IN TERNATIONAL ESPORT S REFEREE ACADEM Y International

1International Esports Referee Academy

INTERNATIONAL ESPORTS REFEREE ACADEMY

International Esports

Referee AcademyIN

TERNATIONAL

ESPORTS

REFEREE

ACADEMY

Common Subjects

Play and GameHistory of GameMechanism of GameEsportsInternational Esports FederationTechnical Elements of Competition

006021058071 086094

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CONTENTS

Ethics

Ethics

- Definition- Virtue ethics- Meta ethics- Moral skepticism

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International Esports Referee Academy

Common SubjectsIN

TERNATIONAL

ESPORTS

REFEREE

ACADEMY

Play and Game

Com

mon

Sub

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Diversity on Definition of Play

Play is the aimless expenditure of exuberant energy.

- By Friedrich Schiller

Play is whatever is done spontaneously and for its own sake.

- By George Santayana

…play creates a zone of proximal development of the child. In play a child always

behaves beyond his average age.

- By Lev Vygotsky

Play is free movement within a more rigid structure.

- By Katie Salen & Eric Zimmerman

Sandplay

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Diversity on Definition of Game

A game is a closed, formal system that engages players in a structured conflict, and

resolves in an unequal outcome.

- By Tracy Fullerton, Chris Swain and Steven Hoffman

A game is a series of meaningful choices.

- By Sid Meier

A game is a … domain of contrived contingency that generates interpretable outcomes.

- By Thomas Mallaby

A game is a problem-solving activity, approached with a playful attitude.

- By Jesse Schell

Chess Game

Play and Game



Diversity on Definition of Referee

In Esports competition, the significant importance lies on role of the referee, and

the position as well as the role is crucial in order for the games to run smoothly and

fairly.

The referee should be well aware of the schedule of the competition and arrive at

the right location beforehand to prepare for the games according to the directions of

the organization committee and the chief referee; after being informed of the game

method, the rules and safety guidelines to observe as the referee by the representative

of the game and techniques, the referee should wait as one check on the facilities,

and so on.

1. The referee with fairness and consistency

- The referee should apply the rules in the same manner regardless of the nationality

of the players and/or game events

- The referee should not infer or predict anything in regards of violations; one should

check directly with one’s own eyes

- The referee should make quick and firm judgements

- The referee should possess fairness and consistency

2. Acquirement of regulations and experience through participation in referee job

training

- The referee should participate in games after completing the referee yearly

supplement training held by the federation

- The supplement training includes the update training in accordance with the

changes of game event patches and regulations

3. The desirable attitude of the referee

- The referee should maintain strict relationships with the players and coaches

during games

- The referee should fulfill their roles with confidence and sense of duty

- The referee should admit their mistakes in case of any bad call

- The referee should refrain from coaching the players

- The referee should remain fair to all players

- The referee should retain the regulated attire

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Referee

Baseball and softball

A second base umpire at a baseball game.

In baseball and softball, there is commonly a head umpire (also known as a plate

umpire) who is in charge of calling balls and strikes from behind the plate, who is

assisted by one, two, three, or five field umpires who make calls on their specific

bases (or with five umpires the bases and the outfield). On any question, the head

umpire has the final call.

Basketball

A college basketball official making a call.

In international basketball and in college basketball, the referee is the lead official

in a game, and is assisted by either one or two umpires. In the National Basketball

Association, the lead official is referred to by the term crew chief and the two other

officials are referees. All of the officials in a basketball game are generally accepted

to have the same authority as the lead official and therefore they are collectively

known as the officials or referees.

Boxing

A boxing referee counting a boxer.

In boxing, a referee is the person who enforces the rules during the fight. He gives

instructions to the fighters, starts and stops the count when a competitor is down,

and makes the determination to stop a fight when a competitor cannot continue

without endangering one’s health.

Source: Sports referee by Wikipedia

Play and Game



Definition of Play

Psychology and physiology both observe, describe, and explain the act of playing in

animals, children, and adults. These studies determine the essence and definition

of play, and the position of play in daily life. This position, definition, and utility are

considered a significant function of play, and thus is the starting point of scientific

research. There have been various attempts to define the biological function of play.

While some define the origin and fundamentality of play as an eruption of left-over

life energy, some translate ‘the instinct of imitation’ as “satisfaction” or “releasing

of tension”. Some explain play as a method of training for children to prepare them

for serious tasks they would encounter in adulthood, and others argue that play is an

innate impulse which commands to perform a distinct feature, or desire to command

or compete with others. Some studies define play as “release”, functioning as a

channel through which to emit harmful desires, and other theories also define play

as a revival of used-up energy, “satisfaction of wishes”, or a fabricated concept which

sustains the sense of personal value.

These hypotheses all have one idea in common: play provides service to something

other than itself, and serves biological purposes. These theories question the reason

and objectives of play, and the various explanations of these theories overlap, rather

than being clearly distinguished. Although all these definitions do not contradict

with each other, they do not lead to a practical understanding of the concept of play.

These explanations are only a partial solution to the issue.

Should a single explanation among this pool of theories be actually decisive, other

definitions should all be eliminated, or if not, collected in a higher degree of unity.

The existing explanations deal with the definition of play ‘itself’ or what it means to

those involved in play, only in a superficial manner. These theories only deal with

the issues of play in quantitative methods of empirical science, rather than focusing

on the aesthetic characteristics, thus leaving out the primary characteristics of play.

Some questions that counter-argue such various ‘explanations’ are: ‘what is the ‘fun’

in playing?’, ‘Why does a child scream in joy?’, ‘Why does a gambler gamble?’,

‘Why do fans go fanatic at soccer games?’. Biological analyses cannot explain the

human enthusiasm and absorption in playing, although the very basic and instinctive

characteristics lie in this enthusiasm, absorption, and frenzy. Nature could have

provided us with mechanical activity for relieving stress after hard work, training for

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preparation of future, or compensation of unfulfilled fantasy. Rather, it provided us

with play, equipped with tension, entertainment, and fun.

The element of ‘fun’ in play, mentioned later on, refuses to be analyzed or logically

translated, and when seen as a single concept, cannot be explained as a psychological

category. There are no other words which are identical in meaning to the English

word for fun. ‘Aardigkeit’, a Dutch word, is considered the most similar, and ‘aard’

has the same meaning as the German word for Art(nature) or Wesen (noumenon),

which proves that this issue cannot be explained through categorization.

The word ‘fun’ is a rather recent word. There are no words which correspond to it in

French, and the most similar word would be the combination of German words Spass

and Witz. In any case, the component of ‘fun’ is what defines the essence of play.

Here we encounter the first category of life, which is familiar to anyone, and can even

be found in animals. In the modern sense, ‘play’ is a general phenomenon, and so it

is important to understand and evaluate the totality of play.

The reality where play occurs exceeds the boundary of human life, and so it is

difficult to find its basis under rationality, as doing so can confine play within

human boundaries. The phenomenon of play is not linked with a particular stage

of civilization or world view. Any man of intelligence can discover that play itself is

independent, although one’s mother tongue does not have the word for such general

concept. The phenomenon of play cannot be objected, unlike the serious but abstract

concepts of justice, beauty, goodness, or mind.

Acknowledging the presence of play means to acknowledge the presence of mind

(spirit). Play is not an object, regardless of how it is defined. Play exceeds the

boundary of matter, even in the world of animals. Play is a superficial activity when

seen through a perspective where absolute power determines consequences. Play is

valid, imaginable and understandable, when the ‘mind’ flows in and breaks apart

the absolute determinism of the universe. The presence of play endlessly proves the

meta logic characteristics of humane situations.

Animals are more than a mechanical object because they can engage in play. We

humans play, and we know it. This irrational characteristics of play is what makes us

more than a rational being.

Play and Game



General Characteristics of Play

Playing is always a voluntary activity. Playing under command is no longer true play,

but merely an imitation. This voluntary (free) quality alone sets play apart from

natural processes. By adding to the natural process, play blooms, embellishes and

manifests itself. The “freedom” referred hereto should be interpreted in the broad

sense of freedom that excludes the problem of philosophical determinism. Children

and animals engage in play because it is fun, and their freedom is inherent in such

activities.

Even so, for adults or those with responsibility, play is a function that they can

cease at any time. Play is a superficial activity, and the necessity thereof is directly

proportional to the desire to enjoy play. Play can be delayed or suspended at any

time. It is not something required for physical necessity or moral obligation. In other

words, play is an activity of freedom, and freedom itself.

The second characteristic of play is that it falls outside the boundaries of “ordinary”

or “actual” life. As an activity beyond the “actual” life, play falls into the area of

transient activity that has its own set of tendencies. All children are aware that to play

something (e.g. play house) means “only pretending” and that it is “only for fun.”

All scholars point to “disinterestedness” as a morphological characteristic of play.

As play is not part of “ordinary” life, it falls beyond the scope of the proposition of

the satisfaction of necessity and desire, and therefore disrupts the process of desire

in everyday life. Play is a transient activity that provides satisfaction through the

activity itself, which is the full extent of the purpose that play serves. Play primarily

manifests itself to people in such a way.

Once play begins, it stops at an appropriate moment. Play unfolds for a certain amount

of time and then ends on its own. While play is taking place, everything takes the

form of movement, change, alternation, connection, fusion, and separation. However,

when it comes to the constraint of time, play takes on an even more uncanny trait.

Once a certain amount of time has surpassed, play takes on a fixed form as a cultural

phenomenon. Once play has taken place, it is retained and treasured in memory as a

new creation discovered by the mind. Further down the line, this play can become a

tradition. Whether it is “child’s play,” chess, or regularly performed mystic religious

rites, play can be repeated at any time. This function of repetition is one of the

fundamental characteristics of play. It applies not only to play overall, but also within

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the internal structure thereof. Repetition and alternation (like a “chorus” of a song)

crisscross to form the fabric of high forms of play.

What is more astounding than the limitation of time is the limitation of space. All

play involves movement, and prepares the space for the play beforehand. Just as there

is no morphological difference between play and rituals, it is difficult to differentiate

between a “sacred place” and a play area. In terms of form and function, an arena,

card table, magic circle, shrine, stage, screen, tennis court, and even judicial courts

are playgrounds. In other words, they are all forbidden and restricted space, a sacred

ground fenced in by special set of rules. Such playground is a transient world that

finds its place in the ordinary; it is a space in which the participants commit their

utmost to act out a specific set of behaviors.

Within the playground, a specific yet absolute order rules over the space. Here, we

can discover another characteristic of play. Play first creates an order, then becomes

an order of its own. This brings tentative and limited perfection to the instable

world and chaotic quotidian life. Play is in itself elevated and requires absolute order.

Straying from this order even a little can “ruin the game,” dispel the characteristic of

the play and render the endeavor valueless. As play is so deeply related with order,

it becomes a part of an aesthetic. Play has a tendency to try to become beautiful.

Such aesthetic element is identical to the impulse to create an orderly form, which is

imbued in every aspect of play. Many of the terms used to describe elements of play

are also used to describe elements of beauty.

Tension takes an important role in play. Tension indicates uncertainty contingency.

It elicits the effort to determine and solve the problem. The player wants something

to happen and to be carried out. Players also want their efforts to bring successful

results. Players wish to end the tension by engaging in and succeeding at some

difficult tasks. Thus, “Play is tension.” Such elements of tension and release are

included not only in single player games but also in applied games such as puzzles,

jigsaw puzzles, mosaic matching, and target practice. Things become even more

intense when play becomes competitive in nature. Such intensity reaches its peak in

gambling and sports matches. While play itself transcends good and evil, the element

of tension inherent in play can serve as the means of testing the heart of people,

such as their courage, tenacity, intelligence, mental strength, and fairness, and thus

imbues certain moral values.

Play and Game



There are rules to all play

In play, rules are a very important element. Every play has rules, and it is those rules

that determine what is “permissible” in the space and time in which the play takes

place. Game rules have absolute binding power and do not allow any doubt. If the

rules are broken, the world of that play implodes. The game will end.

Those who violate or disregard the rules are “play destroyers.” The crime of play

destroyers is much more vile compared to those who simply do not follow the

rules properly or cheat. Cheaters at least pretend to play along with the game, and

ostensibly still recognize the magic circle. Society is much more lenient towards

cheaters than game breakers. Game breakers completely destroy the world of play.

By stepping outside the boundary of the game, they expose the relativity and

vulnerability of the world of play that they and other players created temporarily.

In this world, the play destroyer is branded as an apostate, heretic, innovator,

prophet, or conscientious objector. However, sometimes play destroyers create

their own community under the rules of their own. All members of cults, such as

outlaws, revolutionaries, Kabbalists, members of secret societies, and other groups

bond strongly together, although sociable might not be the most appropriate way to

describe them. The behavior is clearly marked with certain elements of play.

