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I.ULUSLARARASI MARDIN TARiHi SEMPOZY1JMU

THE HISTORICAL CONTEXToF *FATwA or uanuN" GIVEN BY IBN TAYMIYYA

George GRIGORE'

This paper consists of two main parts. The first part deals with general characteristics of

thirteen-centtuy fr4ongoi ugg*sion on Maidin, constitqted into a representative target of invasion of

the Islamic '{Jmma by the-&ternal forces, non-Islamic ones' In these conditions' in the period of the

Isiamic Artuqiddynasty, vassal to the Mongol Ernpire of Iran,,h9:9Yn of Mardin became the object

of a very famous 1on,a'g:r;by the theolJgian Ibn Tayrniyya (66111263 - 72811328) regarding the

religious status of trlardir. The second part of the paper deals with the ciarification of cerlain tenns

r"rsed in the "fan,a or vardin", on which lbn Taymiyya centered his assertion that: "Mardin is a

co*ntry neither of p.o.. iZrrtlad siln), nor of war'lUaiict harb);but it has a cornposite (nnrrakkab)

status".

Who was Ibn TaYmiYYa?TaqI al-DTn Abfi-l-'Abbas Ahryad bin 'Abd al-HalIm bin 'Abd a1-Sal6m bin Taymiyyah al-

Harrdni al-HanbalT tr""it* dG; onutun Taymiyya in Ahrnad bll Naoib al-Mis.' '-Und1t os-Salik

,.Reliance of the Traveller"), a famous Hanbali'scholar in Qur'dnic exegesis (tqfsit'\' hadith and

jurisprudence, was born on'iz'o of January 1263 C.E' at Harrdn (the old Carrhae' now a village' in

South-eastem Turkey,48 krrr south-east of $anliurfa). His father.fled with his farrrily fronr Haran to

Damascus in the year 1268 C.E. out of fear of the Tataro-Mongols who invaded the land of lslam and

were very close to Harran. In Damascus, the centre of Islarnic studies at that tin-re, lbn Tayn-riyyah

followed in the footsteps of his father who *us u scholar of lslamic str-rdfes by studying with the great

scholars of his time.He completed his studies when he was a teenager and at age 19 he became a professor of

lslamic studies. well versed in eur'anic studies, hadnh, jqh,theology, Arabic gramlnar and scl.rolastic

tlreology, he started givingfatv;ds on religiour't"gui mutt"ts *ltiro.,i following any of the traditional

legal schools ,the Uanali,'iiitLiii, Sin'f iya Han"balt. He defended the sound prophetic traditions by

arguments, which, although taken fiom the Qur'an and the suy11, had hitherto been unfanriliar to

people of his time. His doJtrinaire intransigenJy ond the vigo-ur of his personality attracted the hostility

of the scholars of the traditional Orthodoi Schools. Accused of proposing new solutiors.with regards

to several problems, of contesting the practices admitted at that time by the scholarly consensus

(,iEma) of Sunnite M;rfi;;;d-oi nu-ing-himself-school head,uraster, and able of a personal

reason ing ( iE t i ha i l , hewasmany t imesconu i c tedandpu t i n j a i l .By th i s l neasu re , i ndeed ,by thestandards of all previous iunnite scholars, it is clear that despite volutninous and influenrial written

legacy, Ibn Taymiyya-cannot be considered an authority on tenalts of faith ('aqtda)' a field in which

he made mistakes profoundly incompatible with the beiiefs of Islarn' He was imprisoned during rnuch

of his life inCax6,Rle{uni.iu, andDamascus for his writings' scholars of his ti're accusing hirn of

beiieving Godto have a\body becattse o,irltrat he mentioneJ in his a1-'aqrda allarnawivva and al-

wasitiyyaand other *ork", ,*h u, that God s iiand", "foot", "face" are htetal (haqrqi) attribLltes' and

that He sat in person upon the Throne 1nf-Qur'an' X, i) -Il^luct' he seemed influenced by the

teachings of Abu 'aua etiatr Muhammad bin itunam (d. 358-59), which propagated the beliefs that

..God was a substance ( ir*nrO... and that g" n"A a body (!isnr) frnite in a certain direction when He

cornes into contact (mtundssa) with the tnrln" leor*ttitt, c. E., Lg78' IV: 667-69) He for-rght

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University of Bucharest - Romanta

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I.st INTERNATIONAL MARDIN HISTORY SYMPOSIUM

heretical innovations in religion which were wide spread during his time all over the Muslim world,especially certain acts and beliefs of some mystical orders, like saint worship and visiting saints'tombs, and mystics throwing themselves in the fire. His attack on the ideas of such orders caused hirna lot of trouble with the authorities rvhose leaders were under the influence of certain Srf thinkers.

