quality and acceptability of the product.

3.70 Effect of carbohydrate based extenders on textural properties of chicken meat

patties KALAIKANNAN A, KULKARNI V. V, SANTHI D AND ELANGO. A

Department of M S and T, Veterinary College and Research Institute, Namakkal

The effects of incorporation of fibre rich whole grain wheat flour and oats on the textural properties of the chicken meat patties were studied. The whole grain wheat flour and oats flour were added to the chicken meat patties at 3 percent level each over and above the standard formulation. The emulsion pH and product pH were not altered much. The addition

of these fibres improved the emulsion stability significantly (P0.05). The product yield was improved by the addition of these extenders. The texture profiles analyses showed no undesirable changes in the texture. The Warner Bratzler shear force was significantly (P0.05) increased by addition of wheat and oats flour to the chicken meat patties. Hence it is concluded that carbohydrate based extenders can be used to reduce the cost of production of chicken patties.

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3.71 Development of novel value added emu meat products B. KARTHIK, ROBINSON J. J. ABRAHAM, V. APPA RAO AND G. GAWDAMAN

Department of Meat Science and Technology, Madras Veterinary College, Chennai-07

A study has been designed to develop novel value added emu meat products (cutlet

and tikka) and to assess their shelf life at refrigerated (4 ± 1oC) storage temperature. The parameters studied include physico-chemical properties, sensory characteristics and microbial qualities on 1st, 3rd, 5th and 7th day of storage. Results of the present study on cutlet and tikka from beef, chicken and emu revealed increase in pH, TBA and tyrosine value from ‘0’ to 7th day at refrigerated (4±1˚C) temperature. Similar findings were observed in microbial qualities count also, but the counts were well within the standard limits and coliforms were absent throughout the storage period. The sensory scores were found to be acceptable. It could be concluded that beef, chicken and emu cutlet can be stored well up to 5th day and tikka can be stored safely upto 7th day at refrigerated (4±1˚C) temperature storage. The deterioration of cutlet on 7th day was not due to microbial spoilage but due to development of rancidity.

3.72 Pulsed Electric Field Processing

TANUJA, PRAMILA UMARAW, ABHISHEK SINGH AND SANTWANA UPADHYAY Department of LPT, Pt.Deen Dayal Upadhyay Pashu Chikitsa Vigyan Vishwa Vidyalaya Evam Go

Anusandhan Sansthan, Mathura

Pulse electric field processing is an emerging preservation method for the

preservation of liquid and semi liquid foods like milk, yoghurt, soups and liquid eggs etc. It is non thermal method in which the food is positioned between the two electrodes and a voltage of 20-80kV is applied for a very short period of time i.e. less than one second from a radar like equipment. This voltage generates an electric field and damage the cell membrane of the vegetative microbes by the electroporation or electropermealization method in liquid medium. In foods like meat it increases permeability leads to an easy uptake of curing agents, spices etc. The vegetative cells are killed at about 150000 V cm-1 and at 35000 V cm-1. The frequencies of electric field in PEF technique is about 1000 times/sec.The processing of food using pulsed electric field causes only the inactivation of microorganism but not affect the sensory parameters and nutritional quality of processed food. The PSE processed foods requires refrigeration storage to prevent the growth of spores in low acid food but in case of acidic food refrigeration is applied to preserve the flavor for prolonged period. There is a need of aseptic packaging to prevent the post process contamination in PSE technique. The major limitation of this method is that it is not much suitable for preservation of solid foods due to their low electrical conductivity. PSE is an energy saving device and safe for environment also. It is also an economical technique in processing in comparison to thermal preservation techniques of food.

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3.73 Optimization of oats level for inclusion in chicken nuggets D. SANTHI, S. SURESHKUMAR, A. KALAIKANNAN, A. ELANGO, A. NATARAJAN

AND K. SUKUMAR Department of M S and T, Veterinary College and Research Institute, Namakkal

The objective of this study was to optimize the inclusion level of oats in chicken

nuggets to fortify with dietary fibre. Low-fat chicken nuggets were prepared with addition of oats at levels of 10% and 20% over and above the amount of meat and control without oats. The effect of addition of oats on the sensory properties, texture and proximate composition on the low-fat chicken nuggets was studied. The sensory evaluation showed that there was no significant difference in the overall acceptability between control and 10% addition level and was significantly (P0.05) low in 20% addition level. Texture analysis revealed that the

springiness was significantly (P0.01) lower in 20% addition level and there was no significant difference between control and 10% addition level. Cohesiveness was significantly (P0.01) higher in control and decreased with increase in the addition level of

oats. Resilience (P0.01) and chewiness (P0.05) significantly decreased with addition of

oats. The proximate analysis showed that the moisture level was significantly (P0.05) low in 20% addition level and there was no significant difference between control and 10% addition

level. There was significant (P0.05) increase in the crude fibre level in oats added nuggets but there was no significant difference between the two treatments. This study demonstrates that an acceptable low-fat chicken nuggets can be made in which oats can be added up to 10% level over and above the amount of chicken meat. 3.74 Effect of irradiation and antioxidants on quality attributes and shelf life of chicken

emulsion T. RAVI, M. SHASHI KUMAR, M. MUTHUKUMAR, K. SUDHAKAR REDDY

AND N. KRISHNAIAH CVVS, Hyderabad, National Research Centre on Meat, Hyderabad

A study was conducted to assess the effect of irradiation on shelf life of chicken meat

emulsion stored at refrigerated temperature under vacuum package with addition of natural and chemical antioxidants. The overall mean pH of control (no irradiation and no antioxidant), T1 (irradiated without antioxidant), T2 (irradiated with BHA) and T3 (irradiated with curry leaf extract) groups were 5.38 ± 0.04, 6.10 ± 0.04, 6.14 ± 0.04 and 6.08 ± 0.04, respectively with the control group recording significantly lower pH. There was decrease in pH with increased storage period. The overall mean 2-TBARS of control samples were significantly higher than irradiated samples. The T2 samples recorded significantly lower 2-TBARS among treatments. The storage period showed significant effect on mean 2-TBARS values. The overall mean total plate count (log10 cfu/g) of control, T1, T2 and T3 groups were 7.17 ± 0.06, 5.19 ± 0.06, 5.20 ± 0.06, 5.23 ± 0.06, respectively and the count increased with storage length. The mean E.coli and Salmonella counts (cfu/g) showed a gradual increase from day 1 to day 35 in control, while no colonies could be detected in irradiated groups. The

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overall mean scores for appearance and colour, flavor, juiciness, texture and overall acceptability of control samples were significantly lower than irradiated samples. The overall mean scores were lower on day 35 when compared to other period of storage. Thus, the present study indicated the promising potential of irradiation as a safe and efficient preservation method and curry leaves as source of potent antioxidant to retard oxidative rancidity.

3.75 Application of hurdle concept in development of chicken lollipop V. P. SINGH, V. PATHAK, N. K. NAYAK, M. GOSWAMI, TANUJA AND PRAMILA

Department of LPT , U.P. Pt. Deen Dayal Upadhayaya Pashu Chikitsa Vigyan Vishwavidyalaya, Evum Go Anusnadhan Sansthan, Mathura-281001

Chicken lollipop is one of most relished chicken meat products throughout the globe.

The study was conducted to increase the shelf life of lollipops using combination of hurdles. The chicken wings were collected and shaped into the lollipop. Three different combinations were used i.e. control (lollipop without glycerol), T1 (lollipop with glycerol and corn flour) and T3 (lollipop with glycerol and bread crumbs). The chicken wings shaped in lollipop were then marinated for two hours. After marination lollipop were rolled over the corn flour/bread crumbs followed by cooking in controlled time temperature combination. Developed lollipops were subjected to physico-chemical, microbiological and sensory evaluation. The initial total plate counts did not differ significantly in any variants however significant (P<0.05) differences in TPC were observed between the control and other variants during storage under refrigeration. The product developed using glycerol and bread crumbs was found best in terms of sensory evaluation and microbiological quality.

3.76 Effect of incorporation of pumpkin on quality characteristics of chicken meat

patties. AKHILESH K VERMA V. P. SINGH AND V. PATHAK

Department of LPT, U.P. Pt. Deen Dayal Upadhayaya Pashu Chikitsa Vigyan Vishwavidyalaya Evum Go Anusnadhan Sansthan, Mathura-281001

The reported study was envisaged to reduce the cost of formulation of meat patties by

incorporation of pumpkin without compromising on the acceptability. Four different variants were prepared replacing lean meat with pumpkin at the levels of 0, 10, 20 & 30 percent in the formulation. The formulation without pumpkin was taken as control. The analysis performed on the product revealed significant (P<0.05) increase in moisture, ash and moisture: protein ratio while fat and protein content significantly (P<0.05) decreased with enhancement in the level of pumpkin in formulation. Processing characteristics of control chicken patties were also significantly (P<0.05) different with the pumpkin incorporated products. The moisture retention in the products was significantly (P<0.05) increased with the increase in levels of pumpkin in patties. These products were microbiologically safe and counts were very well under the prescribed limits of processed meat products. All variants were very well accepted

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by the sensory panellists and were stable during 9 days storage period under refrigeration. The formulation containing 20 percent pumpkin was found best on the basis of various estimated parameters

3.77 Efficacy of Leaves (drumstick, mint and curry leaves) Powder as Natural

Preservatives in Restructured Chicken Slices A. P. NAJEEB, P. K. MANDAL, L. A. JUDITH, R. SARAVANAN, U. K. PAL

AND C. D. DAS Department of LPT, RGCVAS, Puducherry

The use of natural preservatives to increase the shelf-life of meat products is

promising since they have antioxidant and antimicrobial properties. Earlier a highly acceptable restructured chicken slice without addition of extra fat was developed but it was found to have shelf life of only10 days under refrigeration storage. Hence, the present study was planned to find out the efficacy of certain plant leaves (drumstick, mint and curry leaves) powder @ 1% level as natural preservatives on the physico-chemical, microbiological and sensory attributes of restructured chicken slices under refrigerated storage. A control product without preservative and a reference product with BHT (200ppm) were also prepared. Incorporation of these leaf powders at 1% level did not show any significant difference for both cooking yield (99.46-99.61%) and proximate composition (moisture 72.17-72.30%, protein 19.21-19.37%, fat 4.23-4.28% and total ash 2.32-2.38%) of restructured chicken slices compared to both reference (BHT) and control product during storage. All the products added with leaf powders showed significantly (P<0.01) lower microbial counts (2.97-3.72 log10 CFU/g) compared to both control and BHT added products. Yeast and mould were not detected in any of the products throughout the storage period. Sensory evaluation scores showed that restructured chicken slices incorporated with leaf powders were equally acceptable as reference product and rated good to very good for appearance, flavour, juiciness and overall palatability. Restructured chicken slices with leaf powders can be stored safely without much loss in its quality even up to 20 days under refrigerated storage.

3.78 Development of fermented chevon sausages using LAB cultures and fermented

bamboo shoot PRIYA VINNARASI. J, DAS C. D., MANDAL P. K., PAL U. K AND RAO, V. K.

Department of LPT, RGCVAS, Pondicherry Fermented sausages are the meat products in which biological acidification is brought

about by growth of specific microbial cultures such as lactic acid bacteria (LAB). Fermented bamboo shoot is a naturally available neutraceutical which can be used as source of acidification for sausages. The present study was undertaken to develop fermented chevon sausages using LAB cultures and fermented bamboo shoot powder (FBSP). LAB, namely Lactobacillus plantarum, Pediococcus pentosaceus and Micrococcus luteus as mixed cultures and FBSP were used in fermented chevon sausages. Control was prepared without LAB

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cultures or FBSP. The sausages were fermented at 280C for 12-14 hrs, dried at 6-80C for 12-14 hrs and then smoked for 7 hrs at 95-1000C. Cooking yield (%) of the fermented sausages was lower than the control sample. Fermented sausages containing LAB cultures had significantly (P<0.01) lower pH compared to control. The titratable acidity of control sausages was significantly (P<0.01) lower than LAB cultures fermented sausages. No significant differences were observed in the proximate composition of the control and LAB cultures fermented sausages. Based on sensory scores, control and LAB cultures fermented chevon sausages were rated as moderately palatable to very palatable. In fermented chevon sausages incorporated with different levels (3 % and 5 %) of FBSP, the cooking yield and ash content of the products increased significantly (P<0.01) with increase in level of FBSP. Although sensory evaluation scores revealed a significant decrease in flavor and overall acceptability of the products with increase in level of FBSP, still the products were well acceptable and rated as moderately palatable to very palatable. Based on the sensory evaluation results, it was observed that 3 % level of FBSP incorporated fermented chevon sausages were better compared to 5% level of incorporation. It was concluded that utilization of FBSP at 3 % level would not only be the biological way of meat product preservation but also quality of FBSP fermented chevon sausages was comparable to traditional LAB cultures fermented chevon sausages.

3.79 Efficacy of acetic, citric and lactic acid in improving the quality of marinated

chicken ABIDA JUDITH L., U. K. PAL, P. K. MANDAL, C. D DAS AND VINOTH KUMAR A

Department of LPT, RGCVAS, Pondicherry

A study was planned to find out the most suitable organic acid at an optimum

concentration to marinate chicken breast pieces along with salt, dry spice mix, green curry stuff and honey. In all the experiments, marinade of control samples contained all the ingredients except the acid. In experiment-I, three organic acids viz. acetic, citric and lactic acids, were tried individually at different concentrations (0.25%, 0.5% and 0.75%). The control and treated products were tested for pH, moisture, water holding capacity (WHC) and extract release volume (ERV) and also subjected to sensory evaluation. Results revealed that pH and WHC (%) decreased significantly (P<0.05) with increasing concentration of acids. Moisture (%) did not vary significantly (P<0.05) between the three levels of acids but slightly reduced compared to control. Organoleptic scores ranged between 7-8 on 9 point hedonic scale. But the product marinated with 0.25% scored higher when compared to 0.5% and 0.75%. Based on the results, 0.25% was selected as the optimum concentration of acids. Experiment II was conducted using the three acids at 0.25% to select the best acid to be used in the marinade. Products were tested for the above parameters. Results revealed that pH, moisture (%) and WHC (%) of acid marinated chicken did not vary significantly but were reduced slightly compared to control. Organoleptic scores ranged between 7.71-8.28 on 9 point hedonic scale. Product marinated with 0.25% citric acid scored higher compared to 0.25% acetic and lactic acids. In both the experiments, the ERV did not show much variation

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among acid treated samples but ERV was significantly (P< 0.05) higher in all the acid treated samples compared to control samples. It is concluded that 0.25% citric acid can be used to marinate chicken along with salt, dry spice mix, green curry stuff and honey.

3.80 Effect of Garcinia cambogia extract as a bio-preservative on the keeping quality of pork fry at room temperature

BHUVANA K. S, MANDAL, P. K. AND PAL U. K. Department of LPT, RGCVAS, Pondicherry

A study was conducted to assess the bio-preservative effect of the aqueous extract of Garcinia cambogia (Kachampuli in Coorgi) which was added to the pork fry as an acidulant . The pork cubes of 1cm³ were marinated with salt (1.75%) and selected dry spice mixture (2%), followed by frying for 45 minutes in sunflower oil (10%) along with the green curry stuff (onion, ginger and garlic paste in the ratio 3:1:1). The aqueous extract of Garcinia cambogia was added to the treatment 1 and treatment 2 at levels of 1% and 2% respectively. The products were cooled and stored in air tight glass jars and routinely analyzed for physic-chemical properties, microbiological quality and sensory attributes. The results indicated that the pH of the pork fry was lower in the treatment 1 (5.32) compared to the control (5.84). The TBA and tyrosine values of the pork fry in the treatment 1 (1.66 & 5.57) were also lower than that of the control (1.94 & 6.74). The microbiological quality (Standard plate count) remained within safe limits up to 6th day of storage in case of the treatments (log cfu/g 3.84) whereas, the control (log cfu/g 4.92) deteriorated after 48 hours of preparation. Results of sensory evaluation revealed that the flavor, texture, juiciness and overall acceptability were better for the treated pork fry and remained so throughout the study. From the physico-chemical, microbiological and sensory evaluation results, it was found that the use of aqueous extract of Garcinia cambogia at 1% level was optimum for the room temperature preservation of the pork fry for almost six days.

