Climate Disaster Resilience of Dhaka City Corporation: An Empirical Assessment at Zone Level

Volume 2, