General and specific locus of control in cocaine abusers

Journal of Substance Abuse, 6, 179-190 (1994)

General and Specific Locus of Control in Cocaine Abusers

Lynn M. Oswald Harris County Psychiatric Center, Houston, TX

Glenda C. Walker University of Texas-Houston Health Science Center

Kenneth J. Krajewski Edward L. Reilly

Medical School, University of Texas-Houston Health Science Center

Although the struggle for control has been widely recognized as a central feature of addiction, information about its role in the development and maintenance of addictive behavior is limited. This study compared general and specific locus of control in three groups of cocaine abusers: (a) hospitalized subjects with no prior treatment experience, (b) hospitalized subjects with prior treatment experience, and (c) recovering cocaine abusers. Results of initial analyses of variance revealed significant group differences on both general and specific scales. Scores of recovering cocaine abusers were more internal than those of hospitalized subjects. Differences on the general scale were not significant when age was controlled. No significant differences were noted between the two groups of hospitalized subjects, but scores of hospitalized cocaine abusers made an internal shift over the course of treatment. These findings support generalizability of models previously applied to alcoholics and suggest that internality is positively correlated with recovery.

Whereas the disease model of alcoholism tends to emphasize physiological factors that predispose an individual to "loss of control" drinking, more recent cognitive-behavioral models of addiction underscore the functional t:ole of drugs of abuse by outlining ways in which they are utilized to increase percep-

Glenda C. Walker is now affiliated with the Division of Nursing, Stephen F. Austin State Univer- sity.

This article is based on the first author's thesis submitted to the University of Texas Health Sci- ence Center at Houston School of Nursing in partial fulfillment of the requirements for a master's degree in Psychiatric-Mental Health Nursing.

Appreciation is extended to Marianne Marcus and Linda Stafford for their participation on the first author's thesis committee. We gratefully acknowledge Charla Parker for assistance with data collection and Ken Gu for support with data analysis.

Correspondence and requests for reprints should be sent to Lynn M. Oswald, Harris County Psychiatric Center, 2800 South MacGregor Way, Room 3-C39, Houston, TX 77021.

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180 L.M. Oswald, G.C. Walker, K.J. Krajewski, and E.L. Reilly

tions of control in high-risk situations (Marlatt, 1985). In recent years, a multivariate approach has evolved in the area of addiction treatment secondary to growing evidence that both physiological and cognitive elements are necessary to explain the addictive process (Donovan & Chaney, 1985). This approach under- scores the interactive nature of the relationship between the physiological and cognitive elements of addiction, and it highlights a fundamental consensus in the field about the concept of control. According to Sandor (1989), struggle for control is the "core experience of having an addiction" (p. 40). In the midst of addiction, the addict loses control of the very behavior that is used to maintain control over other aspects of life (Donovan, 1988).

Early investigation of individual differences in perceptions of control was un- dertaken by Rotter (1966). According to Rotter, acquisition and performance of behavior are influenced by beliefs about causal connections between behavior and outcome. Rotter developed the I-E scale as a measure of generalized expectancies of control. On this scale, an internal locus of control represents the belief that reinforcement is largely determined by one's own actions, whereas an external locus of control represents the belief that reinforcement is the result of luck, chance, fate, or the actions of powerful others. Rotter (1975) argued that expectancies of control generalize from one situation to another and that expectancy in any given situation is influenced by past experience with similar situations.

Most of the research designed to examine the relationship between locus of control and chemical dependency has been done with alcoholics. Generally, studies designed to examine differences between nonalcoholics and alcoholics have produced ambiguous findings. Furthermore, both internal and external locus of control scores have been found to correlate positively with treatment success (Canton et al., 1988; McGovern & Caputo, 1983; Rohsenow & O'Leary, 1978). In an attempt to circumvent some of the problems that have been encountered with use of the generalized scale, Keyson and Janda (1985; Oziel, Obitz, & Keyson, 1972) developed the Drinking-Related Locus of Control scale (DRIE). According to both Rotter (1975) and Lefcourt (1980), prediction of behavior is maximized in circumscribed situations with instruments that are designed to be situation specific. Limited use of the DRIE scale has tended to substantiate claims that greater predictability of alcoholic behavior is possible with a scale that is specific to drinking (Donovan & O'Leary, 1978; Huckstadt, 1987; Mariano, Donovan, Walker, Mariano, & Walker, 1989).