Belonging to the Hanbair School, lbn Taymiyya would follow the line promoted by that trendin the bitter fight against those seen as enemies of Islam. If the traditionalist (al-muhaddith) Ahmadbin Hanbal (d. 855), rvho founded in Baghdad the above-mentioned school (9'h century), initiated thefight against the Shiites, his successor Ibn Taymiyyah would fight on two levels: an intemal one,represented by the mystics and the people who followed the heretical innovation (bid'a): and anexternal one, represented by the Tataro-Mongols who attacked the Muslim world and almost reachedDamascus. The people of Syria sent him to Egypt t0 urge the Mameluke Sultan, the Suitan of Egyptand Syria (i.e., the Mameluke dynasty reigned in Egrypt and Syria from 1250 to 1517) in order to leadhis troops to Syria to save it frorn the invading-Tdtaro-Mongols. Seeing that the Sultan deciined hisrequest, he told hin.r rather openly: "If you furn your back on Syria we will appoint a Sultan over it,who can defend it and enjoy it at the time of peace". He was present at the battle of Shaqhab nearDamascus against the Tataro-Mongois, which took place during the fasting month of Ramaddn andgave afatw'a to the army to break their fast in order to help them against their enemy, as the ProphetMuharnrnad did during the battle of the liberation of Makka. The Muslims tumed to be the winners inthe fight against the Tataro-Mongols and drove them away from Damascus and entire Syria. IbnTaymiyyah's colrrage was expressed when he went with a delegation of 'ulama'to talk lo MahmlidGhdzdn (also Qdzdn), the Khan of the Tataro-Mongols, to stop his attack on the Muslims. Not one ofthe 'ulamd'dared to say anything to him except Ibn Taymiyah who said:

"You claim that yolr are a Muslim and you have with you mu'afulins, judges, Imam andsheikhbut you invaded us and reached our country for what? While your father and your grandfather,Hulagu, were non-believers, they did not attack the land of Islam, rather, they promised not to attackand they kept their promise. Br.rt you promised and broke yow promise" (Ibn al-Kalir, t. VII, part 14,9t-92). ., o

ln despite of all his {ihad against the enemies of Islam, the authorities imprisoned him manytimes until he died in jail because of his daring and free progressive opinions on many legal and socialissues, which angered his opponent 'ulama', the foilowers of the Orthodox Schools of law.

The famous historian al-DahabT considered him one of the greatest scholars of Islam of alltime. writing of him: "l never saw anyone faster at recalling the Qur'dnic verses dealing with subjectshe was discussing, or anyone who conld remember hadith texts more vividly" (al-Dahabl, t. VIII,213). Al-Dhahabl estirnates that his legal opinions on various subjects amounts to three hundred ormore volumes.

Ibn Taymiyyah died in jail in Damascus on the night of 26-27 September 1328 C.E. Hisdoctrine spread in Arabia in the l8'n century.

Some benchmarks of the Mongol invasionsGenghis-Khan, the Son of Heaven (approximately 1167-1227), after having unified the

Mongol and Tatar tribes (in my paper, I shall r.rse the term "Tataro-Mongols"), set off to conquer theworld and br.rild an empire spanning fiorn Volga to China. On that territory, his nephew, Qubilai-Khanwould set up the Yuan dynasty (i271-1368). In i2l8 Genghis-Klan invaded Transoxiana, aneighbouring land, and was on the verge to give a fatal attack. In 1219, he decided to invade theKhawarizni Kingdom (Central Asia), making also use of the pretended massacre of his rnessengers bythe Shah. Central Asia, Iran and Afghanistan were swept through sword and fire, as well as CentralRussia and part oflndia.

The waves of Mongol conquests pushed before thern or incorporated in their armies the Turkmentribes settling them in Anatolia, and strengthening the Turkish ethnic element in the region.Chagatai, one ofGenghis-Khan sons founded the Chagatai dynasty (1221-1370), whose sovereignsreigned over the Oriental Turkistan and Transoxiana and adopted the Islam in 1266, in spite of theopposition by their Mongol subjects.

A second wave of Mongol invasions, led by Hulagu, a pagan, but rather favourable to Nestorians,destroyed the sect of Assassins in Persia. After two years, in 1258, his invasion of the Muslimheartland, Mesopotamia (the land between the two rivers, the Tigris and Euphrates, now calledlraq), brought to an end six centuries ofthe Abbasid caliphate's high culture, scholarship, libraries,and technology and levelled to the ground its capital Baghdad. The abolition of the Abbasid

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I.ULUSLARARASI MARDIN TARiHi SEMPOZYUMU

caliphate affected the entire subsequent history of Islam. Hulagu conquers Damascus also, but hisavant-garde is defeated fwo years later in Palestine by the Egyptian Mamelukes defeated in thebattle of 'Ayn Galut near Nazareth in 1260, thereby i..ou".ing Syria, rnainly because, it is said, theMamelukes horses wore shoes.

Hulagu receives in his power the khanat of Iran, where he founds the llkhanid dynasry tharreigned between 1256-1353, with the capital at Tabiz, then at Sultaniyya. Initially shamanisr andfavourable to Christianity and Buddhism, the Ilkhanid dynasty changes its religious orientation at theend of the l3'h century when one of the Buddhist descendants of frulagu, Mahmud Ghazan (lzjl-1304), after having re-conquered Jerusalem (1292), declared Sunni Islam the official faith, thus putringan end to the rumour according to which he was going to give the Holy Land to the Christians.Proclaiming Islam as an official religion of the Ilkhanid staG would aliow a better understandingbetween the Iranian subjects and the Mongol conquerors. At the time of establishing the MongolIslam, the llkhans were controlling a vast territory, spread from the Indus to the Amu-Dirya, from theEuphrates to Georgia, and extended then in a protectorate over Asia Minor, the Cilician Kingdom andthe Lesser Armenia.

In 1243, his descendants defeated and made the Seljukid their vassals in Anatolia. When in1308 the Seljukid fell, the greatest part of Anatolia was under the power of the governors appointed bythe Ilkhans and subject to their general govemor in Anatolia. the Turkmen principates (Beyliks),sharing the whole Western Anatolia, as well as the territories bordered with ihe Biack andMediterranean Seas, were entirely subjected to the Ilkhanid Sultans. The same was the situation of theArtuqid kings (muluk) in Mardin and the Ayyubit kings in Hisn-Keyf. tn 1344, the Ilkhansdisappeared completely from the scene of the history, white the Anaiolian principates becameindependent.

In their capitals, the Ilkhans reach to a gorgeous lranian-Mongolian cultural synthesis - inarchitecture, in the scientific life, in miniature, developing at the same tirne, the trade berween Eastand Europe. t

Mardin in Ibn Taymiyya's writingsIbn Taymiyya, bom in Harran, at avery close distance from Mardin, the town dorninating the

whole area, will dedicate a significant part in his writings to this fascinate city of Mardin.A collection of fatwas is titled < Mardinian questions > (Al-Masd'il al-mdrdlniyya), where the

sub-pretext is that it answers to some questions of the inhabittants of Mardin, in the-manner of theIslamic literature: "somebody from Mardin asked me" (see Ibn Taymiyya, 1980). This anthologyrelated to Mardin's name translates into principles and standard. d"t"r-ining all human familiii,social, political and economic interactions comprised in Islarnic common liw (Sari'a). Also, hisanswers are about tidiness, praying, fast, ablutions, trade, alms, marriage, legal sanctions, waqfs, debts,etc.

In other texts, although the name of Mardin does not explicitly appear, it may be deduced, likeYahya Michot considers that in the text where he talks about tle traie relationships with the Tataro-Mongols (see Michot, Y., in lbn Taymiyya, 2004: l4l-143):

"In the trade relationships with the Tataro-Mongols. ir is aliowed what is allowed intransactions with those alike and it is forbidden what is forbidden in rransactions with those alike. It ispermitted for someone to buy mttwaiSd fabrics (embellished by many colours), horses, etc. the waythey buy muwasid fabrics from Bedouins, Turks and Kurds, as well as horses. It is pennitted to sellfood, clothes, etc., as it is sold to others alike. As regards the selling to them or others alike things bywhich they are supported to take forbidden actions - such as to sell horses or weapons ro some thatwant to go into forbidden battles - it is not allowed, as God said (Al-Qur'dn, V, 2;:-..but help ye oneanother unto righteousnell and pious duty. Help not one another unto sin and transgression, tut keepyour duty to Allah. Lo! Allah is severe in punishment" (Ibn Taymiyya, MF, t. xxlx, 275).

Another text related to Mardin, which caused passionate controversies throughout the historyof Islam is the one where Ibn Taymiyya tells a vision with a ginn that borrowed his identity to go toMardin and determine the Tataro-Mongols to convert:

"A similar thing happened to many Turks (i.e., the Tataro-Mongols) from the East. A personcame to an emir and said: 'I am Ibn Taymiyya'. The emir never doubted that it was I and informed theking of Mardin of such an event. The king ol Mardin sent to the king of Cairo (Misr) a messenger who

191d |tg such a story, while I was in jail (ll April 1306 - 23 September 1307, according toi4i.hot,

Y., 1996: 24).They made a big deal of it considering that I did not got out ofjail. It had bien in fact a

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I.st INTERNATIONAL MARDIN HISTORY SYMpOSIUM

'-"

ginn that loved r.rs and who rnade with the Tatar Turks something similar to what I did to them whenthey carne in Damascus: I invited them to become Muslims and when one of them uttered the two faithprofessions I gave theur something to eat. The {inn acted in front of that emir that u,ay I had acted.Thus he wanted to honour me by rlaking that emir believe that it was I that treated him that way" fibnTaynriyya, MF. I.XIII, p.92-93).

Mardin and the f'amous fatwd that bears its nameStarting with I 104/1 105, after having been conquered by Il Gazi Bey, and, by i408, when

conquered by the Karakoyunlu tribe (The Black Sheep's), Mardin became the principal stronghold ofthe famotts Muslirn Turkrnen dynasty of Artuqids. Underthe Artr"rqids, Mardin, the capital oia smalistate, reglstered an unprecedented developrnent and became one of the important towns in the region.It is a fact, in addition to the mosques, schools, markets, public baths built at that time, proved by theexistence in the Arabic language of a special verb derived from the name of Mardin: 'anirada/vunn-idu"to go to Mardin" (v. Kazirnirski, A., 1860). After 1243, following the conquest of Anatolia by theMongols, the ilkhanid sultans maintained them in office, but as vassal until their disappearance by theyear 1345. Mardin, in the time of the Artuqid king Nagm al-Dln Gh6zT lI (1294 - tZfi), known in rhehistory as a great lover of beauty, who draw the attention of the invaders of Mardin not to step over hisroses in his favor,rrite garden (SumaysdnT, H., 1987: 253-255), wor-rld make the subject matier of thet-alnons anti-Mongol/anr.'a given by the Saykh al-'Islam,lbn Taymiyya.Thtsfatwa would play, in thehistory of Islar.r.r. a very significant role within the Islarnic political religious debates tiil nowaoays. Asfor the dating of this.fatv,a, there is no reference in the text. Yahya Uiihot, underiines that there is noclue to indicate rvl"rether thisfan'a dates before or after the Mameluke raids in June 1299, and that itmieht be dated. grzsso modo, in the l8 years of reign of Nagm al-Dln GhdzT II. Neither the chroniclesin the Man.relttke period provide data to allow the accurate knowledge about the issue of/arwa ofMardin (Michot, Y., in Ibn Taymiyya, 2004:7-9). Having invierv thar rhe king of MardinNagm al-Dln GhdzT II started his reign at about the same time with the sovereign of the llkhanid Sultan Ghazanwho would declare, in 1292, th6 Islarn the official religion of the empire, Ibn Taymiyya attacksthrough his /ht,,r,a the Tataro-Mongols after their islarnisation.

The Fatwd of MardinThe Jatwa (fbr-rnd in volutne XXVIII, pp.240-241; see also the translation of yahya Michot, in

Ibn Tayuriyya, 2004: 65-68) starts from the uncertain status of Mardin in that piriod locatedsourewhere between "war zone", "enerny territory" (non-Muslirn countries) and "peace ione" (Muslimcountries) fi'om the standpoint of the Islarnic Law, as well as the necessity to leave it by a hig"aernigrat ing ro Musl im countr ies:

"lbn Taymiyya - God bless hirn! - was asked about the Mardin territory. Is it about a .warzone' (balad harb) or a 'peace zone' (balad silrn)? For the Mr.rslirn living there it is rnandarory roernigrate to the Islam territory or not? If emigration is mandatory for him, and he does not emigrate(hagara) thus helping the enemies of Muslirns directly or by his possessions, does he not sin by it?And he who accuses hirn of hypocrisy and treat him as such, is he sinning or not?" (lbn Taymiyya,MF, t. XXVIII,24O).