Source: Homo Ludens (the playing human) by Johan Huizinga

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Play and Sports

Starting in the late 19th century, the game of sports began to take on a more serious

tone. Match rules became increasingly strict and complex. Sports records were

broken, as athletes ran faster, jumped higher, and moved more nimbly. An engraving

from the early 19th century shows many scenes of cricket players wearing bowler

hats. This in itself displays the propagation of sports.

As sports became more organized and institutionalized, the pure play-like

characteristics gradually disappeared. We can examine this trend in the phenomenon

of clearly differentiating amateur and professional leagues. The play group has

distinguished the players who no longer approach play as playing, and recognized

their superior capacity for play, although their playful spirit may be lacking. The spirit

of a professional athlete could no longer constitute that of pure play. Professional

players do not have the sense of voluntarism and self-disinterestedness found in play.

The advent of professional players also affected amateur players, making them feel

inferior. Professional sports pushed the genre increasingly further from the area of

play, and sports became a special field of its own. Professional sports is neither play

nor serious. In modern society, sports is seated right next to literary procedures, but

in actuality is disparate from that process. Sports became a secular thing, something

that is not holy. It has become irrelevant to the social organization, particularly

the sports events hosted under the order of the government. Thanks to modern

socio-technical development, large-scale athletic events can now take place in huge

stadiums.

Source: Homo Ludens (the playing human) by Johan Huizinga

Play and Game



Play and Game

Ordinarily, the word “game” is a term people often have continued to use. This

displays the comprehensive reach of cultural industry including sports in daily lives

of people. However, there is not much interest in defining what a “game” is and how

that is related to play. General perception treats games as “just games” and virtually

as the same as play. However, this kind of attitude offers little help in determining

the nature of computer games as play or game, and identifying the differentiation or

characteristics that sets them apart from other types of play.

To a more general public, the word “game” refers to the advanced play culture such

as “duck duck goose” played to break the ice in mass blind dates in high school, or

spectators’ cheerleading activities during sports matches at school athletic events.

The word “game” began to be used fully with today’s definition starting in the 18th

century, with the onset of capitalistic modernization.

A game is a form of pay practiced in accordance with a set of rules to achieve the best

outcome. However, game rules can include elements such as mimicking, adapting,

probability, competition, growth, achievement, decision making, and response time.

Furthermore, computer games are manifested as the integration with hardware

known as computers.

According to Akao Kouichi, the author of Game University, a game is “a program

with the purpose of play.” To Kouichi, a program is a collection of rules, materials,

and theme. Although it appears simple, “rock, paper, scissors” is one example of

an outstanding game with its tight-knit rules and material. It is also thematically

excellent, as there is no ultimate “winning hand”.

Actually, “rock, paper, scissors” can be seen along with dice games as a fundamental

theory and archetype of what constitutes game rules. While history of computer

games highlight the expansion of narrative and spectacle over the years, what truly

makes a game “game-like” is the program itself, i.e., the rules of the game. Computer

games that have rules and various win or lose conditions include games like PacMan,

Doom, Super Mario Brothers, Myst, and Tekken. However, there are pioneering games

such as SimCity or Lineage with open-ended endings that do not have an ultimate

“victory” condition. The most distinctive aspect of computer games is agon, the

competitive aspect of playing. The form of play in which all participants, humans

and AI alike, compete against each other to secure victory while abiding by a certain

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set of rules has been the most conventional type of games since the earliest games.

Preparing a “well-crafted” set of game rules that inspires desire to play while also

providing tension and desire to compete would be the “agonic” element of computer

games.

Mimicry-What role does it make

the user experience?

Alea-Where is the competitiveness

where the user feels a sense of

fairness in competition?

The 4 divisions of play in Roger Cailois’s “Play and Human”

Agon-

What are the key rules that

operate the game world?

Ilinx-

What emotions make the user

immerse in the game?

Elements ofGame design

<Game Studies of Sympathy and Communication / Kim Gyeom-seop / Open Road Publishing / 2009>

Play and Game



<http://www.emotionalcircle.com/archives/303>

Difference between Play and Game

The most noticeable difference in play and games is in the “how.” In play, there are

no particularly established set of rules. Children playing with toy blocks are seen as

“playing,” not “playing a game.” The children build with the blocks as they please.

Meanwhile, Zenga would be referred to as a game, while it appears similar to toy

blocks. The presence of various rules to abide by that restricts participants from

unbound freedom is the first defining element that separates games from play. In

play, there are no (or may not be) set goals other than self-satisfaction. In contrast,

games have a definite set of goals. Although the player may or may not achieve

such goals, there are definitely a pre-defined set of objectives, or goal, in a game.

Both play and games involve some kind of activity, and are voluntary. A variety

of problems or conflicts may occur, each requiring rational or emotional decision-

making. The results of play and games do not offer material benefits on their own,

and have uncertainty in the outcome.

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Play and Game



History of Game

Com

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Etymology of Game

There are various opinions on the etymology of ‘game’. Many see the origin of game

as ‘gamen’, an old English word meaning joy, fun, or amusement. (www.etymonline.

com/index.php?ter=game)

There also exist similar words in the same language stock of Germanic, such as

‘Gaman’, ‘Gamen’, or ‘gamman’, which means joy, glee, sport, pleasure, amusement,

or merriment.

While some argue that the words derive from ancient Greek/Roman times, from the

word meaning ‘match’, ‘lecture’, or ‘fight’, some also argue that it originated from

the Indo-European word of ‘Ghem’, which means ‘to frisk merrily’. This word is a

composition of ‘merrily’ which means to have fun or be entertained emotionally and

‘frisk’ which has the verbal meaning to ‘run around’.

GhemMerry + run around

Party Prey

Lecture Match

Game

<Understanding History of Games / Kim Jung-tae / Hongrung Publishing Co. / 2015>

History of Game



<Google Image>

The Very First Computer Game

The very first computer game is known to be ‘Tennis for Two’ released in 1958 by

Willy Higgingbotham. Willy Higgingbotham participated in the “Manhattan Project”

as a renowned physicist, which is a project for the development of atom bomb.

He was also the person who moved the Brookhaven National Laboratory when the

laboratory was established in 1947. He designed an interactive game for the people

visiting the laboratory, and the result was a game combining an oscilloscope, an

analogue computer and a few buttons. This primitive form of tennis game may be

considered as a crude game in current viewpoint, but the game had gathered numerous

number of visitors and achieved a great success. However, Willy Higgingbotham

never thought about making a profit through this idea.

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The Very First Interactive Computer Game

The very first “Interactive” computer game, “Space War”, was an outcome derived

from the joyous adventure of Steve Russel and his colleagues at MIT in 1961. Steve

Russel and his colleagues are actually the first ‘Hackers’ in the field of computer

science. Their small group named “Tech Model Railroad Club” came up with this

game when the members were thinking about a way to effectively demonstrate the

features of PDP-1 computer installed within the campus which was worth $120,000

at the time. The computers released at the time usually conducted input/output

works by using punch cards or paper tapes. However, Steve Russel and his colleagues

were stimulated by this special machinery as PDP-1 computer had a monitor. Russel

spent 6 months to come up with the final version of “Space War.”

<Google Image>

History of Game



<Google Image>

The Very First Video Game Console

The world’s first video gaming console was developed by Ralph Bear who was an

engineer at Sanders which was a company in the field of defense industry. However,

the company opposed Ralph Bear’s plan and he had to promote this project in secret.

Ralph Bear and Bill Rush came up with a 2-Player video games where a player has

to chase the other player in a maze setting. Afterwards, a game named “Fox and

Hounds” was released based on the previous game. The significance of the game

is on its role as a foundation for tennis or ping-pong games which were released

afterwards. Rush Bear suggested using a ball instead of a dot, and the result of his

idea was a system named “Brown Box” which is a 2-person table tennis game. This

game was released in the market in the name of “Odyssey” after being sold to a

company named “Magnavox.”

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The Game Market in 1970s

In 1974, Atari started a project to move the impact of “Pong” on the arcade sector

into the domestic sector. This project was developed from a plan to design a chip just

for Atari for the purpose of cracking down the attempts to reproduce Atari’s products.

Atari believed that putting all types of “Pong” into a single chip and connecting a

system using that chip to a television was possible. The outcome of such idea was

“Sears Tele-Games.”

The domestic video game market was expanded afterwards, and cartridge-type

consoles allowing the exchange of games started to come out.

Atari brought an innovative shift to the video game industry with its future-generation

console, and released “VCS Video Computer System” (Also known as “Atari 2600”).

VCS was something more than a console. It was a computer with 8-bit processor. The

advent of this console opened a new chapter in the game industry with the sales of

software goods besides hardware devices.

<Google Image – Sears Tele-Games>

History of Game



A vast number of Americans started to admit the potential of game industry after

“Space War’ but the ones who realized the potential were the Japanese people, not

the Americans. Especially, Japan’s Taito company dominated the American market

with an arcade game named “Space Invader” which was released in 1978.

This game was developed by Tomohiro Nishikado who was an engineer at Taito after

being stimulated by the success of Atari’s “Breakout.” The game was the world’s very

first two-sided battle game where the players and the in-game units shoot at each

other.

There is a famous episode about the success of “Space Invader.” About 100,000

arcade consoles were sold in Japan only, and the success of the business even led to

the lack of 100 yen coins in the market. The Japan’s currency authority had to triple

the production of 100yen coins as the coins were stuck in the console machines.

“Space Invader” was also popular in the United States of America. Thus, the class

action filed by the residents in Mesquite, Texas against Space Invader is a story often

talked on the history of games.

<Google Image – Sears Tele-Games>

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Mattel which was the biggest toy company in the world in the late 1970s known for its

Barbie dolls released “Intelivision” in 1980 by using the success of portable console

machine as a footstep. The release of the game led the company to advance into the

domestic console market.

The growth of domestic console machine did not mean the collapse of ‘arcade’

games. Rather, immortal works were being released to the arcade game sector and

the game market was divided into two sectors. The arcade game sector even survived

after the collapse of domestic console market in the US. More than 100 arcade games

were released in the year 1980 alone, and a vast number of games released in 1980

suggested the standard of game genre.

Thus, the concept of ‘game genre’ became familiar to people. The formation of

‘genre’ in the game sector meant the stabilization and the expansion of the game

market and industry. Furthermore, the formation was a sign showing the completion

of the production system in the game industry. Monumental arcade games include

Atari’s “Battlezone” and “Missile Command” and Namco’s legendary “Pacman.”

“Battlezone” is known to be the world’s very first 3D game providing a whole new

viewpoint though sharing a theme similar to Atari’s “Tank” game. This game allowed

the player to move freely within the game setting in first person viewpoint though

the function was not perfect. In that sense, this game is considered to be the ancestor

of First Person Shooting Games (FPS) including “Doom” and “Quake.”

<Atari’s Battlezone>

History of Game



In 1984, Apple came up with a whole new machine named Macintosh computer just

5 years after the release of Apple II forming a competitive structure with IBM-PC in

the personal computer market. The Macintosh computer attracted public awareness

with outstanding design. Macintosh, which integrated monitor and mainframe,

distinguished itself in the computer music, graphics and electronic publishing sector.

In particular, Macintosh allowed an easy approach for beginners unlike previous

computers which required prior knowledge of computer technology. The advent

of this new computer signaled the popularization of computers as the computer

demonstrated a unique simulation effect as if a desk was situated in the screen,

while allowing the users to use programs or data easily with an icon. Furthermore,

Macintosh established the foundation for PC users to use their personal computers

as gaming consoles.

In 1985, “NES” filled up the blank in the domestic console market after the

disappearance of Atari’s “VCS” as the next-generation console machine after Famicom

(Family Computer Disk System). In 1986, “Super Mario Bros.” which remains the

classic masterpiece of Nintendo in the history of games was released for Famicom

contributing to the huge success of the sales of this console machine.

In “Super Mario Bros,” Mario became a plumber and not a carpenter. Also, the

game allowed the player to enjoy various settings including cave, castle, mountains

and fields full of mushrooms with Mario. Shigeru Miyamoto chose to use “Side

Scrolling” method as the vast space could not be displayed on a small screen.

The most popular game in mid-1980s was “Tetris”, which was available in both arcade

machines and domestic console machines. The software soon became available

on PC and portable console machines. “Tetris” is a game developed by a Russian

Namco’s Toru Iwatani came up with an idea after seeing

a slice of pizza during lunch hours just after graduating

from university. The idea soon became a game named

“Pacman” recording mega-hit sales in the game industry

in 1980s. The important thing about “Pacman” is that

the game was designed for female gamers. The game

was intentionally designed to attract female gamers

with its non-violent features and that non-violence

brought huge success.