To date, there has been little investigation of locus of control in homogenous populations of substance abusers other than alcoholics. In the limited number of studies that have been conducted on other populations (Berzins & Ross, 1973; Hall, 1978; Haynes & Ayliffe, 1991; Langrod, Des Jarlais, Alksne, & Lowinson, 1983), inquiry has been restricted to measurement of the generalized construct. Moreover, with the exception of studies done on smokers (Clarke, MacPherson, & Holmes, 1982; Reynolds, Tobin, Creer, Wigal, & Wagner, 1987; Wojcik, 1988), the majority of this research has been done on subjects who abuse central ner- vous system (CNS) depressants. Pearlstein (1980), therefore, suggested that it

Locus of Control in Cocaine Abusers 181

would be useful to examine the construct in subjects who abuse drugs that increase stimulus intensity.

To address these issues, Oswald, Walker, Reilly, Krajewski, and Parker (1992) piloted an instrument to measure expectancies of control specific to use of cocaine. The Cocaine-Related Internal-External Locus of Control scale (CRIE) was developed by substituting cocaine as the drug of choice in each of the items on the Drinking-Related Locus of Control scale (DRIE; Keyson & Janda, 1985). Findings of the preliminary study indicated that the CRIE scale functioned relia- bly in the population for which it was intended. One of the purposes of this study was to provide additional information about the psychometric properties of the CRIE scale. Concurrent validity was evaluated by examining correlations with the I-E scale (Rotter, 1966). Construct validity was evaluated by testing relationships that might be expected to occur in cocaine abusers on the basis of theoretical rationale. The investigators further sought to determine whether findings from locus of control research with alcoholics would generalize to cocaine abusers by testing relationships that have previously been demonstrated in studies with alcoholics. Answers to three questions were sought: (a) Is there a relationship between generalized and specific expectancies of control in cocaine abusers and recovering cocaine abusers? (b) Do generalized and specific locus of control scores differ in groups of cocaine abusers as a function of prior treatment or recovery? (c) Do generalized and specific locus of control scores of cocaine abusers change during the course of substance abuse treatment?

METHOD

Sample

Two groups of cocaine abusers who were receiving inpatient treatment for chemical dependency and one group of recovering cocaine abusers who were attending 12-step support groups in the community formed the sample for this study. Group 1 consisted of 21 hospitalized cocaine abusers who reported that this was their first inpatient treatment for chemical dependency. Group 2 consisted of 21 hospitalized cocaine abusers who reported that they had been hospitalized for chemical dependency on at least one prior occasion. Group 3 consisted of 21 recovering cocaine abusers who reported that they had been drug free for at least 6 months prior to the study. Demographic characteristics and consumption patterns of the sample are presented in Tables 1 and 2. As shown in the tables, the groups differed on several demographic variables (i.e., age, employment status, living situation, and source of income), but they did not differ significantly on reported consumption patterns when abusing drugs. Post hoc comparisons (Tukey) showed that recovering cocaine abusers were significantly older than the hospitalized subjects who had prior treatment experience.

Most (61.9%) of the subjects in Group 2 reported one prior hospitalization for chemical dependency; the remainder (38.1%) reported more than one. Subjects who were hospitalized involuntarily (26.2%) were generally committed by family


Table 1. Demographic Characteristics of Subjec t s in Each G r o u p

Group 1 a Group 2 b Group 3 c

M SD M SD M SD F(2, 62)

Age 29.7 7.3 27.9 4.3 33.4 6.1 4.71" Education 12.6 2.7 12.3 1.5 13.6 2.5 2.02

n n n d f X 2

Sex Male 15 13 14 2 .43 Female 6 8 7

Ethnic origin Non-Caucasian 18 19 15 2 2.86 Caucasian 3 2 6

Marital status Single 12 11 9 4 3.24 Married/common-law 3 6 8 Divorce/separated 6 4 4

Employment Full-time 2 2 19 6 42.26*** Part-time 1 0 0 Unemployed 17 17 1 Other 1 2 1

Occupation d Minor professional 0 0 1 8 6.76 Clerical/technician 3 2 5 Skilled manual 3 5 4 Semiskilled 11 7 8 Unskilled 4 7 3

Living situation Spouse/partner 3 7 8 6 19.30"* Parent/parents 11 9 2 Alone 1 1 8 Other 6 4 3

Source of income Employment 9 5 19 6 20.74** Spouse/partner 3 4 1 Relatives/friends 4 4 1 Other 5 8 0

Legal status Voluntary 16 15 N/A 1 .12 Involuntary 5 6 N/A

~No prior treatment, bprior treatment, cRecovering. *p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.

d Hollingshead & Redlich (I 958).

members. The legal status of all patients who were admitted involuntarily was changed to voluntary during the course of their treatment, and all subjects com- pleted treatment voluntarily. All but four (81%) recovering cocaine abusers had received treatment for chemical dependency. Almost half (47. I%) had been pa-

Locus of Control in Cocaine Abusers

Table 2. Consumpt ion Patterns of Subjects in Each Group

183

Group 1 " Group 2 b Group 3 c

M SD M SD M SD F(2, 62)

Spent/day cocaine $164 $156 $257 $276 $266 $236 1.29 Age of first use 26.3 7.3 23.9 4.9 24.7 6.4 .82

n n n d f X 2

Pattern of use Daily 13 9 15 6 4.81 3-4 days/wk 4 6 2 1-2 days/wk 1 3 2 Binges 3 3 2

Usual method Crack 17 18 12 6 7.82 IV 0 0 2 Snort 1 0 1 Nonspecific 3 3 6

Attempts to quit 1-2 times 11 18 12 4 8.37 3-4 times 2 2 1 > 4 times 2 1 8

Use of marijuana No 14 12 9 2 2.44 Yes 7 9 12

Use of alcohol No 7 5 1 2 5.43 Yes 14 16 20

aNo prior treatment, bprior treatment, cRecovering.

t ients at the facility w h e r e the hospi ta l ized subjects were c u r r e n t l y rece iv ing t r ea tmen t . Most (66.7%) subjects in G r o u p 3 had been abs t inen t be tween 7 a n d 24 m o n t h s ; the longes t abs t inence a t ta ined by a n y o n e in this g r o u p was 8 years a n d 9 m o n t h s .

I n s t r u m e n t a t i o n

I -E Sca l e

Rotter ' s (1966) I n t e r n a l - E x t e r n a l (I-E) Locus o f Con t ro l scale is a 29-i tem, f o r c e d - c h o i c e test with 6 filler i tems tha t m e a s u r e s genera l i zed expec tanc ies o f cont ro l . Each i tem conta ins two al ternat ives; the first reflects in te rna l locus o f con t ro l a n d the s e c o n d reflects ex te rna l locus o f control . T h e score is the total n u m b e r o f ex te rna l choices tha t the subject has selected. Reliability has b e e n r e p o r t e d to be adequa t e . C o n v e r g e n t , d i sc r iminant , and cons t ruc t validity have b e e n d e m o n s t r a t e d (Rotter, 1966).

184 L.M. Oswald, G.C. Walker, K.I. Krajewski, and E.L. Reilly

CRIE Scale The Cocaine-Related Internal-External Locus of Control scale (CRIE) mea-

sures expectancies of control specific to use of cocaine (Oswald et al., 1992). This scale (formerly called the Modified DRIE scale) is a modification of the Drinking-Related Locus of Control scale (DRIE; Keyson & Janda, 1985; Oziel et al., 1972). It was developed by rewording items on the DRIE scale to make cocaine the drug of choice, but preserving the intent, strength, and direction of the original response alternatives. The CRIE scale consists of 25 forced-choice items that require subjects to make internal-external choices in situations related to use of cocaine. Possible scores range from 0 to 25 with high scores indicating external locus of control. Two-day test-retest reliability in a sample of 40 cocaine abusers was r -- .73. Cronbach's alpha was o~ = .72 on the third day of hospitalization and ~ = .78 on the fifth day (Oswald et al., 1992).