From Ibn Tayrniyya's point of view, Mardin in the Ilkhanid period is not enclosed in a peacezone like the Muslirn countries, but not in a war zone iike the nou-Muslim countries:

"ls Mardin a territory of war or peace? It is about a city with a cornposite statvs (nnrakkab)r'vhere both aspects can be found. It is not in the circumstances of a peace territory where Islarnicprecepts apply for the reason that the anny is formed by Muslims. Nor it is in the ciicurnstances of awar territory of which inhabitants are non-believers. It is a third type of territory where the Muslirnshall be treated as he shor"rld be, and he who steps out of the Islam Law shall be confronted as heshotrld be" (lbn Taymiyya, MF, t. XXVIII,240).

lbn Tayniyya adds by ref'erring to the inhabitants of Mardin helping rhe Tataro-Mongols - thegoverning power:

"lt is not lawful to insr,rlt therr in general, or to accuse them of hypocrisy. Insulting andhypocrisy accllsation are made usually in case of attributes specified in the Bookand in Sunna". withsuch words. not all the inhabitants are guilty of collaboration with the enemy and therefore a generalanathetna should not be cast r.rpon everybody, although in another/antd those who lived under Tataro-Mongol dornination, such as the case of the inhabitants of Mardin, are described as follows: there arenot with them in their state but those with a bad behaviour (1arr al-fualq), or the unfaithful (zindlct)

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I.ULUSLARARASI MARDiN TARiHi SEMPOZYUMU

hypocrite (rnunaJiq) who does not believe in Islamic religion in its inner forurn (li al-batin), bLrt thestrrface only. or the bad ones from the innovators (ahl al-bid) (lbn Tayrniyya, MF, t. XXVIII, 520) .

Ibn Taymiyya, starting off from the Qur'6nic verse "ls it a judgernent of the time of (pagan)ignorance that they are seeking? Who is better than Allah for judgement to a people who havecertainry (in their beiiefl'/" (Al-Qur'5n, V: 50) does not rnake any difference betrveen those who nolonger apply what God bestowed upon His prophet Muhammad, regardless of rvho they rnay be, andthe Tataro-Mongols. Even if embracing the Islam, the Tataro-Mongols follow two f-aiths (tttkallarnu bial-iahddatavr), Islarn and Yasa" the code of Genghis-Khan (lbn Taymiyya, MF, t. XXVIII, 509).However, it was obvious to solre Muslims that the Tataro-Mongols were not follorving the iart'a,Islamic law. although they had converted to Islam. lnstead, the Tataro-Mongols persisted in followingthe Great Yasa of Genghis-Khan. In this they were as bad as the pre-lslamic polytheists, the /rr7frs, theunbelievers. And in the fatwd of Mardin, Ibn Taymiyya fbrewarns the inhabitants of Mardin about thesin of supporting those who leave Islam: "Heiping those who leave the Law (iart'a) of islamicreligion is forbidden as well, whether it is about the inhabitants of Mardin or others" (lbn Tayniyya,MF, t, XXVIII,24O).

Genghis-Khan's Great Iasa (see The Yasa on hltls;,','it'.,t'r'.: coldsiberia) - no original copy ofthis exists, only fragments written in the Uighur script, but it has been reconstructed by the efforts ofsonre scholars - was a faith, a way of life, a social order. The Creat l'asa (or Yasaq) ernbodies in factprinciples taken over liorn various religions such as Judaism, Christianity, lsiarn. Zoroastrianisnr,Hinduisrn, Animisrn and Sharnanism and others, establishing practiczrl regr.rlatior.rs about theregimentation and behaviour of the Mongol anny, ruies about the conduct of the hordes, the mountedtroops, those swift archers who conquered more sedentary peoples, but most of the rules have to dowith the rvay Tataro-Mongois are to treat other peopie; but a lot of these rules contained a set of valuesand principles in direct contrast to the laws of Islam: condemn the wicked; respect all people; show nopreference to any sect or religion: do not belong to any religion; follow no creed; do not pr-rt one faithabove another; the penalty for n.rurdering a Mr,rslim is forty gold coins fbald] r.vhich conflicts withtlre Islamic law according to lbn Tayrniyya intheJhn,a of Mardin: "The blood of the Musliin and theirbelongings are considered untouchable Qrutharrcun) wherever they are. whether in Mardin orelsewhere (lbn Taymiyya, MF, t. XXVIII,240)" ; do not slaughter anirnals in the Muslirn fashion byslitting their throats, but open their breasts and squeeze their hearts; it is forbidden to say that anythingis taboo; nothing is unclean: alcohol and swine flesh are not forbidden.

Under this system of govemance there were very few and differetnt pnnishrnents fbr violation of tliecode of iaws that he decreed, the Great )'a.sa. The main punishment expected for any inliaction wasdeath. greatly simplifying the law, and making the offender quite gratefr"rl rvhen punishnrerlt wasnot caried out.

Ibn Tayrniyya considers (MF, t. XXVIII. 520) that Tataro-N'longols, despite of having beenconverted to lslam, practice a sLlrf-ace Islarn and fulfil but to a short extent the cuit obligations such aspraying (saldt), fasting (sax,nt), payment of alms tax (zakdt). Also, lhe piigrimage to Makka is notfulfilled even by those with appropriate n.raterial conditions.

For their leaders (lbn Taymiyya. MF, t. XXVllI, 520), according to the Gleat lasa, theMr"rslim is placed on the sarne level as the polytheists, Jews, and Christians. u,hich is ur.racceptable tbrlhe

'Lmma. Moreover, lbn Taymiyya shows (MF, t. XXVIll, 522) that Genghis-Khan's slrccessors,

even if they pretend to be Muslirns. they place the prophet Mirhammad on the sarne level as Genghis-Khan, and the Qur'6n on the same level with the Great l'asa.

All these matters made Ibn Tayniyya to issue afatv,a against the Tataro-Mongols.Ibn Taymiyya considers that the Muslim in Mardin, in that courposite environmerrt, if lurable

to practice ('iqiinta) his religion, should emigrate to the countries of Islarn. Othenvise, rneaning if hemay practice his religion, the emigration is preferable but not compulsory: "if he who lives in Mardinis nnable to practice ('iqana) his religion, it is an obligation to hirn to emigrate. If this is not the case,the emigration still rernains preferable but not cornpulsory" (Ibn Tayrniyya. MF, t. XXVIII. 240).

It is preferable for these people not to "help the enemy of MLrslirn directly or through theirbelongings (...). When impossible to do it otherwise than emiglating, than elnigration is imposed toeach of them" (Ibn Tayrniyya, MF, t. XVIII, 240).

The question one may ask him is not quite hard to imagine: how cor-rld they be obliged toernigrate, to set for hi|ra,since th,,:fl.loBhet said: ld hifirata ba'da at-./'atltl "n.-o more err.rigration afterthe conqtrest" (al-BukhdrT, t. Ilj:l:' ...-?

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IbnTaymiyya ,sanswer i s tobe found inano the r fa twd (MF, t .XXV l I l , 2 |0 .2 |3 )wherehedistinguishes two types oi iigro, on one.hand the abandonment of the place dominated by sin and

sinners from fear of God @i{rat al-taqwd),and, on the other hand, leaving a place ylt:h. h governed

by a law breaker unO iomiiated by injustice, as punishment (hiprat,ot-ta'zlr), which is a form of

lihad,thusputting rn pru"ti"" the legal-sanctions. if the first type of hi{rais done forpure religious

Eelieis for soul saving, the second one is done for political reasons'

This hi{ra i, ,"fport"a by the following hadtth by which the prophet Muhamm_af recant any

Muslim who continues to live among polythei-sts thus being exposed to sins induced by the non-

Muslim "tl['u2]T',nin kuli mustimin ytqtmu bayna at-muirin:tnq -1lam

free (I have no obligations)

of every Muslim who dwells among polytheists (al-Bukh6ri' t' III' 25)'

By this antiMongol/a twa of lbnTaymiyya, Mardin.will have a marked place in the history of

Islam up to the presen,, Ir "o

few are the iolitical or religious instances faced by the contemporary

Isla'ric countries, which are considered similar to the situation faced by Mardin in the Ilkhanid period'

and the solutions giu"t by iUn tuymiyya in this respect represent a benchmark for the nowadays

drifting lslamic societies.

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