<Namco Pacman>

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mathematician named Alexey Pajitmov who majored in Applied Mathematics. The

game modified the traditional pentominoes puzzle game into a quadrilateral puzzle

game.


In 1990, Microsoft declared the beginning of a new era of PC games by releasing

‘Window 3.0” in the market. The size of the game industry grew larger with the

growth of 16-bit video games and the production of PC games.

In 1991, gaming console companies started the so-called “CD Rom War” as PC

platform began to receive spotlight as a new game platform. SEGA and Nintendo

announced the release of CD rom consoles almost simultaneously. However, Nintendo

broke the verbal promise made with SONY and made an official agreement with

Philips, slowing down the development of “Playstation”. The SEGA CD was released

in 1992 as expected, but Nintendo failed to release the product on time. Nintendo

was the only company without CD rom console among major video gaming console

companies, and this was regarded as the disgrace of “Nintendo empire.”

PC was the arch enemy of SEGA and Nintendo who were the two major players in the

gaming console market in the early 1990s. The addition of sound card on personal

computer platform meant the first phase of the era of multimedia, and the addition

of CD rom on the personal computer platform brought new ideas of “Interactive

Cinema” and “Interactive Comics”, leading to the advent of numerous works related

with the new ideas. “Killer Software” which came out early in the multimedia era

included games like “Myst”, “Doom” and “Wolfenstein 3D.”

In 1992, John Carmack of “ID Software” also referred to as the Mozart in the

computer world, realized the 3D world with “Wolfenstein 3D.”

“Real 3DO Multiplayer” released by Matsushita in 1993 is a multi-media domestic

console machine which realized 3D graphics. The machine announced the birth of

next-generation hardware.

In 1994, SEGA released 32-bit next-generation console machine named ‘Saturn.” A

game named “Virtual Fighter” became a trend with the release of “Saturn,” and this

History of Game



game was the upgraded version of the world’s very first arcade 3D fighting game into

a Saturn version.

In 1994, ID Software came up with “DOOM” which was far better than the company’s

previous “Wolfenstein 3D,” and implemented a unique marketing method called

“Shareware.” Through the method, players play the game for free after receiving

the first section via Internet or mail. The players can choose to purchase the rest of

the sections from the company. The strength of the method is that small companies

may sell their game software without competing with major companies for the

procurement of sales route.

Microsoft’s “Window 95” and “DirectX” were released in 1995 and warned the

shift in the computer game industry. Window 95 was the up-to-date version of the

Windows series and Window 95 brought fundamental improvement of the gaming

setting. Window 95 simplified the installation of game and the players were able to

play first person shooting games without leaving the window. DirectX solved the

hardware compatibility problem and contributed to the vitalization of game industry.

In 1996, SONY’s Playstation became the rising star in the video game sector, and

multi-play games began to account for the largest part of game market with the

beginning of internet era. Blizzard released Diablo by using Battlenet system and

established a foundation for the return of “RPG” genre which has been losing

popularity among game players.

PC-bang (PC Café) and Internet café culture started to form after 1997, and a new

concept and a new culture named Esports was created with the popularity of StarCraft.

Games Studies of Sympathy and Communication / Kim Gyeom-seop / Alternative Culture Series / 2008

32



Play Station2(PS2) was released in 2000. The biggest key feature of PS2 is the emotion

engine processor, which enabled efficient graphic processing. The developers of PS2

came up with a groundbreaking method for enhancing the performance of the game

console, by selecting only the functions that give big influence to the game and

focusing on reinforcing them; the DVD player function became possible as they

added the DVD-ROM as well.

Despite all the efforts, the console game industry had been going through changes

since the 2000s – its sales performance had been on the decrease. The major cause

of the phenomenon can be seen as the paradigm shift of the game industry and the

players. The influx of the light users including females explosively expanded the

range of the gamer population and changed its characteristics significantly at the

same time. This led to the reduction of the hardcore user market, and it became

harder to come up with a successful product in the overall game business. As such,

with the expansion of the range of the users, the age of diversification started.

In addition, portable game machines and the sensational development of smartphone

games that has overtaken the industry since the late 2000s also gave direct influence

to the changes of game consoles.

The PC game market also went through rapid changes. The stand-alone package

games that are materialized in PCs are hard to be found nowadays. As multiple players

became able to play one game simultaneously with the emergence of MMO(Massively

Multi-player Online) games, which started from the late 1990s and began its rapid

expansion since the early 2000s, the communication methods of the players sharing

the game also evolved in high speed.

The online game revolution that exploded in the 2000s made all the communication

methods possible between the players, including one-for-one, many-for-one, and

many-for-many.

The communities that were created due to the needs of the players developed from

the communities made for temporary purposes such as conquering quests; then the

patterns of the players were variously divided into guilds or strong alliances, in which

the members could exchange their opinions for sufficient time.

Source : History and Understanding of Games / written by Kim Jeong-tae

History of Game



Chronological History of Game

Year History

· Steve Russel creates <Spacewar!>, the first Game

· Ralph Baer creates ‘Magnavox Odyssey’, the first video gaming device

· Nolan Bushnell creates <Computer Space>, the first video arcade game

· Atari founded by Nolan Bushnell, who creates <Pong>

· Atari launches <Break Out>, which makes a big hit

· Nintendo releases the first TV tennis

· Will Crowther & Don Woods create <Adventure>, the first PDP-10 based

text adventure game

· Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak launch the first APPLE computer

· ‘VCS 2600’(Atari 2600), world’s first video game console is released

· APPLE II launched in market

· Taito launches <Space Invaders>

· <Adventure>, the first adventure game of Atari VCS 2600 created

· Richard Garriott launches <Akalabeth>, the first graphic-based role-

playing game

· Rechard Bartle & Roy Trubshaw, PDP10, the first on-line game in UK

· Namco’s arcade game <Pacman> makes a big hit

· Microsoft launches ‘MS-DOS’

· Nintendo launches <Donkey Kong>

· NEC launches ‘PC-9801’ which gains nationwide popularity in Japan

· Nintendo launches <Super Mario Bros.>·

· July : Nintendo launches ‘Famicom’

1962

1971

1972

1975

1976

1977

1978

1979

1980

1981

1982

1983

34


1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

2000

· June: <Tetris> is released

· September: Nintendo launches <Super Mario Bros>

· First MS-DOS virus ‘(C)BRAIN’ discovered

· February: Nintendo launches <Legend of Zelda>

· Capcom launches <Street Fighter>

· December: Square releases <Final Fantasy> on Famicom

· December: The world’s first CD-ROM gaming console, ‘CD-ROM 2’

launched

· October: Broderbund launches <Prince of Persia>

· 5/22: MS launches ‘Windows 3.0’

· 11/21: Nintendo launches ‘Super Famicom’

· March: Capcom launches <Street Fighter II>

· <Wolfenstein 3D> released

· Size of game market exceeds that of movie market in U.S. for the first

time

· <Doom> is released

· 12/3: Sony launches ‘Playstation’

· December: Sega launches ‘Sega Saturn’

· Sega launches <Virtual Fighter 2 >

· ‘Playstation’ released in U.S.

· 4/21: Nintendo launches ‘Nintendo 64’

· Blizzard launches <Diablo>

· AI ‘Deep Blue’ beats human in a chess competition

· March: Blizzard launches <StarCraft>

· November: Valve launches <Half-life>

· Blizzard launches <Diablo 2>

History of Game



· Maxis releases <Sims>

· Nintendo releases <6th Game Cube>

· Microsoft releases <X-Box>

· Nintendo release <Nintendo DS>

· Sonycomputer releases <Playstation Portable>

· Value releases <Half Life2>

· Blizzard releases <World of Warcraft>

· Microsoft releases <X-Box 360>

· Sonycomputer releases <Playstation3>

· Nintendo release <Nintendo Wii>

· Nintendo release <Wii Fit> Exergaming video game

· Rovio releases <Angry Birds>

· Blizzard releases <Starcraft2>

· Microsoft releases <X-Box Kinect>

· Sonycomputer release <PlayStation Move>

2000

2001

2004

2004

2005

2006

2007

2009

2010

2010

Source: Korean History of Games / Yoon Hyung-seop et al / Book Korea / 2012 / Naver encyclopedic knowledge

36


Game Platforms

There have been many different names to call games, such as video games, computer

games, digital games, online games, etc. This is because many different platforms,

or the base on which the game is played, varies according to time period. The first

game having started from the arcade game transferred to the home video game

device, then moved to the PC, and currently it is actively played on a mobile platform.

It is the history of games that have been developed transferring a variety of media

platforms.

Arcade Platform

PC Platform

Console Platform

Mobile Platform

History of Game



Arcade Platform

In the game world, ‘arcade’ has two definitions: one is a definition as a game platform,

and the other is definition of a genre established by the unique characteristic of this

game platform.

First of all, arcade game as a platform stems from how game room is referred to as

‘arcade’ in US. In other words, it’s a game with a big manipulator and a big video

screen. It has a particular spatial and economic nature not only as a display space in

a public place but as a system of profit with a coin slot.

Because arcade games involve playing games in public space, complex genre where

repeated saving over a long period of time is required, such as role playing games or

strategy simulation genres are inappropriate. Rather, genres that are simple yet offering

maximum experience of the game in short period of time, such as action games or

shooting games, are more appropriate. In other words, games that are appropriate

would be games that require players to be fast on their feet and judgement, such as

games which require simple operation of keys, or attack enemy or pass obstacles by

using given manipulator. Here, particular games include shooting, puzzle, action,

simulation and racing games. In sum, these games are less about narrative, and are

composed mainly of fragmentary episodes or stages.

These games include Galaga, Doom, Bubble Bubble, Summer Olympics, Donkey

Kong, Street Fighter, Initial D, DDR, Beat Mania, Pump, etc.

38


Console Platform

Home video game device or video game, etc. are other names for the console

platforms. The platform has a feature which applies innovative technology, which is

not found in other platforms. It uses the same manipulator with that of the arcade

platform and has been expressed spectacularly through the elaborate graphics which

are the advantages and characteristics of the console platform.

Here, players do not need to operate specifically to see the spectacular action of the

characters. It means the automatic blow and automatic camera angle are prerequisite.

However, innovative technology is not the only feature of the console game. This

includes storytelling. Even the arcade game is often added with script mode, when

transplanted on the console platform.

The arcade platform also had sports games, and the sports games on the console

platforms were often added nurturing or story mode, and had very strong storytelling

of the play itself. There are many single-players for console platforms. Although

based on the network, it also supports the single-player mode. Having a strong story

mode or a single mode on a console platform even between the same games means

that it’s more immersive and demands higher level of concentration. The console

platform can take advantage of the immersive nature of the game played in a private

space as much as possible.

Devil May Cry, Pacman Adventure 2, FIFA, PES, Final Fantasy, Silent Hill, etc.

History of Game



PC Platform

While the arcade platform or console platform surprised us by showing the best

technology each time, the PC game platform is characteristic in its surprising growth.

The PC platform progressed gradually and then showed explosive growth when CD

package game markets transferred to the online game period, being different from

the console platform which developed step by step according to the new release

of each device. If one asks whether there was a unique genre in the PC platform

which hasn’t existed in the console platform, the answer would be “no.” Almost

every game genre, such as simulation, adventure, and FPS game, etc. has already

started and blossomed on the console game. The essence of the PC platform can

be found in its comprehensiveness embracing all the genres ever existed before. The

characteristics of the PC platform lie more on the emergence of hybrid genre and its

broad spectrum rather than on the platform itself. Also, PC platform allowed the

general public to pay attention to games either in terms of its positive industrial value

or its negative hyper-immersive aspect. Almost all the main genres in current games

have started from the PC platform, and even if it is based on the console game, it

prospered through the PC platform. Most of these mainstream genres share hybrid

genre characteristics.

Half-Life, Count Strike, StarCraft, League of Legends, SimCity, The SIMS, World of

Warcraft, etc.

40


Mobile Platform

The mobile platform was recognized as a platform from the appearance of the

handheld game device. In other words, this includes the mobile device and tablet

PC in its broader sense as well as the portable consoles like Game Boy or PSP.

Today, people usually deal with the mobile device separately with the name of the

mobile platform. It may be impossible to discuss platforms without mentioning the

mobile platform when the ratio of mobile use is far ahead of the PC platform. Many

developers have begun to note the basic characteristics and new possibility of the

mobile platform after it’s been supported by the wireless network environment

alongside with the touch screen technology. The touch screen allows the player to

feel as if he can control the game screen without the need for additional description

or a controller with intuitive interface. In addition, the environmental shift to

wireless network involves breaking the conventional notion that a player must be

stationed in one place to go online. The mobile game is focusing on the technical

properties based on the mobility, and location-based games are the examples of this.

Although the mobile platform pursued its mobility, it didn’t see its potential until the

characteristics of social media became integrated into the mobile platform. The real

potential of the mobile platform may lie in that the users can escape the ‘prison of

the body’ which must be stationed in front of the screen in order for the players to

immerse themselves in the virtual space.

<Digital Games and Contemporary Society / Noh Gi-young et al / Communication Books / 2015>

History of Game



Augmented Reality Platform

Augmented reality (AR) is an interactive experience of a real-world environment

where the objects that reside in the real-world are enhanced by computer-generated

perceptual information, sometimes across multiple sensory modalities, including

visual, auditory, haptic, somatosensory and olfactory. The overlaid sensory

information can be constructive (i.e. additive to the natural environment), or

destructive (i.e. masking of the natural environment). This experience is seamlessly

interwoven with the physical world such that it is perceived as an immersive aspect of

the real environment. In this way, augmented reality alters one’s ongoing perception

of a real-world environment, whereas virtual reality completely replaces the user’s

real-world environment with a simulated one. Augmented reality is related to two

largely synonymous terms: mixed reality and computer-mediated reality.

A future techno-sports game using the Augmented Reality(AR) technology has been

recently launched. HADO is a game in which the players attack the counterpart with

energy balls that appeared in animations and block the attacks by spreading out the

shield. In addition, HADO World Cup is to be held in Japan in December 2019, and

the prize money in total amounts to three million yen (over 28,000 USD).

Source: Wikipedia / www.pokemongolive.com / meleap.comwww.youtube.com/watch?v=TjbtH_MxDQIwww.youtu.be/REBPXwx24kA

Augmented Reality

42


Virtual Reality Platforms

Virtual reality (VR) is a simulated experience that can be similar to or completely

different from the real world. Applications of virtual reality can include entertainment

(i.e. gaming) and educational purposes (i.e. medical or military training). Other,

distinct types of VR style technology include augmented reality and mixed reality.

Currently standard virtual reality systems use either virtual reality headsets or multi-

projected environments to generate realistic images, sounds and other sensations

that simulate a user’s physical presence in a virtual environment. A person using

virtual reality equipment is able to look around the artificial world, move around in

it, and interact with virtual features or items. The effect is commonly created by VR

headsets consisting of a head-mounted display with a small screen in front of the

eyes, but can also be created through specially designed rooms with multiple large

screens. Virtual reality typically incorporates auditory and video feedback, but may

also allow other types of sensory and force feedback through haptic technology.

Virtual Reality

Source: Wikipedia

History of Game



ESL, the world’s largest Esports organizer, and Oculus announced that season three

of the VR League will kick off on March 24th. A prize pool, which is touted as the

league’s largest yet, tallies a total of $250,000.

VR League is bringing two new games to the competition this season: Ready At

Dawn’s Echo Combat and Ubisoft’s Space Junkies. Last year’s mainstays Echo Arena

and Downpour Interactive’s Onward are also returning, making for four total games

featured at this season’s tournaments.

Survios’ Sprint Vector and Insomniac Games’ The Unspoken have both been retired

from competition this year.

VR League: Season 3 will have weekly cups in both Europe and North America, and

terminate in an offline Grand Finals event at Haymarket Theatre in Leicester, UK.

Source: https://www.roadtovr.com/esl-oculus-announce-vr-leagues-season-3-biggest-prize-pool-yetSource: https://vr.eslgaming.com/photo-gallery

Virtual Reality

44


Drone Racing Platform

Drone racing (where FPV stands for first-person view or first person video) is a sport

type where participants control “drones” (typically small radio-controlled aircraft or

quadcopters), equipped with cameras while wearing head-mounted displays showing

the live stream camera feed from the drones. Similar to full size air racing the goal

is to complete a set course as quickly as possible. Drone racing began in Australia in

late 2013 and early 2014 with a number of amateur pilots getting together for semi-

organized races in Brisbane and Melbourne

Source: WikipediaSource: www.engadget.com

Drone Racing

History of Game



Robot Competition Platform

Robotic competitions have been organized since the 1970s and 1980s. In 1979 a

Micromouse competition was organized by the IEEE as shown in the Spectrum

magazine.

Although it is difficult to pinpoint the first robotic competition in history two events

are well known nowadays for their longevity: the All Japan Sumo from Japan, and

the Trinity College International Fire fighting Robot Contest.

Other competitions have grown in popularity with the pass of time, being the

Robocup and the Robo One two of the main singular events in current times. In

parallel companies like Lego and VEX have developed their own branded events and

called them leagues, although they function more like individual cups in regional

qualifiers with finals.

There is some controversy whether university specific challenges should be considered

competitions or more workshops, in general the trend is to open competitions to the

public in order to prevent nepotism and improve the quality of the robots competing

at the event.

Some organizations have been trying to standardize robotics competition through

the introduction of full-fledged leagues with a standard calendar, but the model as

been only working in specific countries like Spain where the National League was

founded in 2008 and is still functioning.

Source: WikipediaSource: www.guinnessworldrecords.com

Robot Competition

46


History of Esports

Following the worldwide success of ‘Space Invaders’,

developed by Tomohiro Nikikaro in the late 1970s, Atari,

the producer of the eponymous console that served as

the main platform for ‘Space Invaders’ held the “Space

Invaders Tournament” in 1990. The tournament drew over

10,000 participants and is regarded as the first large scale

event in competitive gaming. Other examples of such large

competitive gaming events include the ‘Nintendo World

Championship’ and ‘Nintendo Power Fest ’94’.

In the mid-1990s, competitions for first-person shooters

(FPS) like the ‘Doom’ series began taking place, as key

events in game shows held in Las Vegas or Atlanta (which

later became the E3 exhibition) in order to encourage

participation of gamers. In the U.S. and Europe, groups

of game enthusiasts gathered with their computers to play

together in the so-called “LAN Parties.” Based on this

gaming culture, the PGL (Professional Gamers League)

and CPL (Cyberathlete Professional League) were first

launched in 1997.

Launched shoulder-to-shoulder in 1997, PGL and CPL were similar in that they

both intended to create a league for professional gamers, just like the professional

sports leagues for baseball and football. However, these two leagues differed in the

operation. Headed by Noland Bushnell, a.k.a. ‘the father of gaming’, PGL carried out

The birth of game

tournaments

Birth of Esports (1980s to 1997)

Birth of Esports (1980s ~ 1997)

History of Game



most of its matches online and only hosted offline matches for the final playoffs. In

contrast, CPL held almost all of its matches offline, particularly due to the nature

of FPS games at the time. Due to such difference in tournament operations, PGL

withered while CPL continued to grow. This demonstrates how Esports cannot be

sustained as a professional sport without the fans, one of the three key elements of

the sports market, the other two being the medium (the game) and the star players.

Along with the rapid economic growth in the 1990s,

South Korea saw an exponential growth of its high speed

internet infrastructure. However, due to the financial

crisis of 1997, masses of Koreans were left unemployed.

The first StarCraft game by Blizzard was a huge hit in

1998, and the game catered to the masses of unemployed

people. Simultaneously, the number of PC Bangs (internet

PC cafes) also grew exponentially to meet this demand.

The number of PC Bangs grew from 3,000 in 1998 to 15,100

in 1999. Thanks to the affordability of PC Bang at merely

KRW 1,000 per hour (around USD $1.00), many could

enjoy games. Naturally, such popularity led to PC Bang

tournaments that offered prize money. These tournaments

eventually developed into offline tournaments, which gave

rise to celebrity players as well as teams based on regional

PC Bangs complete with practice rooms, team managers

and team players. Corporations signed sponsorship

contracts with these teams, giving birth to professional

StarCraft teams in Korea.

The advent of professional StarCraft teams and small-scale

offline tournaments inspired Hyung Jun Hwang, a producer

at the cartoon cable channel Tooniverse, to wonder what

it would be like to broadcast these matches. Hwang

managed to broadcast one of the offline tournaments.

The onset of

StarCraft and PC

Bang

Emergence of game

broadcast on TV

and cable channels

dedicated to games

Growth of Esports (History of Esports in Korea)

48


Although there was no infrastructure whatsoever for

broadcasting games, and thus the broadcast took place

with two monitors on a table tennis table, the result was

successful. Having confirmed the potential for game

broadcasts, Tooniverse partnered with PKO, the company

responsible for hosting the tournaments to open the

’99 Progamer Korea Open (99 PKO). 99 PKO took place

with 16 teams, which included specially invited players.

Eight professional teams also participated, sponsored by

notable companies such as Samsung Electronics, Orion

Corporation, Ahn Lab, and Sports Chosun. This was in

fact the first regularly programmed pro-game league

TV broadcast in the history of Esports. The holding

company of Tooniverse at the time, ‘OnMedia’, founded

‘OnGameNet’ (currently OGN), a cable channel dedicated

to games, and launched the ‘OnGameNet Star League’ in

February 2000.

In 1999, the Korea Esports Association was established to

protect the rights of professional gamers and to support

the development of offline tournaments. The Federation

received an official authorization from the Ministry of

Culture and Tourism to launch the 21st Century Pro-Gamers

Association in February 2000, which was the precedent for

KeSPA. In 2003, the association was renamed to KeSPA.

Even unto this day, KeSPA has been leading the way for

the development and standardization of Esports in Korea

by selecting official competition categories, establishing

infrastructure, and organizing and dispatching national

teams. In 2003, a team-based league that went beyond

leagues of individual players was launched, with the name

of ‘ProLeague’. By then, Esports in Korea had taken form

similar to that of traditional professional sports, structured

into a ‘wide pool of amateur players, professional players,

corporate sponsored teams, regular league and association

based on PC Bangs’.

Establishment

of Korea Esports

Association (KeSPA)

History of Game



In 2000, under the sponsorship of Ministry of Culture,

Sports and Tourism and Samsung Electronics, the first

tournament of the World Cyber Games (WCG) was hosted

in Yongin, Korea, as the WCG Challenge. 174 players from

17 countries participated in the event. Starting in the 4th

WCG tournament in 2004, the event began touring around

the world each year to elevate the status and expand the

influence of Esports around the globe. These tournaments

also revealed the potential for Esports as a national-level

competition. In the last tournament, WCG 2013, 500

players from 40 countries participated.

Esports in Europe and North America is characterized by

the fact that it grew mostly based on FPS genre games,

such as Halo, Counter Strike and Quake franchises. The

three major Esports tournaments in Europe and North

America are ESL, MLG and DreamHack. ESWC also allows

national teams to compete.

ESL was launched in 2000. At first, it began as an online

league and a game magazine. It is currently headquartered

in Germany. It holds multiple tournaments for various

games including League of Legends, Counter Strike and

DOTA 2. It holds a variety of competitions including the ESL

Open, the ladder tournament open to amateurs and pros

alike, as well as the premier-class ESL One tournament.

MLG was launched in 2002 and is currently headquartered

in New York. It has been hosting tournaments in the

U.S. and Canada. In 2006, it broadcasted the Halo 2

tournament, Boost Mobile MLG Pro Circuit, for the first

time in America.

World Cyber Games

(WCG)

Esports in Europe

and North America

Electronic Sports

League (ESL)

Major League

Gaming (MLG)

Development of Esports (2000s – 2006)

50


The most defining characteristic of Esports events since

2007 is that the game studios themselves began hosting

the tournaments. While previous tournaments hosted by

the developers were mostly short-term publicity stunts,

game companies have now witnessed the growth of

Esports as a viable format that they now even take into

consideration during development. Now, the game

companies are hosting tournaments for their own games.

Key examples include Starcraft2 (Blizzard), League of

Legends (Riot Games), DOTA2, CSGO (Valve), World of

Series (Wargaming), and Cross Fire (Smile Gate). This led

to restructuring of Esports organization committees.

When the international Esports federation was established

with Korea at its center, many new Esports federations

were founded around the world soon thereafter. This trend

has gone beyond the previous efforts that were mostly

Based in Sweden, DreamHack is a LAN Party that began

in 1994. It has taken place once a year in LAN Party format

since its inception until 2002, when it started to host

two events each year, namely DreamHack Summer and

DreamHack Winter. With around 7,000 European visitors

in 2006, DreamHack has found its place as a major Esports

event in Northern Europe.

This began as a small LAN event called LAN Arena based

in France. It claims to be the Esports world cup of Europe,

with 358 players from 37 countries participating in the

first tournament held in 2003. It has grown to be one of

the top 3 Esports events in the world.

Success of developer-

hosted tournaments

Increased number of

Esports federations

and activity

DreamHack

Esports World Cup

(ESWC)

Transformative years in Esports (2007 – present)

History of Game



at individual or community levels to include national

or institutional scale initiatives. Currently, there are 56

member states in the International Esports Federation. As

the importance of the International Esports Federation as

the leader of Esports around the world continues to grow,

establishing Esports standards befitting of an international

sport and distribution thereof will provide an important

opportunity to lead the global Esports industry and policy.