Procedure

Hospitalized cocaine abusers were recruited from a short-term, publicly funded psychiatric hospital in a large, urban, Southwestern city. The facility has two 23-bed substance abuse units. Treatment programs are oriented toward the Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) philosophy and utilize a variety of conventional treatment modalities. Typical length of hospitalization is 28 days. Admissions are both voluntary and involuntary, Patients with the D S M - I I I - R (American Psychi- atric Association, 1987) Axis I diagnosis of cocaine or polysubstance abuse or dependence were accepted into the study if they identified cocaine as their drug of choice and specified that use of other drugs was restricted to alcohol and/or marijuana. Evidence of organicity, psychosis, or inability to read, understand, or speak English precluded participation. No monetary compensation was pro- vided for participation in the study. Structured interviews were conducted on the patient's third day of hospitalization after an informed consent was signed. This day was selected for initial testing procedures in an effort to allow time for detoxification yet circumvent potential effects of the treatment program on locus of control scores. Demographic data and substance abuse history were obtained during the interviews. Rotter's I-E scale and the CRIE scale were then self-administered in random order. The scales were readministered during the subject's last week of treatment, typically on Day 25.

Recovering cocaine abusers were recruited from 12-step support groups that met regularly at the inpatient facility and at several other locations in the vicinity. Inclusion criteria for this group included a self-report of at least 6 months of chemical freedom prior to involvement in the study. Individuals were included in the study if they identified cocaine as their drug of choice and specified that use of other drugs was limited to alcohol and/or marijuana during the 6 months prior to recovery. No attempts were made to corroborate self-reports of the recovering cocaine abusers with collateral reports or drug screens. Procedures for obtaining information from these subjects was essentially the same as with the hospitalized subjects, except that they were required to complete the scales only one time.


RESULTS

Reliability Analysis

Internal consistency of both instruments was evaluated by computing Cron- bach's alpha. Analysis of the I-E scale yielded a standardized item alpha of .49 iN = 63) when scores of the recovering cocaine abusers were combined with pretreatment scores of the two groups of hospitalized subjects. A standardized item alpha of .62 (n = 42) was obtained from the posttreatment scores of the hospitalized subjects. The former coefficient was considerably lower than estimates of reliability reported by Rotter (1966). It was also lower than estimates previously reported in a sample of cocaine abusers (Oswald et al., 1992).

Analysis of the CRIE scale yielded a standardized item alpha of .76 iN = 63) when scores of subjects in all three groups were combined. A standardized item alpha of .75 in = 42) was obtained from posttreatment scores of the hospitalized subjects. These estimates of reliability are comparable to estimates previously reported for this scale (Oswald et al., 1992), as well as to estimates reported by Donovan and O'Leary (1978) for the DRIE scale.

Relationship Between Scales

Pearson produc t -moment correlation coefficients were computed to evaluate the relationship between the CRIE scale and the I-E scale. Significant, but low- order correlations were found between the scales in two comparisons. A correlation of r = .36 (p = .002) was found in a distribution of pretreatment scores of the hospitalized cocaine abusers, combined with scores of the recovering cocaine abusers (N = 63). The correlation also was found to be r = .36 (p = .009) when computed on posttreatment scores of the hospitalized subjects (n = 42). Fisher's r to z tests indicated that correlations between the scales were not significantly different between groups in either of these comparisons.

Sociodemographic Differences

A series of two-way ANOVAs were run to evaluate the influence of gender, race, marital status, and legal status on I-E and CRIE scale scores. No significant main effects were noted for any of these categorical variables on either scale.

Group Differences

Group differences were evaluated by comparing pretreatment scores of hospitalized subjects with the one set of scores obtained from the recovering cocaine abusers. Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was chosen as a method of analysis because it allows adjustment of error variance when covariates are significantly correlated with the dependent variable. Locus of control theory and findings from prior research suggest that demographic variables, such as age and education, may be significantly correlated with locus of control scores (Butts & Chotlos, 1973; Lefcourt, 1976; Mariano et al., 1989; Rotter, 1966; Weissbach,

186 L.M. Oswald, G.C. Walker, K.J. Krajewski, and E&. Reilly

Vogler, & Compton , 1976). ANCOVA also can be used to control for potentially con found ing mean differences when r a n d o m assignment to groups has not been possible (Tabachnick & Fidell, 1989), as was done in this study because two o f the groups were significantly d i f fe ren t in age.

