EVOLUTION OF QUALITY MANAGEMENT

Learning OutcomesTo explore the history of quality as a

discipline and how it has evolve over the years

To describe the methods used to achieve quality

To analyse the lessons learnt with each method of managing quality during the evolution

To demonstrate how to manage quality in this contemporary times.

THE ANCIENT CRAFTSMENThroughout great ancient

civilizations such as EGYPT, ROME, GREECE, CHINA, INDIA, SOKOTO,TIMBUCKTU etc when Kings and Queens like Imhotep, Alexander the Great, Julius Caesar, Cleopatra, Nefertiti etc Ruled there existed some special skilled workforce called the CRAFTSMEN.

The CRATSMEN were people who were highly skilled and specialized in their trade or Craft.

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CRAFTSMAN

Highly skilledCreative Innovative Patient Takes Pride in workmanshipService orientedHighly ProfessionalCustomer FocusOperates within a GUILD SYSTEM ( consists of

masters, journeymen and apprentices)Both the Manufacturer and Inspector of Quality Does CUSTOMIZATION

SOME HISTORICAL FACTS OF THE CRAFTSMEN AT QUALITY

Ancient craftsmen provided ancient Greece and Rome with goods that weren't easily made in the average home. Among the ancient craftsmen of the Greeks were builders, carpenters, workers in leather and metal, and potters.

Egyptian wall paintings “circa” 1450B.C show evidence of measurement and inspection.

Stones for the pyramids were cut precisely that even today it is impossible to put a knife blade between the blocks. This was due to the use of consistent well developed methods and procedures and precise measuring devices.

CONTDN..In the reforms of the second king of ancient Rome,

the King (Numa Pompilius) divided the craftsmen into 9 guilds (collegia opificum), the last of which

was a catch-all category. The others were:Flute playersgoldsmiths,coppersmiths,carpenters,fullers,dyers,potters, andshoemakers.

HOW THE CRAFTSMAN ACHIEVED QUALITY

The craftsman takes and understands the customer’s

REQUIREMENTS/SPECIFICATIONS He benchmarks these specifications into a

PRODUCT & PROCESS DESIGN for the customer

He works with the customer throughout the production process through consultations because the aim here is to meet customer requirements and exceed expectations

The final output is a CUSTOMIZED PRODUCT

WHY THEY WERE SUCCESSFUL AT QUALITY

They were organized into the GUILD SYSTEM which was highly regulated at entry and a rigorous entry criteria which ensures that prospective members met the criteria and pass all the criteria usually through test or practical exams

This rigorous system guaranteed high skills and professionalism in work execution

They use customer specifications as a basis for building PRODUCT DESIGN & PROCESS DESIGN

The Acropolis & the Pyramids at Giza

Taj Mahal & Timbuktu Mosque

THE CRAFTSMEN & EXCELLENCE MANAGEMENT

Any time we think about the craftsman we should think about how these highly skilled individuals through the guild system used customer and product specifications to build landmarks such as the Taj Mahal, the Pyramids, the Timbuktu mosques etc that has stood the test of time.

The Craftsman is indeed the true certified Quality Professional!

THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION AND MASS PRODUCTION

The Quality themes that characterized the craftsman era disappeared with the advent of the industrial revolution thus a massive paradigm shift from the usage of SPECIFICATIONS to STANDARDS.

In-fact during the middle of the eighteenth century, a French gunsmith Honore Le Blanc developed a system of manufacturing muskets to a standard pattern using interchangeable parts.

CONTDN..The use of STANDARDIZATION in

industry now implied a shift from CUSTOMIZATION to MASS PRODUCTION.

The first world war in 1914 ruined most of the industries and further drove demand for goods on a larger scale hence re-enforcing the need to produce a MASS scale. This certainly had it own quality implications due to the methods used. The methods however evolved with time.

QUALITY INSPECTION-fitness to standard

The first method used for managing quality in the early 1900s was quality inspection

Note: how we defined the method tells us how quality was achieved in that era!

QI defined: A method of achieving quality by doing total inspection of all the items produced against the set standard to check for defects after production

CONTDN...This era was significantly shaped by

Frederick Taylor(scientific management). Taylor introduced a new philosophy of production that separated the planning function from the task or execution function.

This worked well at the turn of the century where workers lacked the education for doing planning

Through task segmentation, assuring for quality became the task for people called “Quality Inspectors”

CHARACTERISTICS OR FLAWS OF THE QI ERA

Managers set the requirements for customers, product designs and the process hence they set the standards for the customer. (they did the planning)

REACTIVE: total inspection was done after production is over to DETECT faults, 100% inspection is not 100% quality and would still not assure quality, this was the fire fighting approach to managing quality.

CONTDN...It reduced workers morale It was not customer focusFocused on the productTime consuming and expensiveWastefulness which comes in three formsScrap (so defective that it is beyond repairs)Rework (minimum defects that can be

corrected)Sale by concession (negligible defects that

the customer can ignore and use the product but the firm concedes the original price to a reduced price)

QUALITY CONTROL-fitness to useFollowing the lessons learnt from QI, the

western electric group led by Walter Shewhart ushered in the era of statistical quality control in an attempt to control or reduce the defects of products after production.

The method of control was still not significantly from QI, the shift was in two fold the first was that QC focused on the customer, the managers now sought for customer requirements that's why its known as fitness to use.

CONTDN..QC defined: This is a method of

achieving quality by taking samples at intermittent stages of production to check for defects.

The second shift from QI has to with the method thus it took samples at intermittent stages of production to check for defects

CHARACTERISTICS OR FLAWS OF QC

Even though the customer was given attention, the focus was still on the product and not the process

It was still REACTIVE detected faults intermittently within the process

The waste was still there in the form of scrap, rework and sale by concession

WHAT GOOD DID QC DO?Despite the challenges of QC it did

some good to production for example it attempted to reduce defects by taking samples to check for defects and ensure that the product meets its design specifications (it is in control).

It focused on the customer by taking their requirements and hence reduced the tendency of product rejection at the market even though not entirely.

DID QUALITY INSPECTION AND QUALITY CONTROL

MISS ANYTHING???

QUALITY ASSURANCE-fitness to cost

What QI and QC lacked was the PROACTIVE and PREVENTIVE approach to managing quality, that gap was exactly what QA sought to fill. In fact it was a response to the waste generated by both QI and QC which translated to huge cost for the organization that QA addressed.

Quality Assurance departed completely from the practice at both Inspection and Control. The points of departure were:

Proactive and not reactive andThe focus on the Process and not the Product

CONTDN..QA defined: it is a method of achieving

quality by guaranteeing customer satisfaction through defect prevention at a reduced reasonable cost. It emphasis on doing it right the first time and always

The philosophy of QA is indeed built on the practices of the craftsman who plans for quality by taking customer requirements and benchmarking them into product and process designs, so in essence the method is trying to achieve the highest form of quality in MASS production adapting customization.

STEPS FOR ASSURING QUALITYThe proactive way of assuring quality for a product or service isHave a constancy of purposeIdentify the customerIdentify the needs and requirements of the customerUnderstand those needs and requirementsDesign the service or product based on those needs and

requirementsThink through the process and design the process of

productionAnticipate the likely problems to occur during productionPut in place preventive mechanisms Gather resources for productionStart productionMonitor the processPut in place corrective mechanisms Monitor the process againUse feedback to improve the process

DEMING’S CYCLE FOR PROCESS IMPROVEMENT

QA focuses on the PROCESS mainly because it is only a right process that would generate a quality product hence Deming’s process improvement cycle is crucial

The cycle basically talks about Planning (QA), Doing (implementation), Checking (QC) and Acting (taking corrective action). This means that QA still needs QC to function therefore some functions of QC are still relevant or useful when doing QA. (PDSA or PDCA cycle)

CONTDN..Note that Proper Planning and

Preparation Prevents Poor Performance. So begin by planning carefully what should be done, next carry out the plan (do it) or implement. Study the results to check whether the results were as intended or different from the plan. Finally act on the results by identifying what worked and what didn’t.

TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT-fitness to latent requirements

Quality Assurance would guarantee organisations survival but in today’s competitive business environment survival is just not enough, strong emphasis should be laid on growth. Growth would only occur through innovation and that is what TQM does.

TQM focuses on PEOPLE, PROCESS and PRODUCT

CONTDN..TQM defined: Total Quality management is

defined as meeting and exceeding customer expectations through continual improvement. The ability to create and innovate makes the difference.

Innovation is creating something new that solves a problem or meets a hidden (latent) need of the customer. The ability to innovate is the ability to find out the hidden needs of the customer

TQM = QUALITY ASSURANCE + INNOVATION

CONTDN..The JOHARI window Model below is

used to explain the hidden requirements of the customer

1 2

3 4

THE JOHARI WINDOW MODEL

CONTDN..The four windows or quadrants describes

the extent to which we know ourselves Window 1. (The Known Self): Things we

know about ourselves and others know about us

Window 2. (Hidden self): Things we know about ourselves that others do not know

Window 3. (Blind self): Things others know about us that we do not know

Window 4. (Unknown self): Things neither we nor others know about us

PRINCIPLES OF TQMFocus on the customerThe customer is the reason why

every business exists. To be able to be relevant in today’s competitive business environment, the customer must be ‘KING’. This requires knowing and anticipating the needs and requirements of the customer so that they are met and exceeded.

CONTDN..Focus on facts To achieve excellence, all decisions

must be based on facts and not on ‘Feelings’ or on personal whims. As soon as emotions sets in, it clouds ones judgements from the true picture and it would lead to managing only the symptoms of the problem instead of the root cause of the problem. This is what Deming calls ‘Tampering’

CONTDN..Everybody’s involvement The management of quality is not a

responsibility of a department, but a collective responsibility. Everyone must buy into the idea of quality management and empowered to do so. This requires strong leadership. (Eg the story of the security man who took the keys home because he was not informed of an impending interview the next day)

CONTDN..Continual improvementsExcellent organisations are those that have

the ability to re-invent themselves when the times changes to be relevant. They do this through continual improvement. Continual improvement means to pause and take stock of what has been done against what was intended to see if results are on track or there are some Gaps to fill. The aim of the evaluation is to sustain customer interest in the business.

CONTDN..Leadership Leadership is crucial in getting everybody

involved to focus on the customer, to continually improve and to focus on the facts. Strong and good leadership influences people empower them through education and training and above all provide the vision necessary to achieve the quality goals.

Total Quality Management emphasises doing it right the first time and always but doing it better the next time. It also focuses on the employees doing the work because achieving quality is everybody’s responsibility.

Timeline showing the differences between old and new concepts of quality

TIMEEARLY 1940s 1960s 1980s and Beyond1900s

FOCUS Inspection Statistical Organisational Customer driven Sampling Quality Focus Quality

Old concept of quality: New Concept of Inspect for quality after production quality: Build quality into the process. Identify and correct causes of quality problems

QUALITY EVOLUTION SUMMARISED

The Craftsman- CustomizationQuality Inspection- Fitness to

standardQuality Control- Fitness to UseQuality Assurance- Fitness to CostTotal Quality Management- Fitness

to latent Requirements