With the last event in 2013, WCG would no longer hold any

more tournaments. This news was all the more shocking as

the tournament in 2013 was a tremendous success. Many

point towards the dissolution of Samsung’s PC platform

business as the biggest reason for this.

WCA is an annual Esports tournament that has been taking

place in Yinchuan, China since 2014. It offers various events

including DOTA 2, Warcraft 3 and Hearthstone, boasting

top notch prize money. In 2016, the scale of the event

was expanded even more compared to 2015, turning the

professional-level event into three seasons per year. Each

season will take place in Asia, Europe, and Americas in

addition to China, where the highest ranking players will

win the right to participate in the Grand Finals hosted in

Yinchuan.

Closing of WCG

China’s WCA

launches

52


The 2nd Asian Indoor Games were held in Macau, China from 26 October 2007 to

3 November 2007. Most events of the games took place at the Macao East Asian

Games Dome.

The Emblem of the 2nd Asian Indoor Games gives an overall impression of the sun

shining above the covered gymnasium.

This event was the first time that Esports has been included to Asian Indoor Games.

· List of Events

- FIFA 07

- NBA LIVE 07

- Need for Speed: Most Wanted

· Medal Table

Rank

1

2

3

4

Nation Gold Silver Bronze Total

China (CHN)

Iran (IRI)

Mongolia (MGL)

Uzbekistan (UZB)

3

0

0

0

0

1

1

1

0

2

1

0

3

3

2

1

Source: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esports_at_the_2007_Asian_Indoor_Games

The 2007 Asian Indoor Games

History of Esports: As Sports

History of Game



The 2013 Asian Indoor and Martial Arts Games

Esports for the 2013 Asian Indoor and Martial Arts Games was held at the Incheon

Samsan World Gymnasium. It took place from 29 June to 2 July 2013. Six video

games were chosen to be part of this Indoor and Martial Arts Games.

· List of Events

- FIFA 13

- Need for Speed: Shift 2 Unleashed

- StarCraft II: Heart of the Swarm

- Tekken Tag Tournament 2

- League of Legends

- Special Force

· Medal Table

Rank

1

2

3

4

5

6

6


South Korea (KOR)

Uzbekistan (UZB)

Kazakhstan (KAZ)

China (CHN)

Chinese Taipei (TPE)

Malaysia (MAS)

Vietnam (VIE)

4

1

1

0

0

0

0

2

1

0

2

1

0

0

0

0

1

1

2

1

1

6

2

2

3

3

1

1

Source: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esports_at_the_2013_Asian_Indoor_and_Martial_Arts_Games

54


The 2018 Asian Games

Esports were featured at the 2018 Asian Games as a demonstration sport, meaning

medals won in this sport would not be counted in the official overall medal tally. It

was held from 26 August to 1 September 2018. Six video games were featured in the

demonstration event.

· List of Events

- Arena of Valor

- Clash Royale

- Hearthstone

- League of Legends

- Pro Evolution Soccer

- StarCraft II

· Medal Table

Rank

1

2

2

4

4

6

7

8

9


China

Indonesia

South Korea

Hong Kong

Japan

Chinese Taipei

Iran

Vietnam

India

2

1

1

1

1

0

0

0

0

1

1

1

0

0

2

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

4

1

3

2

2

1

1

3

1

4

1

Source: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esports_at_the_2018_Asian_Games / The Esports Observer

History of Game



The 2019 Southeast Asian Games

Esports will be featured as a medal sport at the 2019 Southeast Asian Games in the

Philippines in at the Filoil Flying V Centre in San Juan, Metro Manila from December

1 to 6, 2019. It will be the first time that Esports will be contested as a medal event in

a multi-sport competition sanctioned by the International Olympic Committee after

the discipline featured as a demonstration sport in the 2018 Asian Games in Jakarta,

Indonesia.

Six medals will be contested in Esports while a single demonstration event will also

be held.

Esports in the 2019 Southeast Asian Games is accredited by the Asian Electronic

Sports Federation

· Video Game Title Selection

Six medals are to be contested in Esports. The selected titles will have to conform

to the values of the International Olympic Committee and “should not promote the

culture of violence and gambling”. Also other factors such as the popularity and

competitiveness of the titles, the strategy and teamwork required in playing the

concerned titles, as well as the physical and mental intensity required in contesting

the titles in marathon matches were also considered in the selection process.

There will be three categories; PC, console, and mobile each featuring two video

game titles. Mobile Legends: Bang Bang was the first title to be confirmed in

November 2018. Four titles Arena of Valor, Dota 2, Starcraft II, Tekken 7 were later

announced in mid-December 2018 to be included with the sixth title confirmed at a

later date. The organizers attempted to secure the appropriate license to be able to

have NBA2k as the sixth title but was unable to do so.Hearthstone was announced

as the sixth title in June 2019.

In addition to the six medal events, a demonstration event will also be held in Esports.

There were also previous plans for the Esports tournament to feature separate

competitions for men and women where men would be competing in Dota 2,

Hearthstone, NBA 2K, and Tekken 7 while women would be contesting Dota 2 and

Hearthstone. The plan was reportedly the final but was later clarified to be otherwise.

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esports_at_the_2019_Southeast_Asian_Games

56


Esports today has become a new cultural code for the younger generation. Along with

nationally popular sports such as baseball, basketball and soccer, Esports has been

developing into a popular form of sports entertainment culture. Combining sports-

like elements and celebrity players similar to the entertainment industry, Esports can

be called a form of “sportstainment”. In terms of scope, games comprise a great

portion of Esports, but games themselves cannot become Esports, giving Esports its

own unique characteristics.

The core characteristic of Esports is the condition for fair competition. In Esports,

contents such as items or special characters that may affect the outcome are

excluded in order to even the playing field for everyone. For instance, in competitive

Hearthstone matches, the players begin with the same cards. In addition, gambling

games that depend largely on luck are left out from Esports. Lastly, Esports requires

quick decision making as well as dexterous physical response. It is an art form that

combines the mind and spirit. Another characteristic of Esports is that it not only

stimulates person-to-person competition and participation, but also allows the

spectators to have fun and leaves meaningful match records.

Through the vitalization of virtual reality technology, games that could replace

dangerous traditional sports such as racing could be hitting the Esports scene in the

future.

Characteristics of Esports

History of Game



58


Mechanism of Game

Com

mon

Sub

ject

s

03



Characteristics of Game Production

There are games released in the market on which a high production cost of more

than 8.5 million dollars has been invested, which are more like movies using

spectacular graphics and special image techniques. But a game production cannot be

successful just by the implementation of large-scale production or high-technology

which don’t lead to the fun and excitement of the game users. They are neither

pleased nor satisfied with a game just because a large sum of money has been

invested on it. Game production is a creative activity which embraces logic, music,

math, art, planning, teamwork, and general game information technology. Game

production activities don’t apply passively a prefabricated production framework but

configure a variety of factors creatively, such as unique rules, rewards, challenges,

and competition. (Habgood, 2005). In particular, it should be considered that a game

has a different production process and characteristics from other media. Games are

similar to a software process in terms of programming, but in terms of planning

and script writing, it is more like a novel or a movie. Compared to movies or novels,

games have the sound, image, and basic story conveyed by texts like movies or

novels, but are different in that the story can be developed to the direction the user

desires. Along with the traditional features of other media, games have features to

select and control by collecting the responses from users. Also, a game media is

mainly dependent upon vision since it is expressed through graphics. In its initial

stage, it used to appear as a kind of programmatic lines too simple for graphics. With

the development of technology, games based on graphics started to emerge, and

currently virtual games using 3D images have become the main stream.

60


Process of Game Planning and Development

With the increasing demand in game production, game planning has become more

important. Just a few years ago, only a few members were enough to produce a

game, but recently, the meaning of game planning extends to signify connecting

various job positions organically. Moreover, as the game industry grows, a huge

amount of planning is required today, according to the research data for production

and analysis related to users and the market. This change has become a big pressure

to the designers by demanding analysis in different fields and large amount of

planning, resulting in obscuring the meaning of planning. A game planning is to

design and inform what kind of game will be made, and the document called game

proposal helps it work. Generally, a game planning means the proposal which is the

most crucial part to make a game. In other words, game planning means to make

documents including a lot of information, such as what kind of game to create, and

this enables each team in a game company to perform its part intuitively. In a broader

sense, game planning involves activities of the planning team which bridge across

the graphic team, programming team, and sound team, and these activities can be

included in the proposal. Considering that proposal can be changed or modified at

the stage of the production, game planning is a very difficult work. The planning

work, as the preparation activities to present a reasonable way of action to achieve

the goal, should serve to prevent or adjust the unexpected situation or problems

happening.

The role of game design is to present the guidelines for developing a game, and

it is something like a blueprint to show what’s in the designer’s mind as well as

the document opening the door of a game production. Therefore a game designer

does more than write the script. Game designers should determine different kinds

of work required for the game production, including the selection of a scenario

writer, the purchase of a game script or the determination of the in-house writing,

composition of staff members required for the image design, and management of

the development schedule, etc. Also, they should be good at workforce management,

sales management, promotion, and marketing. Game design deals with such complex

and comprehensive work, and different constraints should be taken into account in

the process of planning and implementation. The first constraint to be mentioned

is the limitation of prediction. Planning is about what’s happening in the future

Mechanism of Game



and many different factors should be predicted. However, perfect prediction is not

humanly possible; therefore, it’s foremost important to raise the prediction capability

as much as possible by the scientific way of research in collecting and analyzing data.

Next, the lack and inaccuracy of data can be another constraint. At the planning

stage, information and data functions as the basic source to make a reasonable and

scientific decision. However, in reality it’s hard even to collect enough information

and data and thus the accuracy is also questionable. Lastly, modification is inevitable

in game development. A game is planned through an incomplete analysis on the

environment and inaccurate assumption accordingly, so it cannot be actually carried

out without modification. It is therefore necessary to design a game in a way which

doesn’t set rules or restrictions in detail but ensures flexibility.

Source: <Digital Games and Contemporary Society / Noh Gi-young et al / Communication Books / 2015>

62


Divisions and Roles in Game Development

Source: Sumit Jain Project Lead and Game Programmer

* Divisions

*Publisher / Developer

1. Nintendo

· Headquarters: Kyoto, Japan

· Game Title: Mario, Pokémon, The legend of Zelda

This company is credited for the conception of handheld video games in 1979.

Nintendo was founded by Fusajiro Yamauchi in September 1889. It is headquartered

in Kyoto, Japan but has subsidiaries and offices in several other parts of the world.

Nintendo is the world’s largest video game company by revenue, with a net value of

over USD85 Billion.

Mechanism of Game



2. Valve Corporation

· Headquarters: Bellevue, WA

· Game Title: Counter-strike series, Dota 2, Day of defeat series, Half-life series

It’s headquartered in Bellevue, Washington and has a subsidiary in Luxembourg. It

was started in 1996 by former Microsoft employees Gabe Newell and Mike Harrington.

It has a total equity of over USD2.5 Billion. Some of the work produced by Valve

Corporation

3. Electronic Arts

· Headquarters: Redwood City

· Game Title: Army of Two series, Battlefield series, FIFA series, The Simpsons series

Star wars series

It’s also referred to as EA Games. It was started in May 1982 by Trip Hawkins.

The company’s revenue is over USD4.5 Billion

4. Activision Blizzard

· Headquarters: Santa Monica, California

· Game Title: Call of duty serie, Crash Bandicoot series, Spyro the dragon series,

Tony Hawks series

The company had revenue of over USD4.6 Billion in 2015 and is a listed company

whose shares trade on NASDAQ. Company president and CEO is Robert Kotick, while

the Chairman if the BOD is Brian Kelly.

64


5. Blizzard Entertainment Inc

· Headquarters: Irvine, California, US

· Game Title: Warcraft, Starcraft, Diablo, World of Warcraft, Overwatch

It was founded in 1991 by Michael Morhaime, Frank Peace and Allen Adham. It has

been a subsidiary of Activision Blizzard since 2008. As of 2012, the company had a

work force of 4,700.

6. Bandai Namco Entertainment

· Headquarters: Shinagawa, Tokyo, Japan

· Game Title: Dragon Ball series, Naruto: Ultimate ninja series, Ace Combat Series,

Pac Man series, Katamari series

It was founded in 1955 by Masaya Nakamura. It is a wholly owned subsidiary of

Bandai Namco Holdings, with operations all over the world.