Pearson correla t ion coefficients revealed that age was significantly corre la ted with scores on the I-E scale (r = - . 3 4 , p < .01) and with scores on the CRIE scale (r = - . 4 0 , p < .001), indicating greater external locus o f control in younge r subjects. Educa t ion was significantly corre la ted with scores on the CRIE scale (r = - . 3 9 , p < .001), indicating grea ter internal locus o f control in more highly educated subjects. T h e correlat ion between age and educat ion was not significant. T h e SPSS/PC+ MANOVA prog ram (SPSS Inc., 1990) was used to test for homogene i ty o f regression across groups (Tabachnick & Fidell, 1989) for I-E scores plot ted against age, CRIE scores plotted against age, and CRIE scores plot ted against educat ion. T h e interact ion between g roup and covariate was not significant in any o f these analyses. Consequently, age was included as a covariate in the model used to evaluate g roup differences on the I-E scale. Both age and educa t ion were included in the model with the CRIE scale. T h e original and adjusted means, as well as results o f the ANOVAs and ANCOVAs are shown in Table 3.

Initial ANOVAs revealed significant g roup differences on both scales. Post hoc comparisons (Tukey) showed that scores o f recovering cocaine abusers were significantly more internal than scores o f the hospitalized subjects. No significant d i f ferences in scores were detected between the two groups o f hospitalized subjects. Results o f ANCOVAs showed that d i f ferences on the CRIE scale were significant af ter the effects o f age and educat ion were controlled. Differences on the I-E scale were no longer significant af ter the variance attributable to age was removed.

Secondary analyses were conduc ted to de te rmine whether di f ferences am o n g the groups were still significant af ter control l ing for age by el iminating outliers. Because the majority (91%) o f subjects were between the ages o f 20 and 40 years old, those who were not in this age bracket were el iminated f rom the sample.

Table 3. Results of ANOVAs and ANCOVAs on I-E and CRIE Scores With Adjusted and Unadjusted Means

Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Scale No Prior Tx Prior Tx Recovering F

I-E scale a 9.57 8.95 7.19 4.17" I-E scale b 9.49 8.64 7.58 2.49 GRIE scale a 7.14 8.43 3.14 15.00"* GRIE scale ~ 6.97 7.95 3.79 8.70**

Note. Tx = treatment. aUnadjusted analysis of variance, 2160 dr. bAnalysis of covariance based on means adjusted for age, 3/59 dr. cAnalysis of covariance based on means adjusted for age and education, 4/59

*p < .05. **p < .001.


Group 1 then consisted of 19 subjects with a mean age of 29.2 years (SD = 5.37, range 21-39), Group 2 consisted of 20 subjects with a mean age of 28.3 years (SD = 3.87, range 23-38), and Group 3 consisted of 18 subjects with a mean age of 31.8 years (SD = 4.91, range 22-39). The SPSS/PC+ MANOVA program was used to examine group differences in the new sample (N = 57) because it pro- vides adjustment for unequal n. Results indicated that the new groups were not significantly different in age. Group differences on the I-E scale were not significant when age was controlled by restricting the sample to this age bracket; how- ever, group differences on the CRIE scale were still significant, F(2, 54) = 11.79, p < .001.

Pre-Post Comparisons

Differences between pretreatment and posttreatment scores of the two groups of hospitalized cocaine abusers were evaluated by conducting paired t tests. Findings indicated that there was a marginal time effect for scores on the I-E scale, - (41) = 1.97, p = .06 and a significant time effect for scores on the CRIE scale, + (41) = 2.36, p < .05. Scores of the hospitalized cocaine abusers became more internal on both scales during the course of their hospitalization.

DISCUSSION

Findings showed that perceptions of control were more internal in recovering cocaine abusers than they were in cocaine abusers entering treatment. Differ- ences were most evident in comparisons that were specific to use of cocaine. Newly admitted cocaine abusers did not differ in perceptions of control simply as a function of having had prior treatment, but scores of hospitalized subjects became more internal from beginning to end of treatment. Although this study was not designed to examine prognostic implications of control orientation in cocaine abusers, findings are consistent with prior correlational evidence that has linked internality to recovery in alcoholics, particularly with respect to specific expectancies of control (Donovan & O'Leary, 1978; Huckstadt, 1987; Mar- iano et al., 1989; Rohsenow & O'Leary, 1978).