3.81 Functional starter culture and production of bioactive peptides from meat proteins

in fermented and dried probiotic chicken sausage A. R. SEN, B. M. NAVEENA, M. MUTHUKUMAR, I. PRINCE DEVADASON, P. N. NAIR

AND G. VIJAYBHASKAR REDDY National Research Centre on Meat, Chengicherla, Hyderabad

Studies were conducted to process probiotic chicken sausage with curd/dahi and

formation of bioactive peptides during ripening of fermented meat product. Temperature of appropriate fermentation was standardized by measuring the pH, total acidity and enumerating the Lactobacilli counts. The smoking time and temperature was also standardized to assess the viability of Lactobacilli. In probiotic chicken sausage the water activity dropped from 0.95 at the beginning of fermentation to 0.89 after 15 days of drying. After fermentation, Lactobacilli reached from initial 5.02 -5.26 log cfu/g to 9.05-9.29 log cfu/g. After fermentation and drying at 100C for 15 days, no Salmonella or Enterobactericeae

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was detected in all the fermented chicken sausage. After fermentation, Lactobacillus bulgaricus was in the range of 5.85-6.73 log cfu/g in all the samples. The PCR based speciation of Lactobacilli and sequencing was done and it was inferred that 99% of Lactobacilli population was Lactobacillus fermentum. Streptococcus thermophillus was observed in the range of 6.51-6.64 log cfu/g in all the smoked and dried fermented chicken sausage. The greatest change in myofibrillar protein pattern of chicken sausage occurred after the fermentation and drying process. The band intensity of protein band of molecular weight 94 kDa (α-actinin) decreased after fermentation and completely disappeared after drying in control samples. Similar pattern was also observed for Myosin light chain-I (molecular weight-24 kDa). The tropomyosin (T-1) of molecular weight 35 kDa also completely disappeared in all the fermented samples after fermentation and drying. Few bands of bioactive peptides (molecular weight 62, 51 and 37 kDa) appeared in all the samples after drying. It can be concluded from the present study, curd/dahi @4 and 8% can successfully be used as starter culture directly in the meat emulsion to achieve desirable pH and lactobacilli population of sausage without having detrimental effects on the quality. The study has also conclusively shown that many small peptides produced in fermented sausage originated from both the sarcoplasmic and myofibrillar proteins. 3.82 Quality characteristics of restructured mutton slices developed by cold-set binding

system G. VIJAYBHASKAR REDDY, A. R. SEN*, P. N. NAIR*, K. KONDAL REDDY

AND K. SUDHAKAR REDDY CVS, SVVU, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad, *NRC on Meat, Hyderabad

The present investigation was carried out to evaluate the influence of various levels

(0, 0.5, 1.0 and 1.5 %) of calcium alginate as cold-set binder on cold-set gelation of restructured mutton slices (RMS). Addition of 1.5% calcium alginate showed significantly (P<0.05) higher cooking yield, batter stability, water-holding capacity and pH. However, calcium alginate did not significantly affect both collagen content and collagen solubility of RMS. There was a significant (P<0.05) difference in % diameter shrinkage between control and RMS extended with various levels of calcium alginate. RMS formulated with 1.5 % calcium alginate had significantly (P<0.05) highest moisture content than remaining formulations. Control sample had significantly (P<0.05) higher protein content than the other treatments (T1, T2 and T3). Addition of various levels of calcium alginate did not significantly influence the fat and total ash content of RMS. Addition of 1.5% calcium alginate had significantly (P<0.05) increased chewiness, cohesiveness, gumminess and springiness values of RMS. The RMS added with 1.5% calcium alginate had significantly higher sensory colour, cohesiveness, juiciness and overall palatability scores than remaining formulations. The results of this study reveals that RMS formulated with of 1.5% calcium alginate as cold-set binder recorded highest physico-chemical, proximate characteristics, better textural stability and superior sensory scores than control and relieves the problems of discoloration and lipid oxidation which was very prone in hot-set binding system.

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3.83 Effect of starter culture and packaging methods on amino acid profile and eating quality characteristics of pork ham

GOGOI PROTIV, BORPUZARI R. N., BORPUZARI T., HAZARIKA R. A. AND BORA, J. Department of LPT, CVS, Assam Agricultural University Khanapara, Guwahati

The amino acid profile of the hams inoculated with mixed starter culture of Lactobacillus acidophilus and Micrococcus varians483 at the dose rate of 106cfu/g and stored at 4oC under MAP and VP conditions were evaluated on the 60th day. Treated hams liberated higher concentration of free amino acids confirming the proteolytic activity of the inoculated cultures. The packaging systems had significant effect on the concentration of FAAs. VP hams of the treated group had higher concentration of free proline, glycine, alanine, valine, methionine, isoleucine, phenylalanine, lysine and histidine than the MAP samples. Neither the bacterial cultures nor the packaging system was found to influence the textural property of ham. Spectrophotometric analysis of the colour of ham revealed that the treated samples had significantly higher L*, a* and b* components. The L* and a* values were higher in the hams packaged under MAP than those under VP systems while the b* values were higher in the VP samples. Starter culture inoculated hams superior in terms of their organoleptic properties. Hams packaged under MAP were rated superior than those packaged under VP in terms of appearance, colour, taste, tenderness, flavour, juiciness and overall acceptability.

3.84 Effect of starter culture and packaging methods on the physico-chemical,

microbiological and sensory properties of pork ham GOGOI PROTIV, BORPUZARI R. N., BORPUZARI T., HAZARIKA R. A. AND BORA, J.

Department of LPT, CVS, Assam Agricultural University Khanapara, Guwahati

Brine cured pork hams were prepared with the inoculation of starter culture of

Lactobacillus acidophilus and Micrococcus varians483 at the dose rate of 106cfu/g. Hams were fermented for 10 days before cooking. Microbiological analysis performed during the fermentation period revealed that the treated hams had higher total viable count, lactic acid bacteria and Micrococcaceae counts and lower Enterobacteriaceae and coliform counts. The effects of the starter cultures, packaging systems (vacuum and modified atmosphere packaging) and storage time (0, 15, 30, 45, 50, 55 and 60 days) on the physico-chemical properties were investigated. pH of the inoculated hams was lower than the control samples. VP hams had lower pH value than the MAP samples in either of the groups. ERV, WHC and water activity decreased significantly with increasing storage period. ERV of the treated samples were higher and also the VP samples of both the treated and the control groups showed higher ERV than the MAP samples throughout the storage period. Packaging systems also had significant effect on the ERV. WHC of the treated samples were significantly lower than the control ones in either of the packaging systems and VP hams showed lower WHC than the MAP in both the groups. The control samples showed higher aw than the treated group. MAP was found to be a better method of packaging in maintaining reduced aw of

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hams during refrigeration storage in both the groups. Microbiological quality of the cooked hams evaluated on the 60th day of storage showed that the treated samples had significantly higher TVC, LAB and Micrococcaceae count than their control counterparts whereas, the Enterobacteriaceae and coliform counts were significantly lower. MAP lowered the TVC, LAB, Micrococcaceae and Enterobacteriaceae counts significantly than the VP whereas, the coliform counts were significantly lower in VP than the MAP. Starter culture inoculated hams were rated superior in terms of their organoleptic properties. Hams packaged under MAP were rated superior than those packaged under VP in terms of appearance, colour, taste, tenderness, flavour, juiciness and overall acceptability.

3.85 Effect of fermented bamboo shoot on physico-chemical, sensory and shelf-life of pork tenderloin butterfly

BORPUZARI, R. N., DAS, J., KHAUND. M., BORAH, L., RAHMAN, M., HAZARIKA, D. AND GOGOI PROTIVA

NAIP (Component - 2), CVS, Assam Agricultural University, Khanapara campus, Guwahati

The effect of incorporation of 5% fermented bamboo shoot to the recipe of pork tenderloin butterfly on physico-chemical, sensory and shelf-life was investigated. Addition of fermented bamboo shoot lowered the pH and TBA number of tenderloin butterfly up to 10th day of storage at refrigeration temperature. Proximate composition remained unaltered. Spectrophotometric analysis of the samples revealed that the L*, a* and b* colour components were lower in the treated samples. Concentration of b* colour component was found to increase with the advancement of storage period. No statistical differences were observed in the mean shear force value between the treated and the control samples. TVC and colititre values were as low as 4.56 and 4.86log10cfu/g and 4.3 and 15 in the treated and control samples, respectively. Fermented bamboo shoot incorporated samples enjoyed better panel ratings in terms of appearance, colour, taste, flavour, juiciness, texture and overall acceptability of the product.

3.86 Effect of types of casing and packaging systems on proximate composition, physico-

chemical, microbiological and sensory Properties of cooked pork sausage BORPUZARI, R. N., RAHMAN, M., HAZARIKA, D., DAS, J., KHAUND, M., BORAH, L.

AND GOGOI PROTIVA NAIP (Component - 2), CVS, Assam Agricultural University, Khanapara campus, Guwahati

Cooked pork sausages stuffed into natural and cellulose casings and packaged under

aerobic, vacuum and modified atmosphere packaging with O2, CO2 and N2 at 1:1:1 ratio were studied for their shelf stability at refrigeration temperature of 40C up to 12th day. Crude protein content was found to be significantly higher in AP than the VP samples. Duration of storage significantly altered the proximate composition of the sausage samples. Sausage samples stuffed into cellulose casings had significantly lower pH and TBA values than those into natural casings. With the advancement of the storage period, there was a significant reduction in the pH values and increase in the TBA values. Types of casings did not seem to

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affect the TVC and coliform counts of the samples. AP samples, however, had higher TVC and coliform counts. The TVC increased on storage of the product up to 12th day whereas, the coliform counts showed a declining trend. Pork sausage stuffed into natural casings and packaged under MAP were preferred for colour, flavour, tenderness and overall acceptability attributes whereas, those stuffed into cellulose casings were rated higher for taste and juiciness.

3.87 Quality and shelf stability of fermented bamboo shoot added pork pickle BORPUZARI, R. N., DAS, J., KHAUND, M., BORAH, L., RAHMAN, M., HAZARIKA, D.

AND GOGOI PROTIVA NAIP (Component - 2), CVS, Assam Agricultural University, Khanapara campus, Guwahati

Pork pickle added with fermented bamboo shoot was investigated for its quality and

shelf stability. Pork pickle had a storage life of over 2 months at room temperature. A decrease in pH value and an increase in TBA number were observed during storage period up to 60 days at room temperature. Proximate composition of pork pickle did not change during the storage period under review. Colititre, Clostridium, Staphylococcus and Salmonella counts were not detected up to 60 days of storage. TVC and yeasts and moulds counts were recorded at 4.24log10cfu/g and 4.36log10cfu/g, respectively on 60th day of storage On 60th day of ambient storage, the product enjoyed very high panel ratings for colour, taste, flavour, juiciness and overall acceptability.

3.88 Effects of Packaging materials and methods on physical properties and food safety

of Duck Sausage DEBASHIS BHATTACHARYYAa, MITA SINHAMAHAPATRAc AND

SUBHASISH BISWAS b a,bDepartment of LPT, WBUAFS, c School of Agriculture, IGNOU, New Delhi

Utilization of spent duck through sausage preparation and estimating the optimum storage condition throughout the retail chain was the objective of the present study. PET/Poly and laminate of metalized PET/Poly with polyethylene pouches under aerobic and vacuum packaging stored in refrigerator (4±1° C) and freezer (-18±1° C) condition were considered in the experiment. TBA value, pH, Tyrosine value, TPC, TPSC and YMC of the samples increased with the storage period whereas a decreasing trend in case of moisture and all the sensory parameters throughout the storage period was observed. Irrespective of the packaging material, duck sausages were acceptable upto 30th and 50th day of refrigerated storage and 4th and 6th month of freezer storage in aerobic and vacuum packaging respectively. Freezer temperature enhanced the product quality upto 3rd and 5th month against 20th and 40th day of refrigerated storage in aerobic and vacuum packaging respectively.

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3.89 Effect of plant binders on the quality of novel enrobed chicken meat products

SURBHI YADAV, V. APPA RAO, ROBINSON J. J. ABRAHAM, R. NARENDRA BABU AND N. BRINDHA

MVC, TANUVAS, Chennai

A study was conducted to assess the effect of plant binders on the quality of novel value added enrobed chicken meat products with three different plant binders viz. rice flour, tapioca flour and corn flour, along with roasted gram flour in coating batter. Three experiment trials were conducted to select the optimum level of inclusion of the three binders on the basis of physico-chemical and sensory evaluation. From the three experiment trials the optimum level of inclusion of the three binders viz. rice flour (25:75), tapioca flour (35:65) and corn flour (35:65) were selected. Enrobed chicken meat products from the optimum selected plant binders were prepared and subjected to shelf life studies stored for a period of 21 days in polyethylene bags at refrigeration temperature (4 ± 1ºC) and subjected to further analyses to determine the proximate composition, physico-chemical qualities and amino acid profile analysis. The study revealed that the enrobed chicken meat products prepared using corn flour(35:65) in coating batter was found to be superior and this product can be recommended and chosen for adoption by entrepreneurs.

3.90 Retort processed chettinad chicken using desi and broiler meat P. NALINI, ROBINSON J. J. ABRAHAM, V. APPA RAO, R. NARENDRA BABU AND

VASANTHI SURESH MVC, TANUVAS, Chennai

Traditional meat products in a ready-to-eat form are having considerable demand owing to its ease of utilization in the market. The current study was carried out to standardize a shelf-stable ready-to-eat chettinand chicken using broiler and desi meat by retort pouch processing. Total viable count of desi and broiler meat on 0 day and 90th day was below the standard. The chettinad chicken samples did not have anaerobic, staphylococcal, coliform, clostridium, salmonella and yeast and mould during the entire storage period. Hence the product is microbially safe up to 90 days. It was determined based on references, commercial sterility test, visual observation, sensory evaluation and preliminary trials. Results of the study revealed that the chettinad chicken from broiler and desi meat was biochemically and microbially safe.

3.91 Determination of shelflife and sensory studies of novel enrobed chicken meat products SURBHI YADAV, V. APPA RAO, ROBINSON J. J. ABRAHAM, R. NARENDRA BABU

AND S. EZHILVELAN MVC, TANUVAS, Chennai

A study was conducted to assess the Microbiological quality and sensory quality of novel enrobed chicken meat product (viz. Total viable count and Yeast and mould count) at 7

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days interval for up to 21 days of refrigerated storage period. The enrobed chicken meat product was prepared using three different plant binders (viz.rice flour, tapioca flour and corn flour). Sensory evaluation was carried out (viz. Appearance, crust colour, flavour, product texture, crust crispiness, batter adherence and overall acceptability) at 7 days interval. The cost of production of the optimum selected plant binder proportions of enrobed chicken meat product were also analysed. There was a significant decrease in crust crispiness, batter adherence scores in all the three products. The study revealed that the enrobed chicken meat products can be stored for 7 days without affecting the quality.

3.92 Shelf-life of retort processed pepper chicken

P. NALINI, ROBINSON J. J. ABRAHAM, V. APPA RAO, R. NARENDRA BABU AND VASANTHI SURESH MVC, TANUVAS, Chennai

Heritage meat products in a ready-to-eat form are in great demand in the domestic and

international market. The present study was undertaken to standardize a shelf-stable ready-to-eat pepper chicken using broiler meat by retort pouch processing. Three experiments were conducted, in the first experiment the recipe was standardized (pilot scale study) on the basis of sensory evaluation and in second experiment retort pouch processing temperature (F0 value) was determined based on references, commercial sterility test, visual observation, sensory evaluation and preliminary trials. The come up percentage was 27.27 and the F0 value was 7.2 minutes. In third experiment, shelf stability was assessed for a period of 90 days by microbiological, physico-chemical, nutritive and sensory qualities by repeating the trials for six times. Results of the present study revealed that the pepper chicken from broiler meat was biochemically and microbially safe. Total viable counts, E. coli, Salmonella spp., Clostridium spp., Staphylococci spp., anaerobic count and yeast and mould counts were assessed during the entire storage period.

3.93 Preparation and quality evaluation of fermented chevon sausages using

fermented bamboo shoot powder J. PRIYA VINNARASI, C. D. DAS, V. KESAVA RAO, R. SARAVANAN

AND SELVAMUTHU Department of LPT, RGCVAS puducherry

A study was undertaken to develop fermented chevon sausages using fermented bamboo shoot powder at 3 and 5%. Fermented bamboo shoot is a naturally available neutraceutical with low pH which can be used as source of acidification in sausage preparation. Major steps of processing included coarse emulsion preparation, fermentation (at 25 C till pH dropped below 5.2), filling in casings, drying (at 4-5 C for 12-14 hr), smoking (at 95-100 C for 7hr). Physico chemical evaluation of the product revealed that cooking yield and ash content of the product increased significantly (P< -0.01) with increase in level of FBSP. The cooking yield and ash content of the chevon sausages at 3 and 5 % level of

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bamboo shoot was 64.36, 65.03 per cent and 4.12, 5.75 percent respectively. Other parameters like pH, titrable acids, moisture (%), protein (%) and fat (%) did not show any significant differences. Sensory evaluation was done for parameters like appliances, texture, juices, saltiness, flavour and overall palatability on 8 point hedonic scale ( 1-extremely undesirable and 8-extremely desirable). Results revealed a significant decrease in flavour and overall acceptability of the products with increase in FBSP. Sensory scores of the products were acceptable and rated as moderately palatable to very palatable. Based on the sensory quality it can be concluded that FBSP at 3 % level was acceptable in preparation of fermented chevon sausages.

3.94 Quality & storage stability of hen pickle B. JAGANNATHA RAO1, PRADEEP KUMAR2, VIVEK M. PATIL3

1Department of LPT, 2Department of VPH and Epi, CVC , Hyderabad, 3Department of LPM, KVAFSU, Bidar Karnataka.

The objective of this study was to prepare highly acceptable long shelf life spent Hen

pickle, quality evaluation and storage study at 32 0 C ( summer months.). Meat pickle was prepared using deboned meat from spent layer hens using pickling solutions viz., ground nut oil+ acetic acid, ground nut oil + citric acid, mustard oil+ acetic acid, mustard oil + citric acid combinations. Product from all pickling solution combinations were studied for Physico- chemical, chemical, microbial & sensory analysis on 0,30,60,90 days at room temperature. Microbiological and sensory quality traits did not show appreciable change and remained satisfactory throughout storage period. Product found stable upto 60 days in all pickling solutions, but sensory score was highest to meat pickled with groundnut oil + acetic acid combinations. Meat pickled with mustard oil + acetic acid combinations had good score in terms of Physico- chemical, Chemical and microbial analysis. Therefore present study suggests that a highly acceptable spent hen pickle can be prepared and stored upto 60 days of shelf life even during summer months.