7. Epic Game

· Headquarters: Cary, North Carolina

· Game Title: Bullet storms, Castle of the winds, Kiloblaster, One must fall: 2097,

Fortnite

Epic games Inc was founded by Tim Sweeney in 1991. It is a private company that has

subsidiaries in China, Korea, UK and Japan and serves worldwide.

Mechanism of Game



8. Take-Two Interactive Software Inc

· Headquarters: New York City, USA and Windsor, UK

· Game Title: Grand theft Auto, Civilization, NBA 2K, Red Dead

This company was founded 23 years ago in 1993 by game developer Ryan Brant.

They have development studios in Toronto, Canada and in North America. It’s traded

publicly in NASDAQ.

Source: www.gamedesigning.org/game-development-studios

66


Organization Chart in Game Development

Game Producer

Game Planner

Scenario Planner Graphic DesignerClient

Programmer

Game DirectorServer

Programmer

<Introduction to Game Producing / Lee Woo-jin / Korea Creative Content Agency / 2004>

Mechanism of Game



Why Play Games?

One must first approach the ‘essence of games’ in order to find out why people are

crazy about games. Let’s begin by asking what it is about games that attract so many

people. Among the many opinions as to why people play games, the following are

the common reasons:

Game researchers use the word ‘flow’, or ‘engagement’, to best explain this question.

Just because

Just Fun

Killing Time

Make Friends

Earn Money

Share Information

Relationship

Escapism

Achievement

68


Attraction factors of Game

Research in game media began much later than in other traditional mediums like art,

literature and film. The discourse on game criticism has just begun to form.

The acclaimed education game researcher Marc Prensky explained the following in

this book Digital Game-Based Learning (McGraw-Hill, 2001):

Fun : A form of fun, game gives us enjoyment and pleasure.

Play : A form of play, game draws us into intense

involvement.

Rules : Game has rules and gives us structure.

Goals : Game has goals, and gives us motivation.

Interactive : Designed to allow users to communicate with

each other, games help us to engage in a certain ‘doing’.

Outcomes and feedback : A media with outcomes and

feedback, game provides us a learning opportunity.

Adaptive : A media in which adjustments and adaptions

according to different situations are possible, game makes

us flow with it.

Win states : Game makes us feel ego-gratification as it

allows us to arrive at a win states.

Conflict/competition/challenge/opposition : Provoking

conflict, competition, challenge and opposition, game

makes us pump up adrenaline and excites us (or makes us

afraid/angry).

Problem solving : Games trains our problem solving skills

and presses our creativity.

Interaction : Game has elements of interaction, and allows

us to form social groups.

Representation and story : Game represents reality and

has a story, thus circulating our emotions.

01

02

03

04

05

06

07

08

09

10

11

12

Mechanism of Game



The pioneer researcher in internet addiction research, Young (1999) defined computer

addiction as obsessive computer game playing or programming. Kim Joo-hwan (1996/

Donga Science Sept.) refers to Young’s research and defines the following:

Play Instinct : Game gives us new joy unfound in reality.

Curiosity : Game provokes curiosity about things unknown.

Anonymity : Multiple behaviors are possible in anonymity,

especially in online games.

Desire for Power : It’s easy to oppress the opponent in

game, and feel a sense of conquest which cannot be

achieved in reality.

Tension : A game with exquisitely controlled balance has

tension and gives the players an adequate sense of tension.

Transforming : In games, transformation into a new entity

in a new world is possible.

Intimacy : Favorable exchanges with others are possible

through games.

Embrace : Players are hospitable to games or others to

which they feel a sense of kinship.

Rarity : People have rare experiences in the game world.

Corner Syndrome, What Happens Next : Players feel an

extreme sense of tension throughout the game world

(especially in genres like first-person actions games and

thriller adventures, etc. )

01

02

03

04

05

06

07

08

09

10

Source: Understanding History of Games / Kim Jung-tae / Hongrung Publishing Co. / 2015>

70


Mechanism of Game



Esports

Com

mon

Sub

ject

s

04

72


Definition of Esports

Esports was called as various names including cyber athlete competition, digital

athlete competition, and pro-gaming competition until beginning and middle of

1990s. At the end of the 1990s as PGL and CPL were held, it was labeled as Electronic

Sports with a proper noun. The words pro-gamer and Esports used in the media from

time to time, started to become popular. The Esports section began to take over a

part in an electronic newspaper in Korea, in 1999. After Park Ji-won, the former

minister of the Korean Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism, mentioned Esports

in the inaugural ceremony of the Korea Esports Association (KeSPA), major media

companies in Korea also began to use the word Esports. As game leagues settled

down and broadcasting companies specialized in games were founded in Korea, the

word Esports also began to take root in Korea. Until 2005, Esports was only used in

a narrow meaning referring to game contests or game leagues. Afterwards, the word

embraced not only the game matches but also pro-gamers, game commentators, and

broadcast companies. In particular, as Esports began to exert a massive effect on the

teenage culture and the game culture, Esports was redefined as a comprehensive

cultural and industrial activity. With the establishment of the International Esports

Federation (IESF), Esports also attracted the attention of the international sports

society as a kind of sports. After being chosen as an item of sports in the Olympic

Council of Asia in 2013, it clearly became known as a sports item. IESF defines

Esports as ‘the compound word from “Electronic” and “Sports”, and is a general

term to describe a competitive sport performed, by using IT & Communication

technologies such as PC, Display Equipment, Network and other electronic devices.’

This definition does not limit Esports in the concept of playing video games, but

defines the environment of platforms on which the activity is being performed.

Esports is a competitive sport performed in a virtual environment in which physical

and mental abilities are exercised to create victory conditions through generally

accepted rules.

IeSF

Esports



The Philosophical Basis of Esports

In the Esports and the traditional sports industry, there is currently a debate on

whether Esports fits the paradigm as a sport. Such debate has existed ever since the

term ‘Esports’ was coined. In order to provide the philosophical basis for Esports,

the intention is to examine Esports on the grounds of sports philosophy, evolution of

sports, and the concept of what defines a sport.

Philosophical concept of sports and Esports

The philosophical basis of Esports begins with the philosophical basis of sports.

Thus examining the basis of sports philosophy and its implications on Esports will

be essential in establishing the philosophical basis for Esports. Such basis for sports

philosophy can be largely categorized into sociocultural, materialistic, and aesthetic

perspectives.

01

Sociocultural

approach

The sociocultural perspective suggested in sports

philosophy is the oldest perspective of its kind in the

history of sports studies. The sociocultural perspective

sees sport as having evolved from a ‘systemization’ of

‘play.’ Since the ancient time, people enjoyed simple games

like ball games for the purpose of entertainment. When

industrialization brought much material wealth in the 18th

century, people could invest more time in such ‘play.’ As

an increasing number of people began to enjoy ‘playing,’

different enthusiast groups for those games sprung up in

each region, and rules for the games became necessary.

Feeling the need for a unified set of match rules, people

gathered together to create and disseminate a single set

of rules. This is what came to be known as ‘sports’ today.

‘Systemization’ had changed a simple game into a sport.

Esports went through the same process. On 31 March

1998, when StarCraft was launched in Korea and became a

74


02

Materialistic

approach

big hit, matches began to take place in PC bangs (Internet

Cafes). Soon, official rules were created, and furthermore,

the Korea Esports Association (KeSPA) was established

to regulate these activities. In 2008, the International

Esports Federation (IESF) was founded with nine member

countries, and continues to systematically hold Esports

competitions year after year. As of September 2019, IESF

currently has 56 member countries. Like traditional sports,

Esports has also matured enough so that amateurs and

professionals can engage in the game in the same manner

or rules around the world in both casual and competitive

matches.

From a materialistic approach, sports can be seen as

having developed to meet the ideal values of society

throughout history. Since the ancient times. when simple

survival was the foremost goal. until today, even past

the industrial age, humans have always valued physical

strength and prowess. The values for such physical strength

and prowess led to the formation of sports like weight

lifting, judo and wrestling, and swimming. Throughout

the process of industrialization, favorable values in sports

shifted from power and speed to ‘accuracy’ such as archery

or shooting. In modern sports like figure skating and

rhythmic gymnastics, values not only include measurable

qualities like physical capability and accuracy, but also

a sense of artistic element which cannot be objectively

evaluated. This demonstrates an outcome of how the

‘aesthetic’ needs of the times is reflected in sports.

Esports is an outcome of how sports has evolved in the

information era of the 21st century. This era requires its

constituents to collect more data than their competitors, to

build strategies based on such collected data, and to multi-

task the execution of multiple strategies simultaneously.

Such abilities are required in various parts of society in this

era defined by information and smart technology. Esports

satisfies all the capabilities required of an information

Esports



03

Aesthetic

approach

society. The gamer must collect intelligence on his or

her opponent, use that information to build the strategy,

and then implement that strategy. All this must be done

simultaneously, which requires the physical aptitude to

carry out the commands quickly and precisely. As can be

seen, Esports requires not only physical skills but also the

capabilities valued in the information era.

The latest trend in sports philosophy is the aesthetic

approach. Another value of sports found in the aesthetic

approach is the expression of self through experience. In

other words, the interest in the qualitative experience of

human experiences and the attempts to define this has

been making gradual progress in various fields. In such

context, the ‘subjective experience,’ which was traditionally

neglected in sports, is now being explored from the

perspective of existential phenomenology in the field of

sports studies. Rather than focusing on the quantitative

phenomena of sports, the studies focus on the ‘conscious-

body’ experience that constitutes the sports activity

itself, and the innate or qualitative aspect of sports. Such

trends define that the self-realization from participating

in sports itself is the essential nature of sports, rather than

the technical outcome of accomplishing sports activities.

Such aesthetic perspective is also applied to Esports.

Today’s Esports has developed into a community-based

industry. At the community phase, users who participate

in the game value the experience or competition in the

game, i.e. self-realization as defined by Esports activities.

This culture pervasive in the Esports community is in

concert with the current trends in sports philosophy

which criticizes the result-oriented aspect of conventional

sports. Such community culture and set of values connect

all the way to the professional level of gaming. This is a

good representation of how today’s aesthetic tendencies

value the qualitative experience of individuals.

76


The three steps in the evolution of the concept of sports

Owing to the dynamical characteristics that modern individuals instinctively seek,

the ideals of freedom it inspires, and primeval interest in the human body, sports

has already taken its place as an important cultural code in modern society. The

evolution of sports since the early 20th century can be categorized into the following

three phases.

In phase 1, sports began to take its place in modern society as it began to incorporate

educational value. Amidst the spread of public education in the late 19th century,

the educational justification for sports was secured, allowing sports to become a

subject taught at school under the term ‘physical education.’ The global propagation

of modern education at the time helped build a robust cultural foundation for sports

activities.

In phase 2, with the advent of the Cold War era in the aftermath of World War II, the

political value of sports began to be highlighted and thus prompted governments

to directly intervene in sports. Through government support, sports began to be

studied as a science, and the domain of elite or professional sports began to develop.

Moreover, governments recognized the value of sports as a welfare, and began taking

interest in encouraging the general populace to engage in life sports. Originating

mostly in European countries, life sports continues to form a part of welfare policies

of many governments around the world.

In phase 3, the industrialization of sports accelerated with the end of the Cold

War in the late 20th century and the advent of a variety of media, riding on the

tides of globalization and information era. Through this, market theory began to

lead the phenomena in the sports world. Sports has established an immense value

network, straddling the interests of the media which values sports as news content,

corporations that value the media value of sports, and government which values the

economic and sociocultural aspects of sports, and the general public who values the

welfare in sports. Combined with capital, the industrialization of sports was further

expedited. (Kang, 2004)

As can be seen, sports is valued for its educational, political, and now industrial

values and its domain is also expanding. Human desire for such sports activities only

Esports



Two perspectives on sports

Sports can be defined in two ways. The first definition is the one used commonly

throughout North America. North American scholars define the components

of sports as institutionalization, competition, rules, and physical activity. In this

definition, sports is set apart from concepts like exercise, recreation, and play. The

second definition is used in Europe, and has a broader understanding on sports. The

Council of Europe has officially defined sports in the following way (The Council of

Europe, 1992):

“All forms of physical activity, which through casual or organized participation, aim

at improving physical fitness and mental well being, forming social relationships, or

obtaining results in competition at all levels).”

This concept includes competitive and non-competitive activities, as well as limited

activities and personal activities. The European definition of sports seems to include

the concepts defined as recreation and exercise as defined by North American

scholars.

In other words, when the plural form of the word, i.e. ‘sports’ is used as a singular

concept, it refers to the definition commonly used in North America - a type of athletic

activity. It is a more systematic, organized body of competitive physical activity

compared to play or games. On the other hand, the pure singular noun, ‘sport’, refers

to the concept used commonly in Europe. ‘Sport’ includes not only institutionalized

sports events but also play, outdoor activities, leisure and recreation. It encompasses

heightened in the modern era, with sports becoming more diversified and cutting-

edge across a variety of areas including politics, economics, education, media, arts,

and industry. Many exercise to maintain their health and fitness, or for leisure.

Sports is an important content for broadcasting channels and news outlets, and is

recognized as a key area in industry and entertainment. Esports is a new area of

sports which has joined the third phase of the evolution of sports, demonstrating the

diversification and technological advancement in sports.

78


a wider range of activities that can be non-competitive, non-regulated, and non-

institutionalized (Kang, 2005). In particular, recently the world ‘sport’ has been used

to refer to the political, economically, social, and cultural phenomena related to and

beyond the physical activity itself.

These two concepts of sports should be presented as an integrated concept rather than

as disparate ideas. In fact, defining sports as a concept is a very difficult endeavor.

This is because the term ‘sports’ has gone through numerous changes in its meaning

and applicability throughout history (Meier, 1988). The integral definition of the

concept of sports is as follows: Sports is the physical activity performed with the

goal of physical achievement. ‘Sports’ is the plural noun of ‘sport.’ The term ‘physical’

herein refers to the use of voluntary muscles. In addition, ‘physical achievement’

includes both absolute and relative sense of achievement. Relative achievement is the

demonstration of superiority to an opponent in a competition. Subjective achievement

refers to the fulfillment of a physical goal set by oneself. For example, golf requires

superior physical strength and ability to control the ball to place the ball exactly

where the golfer wants it to land. Given the purpose of such activity, golf can be

referred to as a sport. This concept can apply to not only exercise, leisure, or fitness,

but also to activities like Esports.

Re-compiling relevant key words based on sports can help avoid confusion from the

misuse or existing jargon. It also allows a comprehensive yet systematic understanding

of the great variety of phenomena regarding physical activity. Ultimately, it can help

improve the efficiency of academic and operational communication and expedite the

systemization of thought. Such characteristics have allowed sports to evolve alongside

the society, while also becoming more pronounced as more types of activities are

now falling into the vein of sports.

SourceKang, Jun Ho (2004) Vision and Tasks of Sports Industry Seminar provided to promote the KAHPERD or possibly KAHPERD SeoulKang, Jun Ho (2005) Concept and categorization of sports industry. Physical Education & Science, 16(3), 118-130.Council of Europe(1992). European Sports Charter. Strasbourg, France: Author.Meier, K. V.(1988). Tricky triad: playing with sport and games. Journal of the Philosophy of sport, XV, 11-30.

Esports



Definition of Esports Discipline

International Olympic Committee (IOC) defines a sports item as a match related to

the Olympic Games. The Olympic Games are categorized into sports and disciplines.

A sport means a single sport or a set of sports with an international association to

represent it. For example, the water sports of the summer Olympics are represented

by the Federation Internationale De Natation (FINA) and it consists of disciplines

like swimming, diving, synchronized swimming and water polo. The skating sports

of the winter Olympics is represented by the International Skating Union (ISU) and

consists of disciplines like figure skating, speed skating and short track.

Currently, in 2016, IOC generally classifies sports as summer sports and winter

sports. Summer sports consist of 27 sports with 41 disciplines and around 300 events,

whereas winter sports consist of 7 sports with 15 disciplines and around 80 events.

Summer sports: Archery, Athletics, Badminton, Basketball,

Beach Volleyball, Boxing, Canoe Slalom, Canoe Sprint,

Cycling BMX, Cycling Mountain Bike, Cycling Road, Cycling

Track, Diving, Equestrian Dressage, Equestrian Eventing,

Equestrian Jumping, Fencing, Football, Golf, Gymnastics

Artistic, Gymnastics Rhythmic, Handball, Hockey, Judo,

Modern Pentathlon, Rowing, Rugby, Sailing, Shooting,

Swimming, Synchronized Swimming, Table Tennis,

Taekwondo, Tennis, Trampoline, Triathlon, Volleyball,

Water Polo, Weightlifting, Wrestling Freestyle, Wrestling

Greco-Roman

Winter sports: Alpine Skiing, Biathlon, Bobsleigh, Cross

Country Skiing, Curling, Figure Skating, Freestyle Skiing

Ice Hockey, Luge, Nordic Combined, Short Track Speed

Skating, Skeleton, Ski Jumping, Snowboard, Speed Skating

01

02

The definition of sports (IOC)

https://www.olympic.org/

80


To become an Esports discipline, the game itself should possess popularity and

recognition. Also, since a fair match should be possible, games of the MMORPG

genre cannot become an Esports discipline as items or levels can affect the users

playing capacities. The basic conditions to become an Esports discipline are as

follows:

League of Legends

DOTA2

Starcraft2

Pro Evolution Soccer

Counter-Strike : Global Offensive

Tekken Series

PUBG

The popularity and recognition of the game

Establihment of the network environment for competition

Being an international discipline

Possibility of a fair match not affected by items and levels

The existence of an Esports observingsystem

Having separate servers for each continent and that the

game has little possibility of game errors (bugs)

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02

03

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06

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02

03

04

05

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The definition of Esports discipline

Representative Esports games:

Esports



Evaluation Table of Esports Discipline

Evaluation Category Evaluation Criteria

Game

Rating

Game

Accessibility

Competition-

related

Media

Broadcast

Graphic

Sound

Interface

Playability

Internationality

Violence and

Sexuality

Gambling

Popularity

Match Method

Fairness and Equity

Base Expandability

Operation/

Management

Fosterage Basis

Game Duration

Spectatorship

Replay function

- Graphic technology

- Sound technology

- Maneuverability and user convenience

- Interest in game play and user response

- Active entry in the global market and possibility of

being an international sport

- Degree of violence, including destructiveness

or roughness

- Presence of obscene or degenerative

components that are offensive to public

morals

- Components of monetary transactions based

on luck, such as betting or gambling

- Diversity of user age group

- Suitability as Esports competition, in which

players compete each other and contend for

victory

- Possibility of unfair components which may

influence the competition other than skills

(character, level, item, etc.)

- Sufficient basis for the event to be vitalized, such

as number of users or user loyalty

- Constant operation and management of the game

- The stability and willingness of the developer

(distributor) to foster and invest in its own vitalization

- The adequacy of time and room for variability in the

game for competitions and media broadcast

- The display composition, visibility and the spectator

absorption

- Ability for the game to be replayed for scoring and

recording

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Rating Audience Age Content

Everyone

10 and up

13 and up

17 and up

18 and up

-

- May contain minimal cartoon, fantasy or mild

violence and/or infrequent use of mild language

Esports Discipline Rating System by Country

USA ESRB(Entertainment Software Rating Board)

- May contain more cartoon, fantasy or mild

violence, mild language and/or minimal

suggestive themes

- May contain violence, suggestive themes, crude

humor, minimal blood, simulated gambling and/

or infrequent use of strong language

- May contain intense violence, blood and gore,

sexual content and/or strong language

- May include prolonged scenes of intense

violence, graphic sexual content and/or gambling

with real currency

- Not yet assigned a final ESRB rating

- Appears only in advertising, marketing and

promotional materials related to a physical video

game that is expected to carry an ESRB rating

Source: www.esrb.org/ratings-guide

Esports



Rating Content

Europe PEGI(Pan Europe Game Information)

- The content of games with a PEGI 3 rating is considered

suitable for all age groups. The game should not contain any

sounds or pictures that are likely to frighten young children. A

very mild form of violence (in a comical context or a childlike

setting) is acceptable. No bad language should be heard.

- Game content with scenes or sounds that can possibly

frightening to younger children should fall in this category. Very

mild forms of violence (implied, non-detailed, or non-realistic

violence) are acceptable for a game with a PEGI 7 rating.

- Video games that show violence of a slightly more graphic

nature towards fantasy characters or non-realistic violence

towards human-like characters would fall in this age category.

Sexual innuendo or sexual posturing can be present, while any

bad language in this category must be mild. Gambling as it is

normally carried out in real life in casinos or gambling halls can

also be present (e.g. card games that in real life would be played

for money).

- The adult classification is applied when the level of violence

reaches a stage where it becomes a depiction of gross violence,

apparently motiveless killing, or violence towards defenceless

characters. The glamorisation of the use of illegal drugs and

explicit sexual activity should also fall into this age category.

- This rating is applied once the depiction of violence (or sexual

activity) reaches a stage that looks the same as would be

expected in real life. The use of bad language in games with a

PEGI 16 rating can be more extreme, while games of chance, and

the use of tobacco, alcohol or illegal drugs can also be present.

Source: pegi.info

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Australia ACB (Australian Classification Board)

Rating Audience Age Content

Everyone

- The content is very mild in impact.

- The G classification is suitable for everyone. G

products may contain classifiable elements such

as language and themes that are very mild in

impact.

- The content is mild in impact.

- The impact of PG (Parental Guidance)

classified films and computer games should

be no higher than mild, but they may contain

content that children find confusing or upsetting

and may require the guidance of parents and

guardians.

Parental

Guidance

- The content is moderate in impact.

- Films and computer games classified M

(Mature) contain content of a moderate impact

and are recommended for teenagers aged 15

years and over.

Under 15

- The content is strong in impact.

- MA 15+ classified material contains strong

content and is legally restricted to persons

15 years and over. It may contain classifiable

elements such as sex scenes and drug use that

are strong in impact.

15 and up

- The content is high in impact

- R 18+ material is restricted to adults. Such

material may contain classifiable elements such

as sex scenes and drug use that are high in

impact. Some material classified R18+ may be

offensive to sections of the adult community.

18 and up

Source: classification.gov.au

Esports



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International Esports Federation

Com

mon

Sub

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05



About IESF

IESF consistently makes an effort to promote Esports as a true sport beyond language,

race and culture barriers. As our fulfillment of past years, we produced meaning and

tangible results by hosting annual ‘IESF World Championship’ and ‘General Meeting’,

and we have expanded our member nations beginning from 9 to 56 nations.

https://ie-sf.org/about/structure

01

02

03

04

Increase the number of member nations.

International Esports standardization.

Esports international human resource training.

Host world Esports tournament.

Mission of IESF

Board Member of IESF

Vision of IESF

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Member of IESF

IESF Members (Total 85 Nations)

IESF’s mission is to further Esports on a global scale. This is done together with our

national federations around the world. IESF wants to see a world where Esports is

accepted as a real sport and that esport athletes can compete on the same level and

with the same support as athletes from traditional sports.

IESF also supports international sport federations and the international sports society

to adapt and advance into digital era. Since 2016, IESF will support, advise, and guide

IFs for its smooth transition towards technological advancement.

Esports has advanced together with the development of the IT industry since the

20th century. IESF has focused on expanding the ecosystem of Esports, also taking

athlete welfare into top priority. IESF continues to take steps to coordinate game

developers and relate with media and publishers to ultimately make a better Esports

world.

Continental Number Nation

2Oceania

30Asia

Brunei, China, Chinese Taipei, Hong Kong, India, Indonesia,

Iran, Japan, Jordan, Kazakhstan, Korea, Kuwait, Kyrgyzstan,

Lebanon, Macau, Malaysia, Maldives, Mongolia, Myanmar,

Nepal, Pakistan, Philippines, Saudi Arabia, Sri Lanka, Syria,

Thailand, Turkmenistan, UAE, Uzbekistan, Vietnam

8Africa Congo, Egypt, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, Namibia, South

Africa, Tunisia

Australia, New Zealand

Europe

Austria, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Belgium, Bosnia, Czech Rep.,

Denmark, Finland, Georgia, Germany, Ireland, Israel, Italy,

Luxembourg, Macedonia, Malta, Monaco, Montenegro,

Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Russia, San Marino,

Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, Ukraine

31

14Americas Argentina, Bahamas, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica,

Dominican Rep., Ecuador, Guatemala, Jamaica, Mexico,

Panama, Peru, United States

◼ To see the most updated status of IESF Members, please visit

>> http://ie-sf.org/about/members



Relationship between IESF & Sports Society

International Esports Federation is the sole and representing international organization

governing Esports in the world. With its sole representing authority, International

Esports Federation is working closely with international sports authorities. In order

to abide by the international sports acts, IESF has built its own Anti-Doping structure

and recognized by “World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA)” as its official signatory.

Furthermore, in order to upraise Esports to the level of official sports discipline, IESF

cooperates with International Sports Society to add Esports as the official discipline

of international multi-sports events.

As cooperating with “Olympic Council of Asia (OCA)”, the representative organ

With these efforts, IESF is bringing attention of international sports society toward

Esports, and is taking a role as the bridge between sports society and younger

generation.

of 45 Asian National Olympic

Committees, IESF is accredited as

counterpart for Esports discipline

within “Asian Indoor & Martial Arts

Games”. Also, “The Association

for International Sports for All

(TAFISA)” has added Esports in

“World Sports for All Games” as

partnering with IESF.