Concurrent validity of the CRIE scale was supported by findings of significant, but low-order correlations with the I-E scale. The CRIE scale also showed evidence of construct validity in that it appeared to be a more sensitive indicator of group differences than the I-E scale. Although initial ANOVAs showed significant differences among the groups on both scales, differences on the I-E scale were not significant when age was controlled. Donovan and O'Leary (1978) previously demonstrated that the DRIE scale discriminated between alcoholics and nonalcoholics better than the I-E scale. The fact that a similar pattern has now been demonstrated in cocaine abusers strengthens confidence in its generalizability and lends support to Rotter's (1966) contention that specific measures allow greater prediction of behavior in limited areas of interest. Although ques- tionable reliability of the I-E scale in pretreatment comparisons suggests that some caution should be exercised in interpreting results of this study related to

188 L.M. Oswald, G.C. Walker, K.I. Krajewski, and E.L. Reilly

the use of the I-E scale, the finding also can be construed as providing further support for the preferential use of specific scales in this population.

Findings of this study provide empirical support for the growing use of cognitive-behavioral techniques in the treatment of substance abusers. Cognitive-behavioral techniques are designed to help clients learn to identify high-risk situations, develop effective coping skills, and gain a greater sense of control over drug-related behavior (Marlatt, 1985). Behavioral change within this framework is consistent with an internal locus of control in that it requires awareness of contingency relationships between problems and behavior and a willingness to assume responsibility for change (O'Leary, Donovan, Hague, & Shea, 1975).

Nonetheless, one limitation that this study shares with studies previously ref- erenced for the DRIE scale is a cross-sectional design that prohibits formation of causal conclusions. Internality in recovering cocaine abusers could be either a determinant or a consequence of the recovery process. Furthermore, the recovering cocaine abusers in this study differed from hospitalized subjects on several uncontrolled demographic variables that might be associated with locus of control (i.e., employment status, living situation, and source of income). For the purposes of this study, the extreme difference in employment status between recovering and hospitalized cocaine abusers was assumed to be a result of current use patterns, rather than a reflection of pre-existing group differences. Although the amount of variance attributable to these variables was not established in this investigation, it is possible that they mediate the relationship between internality and recovery. Fur- ther investigation of their role in the recovery process is indicated.

Newly admitted cocaine abusers did not perceive more control simply as a function of having had prior treatment. In other words, prior treatment experience did not seem to be a good predictor of current perceptions of control. Thus, patients who have relapsed and returned for treatment can neither be expected nor assumed to perceive more or less control over their drug-related behavior than patients who have come into treatment for the first time. A significant shift towards internality was noted in CRIE scale scores from beginning to end of treatment. Significant shifts toward internality have previously been reported in I-E and DRIE scale scores of alcoholics in treatment (Abbott, 1984; Obitz & Oziel, 1978; O'Leary et al., 1975; O'Leary, Donovan, & O'Leary, 1976; Walker, Nast, Chaney, & O'Leary, 1979). These shifts may reflect real expectancy changes that occur in substance abusers as they integrate their treatment experience into the cognitive structure of their lives, or they may be the result of other events that occur during treatment, such as changes in mood. Additional research is needed to fully explicate their etiology, meaning, and relationship to treatment outcome (Donovan & O'Leary, 1978; Obitz & Oziel, 1978; Rohsenow & O'Leary, 1978; Shelton, Parsons, Leber, & Yohman, 1982).

Finally, there has been some discussion in the recent literature about the judi- ciousness of adapting questionnaires designed for alcohol to cocaine (Michalec et al., 1992). Although the CRIE scale could conceivably be improved by includ- ing items that describe situations applicable only to use of cocaine as opposed to use of alcohol, the scale has demonstrated both reliability and validity in its pre-


sen t f o r m . E x p e c t a n c i e s o f c o n t r o l ove r a d d i c t i v e b e h a v i o r m a y n o t be s u b s t a n - t ia l ly i n f l u e n c e d by t ype o f h i g h - r i s k s i t ua t ion . A l t h o u g h d i r e c t c o m p a r i s o n s we re n o t m a d e b e t w e e n a lcoho l ics a n d coca ine a b u s e r s in this s tudy, f i n d i n g s s u g g e s t t ha t m a n y o f the sa l i en t f e a t u r e s o f a d d i c t i v e b e h a v i o r can be i d e n t i f i e d in a n a n a l o g o u s m a n n e r across va r i ous f o r m s o f a d d i c t i o n . W o r k is c u r r e n t l y in p r o g r e s s to e x a m i n e t h e p r e d i c t i v e va l id i ty o f t he scale, as well as its r e l a t i o n s h i p to o t h e r m e a s u r e s o f c o n t r o l , such as self-eff icacy.

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General and specific locus of control in cocaine abusers