3.95 Formulation of shelf stable chicken meat crisps (Vadialu) with different extenders

E. NAGA MALLIKA AND K.SUDHEER Department of LPT, NTR College of Veterinary Science, Gannavaram

The study was aimed at optimizing the extender and its incorporation levels in the formulation of chicken meat crisps (Vadialu) for better acceptability. For preparation of chicken meat crisps with different extenders minced meat was added with salt (2.0%), Ginger and Garlic paste (7.0%), Dry spices (1.5%), fat (3.0%) and three different extenders like rice flour, black gram flour and tapioca paste each separately at 3. 5 percent level. The batter after blending all ingredients was spread like a thin sheet of approximately 3 mm thickness and is moulded in circles. The moulded circles were dried at different time and temperature combinations and a combination of 450 C for 1 hour 30 minutes was judged as the better one depending on the assessment of the sensory panel. Dried product was fried for a second and sensory evaluation was conducted at this stage keeping in view of its importance in food

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industry. There was significant difference between the treatments for cooking yield and all sensory parameters. The sensory acceptability was significantly (P<0.05) higher for treatments with tapioca paste. The level of incorporation was tested at three different levels and 3.5% level was proved better when compared to the other levels of incorporation with higher sensory scores for colour (8.95), flavour (8.00), crispiness (7.85) and overall acceptability (8.65) and was with moisture content of 14.37% and with higher percent crude protein (35.9) and lower crude fat (14.83) with a pH of 6.17. The product was stable at refrigerated temperature (4±10C) for a period of two months. During the storage period pH, Thiobarbituric acid values and Total plate counts showed an increasing trend but were at acceptable levels at the end of the storage period.

3.96 Development of beef salami with incorporation of different levels of beef fat Z. RAHMAN, M. L. BRAHMA, S. K. LASKAR, NASHRIN JEBIN AND D. M. CHAVHAN

CVS, Assam Agricultural University (A.A.U.), Guwahati, Assam

A study was carried out to prepare beef salami with highly acceptable qualities by incorporating beef fat at three different levels viz. 15 %, 20 % and 25 % along with necessary seasonings in formulation A, B and C respectively. Emulsion stability was found to be non significantly highest in formulation C as compared to A and B. The per cent cooking loss also increased non significantly from formulation A (13.81) to C (16.13) with increase in the beef fat from 15 % to 25 % respectively. The per cent moisture, protein and ash content of the salami decreased significantly (P < 0.01) with increase in the levels of beef fat from formulation A to C. The per cent fat contents revealed a significant increase (P < 0.05) viz. 14.77, 20.22 and 24.81 in formulations A, B and C respectively. Moreover, the organoleptic evaluations revealed significantly (P < 0.01) higher scores in formulation B as compared to A and C. Finally, it could be concluded that fat levels up to 20 % could be successfully utilized for preparing desired quality of beef salami. This study mainly emphasized on incorporation of some low cost processing ingredients in preparing salamis for increasing the marginal profits of the Indian meat sector.

3.97 Studies on percent cooking yield and shear force value of thigh fillet and breast

meat of chicken R. J. ZENDE AND D. M. CHAVHAN

Department of Veterinary Public Health, Bombay Veterinary College, Parel, Mumbai

In the present study chicken thigh fillet and breast meat was collected from two different chicken processing plants located nearby Mumbai. A total of 12 samples, 6 each of thigh fillet and breast meat were collected from plant A on 6 different occasions. Similarly equal number of samples were collected from the Plant B. The shear force (kg/cm2) values of the chicken thigh fillet and breast meat were tested using Warner-Bratzler shear force equipment available in the department, while the chicken thigh fillet cooked in microwave oven at 900 watts for 1.5 min and breast meat for 2 min to calculate the percent cooking yield. The study revealed that the average shear force values (kg/cm2) of the breast meat

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collected from Company A and Company B were 1.38±0.13 and 1.28±0.11, respectively, whereas the average shear force of thigh fillet collected from Company A and Company B was 1.13±0.12 and 1.08±0.07, respectively. However, the average percent cooking yields of the thigh fillet and breast meat of company A was found to be 72.84±1.44 and 76.88±1.53 while respective values for Company B were observed as 76.91±1.66 and 79.02±1.55. The shear force (kg/cm2) and the percent cooking yield of the breast meat was found higher than that of thigh fillet in samples collected from both the companies. Shear force (kg/cm2) of thigh fillet and breast meat collected from Company A was found more than that of samples from Company B whereas the percent cooking yield of both the meat collected from Company A was found less than the samples from the Company B. Thus the study concluded that the chicken thigh fillet and breast meat samples procured from the company A were more tender than the samples from Company B.

3.98 Studies on development of process for cooked emu meat patties

S. K. MANER, R. D. KOKANE, S. S. ZANZAD, K. A. PATIL AND Y. P. GADEKAR1 Department of LPT, Bombay Veterinary College (BVC), Mumbai 1CSWRI, Avikanagar

A process for emu meat patties was developed. The emu meat and emulsion were

analyzed for proximate composition as well as pH, WHC and moisture and were found in normal. The patties were prepared by two methods viz. deep fry cooking (170 oC for 45 second, T1) and hot air oven cooking (110 oC for 25 minutes, T2). Patties prepared by deep frying exhibited significant (P<0.05) difference in cooking yield and loss from oven cooking method. The patties were analyzed for proximate composition and changes in TBA, tyrosine, pH, WHC, moisture, shear force as well as microbial parameters during storage at refrigeration temperature (4±10C). Fat content was significantly higher (P<0.05) and moisture was significantly lower (P<0.05) in deep fried than oven cooked patties. Storage study revealed that TBA number, tyrosine value and microbial counts increased considerably at the end of 15 days storage, while pH, moisture content and shear force value declined gradually with the progress of storage in both the treatments. Sensorial oven cooked patties were significantly superior in sensory attributes over deep fried patties. Though the values for TBA, tyrosine and pH was below the critical limit of spoilage, due to higher count of TPC and YMC the study restricted on 15th day of storage.

3.99 Study on incorporation of carrot (Daucus carota) and radish (Raphanus sativus)

paste on the quality of spent hen chicken nuggets 1R. K. Kanimozhi and S. K. Mendiratta

Division of LPT, IVRI, Bareilly, 1 PGRIAS, Kattuppakkam, T.N

Changes in the life style of consumer resulted in developing novel meat products with

incorporation of functional ingredients such as vegetable and vegetable proteins. Vegetables

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are rich source of phytochemicals such as carotenoids, flavonoides and other phenolic compounds. Therefore, it is important to consume a diet high in phytonutrients/ phytochemicals to reduce the harmful effects of oxidative stress. Synthetic antioxidants (BHA and BHT) have no longer in use by the consumers due to their carcinogenic effect. Vegetables are classified as non meat ingredient, utilized in comminuted meat products to improve the nutritive value, palatability, texture and also to reduce the cost of production in the finished product.An experiment was conducted with incorporation of raw carrot (Daucus carota) (CR) and radish (Raphanus sativus) (RD) paste at the level of 5% each (CR+RD@10%) in the spent chicken emulsion for the preparation of chicken nuggets. It is reported that CR has free radical scavenging and singlet oxygen quenching properties due to presence of β- carotene and RD is an excellent source of vitamin C acting as powerful antioxidant food. The emulsion was prepared as per the standard procedure developed at Division of LPT, IVRI, Bareilly, UP, India with slight modification and compared with the control (CN) (without CR and RD paste) for the effect on emulsion stability (ES), cooking yield (CY) and shear force (N) value. The results revealed that incorporation of CR+RD paste in chicken nuggets had no significant effect on ES and CY compared to CN. But, however the shear force value (N) of chicken nuggets treated with CR+RD paste @ the level of 10% (5% each) was significantly lower (6.97± 0.15) than CN (8.98±0.32).

3.100 Preparation and quality evaluation of fermented chevon sausages using fermented bamboo shoot powder

J. PRIYA VINNARASI, C. D. DAS, V. KESAVA RAO, R. SARAVANAN AND S. SELVAMUTHU

No 45, Serumavelangai, Nedungadu, Karaikal-609603

A study was undertaken to develop fermented chevon sausages using fermented bamboo shoot powder at 3 and 5%. Fermented bamboo shoot is a naturally available neutraceutical with low pH which can be used as source of acidification in sausage preparation. Major steps of processing included coarse emulsion preparation, fermentation (at 250C till pH dropped below 5.2), filling in casings, drying (at 4-50 C for 12-14 hr), smoking (at 95-1000C for 7hr). Physico chemical evaluation of the product revealed that cooking yield and ash content of the product increased significantly (P< 0.01) with increase in level of FBSP. The cooking yield and ash content of the chevon sausages at 3 and 5 % level of bamboo shoot was 64.36, 65.03 per cent and 4.12, 5.75 percent respectively. Other parameters like pH, titrable acids, moisture (%), protein (%) and fat (%) did not show any significant differences. Sensory evaluation was done for parameters like appliances, texture, juices, saltiness, flavour and overall palatability on 8 point hedonic scale (1-extremely undesirable and 8-extremely desirable). Results revealed a significant decrease in flavour and overall acceptability of the products with increase in FBSP. Sensory scores of the products were acceptable and rated as moderately palatable to very palatable. Based on the sensory quality it can be concluded that FBSP at 3 % level was acceptable in preparation of fermented chevon sausages.

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3.101 Optimization of low salt restructured chicken nuggets using response surface methodology

FEBY LUCKOSE, M. C. PANDEY, K. RADHAKRISHNA Freeze Drying and Animal Products Technology Division, DFRL, Mysore

Response Surface Methodology (RSM) was used to optimize low salt restructured

chicken nuggets considering four factors viz; whey protein, black gram flour, sodium chloride (NaCl) and potassium chloride (KCl) and three responses as overall acceptability (OAA), saltiness and hardness. OAA and saltiness were evaluated using 9 point hedonic scale rating test for likability and hardness measured using texture analyzer. The range for the selected factors was chosen based on preliminary sensory trials. The minimum and maximum limits for the factors were selected as 0.5 to 1.5% for protein, 2 to 4% for black gram flour, 0.5 to 1% for NaCl and 0.5 to 1% for KCl. Experimental design was set up with 8 axial points and 6 replicates at center. The responses were evaluated and the factors were optimized. Analysis of variance for all responses indicated that quadratic model was significant with non-significant lack of fit with R2 >0.95. The final optimized values were obtained keeping all the factors in the range including the response hardness. However, other responses like OAA and saltiness were maximized. The optimized values for protein, black gram flour, NaCl and KCl were obtained as 1.18%, 2.49%, 0.75% and 0.69% respectively with a desirability of 97.8%.

3.102 Development of low sodium meat products

M. ANNA ANANDH AND C. VEERAPANDIAN VCRI, Orathanadu, Tamil Nadu,

Sodium chloride (NaCl) or common salt is most widely used as an ingredient in

foods, particularly in meat, dairy and fishery products. Traditionally it has been added as a preservative. Functional and nutritional considerations are now becoming more important in the use of such ingredient in food processing industry. In response to increased perception linking sodium intake to health problems, the public has become more concerns with their sodium intake since NaCl is the major source of sodium in the human diet and processing food products. It is reported that 20-30% of the salt intake comes from meat products. Reports suggested that food products containing 300-500 mg sodium per serving are best candidate for sodium reduction. Processed meat products frequently contain more than 300 mg sodium/100 gm. The primary aim of lowering the salt in meat products is to reduce the sodium intake for these individuals sensitive to dietary sodium. The more productive approach for low sodium product has been the target salt content to the minimum necessary for function by either leaving out a portion or replacing it with other ingredient that contribute to maintaining ionic strength or providing salty flavour or do both simultaneously. They are several approaches can be used to investigate the feasibility of reducing the NaCl content of processed meat products that includes reducing NaCl content only, replacing part or all of the NaCl with other chloride salts, replacing the part of the

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NaCl with non chloride salts, by use or altering processing techniques or process modifications and combination of the above methods. However, decreasing salt content has many implications in meat products that include textural changes, decreased moisture retention, shortened shelf life, safety and even product appearance.

3.103 Development of designer meat products for health conscious consumers M. ANNA ANANDH, C. VEERAPANDIAN AND K. SIVAKUMAR

VCRI, Orathanadu, Tamil Nadu,

Meat and meat products are essential component of our diet. They contain

components like fat, cholesterol sodium, nitrite etc. in higher level which are harmful to health. Designer meat products may be a health promoting food, a meat product to which a component has been removed by technological means for additional physiological benefits, i.e., prevent or reduce the risk of diseases. Three options are suggested to achieve designer meat and meat products which includes production practices, post harvest techniques and reformulation techniques. A Number of approaches are followed to design the healthier meat products that include alternation of lipid and its composition, reduction of sodium reduction of nitrite and incorporation of designer food ingredients during processing of meat products, Based on the approaches involved, the designer meat foods have been categorized into four groups, viz, low fat meat products, low sodium meat products, nitrite reduced meat products and other types containing designed food ingredients. For reduction of fat, modification of fatty acid contents and to enhance the vitamins and protein content of meat, a number of approaches are followed at production level. Such production practices include feeding practices, hormonal treatments, genetics and breeding and biotechnological approaches. However, the production practices not suitable for designer meat development because of less effective quality control and technological challenges including physicochemical and sensory problems. Therefore, in addition to traditional composition, it is possible to include a wide variety of health promoting ingredients in meat products for health claim. They may be dietary, fibres, oligosaccharides, plant proteins, dairy proteins, vegetable oil, synthetic lipids, bioactive ingredients photochemical and probiotics. However, the level for health claim with optimum organoleptic properties of majority of these ingredients in meat products has yet to be determined.

3.104 Standardization of formulation in development of shelf-stable meat wafer using combination of turkey and spent hen meat A. K. BISWAS, C. K. BEURA AND A. K. SACHDEV

Division of Post-Harvest Technology, CARI, Izatnagar, Bareilly

For development of shelf-stable meat wafer a formulation is developed with the

combination of minced turkey and spent hen meat (70:30), table salt, sodium tri-polyphosphate, skimmed milk powder, textured soya protein, baking powder, spice mix, condiments, monosodium glutamate, rice flour, maida and oat flour @ 70, 1.0, 0.2, 3.5, 5,

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0.5, 1.75, 3.0, 0.25, 8.2, 3.0 and 3.6 %, respectively. These entire ingredients were mixed properly for preparation of dough. The raw wafer was prepared by cold extrusion method and cooked in microwave oven. The developed products were cooled and then kept at room temperature for evaluation of various physicochemical and sensory quality parameters. The cooking yield was in the rage of 42 – 46 %. The pH of the raw and cooked product was 6.21±0.10 and 6.44±0.14 respectively. Moisture content of the product was 8.46±0.66%. The water absorption index and water solubility index was 3.24 and 0.085, respectively. In regards to sensory attributes, the products were rated very good to good and were exhibited appearance and colour, texture, meat flavour intensity, after taste, crispiness and overall acceptability scores 6.42, 6.26, 5.81, 6.08, 6.38 and 6.45, respectively. Finally, it may be concluded that shelf-stable meat wafer can be prepared with the combination turkey and spent hen meat without affecting physicochemical and sensory quality parameters.

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Abstracts

SESSION IV RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN QUALITY AND SAFETY OF

MEAT AND MEAT PRODUCTS

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4.01 Developing traceability model for Indian buffalo meat industry: An NRCM initiative

GIRISH, P. S., SHAILESH BAGALE, A. R. SEN, S. VAITHIYANATHAN, B. P. KUSWAHA & V. V. KULKARNI

National Research Centre on Meat, Chengicherla, Hyderabad

Traceability of meat is the ability to follow the movement of meat through specified

stage(s) of production, processing and distribution i.e. throughout the value chain. Value chain refers to sequence of the stages and operations involved in the production, processing, distribution and handling of feed and food, from primary production to consumption. Traceability is a part of the strategy to reduce the risk or minimize the impact of food borne disease problems. Most of the developed countries including European Union have made it mandatory to follow the traceability system. In India, no initiative has been taken and no effort has been made in this regard. By looking into this requirement, NRC on Meat, Hyderabad has initiated a research project which will have a database containing information about registered animals, farms and abattoirs. Each buffalo will be given an International Council for Animal Recording (ICAR) approved code which will be encoded on Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) device and put on to ears. Buffalo farms and abattoirs will also be registered, given a code and put on to the database. Farmers, in real time can update the database using a hand held device or through SMS messaging. After slaughter of animal, meat and meat products animal code can be carried forward as bar code. Consumers can trace back the origin using the code which can be retrieved using SMS messaging or through internet access. Confirmation of the traceability labeling can be achieved by microsatellite marker based molecular techniques. Most of the meat export from India is restricted to developing countries. To achieve exports to developed countries, India needs to have a robust traceability system in place and the same is being put up by NRCM on pilot basis to assist buffalo meat industry.

4.02 Antimicrobial and antioxidant effects of sodium acetate, sodium

lactate, and sodium citrate in refrigerated chicken breasts cuts I.PRINCE DEVADASON, SHIVAKUMAR, G.VENUGOPAL, M. MUTHUKUMAR

AND Y. BABJI National Research Centre on Meat, Chengicherla, Hyderabad and

Department of FT& M, Pioneer Institute of Hotel Management, Osmania University,

The microbiological quality and lipid oxidation of chicken breast cuts treated by dipping in 2.5% (w/v) aqueous solution of sodium acetate (NaA), sodium lactate (NaL), or sodium citrate (NaC) and stored at 1 °C. It was that these salts were efficient (P < 0.05) against the proliferation of various categories of spoilage microorganisms; including aerobic and psychrotrophic populations, Pseudomonas spp., H2S-producing bacteria, lactic acid bacteria, and Enterobacteriaceae. The general order of antibacterial activity of the different organic salts used was; sodium acetate > sodium lactate > sodium citrate. Lipid oxidation, as expressed by peroxide value (PV) and thiobarbituric acid (TBA) value, was significantly (P <

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0.05) delayed in NaA- and NaC-treated samples. The antioxidant activity followed the order: NaC > NaA > NaL. The shelf life of the treated products was extended by 4–7 days more than that of the control. Therefore, sodium acetate, sodium lactate, and sodium citrate can be utilized as safe organic preservatives for chicken breast cuts under refrigerated storage.

4.03 Sodium salts and their antimicrobial and antioxidant effects in vacuum packed

chicken leg cuts under refrigeration I. PRINCE DEVADASON, SHIVAKUMAR*, A. R. SEN, G. VENUGOPAL AND Y. BABJI

National Research Centre on Meat, Chengicherla, Hyderabad and *Department of FT & M, Pioneer Institute of Hotel Management, Osmania University, Hyderabad

The microbiological quality and lipid oxidation of chicken leg cuts treated by dipping

in 2.5% (w/v) aqueous solution of sodium acetate (NaA), sodium lactate (NaL) and sodium citrate (NaC) followed by vacuum packing and stored at 1 °C. The study revealed that these salts were efficient (P < 0.05) against aerobic and psychrotrophic populations, Pseudomonas spp., H2S-producing bacteria, lactic acid bacteria, and Enterobacteriaceae. The general order of antibacterial activity of the different organic salts used was; sodium acetate > sodium lactate > sodium citrate. Lipid oxidation, as expressed by peroxide value (PV) and thiobarbituric acid (TBA) value, was significantly (P < 0.05) delayed in NaA- and NaC-treated samples. The antioxidant activity followed the order: NaC > NaA > NaL. The shelf life of the treated products was extended by 7-10 days more than that of the control. It was found that sodium acetate, sodium lactate, and sodium citrate can be utilized as safe organic preservatives for chicken leg cuts under refrigerated storage.

4.04 Influence of meat animal species on quality characteristics and fatty acid profile of

meat ARUN K. VERMA, V. RAJKUMAR AND ARUN K. DAS

Goat Products Technology Laboratory, CIRG, Makhdoom

Meat quality characteristics are affected by different production factors including genetic parameters, sex, age and animal diet. Species and tissue sites of the animals influence meat quality as well as fatty acid composition. Fatty acid composition in turn influences nutritive value and sensory characteristics of meat. In the present study effect of food animal species on the physicochemical characteristics and fatty acid profiles of twelve month Muzaffarnagari sheep and Barabri goat Longissimus dorsi was studied. Significant (p<0.05) effect of species was noticed on the proximate composition and other qualities parameters of meats where sheep meat had higher, moisture, pH value and protein contents while total pigments and water soluble proteins were higher in goat meat. Fatty acid profile of Longissimus dorsi was significantly (p<0.05) affected by species. Goat meat had higher desirable fatty acids (DFA), which include all unsaturated fatty acids and stearic fatty acid (C18:0) than sheep meat. The average percentage of DFA in goat meat was estimated between 65 and 78%; the mean DFA value of Barbari goats was 71%, whereas in case of

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sheep meat, DFA was 63%. In this study, goat meat had higher polyunsaturated fatty acid to saturated fatty acids (PUFA/SFA) ratio than sheep meat (0.28 vs 0.20). These indicate the potential of Indian goats for the production of high-quality meat. Thus, it can be concluded that species has significant influence on the various quality characteristics and fatty acids of sheep and goat longissimus dorsi muscle.

4.05 Time temperature integrator for monitoring meat safety during temperature abuse

VISHNURAJ M. R1, KANDEEPAN. G1*, VIVEK SHUKLA1, MENDIRATTA S. K1, AGARWAL R. K2, AND SHARMA B. D1

1Division of LPT, 2 Division of VPH, IVRI, Izatnagar, Bareilly

For perishable commodities like meat, accurate control of temperature in supply chain is necessary to maintain the product quality and safety. Any fluctuation in temperature at any point during transport and subsequent storage will create great economic burden to the producer and health hazards to the consumer. In this perspective a reliable mechanism that can monitor any temperature abuse is necessary to check meat spoilage in supply chain. Therefore, a research was undertaken to develop a time-temperature integrator (TTI) based on enzyme substrate complex for monitoring safety of meat during temperature abuse conditions. Accordingly, an enzyme based time-temperature responsive system using a colour changing reaction by the action of enzyme α-amylase on iodine-starch clathrate complex was developed to monitor temperature abuse of meat in supply chain. Different levels of substrate and enzyme were optimized for developing the TTI. The suitability of the integrator to monitor temperature fluctuation was studied using simulated temperature abuse model in laboratory condition using an incubator. It was observed that the colour of the integrator packed along with frozen fresh meat was found to be changing when exposed to temperature abuse conditions. The results indicated that the colour changing response of the integrator can be efficiently utilized to reveal complete time-temperature exposure history of the product. It is concluded that the level of enzyme can be successfully altered to develop integrators suitable for different storage temperatures. 4.06 Organochlorine pesticide residues in chicken muscles, fat, feed and water samples

collected from broiler farms M. MUTHUKUMAR, S. VAITHIYANATHAN AND K. SURESHKUMAR

National Research Centre on meat, Hyderabad

A study was conducted to estimate the levels of various organochlorine pesticide residues in broiler chicken muscle (24), liver (24), fat (24), feed (8) and water (8) samples collected from commercial farms in Hyderabad. In total, 88 samples were collected and analysed for the presence of pesticide residues using gas chromatograph equipped with an electron capture detector. Overall 40.9 % of samples were showed presence of pesticide residues. Among the samples, feed (62.5 %) and fat (45.8 %) showed higher level of contamination. Among the pesticides, residues of HCH (32 samples) were more frequently

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observed. The concentration (ppm) of α HCH, β HCH, γ HCH, δ HCH, DDT, DDE, DDD, aldrin, dieldrin, endrin, endo sulfan, endosulfan sulfate, deltamethrin and cypermethrin in muscle tissues were 0.000827, BDL, BDL, 0.000702, 0.000687, 0.000359, BDL, 0.000379, BDL, BDL, 0.01095, BDL, 0.001839 and 0.005576, respectively. However, the levels of pesticide residues recorded in the study were lower than the maximum residue limit prescribed by Food Safety Standards Regulations (Contaminants, toxins and Residues), 2011 4.07 Survey of retail meat vendors of parbhani city of Maharashtra state in relation to

food safety standards WAGHAMARE R. N., PATIL G. V., PATHARKAR S. C. AND DESHMUKH V. V.

Department of VPH, COVAS (MAFSU Nagpur) Parbhani

The food Safety act 2006 has constituted Food Safety and Standard Authority of India (FSSAI). It is mandatory to register the vendor for maintenance of food safety and hygiene. Most of the retail meat vendors are in unorganized sector in Parbhani city. A survey of the retail meat vendors of Parbhani city was made to asses availability of basic minimum amenities require for maintenance of food safety and hygiene, knowledge level about new food safety law and FSSAI standards and socioeconomic status of vendors. A total of 25 retail meat vendors from Parbhani city were selected randomly. All the vendors were given questionnaire for gathering information like gender, socioeconomic profile, educational status, hygiene levels. Knowledge level about food safety and waste disposal practices. A direct personnel contact with each and every meat vendor was made during survey. The questionnaires were assessed and data were analyzed in relation to each parameter it was observed that most of the vendors (61%) were primary level educated where as (33%) were illiterate. It was observed that only 6% vendors acquire post matriculation education. All the meat vendors were male only. All the vendors belong to Muslim community only, having low level of income per year (less than Rs. 1, 50,000). All the vendors follow traditional practice in relation to hygiene maintenance like disposal of waste in gutter and open lands, cleaning of shop with detergent and caustic soda. All the respondents were unaware about new food safety law 2006 and FSSAI registration process. It can be concluded that an effective extension programme is required for enhancing knowledge and technology transfer to retail meat vendors for effective implementation of food safety act 2006.

4.08 Occurrence and pathogenicity profile of E.coli isolated from processed meat

products marketed in mumbai, India V. S. WASKAR AND A. T. SHERIKAR

Department of VPH, CVAS, Maharashtra Animal & Fishery Sciences University, Nagpur.

Processed meat products available in the markets of Mumbai, India were analysed for

the presence of E.coli using enrichment culture. The isolates obtained were tested for haemolysin and enterohaemolysin production as well as Vero cell assay. Analysis of 746 processed meat samples revealed presence of 62 isolates with 8.42% occurrence rate

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including 7.06% ready-to-eat and 1.35% ready-to-cook products. These 62 isolates of E.coli were isolated from chicken (26), beef (13), pork (13) and mutton (10) products. The products from restaurants, though, were found to be highly contaminated with E.coli than organized sector and lowest from street-vendors, a non-significant difference between the sources of collection as well as various products was noticed. Distribution of haemolytic and enterohaemolytic property among different isolates revealed that from organised sector, restaurants and roadside preparations 20 (2.71%), 17 (2.30%) and 13 (1.76%) isolates were haemolytic and 22 (2.98%), 11 (1.49%) and 9 (1.22%) organisms were enterohaemolytic, respectively indicating presence of more number of haemolytic strains of E.coli than enterohaemolytic strains except in isolates from organised sector. Cytoxic potential of E.coli isolates was studied on Vero cell line which indicated that cytotoxicity was induced by only 6 (0.81%) of the isolates including 3 (0.40%) isolates from organised sector, 2 (0.27%) from restaurants and 1 (0.13%) from roadside preparations. Results of pathogenicity testing of E.coli isolates exhibited more haemolytic and enterohaemolytic activity than cytotoxicity on Vero cell line. Only 0.81%, 0.40% and 0.13% isolates from organised sector, restaurants and roadside preparations were positive employing all three tests which was also analysed statistically with highly significant differences (P<0.01) among the tests. The present study indicated that E.coli strains isolated were belonging to enterohaemorragic group.

4.09 Pathogenicity profile of Staphylococcus aureus isolated from processed meat

products sold in mumbai markets V. S. WASKAR AND A. T. SHERIKAR

Department of VPH, CVAS, Maharashtra Animal & Fishery Sciences University, Nagpur.

Staphylococcus aureus isolated from processed meat products collected from

organized sector, restaurants and roadside outlets were tested for pathogenicity profile. A total of 174 isolates of S. aureus were recovered from 736 samples of processed meat product samples comprising beef (48), mutton (19), pork (41) and chicken (66) samples with an overall incidence of 23.64%. Among 654 ready-to-eat meat products, 159 samples were positive for S. aureus, while of the 82 ready-to-cook products, 15 were positive indicating an incidence rate of 21.60% and 2.03%, respectively. Coagulase production and expression of DNAse enzyme are considered as the important pathogenicity markers for S. aureus. The ability of S. aureus isolates to coagulate fresh rabbit plasma and to produce DNAse enzyme characterized by clearing of zone around inoculums on DNAse agar was tested as in vitro pathogenicity tests. Out of total 174 isolates of S. aureus, 134 (18.20%) coagulated rabbit plasma, 40 (5.43%) isolates showed DNAse activity while 23 (3.12%) isolates exhibited both coagulase as well as DNAse activity. Again distribution of in vitro pathogenicity among 181 different sources viz. organised sector, restaurants and roadside preparations was 7.33%, 3.66% and 7.20% for coagulase test; 2.71%, 1.49% and 1.22% for DNAse activity and 1.35%, 0.67% and 1.08% for both, respectively. It was noted that more number of isolates exhibited positive reaction against coagulase test than DNAse reaction, however overall only 1.08% isolates showed both the reactions positive. Statistical analysis revealed significant variation (P<0.01) between the pathogenicity tests with regard to detection of pathogenic

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isolates indicating that coagulase test detected more number positive samples as compared to DNAse reaction. The differences were non-significant between the sources of collection.

4.10 Incidence of food-borne pathogens in street-vended foods in mumbai

V. S. WASKAR AND A. T. SHERIKAR Department of VPH, CVAS, Maharashtra Animal & Fishery Sciences University, Nagpur

Majority of the people in Mumbai depend and relish street-vended foods considering

their convenience, availability and price with an adage that freshly prepared foods are always healthy. Considering this, 270 samples of ready-to-eat beef, mutton, pork and chicken products were screened for selected food-borne pathogens. Prominent market areas viz. Crawford market, Nagpada, Mahim, Sion koliwada, Dharavi and Govandi in Mumbai city were selected for the study. Maximum products were found positive for S.aureus (8.42%) followed by Aeromonas spp. (3.66%), E. coli (1.90%) and minimum for Listeria spp. and Salmonella spp. (1.76% each). S. aureus and Salmonella spp. were predominant in beef, chicken, mutton and pork (equal) products; E.coli were predominant in beef, chicken and pork (equal) and mutton products; Aeromonas spp. in beef, chicken, pork and mutton products; while Listeria spp. in chicken, pork, beef and mutton products, respectively. In the meat products procured from roadside outlets, S.aureus was isolated from maximum samples followed by Aeromonas spp., E. coli and equal numbers of Listeria spp. and Salmonella spp. Maximum isolates were recovered from beef products followed by chicken, pork and mutton products. Statistical analysis of the data revealed non-significant difference between various products as well as pathogens indicating no variation in occurrence of the pathogens in different products. Presence of food-borne pathogens in variable proportion raises a concern about safety of street-vended foods available in Mumbai markets.

4.11 Determination of PCR-RFLP profile for Indian fish species

N. PRATIMAa, ANURAG CHATURVEDIa, M. SREEDHARa, K. MANORAMAb

AND B. KRISHNA BHAGAVATULAc a QCL, Acharya N.G. Ranga Agricultural University (ANGRAU), Rajendranagar,Hyderabad

A method for identification of eleven fish species and their corresponding DNA

admixtures has been developed based on the amplification of a specific part of the mitochondrial genome (Cytochrome b)using Polymerase Chain Reaction(PCR).To distinguish between the fish species, PCR-products were digested with three restriction enzymes viz., DdeI, HaeIII and NlaIII. Fragments obtained were resolved on the Bioanalyzer using a DNA 1000 assay, for analysis of fragment sizes and comparison with authentic species profiles. Fragment size data of Indian fish species were added to the Agilent Reference database in RFLP Decoder software, and a new user-created database was generated. Method validation was done for those fish species. Validated the data and compared with results obtained from the previous data available in Agilent reference data base. Finally identify the sequencing pattern of target gene. Polymerase chain reaction-

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restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) fragment size analysis was used to generate DNA profile of eleven Indian fish species using the Agilent 2100 Bioanalyzer. A 464 base pair fragment of cytochrome b target sequence, found in all vertebrate fish, was amplified from fish DNA, and digested with three restriction enzymes, DdeI, HaeIII and NlaIII. Fragments obtained were resolved on the Bioanalyzer using a DNA 1000 assay, for analysis of fragment sizes and comparison with authentic species profiles. Fragment size data of Indian fish species were added to the Agilent Reference database in RFLP Decoder software, and a new user-created database was generated. Identified fish species molecular characterization done by sequencing analyisIdentified 4 species DNA admixture were subjected to PCR-RFLP Analysis to know the RFLP banding pattern.

4.12Effects of chitosan and irradiation on keeping quality of beef under chiller

condition SAMEER. S, KUTTINARAYANAN. P, AND GIBIN GEORGE T

Department of LPT, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Mannuthy, Kerala

Chitosan, (Poly (β 1-4) N acetyl D – glucosamine) is a biodegradable polysaccharide,

deacetylated product of chitin, isolated from naturally occurring crustacean shells by various process like deprotienisation, demineralisation and decolourisation. Chitosan exhibits various biological activities including antimicrobial and antioxidant effects and could be used as a preservative for meat and meat products. The effect of Chitosan and irradiation on microbiological, lipid oxidation and sensory qualities of beef stored for 10 days at 4 °C were investigated. Chitosan was applied to freshly harvested Longisimus Dorsi muscle of beef at the rate of 1.5% (w/w) of initial weight and both the control and Chitosan added samples were irradiated at 2.5kGy. Control, Chitosan added and irradiated samples were stored at 40C for 10 days. Sample were analysed on 0th, 4th, 7thand 10th day. Microbiological analysis included the enumeration of total viable count, yeasts and moulds counts and psychotrophic bacterial counts, while pH values were also determined. Lipid oxidation was evaluated through measurement of TBARS value. The experimental result indicated that the samples irradiated with chitosan showed better preserving effect. Samples irradiated with chitosan could significantly lower the total viable count, yeasts and moulds counts and psychotrophic bacterial counts, and also allow a better control of pH and lipid oxidation (TBARS) in beef muscle as compared with non chitosan added batches. Chitosan showed most intense antioxidative effect as evidenced by significantly lowering the TBARS value (P < 0.05) that it could reduce the lipid oxidation caused by irradiation. Shelf life of samples containing chitosan was almost doubled compared to the control samples, where as the highest shelf life was obtained for samples irradiated with Chitosan. In conclusion, the best antimicrobial and antioxidative effects were obtained from the combination of Chitosan with irradiation. The present study demonstrates the beneficial effects of Chitosan and irradiation in preservation of meat, thus improving the quality and extending the shelf life of the sample under chiller storage condition.

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4.13 Effect of acidic and alkaline marinades on the quality of poultry meat K. SUDHEER, E. NAGA MALLIKA AND S. A. K. AZAD

Department of LPT, NTR college of Veterinary Science, Gannavaram, A.P

Traditionally meat has been marinated to improve flavor, tenderness and to increase product shelf life. A study was undertaken to evaluate the effect of acidic marinade i.e. sodium citrate in comparison with alkaline marinade i.e. sodium tripolyphosphate. Multi needle injection method is adopted to inject the exact quantity of the marinade into the meat. The marinade is injected as the needle is withdrawn, spreading the marinade throughout the piece. The chicken meat treated with acidic marinade recorded significantly (P<0.05) higher flavor, texture and tenderness scores but lower pH, moisture, water holding capacity when compared to alkaline marinade. There was no change in the drip loss between two marinades. Total plate counts were significantly (P<0.05) lower for acidic marinade treated meat. Based on the above results it can be concluded that acidic marinades can be used to increase the shelf life of the product.

4.14 Soil, water and meat, relation in residues of heavy metal

GARGI MAHAPATRA, DIPANWITA PATRA, ANUPAM KHAN, SUBHASIS BISWAS AND GOPAL PATRA

Department of LPT, Faculty of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, WBUAFS , 37 K.B Sarani, Kolkata

The concentration of heavy metals (As , Cd ,Cr , Cu ,Fe ,Mn, , Pb, and Zn) in soil, water and chevon (40-week-old), were studied in different agro-climatic zones of West Bengal using the GBC, 932B plus atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS). The levels of heavy metals in soil, water and chevon were recorded. Some heavy metals like Cr, Cu, Fe and Zn in soil and As and Fe in water were found to be at higher sides whereas metals like Cd in soil and water and As, Cd, Cu, Cr and Pb in chevon where below detection limit. The

concentrations of metals in the soil, water and chevon were statistically significant (P 0.05), when compared with reference values of MFPO and other studies. The result suggests that heavy metal residues in chevon remain within the tolerance limits, even when the animal is reared in heavy metal-polluted environment.

4.15 Assesment of microbiological quality of meat samples in Hyderabad-

Karnataka region PRADEEP KUMAR1*, B. JAGANNATHA RAO2, Y. HARIBABU3 AND MANJUNATH

PATIL4 1Department of VPHE, 2Department of LPT, CVS Hyderabad, A.P.. 3Director of Instruction for PGs,

Karnataka Veterinary, Animal and Fishery Sciences University, Bidar, Karnataka. 4Subject Matter Specialist, Department of Animal Science, KVK, Gulbarga, Karnataka

In the present research work, over 300 raw meat samples of different species (50 Beef, 50 Carabeef, 50 Mutton, 50 Chevon, 50 Pork and 50 Chicken) were colected from local slaughter houses and retail outlets in Hyderabad- Karnataka region and analysed for

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microbiological quality. The methods employed for microbiological quality assessment were Standard plate count, Selective plating, Microscopic examination and Biochemical characterization. Selective plating, microscopic examination and biochemical characterization were done for the microbes; Staphylococcus, Bacillus, Clostridium, E. coli, Salmonella & Listeria species. As per FSS regulations 2011 and Prevention of Food Adulteration Rules, 2004 for meat and meat products, the standard plate count should be 10000/gram maximum. In this study, of the 300 samples analyzed, 89 (29.66%) [18 (36%) beef, 23 (46%) carabeef, 15 (30%) mutton, 12 (24%) chevon, 11 (22%) pork and 10 (20%) chicken] meat samples exceeded the limit of 10000/gram. As per FSS regulations 2011, the standards for various organisms are; E. coli - 100/gram maximum, Samonella - absent in 25 gram, Staphylococcus aureus - 100/gram maximum, Clostridium perfringens - 30/gm max and Listeria monocytogenes - Absent in 10 gram. In this study, the no of meat samples positive for Staphylococcus, Bacillus, Salmonella and E. coli were 25, 9, 15 and 30, respectively. The number of meat samples that exceeded the limits for Staphyococcus were 20 (6.66%), for Salmonella were 15 (5%) and for E. coli were 22 (7.33%). None of the samples were positive for Listeria and Clostridium spp. The number of the meat samples that show poor microbiological quality is significantly very high and very alarming and eccentuates the importance of upgrading the slaughter houses and retail outlets and training of the personnel regarding hygienic meat production.

4.16 Detection of organochlorine pesticide residues in beef and mutton samples and

effect of cooking on residual level of aldrin and dieldrin BINDU KIRANMAYI CH., KRISHNAIAH N., MUTHU KUMAR M. AND MADHAVA RAO T

Dept. of Veterinary Public Health, NTR College of Veterinary Science, Gannavaram

Continued and indiscriminate use of pesticides has resulted in accumulation of pesticide residues into food and feed and wide spread contamination of environment. Higher stability, lipophilic nature and persistence of these chemicals in the environment led to the contamination of foodstuffs, especially those having high fat content such as milk and meat products. A study was conducted to estimate certain organochlorine (OC) pesticide (DDT, HCH and cyclodiene compounds) residues in beef and mutton (40 samples each) collected from different regions of Andhra Pradesh by gas chromatography (GC). The residues of organochlorine pesticide residues were found in majority of the analyzed beef and mutton samples. The contamination levels of OC pesticides detected in beef and mutton samples were 0.184 and 0.186 ppm of p,p’DDT- para para dichloro diphenyl trichlore ethane, 0.163 and 0.178 ppm of p,p’DDE- para para dichlorodiphenyl dichlore ethane, 0.155 and 0.127 ppm of p,p’DDD- para para dichloro diphenyl dichloroethylene, 0.074 and 0.039 ppm of α HCH (hexachloro cyclo hexane), 0.058 and 0.046 ppm of β HCH, 0.081 and 0.058 ppm of γ HCH, 0.051 and 0.022 ppm of δ HCH, 0.046 and 0.031 ppm of endosulfan sulfate, 0.040 and 0.040 ppm of heptachlor, 0.037 and 0.031 ppm of heptachlor epoxide, 0.023 and 0.020 ppm of aldrin and 0.019 and 0.022 ppm of dieldrin respectively. However, the levels of contamination were quite low and well below the maximum residue levels specified by

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national and international regulatory bodies. Cooking of aldrin and dieldrin spiked beef resulted in 31.02-35.98% reduction in aldrin and 28.91-34.60% reduction in dieldrin. Among the cooked samples, higher reduction in the residue level was noticed in pressure cooked meat samples, followed by boiling and microwave oven cooked samples.

4.17 Heavy metal residues in samples of beef, mutton, pork and chicken by

atomic absorption spectrophotometer (AAS) BINDU KIRANMAYI CH., KRISHNAIAH N., MUTHU KUMAR M. AND MADHAVA RAO T

Dept. of Veterinary Public Health, NTR College of Veterinary Science, Gannavaram

Heavy metals like lead, cadmium, arsenic, mercury constitute a very serious form of pollution, because they are stable, non-biodegradable and have the potential for bio-accumulation and bio-magnification. Living organisms require trace amounts of some heavy metals including Iron, Copper, Cobalt, Manganese, Molybdenum, Vanadium, Strontium, Arsenic, Selenium and Zinc, but excessive levels can be detrimental to the organism. The concentrations of heavy metals (Pb, Cd, Cu, Zn and Cr) in beef, mutton, pork and chicken samples (40 each) collected from different regions of Andhra Pradesh were determined after nitric acid/perchloric acid digestion using Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (AAS). The heavy metal residues were found in almost all the analyzed meat samples. The levels of heavy metals in beef, mutton, pork and chicken samples ranged from 1.46 to 1.92±0.036µg/g Pb, 0.71 to 0.81±0.041µg/g Cd, 2.70 to 5.13±µg/g Cu, 33.31 to 43.19±µg/g Zn and 0.95 to 2.17±µg/g Cr. In most of the cases, the levels of contamination were low and below the maximum residue level except in case of lead and zinc, where 2.5% and 15% samples exceeded the maximum permitted limit for lead and zinc respectively.

4.18 Molecular characterization of Shiga – toxin producing E.coli from poultry faeces

A. JAGADEESH BABU, R. PRADEEP AND D. MAHESWARA REDDY Department of VPH& Epi., College of Veterinary Science, Proddaturu

The study was designed to ascertain the incidence of Shigatoxin – producing Escherichia coli from the faeces of poultry collected from the unorganized poultry farms in and around Tirupati and from the poultry farm associated with College of Veterinary Science, Tirupati, Andhra Pradesh, India, and also the molecular characterization of the isolates to detect the virulence genes and to determine their antibiogram patterns so as to identify the best therapeutic regime and to control the spread of antibiotic resistant strains. A total of 200 poultry faecal samples were collected from various organized and unorganized poultry farms, Escherichia coli was isolated from the samples and they were subjected for direct multiplex PCR to detect the virulence genes like stx1, stx2, eaeA and hlyA. Blood agar plate test was done to find out the haemolysis production by the isolates. The antibiogram patterns of isolated strains were determined on Muller – Hinton agar by using disc diffusion method and in this test 20 antibiotic discs were used viz. Tetracycline (30µg), Polymyxin B (300 units), Chloromphenicol (30µg), Cephalothin (30µg), Kanamycin (30µg), Trimithoprim/

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Sulphamethoxyzole (25µg), Ampicillin (20µg), Nitrofurantoin (300µg), Streptomycin (10µg), Amikacin (30µg), Gentamycin (10µg), Neomycin (30µg), Ofloxacin (5µg), Piperacillin (100µg), Cefotaxime (30µg), Cefuroxime (30µg), Cefazolin (30µg), Cefapime (30µg), Imiperem (10µg) and Lomefloxacin (10µg). All the isolates were subjected to multiplex PCR by using touch down protocol. Out of 200 isolates 42 (21%) samples were positive for Shigatoxin – producing Escherichia coli. Among these 42 Shigatoxin – producing Escherichia coli 23 (54.76%) isolates carried stx1, stx2, eaeA and hlyA genes, 7 (16.66%) isolates carried stx1, 4(9.52%) isolate carried stx2, 3(7.14%) isolates carried stx2 and eaeA, 2(4.76%) isolates carried hlyA and another 3 (7.14%) isolates carried stx1, stx2, and hlyA genes. Phenotypically 68 (34%) isolates were haemolytic on sheep blood agar. The antibiogram of the isolates revealed that 83 Shigatoxin – producing Escherichia coli were resistant to 15 antibiotics tested. From this study it was observed that there is a prevalence of multi drug resistant Shigatoxin – producing Escherichia coli in poultry faeces, tirupati of Andhra Pradesh, India which is having greatest public health significance and indicating a great threat to the human health.

4.19 Isolation and molecular characterization of isolates of Clostridium perfringens

from goat meat RV SINGH#

, B. BIST, P. K. SINGH AND PRAGYA NEMA CVSAH, DUVASU, Mathura, India #Department of VPH,, CoVSc & AH, Jabalpur (MP)

The aim of the present study was to observe the occurrence of Cl. perfringens and its

enterotoxigenic strains in goat meat through isolation and molecular typing with PCR, respectively. A total of 100 meat samples of goat were subjected for isolation of Cl. perfringens with tryptose sulphite cycloserine agar (TSC). Isolation with TSC and further biochemical characterization revealed that 58 samples of goat meat were positive for Cl. perfringens. Molecular typing with duplex PCR of 30 isolates of Cl. perfringens disclosed that all the 30 isolates were positive for Cl. perfringens with PCR, but only 8 isolates were found to be enterotoxigenic.

4.20 Detection of Listeria monocytogenes in livestock products by PCR technique

C. S. SWETHA1, T. MADHAVA RAO2, N. KRISHNAIAH3 AND Y. NARASIMHA RAO4 1Department of VPH & EPi., CVS, Proddatur, 2&3Department of VPH and EPi,

4Department of VMC, CVS, Rajendranagar

Listeria monocytogenes has been recognized as an important emerging food borne pathogen due to its widespread distribution in nature. The major source of infection is due to consumption of contaminated vegetables, meat, dairy products and sea food products with Listeria species. Though conventional culture method continues to be an official method for the detection of L.monocytogenes, it takes 4-5 days for isolation and consequent confirmation of L. monocytogenes in food stuffs. Hence, there is a need to develop reliable and rapid methods for detection of L.monocytogenes from foods. The present study was undertaken to standardize PCR assay for detection of L.monocytogenes and Listeriolysin O from livestock

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foods and compare its efficacy with conventional cultural methods. A set of primer derived from iap gene and other set derived from hlyA gene were used for detection of L. monocytogenes and Listeriolysin O in the PCR assay. The specificity of the standardized PCR assay for the two primers was tested by subjecting 8 isolates including L.monocytogenes and seven other non-Listeria monocytogenes bacteria. Only L.monocytogenes isolates gave specific product of 131 bp for iap and 456 bp for hlyA genes respectively. The sensitivity of the PCR assay was evaluated by subjecting serial 10-fold dilution of pure culture of L.monocytogenes from 4.0X107cfu/ml to 4.0 cfu/ml to PCR assay with two sets of primers. The minimum detection level was found to be 4 cfu/ml. Four different broths i.e. two non-selective and two selective broths were evaluated to assess their PCR compatibility using four different treatments for concentrating the target organism (i.e. heat lysis after two step of centrifugation, heat lysis after single step of centrifugation, first centrifugation, then heat lysed and centrifuged again, heat lysis method using NaOH and Sodium dodecyl sulfate). Two non-selective broths (BHI and TSB) produced bands in all four treatments, but they were found as light. Among selective broths, LEB gave very bright bands to treatment-1 and 2 and bright bands to other treatments whereas PALCAM medium gave bright bands to treatment-1 and 2, and gave light bands to other two treatments. Out of 150 naturally contaminated samples (25 each of pork, pork swabs, chicken, chicken swabs, fish, fish swabs samples) screened for L.monocytogenes (iap) and Listeriolysin O (hlyA), PCR gave 16 positive results out of which 4, 1,4,3,2 and 2 were positive for the above given samples respectively, where as cultural method gave 8 samples, of which the above given samples were positive for 2, 1,2,1,1 and 1 respectively. The present study also suggests the need for improving food safety through the implementation of hygienic measures at all levels from production to consumption with particular emphasis on ready-to-eat food items which require no further heat treatment. PCR was found to be a suitable test for screening of food samples for L.monocytogenes in a rapid way. Overall sensitivity of PCR was higher than cultural method and amenable to automation. Quite a significant percentage of food samples were found to be contaminated with L.monocytogenes. This indicates measures for improving the hygienic practices.

4.21 Microbiological quality of marketable chicken and mutton in Hyderabad city

and its public health significance P. RAMYA, N. KRISHNAIAH AND T. MADHAVA RAO

College of Veterinary Science, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad

The study was conducted to assess the microbiological quality i.e. total viable and coliform counts and presence of E.coli, Staphylococcus aureus and Salmonella spp. of 50 samples of (25 each) chicken meat and mutton, collected from and retail meat shops of Hyderabad and slaughter houses. Of the 50 samples only 36% (9) of chicken and 48% (12) of mutton showed acceptable levels of total viable counts as per ICMSF (1974), while 52% samples were positive for coliforms. E.coli and Staphylococcus spp. were present in 70% and 58% samples respectively, whereas, only 2% of the samples were found positive for the

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presence of Salmonella spp. Poor microbiological quality recorded in this study emphasizes need to undertake urgent measures for hygeinic control.

4.22 Evaluation of bacterial contamination of raw meat sold in and around the

Hyderabad city and its public health significance B. SRINU, T. MADHAVA RAO, KRISHNAIAH N AND L V RAO

Department of VPH, College of Veterinary Science, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad

An investigation was carried out to assess the microbiological quality i.e. total viable

count (TVC), and the prevalence of E. coli, Staphylococci spp. and Salmonella spp. in meat marketed in around Hyderabad city. In all 45 samples comprising 15 poultry, 15 chevon and 15 beef were collected from various retail shops aseptically. The results revealed highest average (log 6.28±0.06/g) TVC in chevon followed by poultry meat (log 6.10±0.06/g) and least in poultry (log 6.07±0.12/g). A total of 15 samples were found positive for E. coli, 5 samples for Salmonella spp. and 17 samples were positive for Staphylococci spp. The E. coli was isolated from 7 samples of chevon, 5 samples of beef and 3 samples of poultry meat, Salmonella spp. was isolated from 2 samples of poultry meat, 1 sample of beef and 2 samples of chevon, whereas Staphylococci spp. was isolated from 9 samples of chevon, 5 samples of beef and 3 samples of poultry .The findings of present study confirm the prevalence of E. coli, Staphylococci spp. and Salmonella spp. in retail meat samples is an indicative of contamination in meat supply chain and therefore is a matter of concern from public health point of view

4.23 Incidence of Salmonella species in raw chicken from Mumbai city A. N. DANGE, SARVADNYA R. G., V. S. LANDE, K. A. PATIL, S. S. ZANZAD,

SHAILESH BAGALE AND P. YEWALE Department of Livestock Product Technology, Bombay Veterinary College, Parel, Mumbai

A present study was carried on 40 samples of raw Chicken samples, 20 each of muscles and liver collected from local Chicken market and around Mumbai City, were processed for isolation and identification of Salmonella spp. Pre-enrichment and enrichment was carried out in tetrathionate broth (TTB) followed by plating on selective media Bismuth Sulphite Agar (BSA). The colonies showing typical colony characteristics were confirmed on the basis of their morphological and biochemical characteristics. A total of 1 chicken sample were found positive for salmonella with overall prevalence of 2.5%, were chicken muscle sample found to be more contaminated than liver sample with the salmonellae. The finding of present study confirm prevalence of Salmonella spp.in retail meat sample and therefore owing to the potential human health hazard of pathogenic Salmonella spp.to the consumers, it is important to put more emphasis on food hygiene and such surveillance studies for sustenance of public health..

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4.24 Isolation and characterization by PCR of E. coli from retail poultry meat and different sources in retail poultry meat shops in Parbhani city

S. S. PATIL, V. V. DESHMUKH, R. N. WAGHMARE, A. S. AITALWAD AND C. S. SHEIKH Department of VPH and EPi., College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Parbhani

Foodborne E. coli are important pathogens of public health importance. E. coli is

often suggested as indicator organism because it reliably reflects faecal contamination. In semi-urban areas the retail poultry meat is processed and sold in unhygienic conditions. In the present study an attempt was made to isolate E. coli from retail poultry meat and different sources poultry meat shops in Parbhani city. A total of 240 swab samples of different sources viz. utensils, platform, personnel, water and poultry meat were collected from five retail poultry meat shops in six lots. Isolation of E. coli was done by selective plating on Eosine Methylene Blue (EMB) agar (Himedia Laboratories, Mumbai). Characteristic colonies of E. coli showing green colour with metallic sheen were further used for identification by biochemical tests and sugar fermentation tests. A total 74 E. coli isolates were obtained from all the sources with overall prevalence of 30.83 percent. The prevalence rate of E. coli for different sources viz. knife, scalding tank, defeatherer, dressing table, platform, personnel, water and poultry meat was 30, 33.33, 23.33, 46.67, 16.66, 6.67, 43.33 and 46.67 per cent respectively. The highest percentage of positive samples 46.67 percent out of the overall isolates were seen from dressing table and poultry meat. Molecular characterization of 12 randomly selected representative isolates was done with the help of PCR by targeting the species specific pal gene. All the 12 isolates subjected to PCR were confirmed. The presence of E. coli indicates there is need of hygienic measures during poultry slaughtering specially the cleaning of wooden dressing table and hygienic processing till the poultry meat reaches to the consumers.

4.25 Intelligent packaging devices for monitoring quality and safety of meat during

storage conditions KANDEEPAN. G1, VISHNURAJ M.R1, VIVEK SHUKLA1, MENDIRATTA S. K1,

AGARWAL R. K2 AND SHARMA B. D1

1 Division of LPT, 2 Division of VPH, IVRI, Izatnagar, Bareilly The intelligent packaging devices prove as a monitoring tool to assess the quality and

safety of meat during storage conditions. Thereby the wholesalers/retailers of meat can withhold the unsatisfactory meat, if found, before inadvertently keeping them in display cabinets for sale. Moreover the intelligent packaging devices give authentication to the consumers about the safety of the meat. If these devices are made available, legal issues arising out of unsatisfactory meat versus consumer oriented disputes can be prevented. Hence these devices will be useful in upholding reputation of the brand in the market and preventing undue loss of money to the company. In Indian market, intelligent packaging devices are not available in meat supply chain. But this is highly essential in the rising food poisoning cases and increasing global export-import market. Keeping this in view, a research was undertaken

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to develop intelligent packaging devices for monitoring meat quality and safety under storage conditions. The intelligent packaging devices were developed based on chemical solutions, natural dyes and enzyme-substrate complex. The devices based on chemical and natural dyes were placed either inside the packaged meat as strip or sensor. These devices reacted with the metabolites produced by bacterial growth during storage and resulted in a significant color change when the meat became unacceptable. Whereas the device based on enzyme-substrate complex changed colour with change in storage temperature of the meat above 10oC for a considerable time period. These color change in intelligent devices could successfully indicate about the quality and safety acceptability level of meat under storage conditions. This technology would enable the meat industry to prevent the cases of food poisoning occurring due to processing products from unsatisfactory meat.

4.26 Quality and safety assurance of meat in supply chain

KANDEEPAN. G1, VIVEK SHUKLA1, VISHNURAJ M. R1, MENDIRATTA S. K1, AGARWAL R. K2 AND SHARMA B. D1

1 Division of LPT, 2 Division of VPH, IVRI, Izatnagar, Bareilly

In spite of good manufacturing practices and food safety standards followed at various manufacturing plants, the estimated shelf life of the meat gets decreased due to negligence or break down in cold chain/interrupted power supply eventually resulting in meat spoilage in supply chain. If a field kit / an indicator sensor are made available to monitor the quality changes during temperature abuse in supply chain, it will benefit both the manufacturers and consumers. The manufacturers can track the quality and withhold the unsatisfactory meat before they find their place in the display cabinets for sale. Moreover the consumers will confidently purchase meat without any doubt over the quality simply by observing the colour change in the biochemical test of the field kit or through colour change in the indicator placed in the packaged meat. Till date there is no such field kit/sensor is available in Indian market. Even the literatures available in this area of research are very scanty. Therefore, a program has been designed with an objective to develop field kit and indicator based sensor for monitoring meat safety in supply chain. In the first experiment, a field kit was developed based on indicator chemicals which could change color with increase in microbial load of the stored meat. In the second experiment, indicator sensors were developed based on chemical solutions and natural dyes. These indicator sensors could successfully reveal the status of quality and safety of the packaged meat through the change in color of the indicator sensor. Hence it is concluded that the developed biochemical test and indicator sensors can be successfully used as quality and safety assurance tools for the meat in supply chain.

4.27 Metallic residues concentration in goat tissues G. GAWDAMAN AND ROBINSON J. J. ABRAHAM

Department of Meat Science and Technology, Madras Veterinary College, Chennai

A study was made to detect the metallic residues viz., arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), lead (Pb) and zinc (Zn) in muscle, liver and kidneys of Salem

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black goat that were sold at different meat shops in and around Mecherry region (Salem district of Tamilnadu). A total of 60 samples were collected and it metallic residues were detected using inductively coupled plasma- mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Results indicated that arsenic concentrations ranged from 0.014- 0.035, 0.011-0.040, 009- 0.428 ppm, cadmium ranged from 0.007-0.013, 0.031-0.130, 0.020-0.095ppm, chromium ranged from 0.478- 2.915, 0.326-3.049, 0.229- 2.315ppm, copper ranged from 0.746-5.852, 18.139- 56.053, 1.813- 65.665ppm, lead concentration ranged from 0.099- 0.354, 0.067-0.340, 0.060-228ppm and zinc concentration ranged from 15.000-48.294, 25.120-103.492, 7.892-45.253ppm in muscle, liver and kidneys of goat tissue, respectively. Out of six metallic residue concentration analyzed, concentrations of four were below the maximum permissible level (MPL) prescribed by (MFPO, 2004) with the exception of copper and zinc which had relatively higher concentration in some tissues of goat.

4.28 Organochlorine pesticide residues in market samples of broiler and desi chicken

SUNIL KUMAR .K, NADEEM FAIROZE. M, MUTHUKUMAR*, NAVEENA B. M*, U. KRISHNAMOORTHY AND K. SURESHKUMAR

Veterinary College, Bangalore, KVAFSU-Bidar, *NRC on Meat, Hyderabad

The present study was conducted to estimate the levels of various organochlorine

pesticide residues in market samples of broiler and desi chicken collected from in and around Hyderabad city. A total of 60 samples (each 15 muscle and fat samples of broiler and desi chicken) were analysed for the presence of organochlorine pesticide residues using gas chromatograph equipped with an electron capture detector. Pesticide contamination was noticed in 55% of analyzed samples. The percentage of pesticide contamination recorded in broiler and desi chickens samples were 83.33 and 26.6, respectively. Among the pesticides, DDT, HCH, aldrin, endrin, heptachlor and endosulphan residues were detected in broiler chicken samples. The overall concentration of DDT, HCH, aldrin, endrin, heptachlor and endosulfan residues in muscle and fat of broiler chicken were 0.026, 0.006, 0.003, 0.007, 0.004 and 0.005 ppm, and 0.11, 0.122, 0.108, 0.012, 0.03 and 0.055 ppm, respectively. Only DDT and HCH residues were detected in desi chicken samples and the overall concentration of the same were (0.002 and 0.006 ppm) and (0.05and 0.013 ppm) in muscle and fat, respectively. The study revealed that the market samples of broiler chicken had higher incidence and levels of residues as compared to that of desi chicken samples and the concentration of pesticide residues in both broiler and desi were higher in fat samples compared to muscle samples. Further the levels of pesticide residues recorded in the study were lower than the maximum residue limit prescribed by Food Safety Standards Regulations (Contaminants, toxins and Residues), 2011.

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4.29 A rapid method for authentication of beef and pork by FINS and PCR-RFLP of mitochondrial cytochrome b gene

CHANDRE GOWDA C. T1, NADEEM FAIROZE2, GIRISH, P. S., A. R. SEN., S. VAITHIYANATHAN & SHAILESH BAGALE

NRC on Meat, Hyderabad, 1M.V.Sc. Scholar, 2Dept. of LPT, Veterinary College, Bangalore

In India, export of beef (cattle meat) is strictly banned. In spite of ban, cows and

bullocks are occasionally slaughtered and adulterated with buffalo meat for export. Also, Hindus have taboo for beef, while Jewish and Muslim populations choose to avoid consumption of pork due to their religious belief. However, the example of mislabelling is prevelent and is punishable under Food Safety & Standards Act, 2006. Food analysts are often asked to test, authenticate and certify meat samples in cases involving adulterations or misrepresentations. Several techniques have been in use in the past and molecular techniques are considered as ‘techniques of choice’ for meat authentication. In the present study PCR based techniques based on Forencically informative nucleotide sequencing (FINS) and polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) for authentication of beef and pork have been develped. DNA was extracted by alkaline lysis and Phenol: chloroform methods. A set of universal primers were designed targeting mitochondrial cytochrome B gene. PCR amplification yielded 450 bp in beef and pork samples. Amplicons was sequenced and aligned using Basic Local Alignment Search Tool (BLAST) of NCBI. Beef and pork samples showed 98% similarity with in the species. Based on RE mapping restriction enzymes were selected for developing RFLP assay. Restriction enzyme digestion of the PCR product of 450 bp with MspI restriction enzymes resulted in pattern that could authenticate and differentiate beef and pork. Mitochondrial cytochrome B gene of cattle was cleaved into 198+252 bp amplicon where as that of pig is 61+389 bp fragments, respectively. Techniques are very sensitive and reliable, accurate and rapid. Techniques can help food analysts to solve the problem of animal species authentication.

4.30 Buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) meat authentication by forensically informative nucleotide sequencing (FINS)

CHANDRE GOWDA C. T1., NADEEM FAIROZE2, GIRISH, P. S., M. MUTHUKUMAR, SHAILESH BAGALE., U. KRISHNAMOORTHY3

NRC on Meat, Hyderabad 1, 2Dept. of LPT, 3 Dept. of LPM,Veterinary College, Bangalore

Carabeef (buffalo meat) is a major item of export from India. But export of beef (i.e. cattle meat) is prohibited. Adulteration of beef with that of carabeef is a common fraudulent practice because of prohibition of cow slaughter in most states of India. Secondly, there is a malpractice among meat vendors to mix the low priced meat such as carabeef (even sometimes the banned cow meat) with other costlier meats like goat (chevon) and sheep (mutton) meats to gain monetary benefits, which is an economic fraud and offence under Foof safety and Standards Act, 2006. Under such circumstances, the consumers would have questions pertaining to the surety and authenticity of the origin of meat. Keeping in view

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these peculiarities in India, carabeef identification has become an essential element for food quality control and forensic analysis. So a novel PCR based technique Forensically Informative Nucleotide Sequencing (FINS) was developed using newly designed oligonucleotide primers targeting mitochondrial Cytochrome B gene. Genomic DNA was extracted from the buffalo meat by Phenol: Chloroform method. 450 bp PCR amplicon was sequenced and aligned using Basic Local Alignment Search Tool (BLAST) of National Cetnre for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Nucleotide sequence showed 98% similarity with buffalo (Bubalus bubalis), 88% similarity with cattle (Bos indicus), 86 % with sheep (Ovis aries), 86% with goat (Capra hircus), 75% with chicken (Gallus gallus) and 82 % with pig (Sus scrofa domestica) Cytochrome B gene sequence. The technique is very sensitive, reliable and accurate method of species authentication. Method is highly specific and reliable and more specifically applicable even in cooked meat.

4.31 Use of natural indicator dyes for monitoring quality and safety of meat

VIVEK SHUKLA1, KANDEEPAN. G1*, VISHNURAJ M. R1, MENDIRATTA S. K1, AGARWAL R. K2 AND SHARMA B. D1

1 Division of LPT, 2 Division of VPH, IVRI, Izatnagar, Bareilly

With greater emphasis on meat safety in storage and supply chain, there is a need to develop monitoring system for real time estimation of freshness and safety of meat throughout the supply chain. Therefore a program was designed to develop a natural dye based indicator for monitoring the meat safety under storage conditions. The principle of the experiment was based on the response of the natural indicator when it reacts with the basic metabolites released during the storage of meat. Accordingly efforts were made to extract natural dyes from different sources using different solvents and methods. The natural indicator was fabricated using the extracted anthocyanins coated on to a suitable carrier and packaged in a suitable material. Then the response of the indicator was studied in an indicator – metabolite reactive model, simulating production of volatile bases produced during stored meat. It was observed that the indicator changed its colour when placed in a reactive model but it did not produce any change in colour when kept without the metabolite. It is concluded from the significant response of the indicator that extracts from the natural sources can be successfully used for developing a suitable food grade indicator system for monitoring meat quality and safety in supply chain.

4.32 Determination of biofilm and ESBL producing meat isolate of Klebsiella pneumonia

LINI P. MATHEW*, 1, D. JEGADEESHKUMAR2, MANJU MOHAN1 AND K. K. RAMACHANDRAN1

1IGC Arts & S, Ernakulum, Kerala *Project Directorate on Poultry, 2CRC, Namakkal

Microbial food safety and food-borne infections are important public health concern worldwide. Consumption of contaminated raw or undercooked meat, poultry, eggs, or seafood poses a health risk to the elderly, young children and other highly susceptible individuals with compromised immune systems. In the recent years prevalence of multi drug

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resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae (MRKP) strain is evident in many developing countries including India. Klebsiella pneumonia is known as an important food borne bacteria and causes severe illness in immunologically compromised individuals. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the Klebsiella pneumonia from different meat samples including chicken, bovine, and goat. Totally each 10 samples were processed for the detection of multi resistant Klebsiella pneumonia. Among all the meat sources, highest occurrence was observed in goat meat sample (70%), followed by bovine (60%) and chicken (10%). In this study, we also investigated the prevalence of extended-spectrum β-lactamase (ESBL) by identifying through the amplification of SHV, TEM, CTXm and OXA genes by multiplex PCR. TEM were highly observed in all meat isolates followed by CTXm. This result also correlated well with biofilm formation. Most of the biofilm producing isolates had number of ESBL genes. Increase in ESBL producing K. pneumoniae is a serious threat and often express resistance to multiple antibiotics and complicates antibiotic therapy. Continuous surveillance of raw meat samples and use of appropriate screening tests for laboratory detection of multi drug resistant pathogens to ensure hygienic meat supply.

4.33 Authentication of beef by mitochondrial D-loop based polymerase chain reaction assay

NAGAPPA S. KARABASANAVAR, S. P. SINGH, DEEPAK KUMAR, GIRISH PATIL S. AND SUNIL N. SHEBANNAVAR

Department of VPH, CVAS, G.B. Pant University of Agriculture & Technology, Pantnagar

Authentication of meat is essential owing to public health, economic, religious and legal concerns. A species-specific PCR assay targeting mitochondrial D-loop region was developed for identification of beef (Bos indicus & Bos taurus). A pair of forward and reverse primers yielding a species-specific PCR product 380 bp was designed against the conserved region of mitochondrial D-loop of cattle. The PCR assay was checked for cross amplification against 25 animal species comprising of mammals, birds, rodents and fish. No amplification was seen in any of the species studied. Primers successfully amplified the targeted region in raw (n=20 each), cooked (60, 80 and 100ºC), autoclaved (121ºC) and micro-oven processed beef samples. Sensitivity of the assay was as low as 0.1% for the detection of meat adulteration and limit of detection (LOD) of cattle DNA was 0.1 pico grams. Novel PCR assay developed in this study was highly sensitive and has applications not only in the forensic science but also for the detection of meat adulteration arising from fraud in the trade of meat derived from the cattle especially in the Indian subcontinent. 4.34 HACCP based food safety system in a typical fresh frozen buffalo processing unit

SHEKHAR R. BADHE, SUHAS GOLE, MOHAN R. BADHE, R. D. KOKANE, SAGAR CHAND AND KISHOR RATHOD

Department of LPT, College of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandary, Junagadh, JAU.

Fresh frozen buffalo processing unit is committed for implementation of an effective HACCP system. During hazard identification, evaluation and subsequent operations in

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designing and applying HACCP system consideration has been given to the impact of raw materials, ingredients, food manufacturing practices, role of manufacturing processes to control hazards, likely end use of the product, categories of consumers of concern, and epidemiological evidence related to food safety. The intent of the HACCP system is to focus control of CCPs. Redesign of the operation is considered if a hazard which must be controlled is identified but no CCPs are found. HACCP is applied to each specific operation separately. HACCP application is reviewed and if necessary the changes are made when any modification is made in the product, process or any step. During HACCP implementation due consideration has been given to the nature and size of the operation. Basically all the activities, being carried out at Fresh frozen buffalo processing unit, inside the premises are included in the scope. The scope for the application of the HACCP based Food Safety System in Fresh frozen buffalo processing unit. Scope of application includes Receipt and unloading of carcasses, washing, chilling,de-boning, fresh packing, freezing, frozen packing,container loading, dispatch. Haccp system requires management responsibility, food safety policy, resources, Product Characteristics and Intended use, hazard analysis, parameters and critical limits, monitoring and measuring, product release, corrective actions, product recall, validation.

4.35 Chemical based indicator for non-destructive evaluation of meat safety VIVEK SHUKLA1, KANDEEPAN.G1, VISHNURAJ M.R1, MENDIRATTA S.K1,

AGARWAL R. K2, AND SHARMA B. D1

1 Division of LPT, 2 Division of VPH, IVRI, Izatnagar, Bareilly

Evolutions of modern storage facilities have made it possible to transport meat to long distances and store for long duration. Meanwhile, they have added an extra burden to monitor the safety and freshness during transport which may be compromised at times. Since the era is of greater stringency in relation to hygiene and safety issues associated with fresh and processed meat, it is of great value to develop a meat safety monitoring system in supply chain. Accordingly efforts were made to develop a suitable meat safety monitoring system in supply chain. Different chemical dyes were selected based on their sensitivity to volatile basic nitrogen released from the stored meat for the development of suitable indicator system for monitoring of meat safety in supply chain. The group of chemicals selected include methyl red, bromocresol green, phenol red, bromophenol blue, different acids, alkali, and alcohol. The different levels of chemicals were optimized either alone or in combination and indicator solutions were prepared. The standardized indicator chemicals were coated in a suitable carrier, placed along with the packaged meat and observed for colour change on reaction with metabolites released from stored meat. It was observed that the colour of the indicator changed from its original colour as the storage progressed. The results indicated that the colour changed to a completely different colour as the meat reached its end of storage life with increasing microbial load and consequent increase in concentration of volatile metabolites. It is concluded that different combinations of indicator chemicals can be successfully used to develop a suitable indicator system for monitoring meat safety in supply

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chain. Hence the consumers can easily monitor and judge the quality of meat just by viewing at the colour change of the indicator present in the packaged meat.

4.36 Acceptability and shelf stability of further processed sundried

dried chicken meat products. Y. BABJI, I. PRINCE DEVADASON, B. M. NAVEENA, M. MUTHUKUMAR, A. R. SEN,

P. S.PATIL, M. MUTHULAKSHMI, R. S. RAJ KUMAR, C. RAMAKRISHNA, S.VAITHIANATHAN AND K. KANCHANA, National Research Centre on Meat, Hyderabad

Studies were carried out for effective salvaging of dried meat that was previously

prepared by using standardized spice mix including salt up to 2% salt and pretreated with 6 % and 8% soya followed by sun drying for about 7 days at a temperature of 28- 34°C and storage at an ambient temperature (30±2°C) for over a year had been utilized for development of further processed chicken meat products and evaluated for its quality.Accordingly developed three highly sensorially tasteful, microbiologically stable further processed chicken snack products namely Y-shaped, pappad shaped and cylindrical shaped snacks and its microbiological ecology and micro biological quality studied with reference to spoilage (APC, PPC, Coliforms, enterobacteriacea ) and pathogenic microbiota( S.aureus) and the microbiological counts found in these snacks were well below the laid down standards for dried meat products. Snacks from control samples (without soya flour) were less acceptable sensorially compared to soya pretreated ones.Storage stability of these further processed chicken snacks was more than a month at ambient temperature (30±2°C) with highly acceptable sensory quality.

4.37 Microbiological stability and sensory quality of tray dried chicken meat. Y. BABJI, I. PRINCE DEVADASON, B. M. NAVEENA, M. MUTHUKUMAR, A. R. SEN, P. S.

PATIL, M. MUTHULAKSHMI, R. S. RAJ KUMAR, C.RAMAKRISHNA, S. VAITHIANATHAN AND K. KANCHANA National Research Centre on Meat, Hyderabad

A study was conducted to produce microbiologically safe dried chicken meat with optimum sensory quality characteristics. Fresh deboned chicken meat mixed with 2% salt and 1% spice mix was tray dried at 77.12°C for 6 hrs at 0, 2, 4, and 6 hrs intervals. Moisture, water activity, microbiological parameters analysed and sensory evaluation conducted at each interval during dried meat production. The moisture percent after 35.35 hrs of tray drying was 2.82%, water activity was 0.273 and sensorially the dried meat sample was highly acceptable and the colour of the meat was dark brown. The microbial counts namely aerobic plate counts, psychrotrophs,coliforms, enterobacteriaceae, faecal streptococci, lactic acid bacteria, pseudomonas, proteolytic bacteria, Staphylococcus aureus and yeast and mould counts ranged log / g between 4.2 –4.5 after 6 hours of drying.

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4.38 Microbiological Stability and Sensory Quality of Sun Dried Chicken Meat Y. BABJI, I. PRINCE DEVADASON, B. M. NAVEENA, M. MUTHUKUMAR, A. R. SEN, P. S.

PATIL, M. MUTHULAKSHMI, R. S. RAJ KUMAR, C. RAMAKRISHNA, S. VAITHIANATHAN AND K. KANCHANA

National Research Centre on Meat, Hyderabad-500 039.

A Study was carried out to produce microbiologically stable and sensorially acceptable sun dried chicken meat.Fresh chicken purchased from local market divided in to two lots of 1000 grams each.One lot mixed with salt (2.5%), turmeric powder (0.3%), pepper (0.3%), and spice mix (1.25%) served as a control without curry leaf powder and another lot treated with similar additives served as a treatment with 0.7% curry leaf powder. Both the samples were sundried at 29- 35°C for 6 hrs with intervals at 0, 2, 4, and 6 hrs for 8 days. Moisture content of control and treatment after 6 hrs of sun drying on day 8 was 11.90% and 11.02%, respectively. While the protein was 65.99% and 65.00% for control and treatment, respectively, the ash content was 13.09% and 12.99% on day 8th of sun drying, respectively. The water activity on day 8 was 0.479 and 0.483 for control and treatment, respectively whereas the water activity, on day 11for control and treatment was 0.419 and 0.412, respectively. Both control and treatment were sensorially highly acceptable throughout 11 days of sun drying. Up to 4.0 log/g of APC, PPC, Coliforms, Enterobacteriaceae, Lactic acid bacteria, Faecal streptococci, Pseudomonas whereas a 4.7 log/cm2 of yeast and mould counts recorded after 6 hours of sun drying on day 8 for these dried meat samples.Sensorially the samples treated with curry leaf powder were highly acceptable compared with control samples without curry leaf powder. However, curry leaf treated samples were dark grey in colour.

4.39 Effect of organic acids on microbiological safety and sensory quality of goat meat at refrigeration temperature.

Y. BABJI, A. R. SEN, I. PRINCE DEVADASON, M. MUTHUKUMAR AND B. M. NAVEENA, MUTHULAKSHMI AND R. S. RAJ KUMAR

National Research Centre on Meat, Hyderabad-500 039.

A study was carried out to find out the effects of organic acids on physical, microbiological and sensory parameters of goat meat during refrigerated storage. Fresh goat meat after 3-4 hrs of postmortem removed of fascia and connective tissue was subdivided in to four lots of each 1000 grams and one of the lots served as a control and remaining three lots were treated with 1% gluconic acid,1.5% gluconic acid, 2% propionic acid and 3% propionic acid and stored up to 14 days at refrigeration temperature. During refrigeration storage,pH, aW, ERV,WHC,bacterial counts analysed and sensory evaluation conducted at 0, 3, 5, 7, 9, 12 and 14 days.A 2% and 3% propionic acid treatment showed very low pH(4.91-5.1)during 14 days of storage whereas 1% and 1.5% gluconic acid treatment exhibited high pH (5.89-6.6) up to day 9. Control ,1% and 1.5% gluconic acid treatments had 0.945 water activity on day 9 whereas on days 0,3,5,7,12 the aW was in the range of 0.951-0.978 for

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control and treatments.The ERV significantly increased throughout 14 days of storage in all treatments and control.However, 2 and 3% propionic acid treatments showed very high increases ( 64-81 ml) towards the end of 14 days of storage.WHC increases were more or less same throughout storage. However, 2&3% propionic acid treatments maintained high (8.25-9.25 ml) WHC up to 14 th day. More or less same increases were observed in aerobic plate counts in control and all treatments on days 0, 3, 5, 7, 9, 12 & 14.However, a 3% propionic acid treatment showed very low counts on day 3 & 9 and high counts on day 12 compared with rest of the treatment groups and control. A 3% propionic acid treatment showed very low PPC counts on day 0, &14 whereas 1% gluconic acid showed low counts on day 3.Both control and treatments showed low PPC on day 5 and on day 12, low PPC were observed for 1.5% gluconic acid,2% propionic acid and 3% propionic acid treatments. Low PPC were observed on day 12 in 1% gluconic acid treatment. Throughout 14 days of storage, there were increases in counts of pseudomonas in control and treatments. However, on day 7,a 2% propionic acid and a 3% propionic acid samples showed very low counts of pseudomonas compared with 1% and 1.5% gluconic acid treatments whereas on day 9 samples treated with 1% & 3% propionic acid treatments. However, 3% propionic acid treated samples showed very high counts of pseudomonas on day 12.A 2 %and 3% propionic acid samples were highly sensorially acceptable up to 14 days whereas 1% and 1.5% gluconic acid samples were acceptable up to 9 days.

4.40 Detection of Escherichia coli o157:h7, Salmonella spp. and Staphylococcus aureus

from mutton using multiplex polymerase chain reaction A. ANANTHARAJ, R. NARENDRA BABU, ROBINSON J. J. ABRAHAM,

V. APPA RAO AND S.EZHILVELAN Madras Veterinary College, Chennai

A study was conducted to establish a multiplex-PCR technique for rapid detection of Escherichia coli O157:H7, Salmonella spp. and Staphylococcus aureus from mutton. sixgene, invA gene and nuc genes were targeted for Escherichia coli O157:H7, Salmonella spp. and Staphylococcus aureus respectively in the PCR reaction. Precision of this technique was found by sequencing the m-PCR products which were compared in BLAST and found to be 100%, 99% and 97% identical. It was able to detect Escherichia coli O157:H7 upto 3 × 104, Salmonella spp. upto 3 × 105 and Staphylococcus aureus upto 3 × 104 CFU/g of meat homogenate. 90 random mutton samples were collected from Chennai and m-PCR was carried out using these samples. All the samples were negative for Escherichia coli O157:H7, whereas, 9 samples were positive for Salmonella spp. and 15 samples were positive for Staphylococcus aureus. Hence, the study conclude that the m-PCR technique developed can be used as a rapid screening test for simultaneous detection of Escherichia coli O157:H7, Salmonella spp. and Staphylococcus aureus in mutton.

 

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4.41 Effect of cooking, processing and freezing on concentration of DNA in beef and pork

T. DEEPAK, V. APPA RAO, ROBINSON J. J. ABRAHAM, R. NARENDRA BABU AND N. BRINDHA

Madras Veterinary College, Chennai

A study was conducted to identify effect of cooking, processing and freezing on beef and pork. Beef and Pork samples were subdivided into fresh samples (4+1°C), frozen samples (-18+2°C), cooked samples (pressure cooked at 6.8kg/cm2 for 30 minutes) and processed samples. DNA extraction was done by chemical method, and also by real genomics DNA extraction kit method. OD values (indicator of purity of DNA) were found to be between 1.70 and 1.90 in all the samples of beef and pork utilized in this study. Cooked and Processed meat samples constantly yielded higher concentration of DNA while frozen meat samples yielded lowest concentration of the three. The results of this study indicated that the freezing temperature has affected the concentration of DNA during the extraction process whereas cooking and processing at higher temperature did not affect the concentration of extractable DNA.

4.42 Detection of beef and pork using polymerase chain reaction T. DEEPAK, V. APPA RAO, ROBINSON J. J. ABRAHAM, R. NARENDRA BABU

AND S. EZHILVELAN Madras Veterinary College, Chennai

A study was conducted to identify meat species, beef and pork in particular using Polymerase Chain Reaction. Beef and Pork samples were subdivided in to fresh (4+1°C), frozen (-18+2°C), cooked(pressure cooked at 6.8kg/cm2 for 30 minutes) and processed samples. DNA extraction from beef and pork was done by chemical method, and also by real genomics DNA extraction kit method. Species-specific oligonucleotide primers based on sequences of mitochondrial 12S rRNA gene for beef and pork were custom made for Polymerase Chain Reaction. Species-Specific DNA fragments of 400 and 230 bp were successfully amplified with beef and pork primer sets respectively in 2 per cent agarose gel. The sensitivity (detection limit) of PCR for beef was found to be 0.02ng/µl and the sensitivity (detection limit) of PCR for pork was found to be 1.5pg/µl. Direct sequencing of purified PCR products 12s rRNA gene of beef and pork samples were done and analysed using BLAST at NCBI and were found to be matching well. The results obtained in this study demonstrate the suitability of PCR analysis to identify the species of commercially available meat products which were subjected to intense heat treatments.

4.43 Detection of emerging food pathogens in chicken meat using multiplex Polymerase Chain Reaction

S. SATHEESH RAJA, V. APPA RAO, ROBINSON J. J. ABRAHAM, R. NARENDRA BABU AND N.BRINDHA

Madras Veterinary College, Chennai

A study was conducted to establish a multiplex-PCR technique for rapid detection of Campylobacter jejuni and Listeria monocytogenes from chicken meat. Hyp gene and prfA

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gene were targetted to detect Campylobacter jejuni and Listeria monocytogenes respectively, using PCR. Precision of this technique was determined from the sequenced m-PCR products compared in BLAST and found to be 99% identical with the known sequences available in the NIH-Gene Bank. The developed m-PCR technique could detect both Campylobacter jejuni and Listeria monocytogenes upto 3 x 105 CFU/ml and 3 x 104 CFU/ml of meat homogenate. 90 chicken samples were collected from Chennai and m-PCR was carried out. All the samples screened were not positive for both Campylobacter jejuni and Listeria monocytogenes. Hence this study concluded with the fact that the m-PCR technique developed can be used as a rapid screening test for simultaneous detection of Campylobacter jejuni and Listeria monocytogenes from chicken meat within 24 hours.

4.44 Microbiological Quality of Chicken Meat Chips N. DEVALAKSHMI

Sri Venkateswara Veterinary University, Tirupati.

The study was conducted to assess the microbiological quality i.e. total plate and

Yeast and mold counts of 4 Chicken meat chip formulations of raw and partially cooked meat extended with binders(15%) like cooked and mashed potato(T1), bengal gram flour(T2), black gram flour(T3) and control(T4). Irrespective of type of meat and type of formulation there is no significant effect on mean total plate and yeast and mold counts of chicken meat chips of fresh samples. But the overall mean total plate and yeast and mold counts of chicken meat chips increased significantly and progressively(p<0.01) as the storage period increased upto 8 weeks at both ambient (37±20c) and refrigerated (7±10c) conditions irrespective of type of meat and type of formulation.

4.45 Growth profiling of Salmonella typhimurium isolated from poultry meat for

assessment of its hardiness exposed to different temperatures A. S. YADAV, AJAY KUMAR RAI AND V. K. SAXENA

FM lab., Division of PHT, Central Avian Research Institute, Izatnagar

A study was conducted to assess the effect of exposure of sublethal heat stress on

growth and survivability of Salmonella Typhimurium isolated from poultry with a view to assess its health hazard in temperature abused poultry meat. Culture of S. typhimurium (ST) grown at 300C to mid-log phase in fresh Luria Bertini broth was subjected to three different temperatures viz. 300C, 420C and 500C. The growth was assessed at different time intervals (0, 4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24 h) by measuring the optical density. The results of study indicated that subjecting S. Typhimurium at 300C and 420C temperatures, the growth pattern at all the intervals showed a increasing trend till end of the experiment, however, compare to 42oC, the growth pattern was found to be higher at 30oC. Subjecting S. Typhimurium to 500C temperature, the growth pattern indicated a decline trend even after 4 h which continued till the end of the experiment. The results of study related to assess the survivability of S. Typhimurium indicated that the organism survived even at 50oC till end of the experiment.

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Based on the results of the study it can be concluded that optimum temperature for growth for S. Typhimurium was 30oC, however exposure of this organism at higher temperatures may lead to development of heat stress which can impart hardiness to this organism. Therefore, temperature abuse during storage of poultry meat at higher temperatures may serve a potential public health hazard for this organism.

4.46 Characterization of Salmonella spp. from live layer chicken and egg SWAPNIL JILLAWAR, SHAILESH S. BAGALE, SUPRIYA PAWAR, RAHUL GOSAVI, A.

R. DESHPANDE, ABDUL AZIZ, SHRIDHAR VIRDE#

CVAS, (MAFSU, NAGPUR) Parbhani, #V.G. Shivdare College of Biotechnology, Maharashtra

In Indian poultry industry, Salmonellosis is considered to be one of the most common

food born disease causing huge economic loss for meat and poultry industry with public health importance. Raw poultry and meat products are reported to be the principle source of Salmonella in many countries but there is great need to test egg as a source of Salmonella as one of infectious agent for food born salmonellosis. By considering the importance the present study was undertaken to study prevalence of Salmonella spp. and also the characterization of Salmonella spp. along with antibiogram isolated from eggs from market conditions of Marathwada region of Maharashtra State. A total of 20 samples (40%) were positive for presence of Salmonella spp. out of the 50 egg samples and Only 2 (4%) were positive 0ut of 50 cloacal swabs collected from live layer birds. All the fields from where the egg samples were collected showed some proportion of positive samples ranging from 16.67% to 50%. All the Salmonella isolates confirmed to the various biochemical characters such as MR, VP, Indole, Nitrate, Catalase, Oxidase, Citrate and Urease tests. For further confirmation the Salmonella isolates were subjected to sugar fermentation tests with glucose, rhamnose, arabinose, maltose, dulcitol, mannitol, lactose and sucrose. The results of sugar fermentation tests were in agreement with standards for Genus Salmonella of the various species. After performing the various biochemical and sugar tests mentioned earlier, isolates were sent to National Salmonella and Escherchia Centre (NSEC), Central Research Institute (CRI), Kasauli (Himachal Pradesh), India for serotyping. Out of the 9 Salmonella isolates obtained from eggs sent for serotyping 05 (55.56%) were identified as Salmonella typhimurium and 4 (44.44%) were identified as Salmonella gallinarum. The only isolate from cloacal swabs showed the presence of Salmonella gallinarum. The low prevalence of Salmonella spp. in cloacal swabs in layer birds with that of prevalence from eggs helps to draw a conclusion that almost all the Salmonella spp. detected had the origin from unsanitary conditions in the premises, improper handling and unhygienic conditions of the shops. Further prevalence of Salmonella spp. from eggs and cloacal swabs of live layer birds was a surprisingly high as these Salmonella are invariably transmitted by transovarian route. High prevalence of Salmonella spp. in eggs indicates towards the alarming situation and need for corrective measures in the health aspect of layer birds as well as unhygienic conditions in the layer farms. The detection of Salmonella typhimurium in egg samples demands urgent attention of Veterinary and Public Health authorities as this serotype is reported to cause various disease conditions in humans.

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4.47 Prevelence of Sallmonella spp. from meat market SWAPNIL JILLAWAR, SHAILESH S. BAGALE, SUPRIYA PAWAR, RAHUL GOSAVI,

SHRIDHAR VIRDE#, A. R. DESHPANDE AND ABDUL AZIZ

CVAS, (MAFSU, NAGPUR) Parbhani, #V.G. Shivdare College of Biotechnology, Maharashtra

Foodborne diseases are the important growing public health and economic problem in

many countries that too, Salmonellosis is one of the most common and widely distributed foodborne disease that originates from poultry. So present research project was under to study the prevalence, characterization and antibiogram of Salmonella spp. from broilers and broiler meat sold under market conditions in marathwada region of maharashtra state particularly from Parbhani city. Total 126 broiler meat sample and 50 cloacal swabs of live broiler birds were collected from different retail outlets and farms at different intervals over the period of eight months time, out of total 126 broiler meat samples, 26 samples (20.63%) were positive for presence of Salmonella spp. Only 2 (4%) were positive for presence of Salmonella spp. in cloacal swabs. All the Salmonella isolates confirmed to the various biochemical tests such as MR, VP, Indole, Nitrate, Catalase, Oxidase, Citrate and Urease as to the genus characters of Salmonella spp. Further confirmation of the Salmonella isolates was done by sugar fermentation tests with glucose, rhamnose, arabinose, maltose, dulcitol, mannitol, lactose and sucrose. The results of sugar fermentation test were in agreement with standards for Genus Salmonella of the various species. All the Salmonella isolates were subjected to antibiotic sensitivity test against 10 commonly used antibiotics. Salmonella isolates were most sensitive to ciprofloxacin (37.50%) followed by cefotaxim (31.25%), ceftriaxone (22.92%), gentamycin (10.42%), amikacin and chloramphenicol (6.25%), erythromycin, cefopime and enrofloxacin (04.17%) and oxytetracycline (02.08%). Among the intermediate sensitive. Salmonella isolates, toping in the list was gentamicin (72.92%) followed by ciprofloxacin (58.33%), amikacin, cefopime and cefotaxim (47.92%), enrofloxacin (44.67%), chloramphinicol (39.58%), ceftriaxone (35.42%), erythromycin (27.08%) and oxytetracycline (2.08%). Maximum (95.83%) Salmonella isolates were resistant to oxytetracycline. This was followed by erythromycin (72.92%), chloramphenicol and enrofloxacin (54.17%), cefopime (47.92%), amikacin (45.83%), ceftriaxone (41.67%), cefotaxime (20.83%), gentamicin (16.67%) and ciprofloxacin (04.17%). The overall antibiotic sensitivity pattern indicates that ciprofloxacin was the most effective against the Salmonella isolates whereas maximum Salmonella isolates were resistant to oxytetracycline. The low prevalence of Salmonella spp. in cloacal swabs and high prevalence in broiler meat helps to draw a conclusion that almost all the Salmonella spp. detected from the broiler meat samples had the origin from unhygienic conditions of the shops and unsanitary conditions in the premises. Secondly, it can be opined that keeping the birds of different types including non-descript birds close to the dressing table might be adding to the contaminating Salmonella spp.

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4.48 Characterization of Staphylococcus spp. from biofilms of broiler farms SUPRIYA PAWAR, SHAILESH S. BAGALE, SWAPNIL JILLAWAR,

RAHUL GOSAVI, SHRIDHAR VIRDE#, A. R. DESHPANDE AND ABDUL AZIZ CVAS, (MAFSU, NAGPUR) Parbhani, #V.G. Shivdare College of Biotechnology, Maharashtra

Biofilm is a serious threat to poultry industry environmental bacteria may enter into the poultry flock to produce disease outbreaks leading to heavy economic losses in commercial and breeder rearing farms in India. Therefore, it is important to know the prevalence and distribution of different bacterial flora in poultry environment. Staphylococcus is most commonly seen opportunistic organism in poultry environment and regarded as pathogenic to humans. By considering the importance the present study was undertaken to study prevalence of Staphylococcus spp. and characterization with antibiogram of isolates collected from biofilms of broiler farms in and around parbhani. A total of 160 samples were collected from Floor, wall, feeder, water trough and water supply network system. Overall prevalence of Staphylococcus spp. was 26.87% whereas 25% in floor, 9.38% in wall and 31.25% in feeder, 46.88% in water trough and 21.88% in water supply network system. Total 43 Staphylococcus isolates were grown on selective medium such as Baired and Parkers agar, Mannitol salt agar, nutrient agar and MacConkey’s agar. Biochemical characterization of Staphylococcus isolates was done by MR, VP, indole, nitrate test and for sugar fermentation tests various sugars viz. glucose, rhamnose, arabinose, maltose, dulcitol, mannitol, raffinose, xylose, inositol, lactose and sucrose were used. The isolates of Staphylococcus spp. were subjected to various tests such as catalase, oxidase, citrate, hemolysis on 5%sheep blood agar, coagulase, gelatin liquification, phosphatase test, DNAse and urease test for detection of virulence characters. Out of 43 Staphylococcus spp. isolates, maximum numbers of isolates were identified as S. aureus (30) followed by S. epidermidis (9) and S. intermedis (4) depending on results of various tests. Out of 30 S. aureus identified the maximum (33.33 %) were obtained from water trough followed by feeders (23.33%), water supply network system (20%), floor (16.67%) and wall (6.67%). Out of the S. epidermidis nine isolates obtained maximum were from water trough (33.33%) which were followed by floor and feeder (22.22 %), wall and water supply network system(11.8%). Out of 4 isolates identified as S. intermedis maximum was from water trough (50%) followed by floor and feeders (25%). S. intermedis bacteria was not obtained from any of the samples of wall and water supply network system. Two phenotypic methods were used for detecting biofilm production in Staphylococcus and Pseudomonas isolates viz. Congo red agar test (CRA test) and Microtitre Plate assay (MTP assay). Out of total 43 samples processed 21 samples of Staphylococcus isolates were able to produce slime. Of the 21 isolates maximum (15) belonged to S. aureus followed by S. epidermidis (5) and S. intermedis (1). Regarding antibiogram, maximum (100%) sensitivity was shown to ciprofloxacin by all Staphylococcus isolates. Maximum resistance was observed in case of polymyxin B (69.76%). The data indicate that the biofilm of water trough and water supply network system were potential hosts for Staphylococcus spp.. The high prevalence Staphylococcus spp. in the water associated biofilm indicates that moisture plays an important role in establishment of biofilm as well as its capacity to harbor variety of pathogenic bacteria.

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4.49 Characterization of Pseudomonas spp. from biofilms of broiler farms in and around Parbhani

SUPRIYA PAWAR, SHAILESH S. BAGALE, SWAPNIL JILLAWAR,RAHUL GOSAVI, SHRIDHAR VIRDE#, A. R. DESHPANDE AND ABDUL AZIZ

CVAS, (MAFSU, NAGPUR) Parbhani, #V.G. Shivdare College of Biotechnology, Maharashtra

Biofilm is a serious threat to poultry industry and majority of poultry farms have biofilms problem due to lack of proper management. Biofilms harbor and protect pathogens and spoilaging microorganisms thus compromising sanitation standards leading to heavy losses in commercial and breeder rearing in India. Therefore, it is important to know the prevalence and distribution of different bacterial flora in poultry and its environment as many of them may be potentially pathogenic for poultry. Pseudomonas is most commonly seen opportunistic organism in poultry environment and having public health importance. By considering the importance present research work was undertaken to study prevalence of Pseudomonas spp. and characterization along with antibiogram of isolates collected from biofilms of broiler farms. A total of 160 samples were collected from five different locations viz. Floor, wall, feeder, water trough and water supply network system and Prevalence of Pseudomonas spp. was 25% whereas 15.63% in floor, 6.25% in wall and in feeder each, 68.75% in water trough, and 28.13% in water supply network system. About 40 Pseudomonas isolates were grown on selective medium and Biochemical tests viz MR, VP, indole, nitrate test and tests for various sugar fermentation viz rhamnose, arabinose, inositol, dulcitol, mannitol, glucose, lactose and sucrose were carried out. Furthermore for detection of virulence characters of Pseudomonas suspected isolates were subjected to various tests such as catalase, oxidase, citrate, hemolysis on 5% sheep blood agar, urease test, pyocynin and fluoresecin production on King’s medium A and B. Depending on results of different tests, Out of the total 40 isolates of Pseudomonas spp. identified as maximum (30) of P. aeruginosa followed by P. fluorescens (9) and P. putida (1). Out of the total 30 isolates of P.aeruginosa maximum were from water trough (60%) followed by water supply network system (23.33%), floor (10%) wall and feeder (3.33%). Out of the 9 isolates of P. fluorescens obtained from various locations the maximum were from water trough (33.33%) followed by water supply network system and floor (22.22%), followed by wall and feeder (11.11%). Only isolate of P. putida obtained was isolated from water trough. For detecting biofilm production, two phenotypic methods were used for Pseudomonas isolates viz. Congo red agar test (CRA test) and Microtitre Plate assay (MTP assay). Out of total 40 isolates subjected to CRA test, 19 samples showed ability of slime production. The ability of slime production was highest in P. aeruginosa (50%) followed by P. fluorescens (44.44%). These results indicated that most of the bacteria isolated had ability to produce slime for further production of biofilm. Pseudomonas isolates were maximum resistance to Ampicilin and High sensitivity to Ciprofloxacin (95%) followed by Gentamicin (77.50%) and Enrofloxacin (70%). Form Present study it can be concluded that water supply network system is usually running through marshy and moist part of the land. The leakages were creating dampness near the water supply network system favoring the growth of Pseudomonas and other bacteria. These

387

  

biofilms were probably established right from establishment of broiler farms and became the potent source of pathogenic bacteria. Pseudomonas being a versatile bacteria, localizes easily in biofilms whereby causing mortality and production losses.

4.50 Characterization of Listeria spp. from meat

RAHUL S. GOSAVI, SHAILESH S. BAGALE, SUPRIYA PAWAR, SWAPNIL JILLAWAR, DHIRAJ BHISE, SACHIN PATIL, M. A. KOLEKAR, SHRIDHAR VIRADE#,

ANAND R. DESHPANDE AND ABDUL AZIZ CVAS, (MAFSU, NAGPUR) Parbhani, #V.G. Shivdare College of Biotechnology, Maharashtra

Listeriosis is one of the most important emerging zoonotic diseases causing higher

rate of mortality in infected animals and human beings. The spread of listeriosis is mostly occurs through consumption of contaminated food and food products. Several outbreaks of the listeriosis were reported from all over the world. So far prevalence of Listeria spp. was not reported from Marathwada region of Maharashtra state. Keeping these points in view, present research project was planned with objectives, to study isolation and identification of Listeria spp. from meat, characterization of isolates and to study antibiogram of Listeria isolates. Out of total 150 meat samples only 6 % showed presence of Listeria spp each in chicken and beef. Out of isolates maximum 36.36% were confirmed as Listera grayi while 18.18 % each were of L. monocytogenes, L. welshimeri and L. innocua. 9.9% isolate of L. seeligeri was also recovered from poultry meat. All biochemically confirmed Listeria isolates were streaked on sheep blood agar (5 %) for observation of β hamolysis. Two Listeria isolates showing a broad, clear zone were confirmed as L. monocytogenes and the one isolate, showing a weak zone of haemolysis was confirmed as L. seeligeri. In-vitro antibiotic sensitivity spectrum of isolates of Listeria spp. recovered from meat samples was studied. Among the selected antibiotics, maximum numbers of isolates were sensitive to vancomycin (90.90%), followed by amikacin (72.72%) and amoxycillin (63.63%). The isolates showed lesser sensitivity against enrofloxacin (45.45%), ampicillin and tetracycline (36.36%) each. Listeria isolates were least sensitive to the chloramphenicol and erythromycin (18.18 % each), followed by gentamicin (09.09 %). All the Listeria isolates recovered were resistant to penicillin-G. In the present study, L. monocytogenes isolates having zoonotic importance were found variably susceptible to the antibiotics tested. Both isolates of L. monocytogenes showed the highest sensitivity to vancomycin and amikacin (100 % each). Amoxycillin, ampicillin and enrofloxacin (50 % each) showed variable response against L. monocytogenes, while chloramphenicol, gentamicin and penicillin-G were found resistant. Taking into consideration of overall antibiotic sensitivity pattern showed by isolated Listeria spp. From beef and chicken meat samples, the present findings indicate the existence of multiple drug resistance among L. monocytogenes and other Listeria spp., which indicates the emergence of multiresistant Listeria strains, pointing to an increase in the potential threat to human health posed by this pathogen. Present findings of the research will be useful for field veterinarians and public health concerns.

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4.51 Detection of major responsible sources of microbial contamination of retail poultry meat sold in Parbhani city

S. S. PATIL, V. V. DESHMUKH, JAGANNATHARAO B., A. S. AITALWAD AND SUDARSHAN S.

Department of VPH and EPi., College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Parbhani

In recent years poultry meat industry is becoming modern and hygienic. It happened

only in case of the developed cities but in the semi-urban areas like Parbhani the poultry meat source is only from the retail poultry meat shops. The study was undertaken to detect major responsible sources of microbial contamination of retail poultry meat sold in Parbhani city. A total of 240 swab samples of different sources viz. knife, scalding tank, defeatherer, dressing table, platform, personnel, water and poultry meat were collected from five retail poultry meat shops in six lots. The samples were subjected to microbial analysis to evaluate Total Viable Count (TVC), E. coli count and Staphylococcal count by using Plate Count Agar, Eosine Methylene Blue (EMB) agar and Baird Parker agar (BPA) respectively. TVC (log CFU/cm2±SE) of dressing table and platform revealed (6.14±0.04) and (6.01±0.05) respectively found higher than other sources in retail poultry meat shops. Mean TVC of other sources in poultry meat shops were found as poultry meat (5.90±0.03), knife (5.85±0.05), defeatherer (5.89±0.06), personnel (5.74±0.06) and water (5.82±0.06). The mean TVC of scalding tank (5.67±0.05) was found lowest. Mean of E. coli counts and Staphylococcal counts of all sources were found 3.61±0.17 and 3.24±0.14 respectively. The results indicate that the dressing table used for making meat cuts and platform used for keeping poultry carcass are the major sources responsible for microbial contamination of retail poultry meat sold in Parbhani city.

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AAPP SSHHEEEEPP FFEEDD  Dr. Manmohan Singh Hon’ble Prime Minister

Govt. of India Sri. N.Kiran Kumar Reddy

Hon’ble Chief Minister Govt. of Andhra Pradesh

Sri.P.Viswarup Hon’ble Minister for AH, DD, F & VU, Andhra Pradesh

ANDHRA PRADESH SHEEP AND GOAT DEVELOPMENT COOPERATIVE FEDERATION LIMITED.

HYDERABAD The Andhra Pradesh State has 255.39 lakh Sheep population and stands No. 1 in the

country. There are 96.26 lakh Goats in AP and stand at No. 7 at all India level. About 7 to 8 lakh rural families belonging to socially and economically backward classes are involved in sheep & goat rearing. (22) Sheep Unions at District level and (5384) Primary Sheep Breeders Cooperative Societies at village level are formed and functioning at present.

The State Government have reconstituted the AP Sheep & Goat Development Co-op.

Federation Ltd vide G.O.Ms.No.58 dt 08.10.2005. Further, the Government vide G.O.Ms.No.46 AH, DD & F (AH.III) Dept., dt 23.06.2010 have approved for transfer of Sheep & Goat Developmental schemes to A.P. Sheep & Goat Development Co-operative Federation Ltd. Objectives of Federation: 1) Providing door step health services to sheep & goat of Society members through

Jeevamitra and also through Mobile Ambulatory Van. 2) Distributing Breeding Rams raised in Government Sheep Farms to the members to avoid

inbreeding and for good germplasm. 3) Developing fodder in common grazing lands, Government lands, leased lands & members

owned lands. 4) Providing marketing facilities by establishing market yards under RKVY. The Federation is implementing the following schemes: I. STATE PLAN SCHEMES(2012-13) : 1. Jeeva Kranthi Pathakam(sanctioned Rs.300 lakhs),

2. Sheep Insurance(sanctioned Rs.125 lakhs)3. Exgratia to Sheep Rearers II. GOVERNMENT OF INDIA SCHEMES : 1. Rastriya Krishi Vikasa Yojana.(RKVY) a. Supply of Breeding Rams, b. Establishment of sheep market yard. 2. Special P M package for suicide prone districts(Rs.101.5 lakhs released to Warangal,

Nalgonda, Kadapa & Adilabad districts towards 100 Sheep & 100 Goat units) to 200 beneficiaries.

III. NCDC: Financial Assistance of Rs.99.59 crores to 300 societies of Mahaboobnagar, Chittoor & prakasam districts in the state.

IV. CWDB(during 2012-13 Rs.65.00 lakhs amount sanctioned) : a. Health Care for Sheep (to cover 2 lakh Deccani sheep), b. Breed Improvement

V. Bhed Palak Bhima Yojana Pathakam VI. FEDERATION SPONSORED SCHEMES: 1. Ram Lamb Rearing (Rs.10 lakhs released to 25 beneficiaries to establish 25 Ram Lamb units

to Mahaboobnagar district), 2. Jeevamitra(75 Jeevamitras Trained in 9 districts)

                  Dr.P.D.Kondala Rao

Managing Director

OFFICE: 10-2-289 / 127 SHANTINAGAR, HYDERABAD-28, ANDHRA PRADESH. Phone No.040-23307156, 23391321, E-MAIL ID:apsheepfed@gmail.com.

 

 

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