IESF is applying for a member of

“SportAccord” as being recognized

its authority as official international

federation. Also, IESF has started

applying as a recognized International

Federation by IOC.


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History of IESF World Championship

Year Title Location Titles Played Winner Runner Up

2009

2010

2011

2013

2014

2015

2016

2012

IESF Challenge

IESF Grand Final

IESF World Champion-ship

IESF EsportsWorld Cham-pionship




IESF World Champion-ship

Taebaek, South Korea

Daegu, South Korea

Andong, South Korea

Bucharest, Romania

Baku, Azerbaijan

Seoul, South Korea

Jakarta, Indonesia

Cheonan, South Korea

FIFA Online,Warcraft3 : The Frozen Throne

FIFA Online,Warcraft3: The Frozen Throne

Starcraft2, FIFA Online

League of Legends, Starcraft2,Tekken Tag Tournament 2,Alliance of Valiant Arms

DOTA2, Hearthstone, Ultra Street Fighter 4, Starcraft2, Tekken Tag Tournament

League of Legends, Starcraft2, Hearthstone

Counter-Strike: Global Offensive, League of Legends, Hearthstone

Alliance of Valiant Arms, Starcraft2, Tekken Tag Tournament 2

South Korea

South Korea

Sweden

South Korea

South Korea

Serbia

South Korea

South Korea

China

Netherlands

South Korea

Sweden

China

South Korea

Finland

Austria

2017 IESF EsportsWorld Cham-pionship

Busan, South Korea

Counter-Strike: Global Offensive, League of Legends, Tekken7

South Korea

Philippines

2018

2019



Kaohsiung, Chinese Taipei

South Korea

Counter-Strike: Global Offensive, League of Legends, Tekken7

DOTA2, eFootball PES2020, Tekken 7

South Korea

Japan Sweden

Finland

https://www.ie-sf.org/our-tournaments/




To educate and increase the expertise of the international Esports referees in

Esports events

Purpose & Vision

1. Intensive Curriculum

· Develop intensive curriculum to educate and train · Raise competent international Esports Referees through concrete and comprehensive refereeing standard

2. Sustainable Growth

· Strengthen the Esports ecosystem and ensure development of the industry · Build the solid Esports structure through the Academy

3. Enabling Individual

· Support athlete development and career transition programs

· Ensure the continued success of athletes, teams and officials on the world stage


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Technical Elements of Competition

06

Inte

rnat

iona

l Ref

eree

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Game Client and Server

A client/server game consists of the individual players’ computers (the “game clients”)

connected to a central server computer. The topology of a four-player client/server

game is depicted in the following illustration.

Act as the session’s messaging hub. Each computer needs to send messages only

to the server. The server handles the logistics of synchronizing all the other users.

This arrangement can substantially reduce message traffic, especially for large

games.

Host the game. The server typically takes care of the tasks that must be handled

by the session host in a peer-to-peer game.

-

-

Game play is handled by having each user’s

game client communicate with the server. The

server is responsible for passing information

on to the other users. For instance, when

one user moves, the user’s computer sends a

message to the server. The server then sends

messages to the other players to inform them

of a change in game state. The server can have

a number of responsibilities; it can:

<https://msdn.microsoft.com/ko-kr/library/windows/desktop/bb153244(v=vs.85).aspx>



MAN

A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a computer network that interconnects users

with computer resources in a geographic region of the size of a metropolitan area.

The term MAN is applied to the interconnection of local area networks (LANs) in

a city into a single larger network which may then also offer efficient connection

to a wide area network. The term is also used to describe the interconnection of

several local area networks in a metropolitan area through the use of point-to-point

connections between them.

Computer network typesby spatial scope

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metropolitan_area_network


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WAN

A wide area network (WAN) is a telecommunications network that extends over a

large geographical area for the primary purpose of computer networking. Wide area

networks are often established with leased telecommunication circuits.

Business, as well as education and government entities use wide area networks to

relay data to staff, students, clients, buyers and suppliers from various locations

across the world. In essence, this mode of telecommunication allows a business to

effectively carry out its daily function regardless of location. The Internet may be

considered a WAN.

Similar types of networks are personal area networks (PANs), local area networks

(LANs), campus area networks (CANs), or metropolitan area networks (MANs)

which are usually limited to a room, building, campus or specific metropolitan area,

respectively.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wide_area_network




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EthicsIN

TERNATIONAL

ESPORTS

REFEREE

ACADEMY



Ethics01

Ethi

cs

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Definition

The English word “ethics” is derived from the Ancient Greek word ēthikós, meaning “relating to one’s character”, which itself comes from the root word êthos

meaning “character, moral nature”. This word was transferred into Latin as ethica

and then into French as éthique, from which it was transferred into English.

Rushworth Kidder states that “standard definitions of ethics have typically included

such phrases as ‘the science of the ideal human character’ or ‘the science of moral

duty’”. Richard William Paul and Linda Elder define ethics as “a set of concepts

and principles that guide us in determining what behavior helps or harms sentient

creatures”. The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy states that the word “ethics” is

“commonly used interchangeably with ‘morality’ ... and sometimes it is used more

narrowly to mean the moral principles of a particular tradition, group or individual.”

Paul and Elder state that most people confuse ethics with behaving in accordance

with social conventions, religious beliefs and the law and don’t treat ethics as a

stand-alone concept.

The word ethics in English refers to several things. It can refer to philosophical ethics

or moral philosophy-a project that attempts to use reason to answer various kinds of

ethical questions. As the English philosopher Bernard Williams writes, attempting to

explain moral philosophy: “What makes an inquiry a philosophical one is reflective

generality and a style of argument that claims to be rationally persuasive.” Williams

describes the content of this area of inquiry as addressing the very broad question,

“how one should live”. Ethics can also refer to a common human ability to think about

ethical problems that is not particular to philosophy. As bioethicist Larry Churchill

has written: “Ethics, understood as the capacity to think critically about moral values

and direct our actions in terms of such values, is a generic human capacity.” Ethics

can also be used to describe a particular person’s own idiosyncratic principles or

habits. For example: “Joe has strange ethics.”

Source: wikipedia



Virtue ethics

Virtue ethics describes the character of a moral agent as a driving force for ethical

behavior, and it is used to describe the ethics of Socrates, Aristotle, and other early

Greek philosophers. Socrates (469–399 BC) was one of the first Greek philosophers

to encourage both scholars and the common citizen to turn their attention from

the outside world to the condition of humankind. In this view, knowledge bearing

on human life was placed highest, while all other knowledge was secondary. Self-

knowledge was considered necessary for success and inherently an essential good.

A self-aware person will act completely within his capabilities to his pinnacle, while

an ignorant person will flounder and encounter difficulty. To Socrates, a person must

become aware of every fact (and its context) relevant to his existence, if he wishes to

attain self-knowledge. He posited that people will naturally do what is good if they

know what is right. Evil or bad actions are the results of ignorance. If a criminal was

truly aware of the intellectual and spiritual consequences of his or her actions, he or

she would neither commit nor even consider committing those actions. Any person

who knows what is truly right will automatically do it, according to Socrates. While

he correlated knowledge with virtue, he similarly equated virtue with joy. The truly

wise man will know what is right, do what is good, and therefore be happy.

Aristotle (384–323 BC) posited an ethical system that may be termed “virtuous”.

In Aristotle’s view, when a person acts in accordance with virtue this person will

do good and be content. Unhappiness and frustration are caused by doing wrong,

leading to failed goals and a poor life. Therefore, it is imperative for people to act

in accordance with virtue, which is only attainable by the practice of the virtues in

order to be content and complete. Happiness was held to be the ultimate goal. All

other things, such as civic life or wealth, were only made worthwhile and of benefit

when employed in the practice of the virtues. The practice of the virtues is the surest

path to happiness.

Aristotle asserted that the soul of man had three natures: body (physical/metabolism),

animal (emotional/appetite), and rational (mental/conceptual). Physical nature can be

assuaged through exercise and care; emotional nature through indulgence of instinct

and urges; and mental nature through human reason and developed potential.

Ethics

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Rational development was considered the most important, as essential to philosophical

self-awareness and as uniquely human. Moderation was encouraged, with the

extremes seen as degraded and immoral. For example, courage is the moderate virtue

between the extremes of cowardice and recklessness. Man should not simply live,

but live well with conduct governed by virtue. This is regarded as difficult, as virtue

denotes doing the right thing, in the right way, at the right time, for the right reason.

SocratesSource: wikipedia



Meta ethics

Source: wikipedia

Meta-ethics is the branch of philosophical ethics that asks how we understand, know

about, and what we mean when we talk about what is right and what is wrong. An

ethical question pertaining to a particular practical situation—such as, “Should I eat

this particular piece of chocolate cake?”—cannot be a meta-ethical question (rather,

this is an applied ethical question). A meta-ethical question is abstract and relates to

a wide range of more specific practical questions. For example, “Is it ever possible

to have secure knowledge of what is right and wrong?” is a meta-ethical question.

Meta-ethics has always accompanied philosophical ethics. For example, Aristotle

implies that less precise knowledge is possible in ethics than in other spheres of

inquiry, and he regards ethical knowledge as depending upon habit and acculturation

in a way that makes it distinctive from other kinds of knowledge. Meta-ethics is also

important in G.E. Moore’s Principia Ethica from 1903. In it he first wrote about what

he called the naturalistic fallacy. Moore was seen to reject naturalism in ethics, in his

Open Question Argument. This made thinkers look again at second order questions

about ethics. Earlier, the Scottish philosopher David Hume had put forward a similar

view on the difference between facts and values.

Studies of how we know in ethics divide into cognitivism and non-cognitivism; this

is quite akin to the thing called descriptive and non-descriptive. Non-cognitivism is

the view that when we judge something as morally right or wrong, this is neither

true nor false. We may, for example, be only expressing our emotional feelings about

these things. Cognitivism can then be seen as the claim that when we talk about

right and wrong, we are talking about matters of fact.

The ontology of ethics is about value-bearing things or properties, i.e. the kind

of things or stuff referred to by ethical propositions. Non-descriptivists and non-

cognitivists believe that ethics does not need a specific ontology since ethical

propositions do not refer. This is known as an anti-realist position. Realists, on the

other hand, must explain what kind of entities, properties or states are relevant for

ethics, how they have value, and why they guide and motivate our actions.

Ethics

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Moral skepticism

Moral skepticism (or moral scepticism) is a class of metaethical theories all members

of which entail that no one has any moral knowledge. Many moral skeptics also make

the stronger, modal claim that moral knowledge is impossible. Moral skepticism is

particularly opposed to moral realism: the view that there are knowable and objective

moral truths.

Some proponents of moral skepticism include Pyrrho, Aenesidemus, Sextus Empiricus,

David Hume, Max Stirner, and Friedrich Nietzsche.

Moral skepticism divides into three subclasses: moral error theory (or moral nihilism),

epistemological moral skepticism, and noncognitivism. All three of these theories

share the same conclusions, which are:

(a) we are never justified in believing that moral claims (claims of the form “state of

affairs x is good,” “action y is morally obligatory,” etc.) are true and, even more so

(b) we never know that any moral claim is true.

However, each method arrives at (a) and (b) by different routes.

Moral error theory holds that we do not know that any moral claim is true because

(i) all moral claims are false,

(ii) we have reason to believe that all moral claims are false, and

(iii) since we are not justified in believing any claim we have reason to deny, we are

not justified in believing any moral claims.

Epistemological moral skepticism is a subclass of theory, the members of which

include Pyrrhonian moral skepticism and dogmatic moral skepticism. All members

of epistemological moral skepticism share two things: first, they acknowledge that

we are unjustified in believing any moral claim, and second, they are agnostic on

whether (i) is true (i.e. on whether all moral claims are false).

· Pyrrhonian moral skepticism holds that the reason we are unjustified in believing

any moral claim is that it is irrational for us to believe either that any moral claim is



true or that any moral claim is false. Thus, in addition to being agnostic on whether

(i) is true, Pyrrhonian moral skepticism denies (ii).

· Dogmatic moral skepticism, on the other hand, affirms (ii) and cites (ii)’s truth as

the reason we are unjustified in believing any moral claim.

Noncognitivism holds that we can never know that any moral claim is true because

moral claims are incapable of being true or false (they are not truth-apt). Instead,

moral claims are imperatives (e.g. “Don’t steal babies!”), expressions of emotion (e.g.

“stealing babies: Boo!”), or expressions of “pro-attitudes” (“I do not believe that

babies should be stolen.”)

Source: wikipedia

Ethics

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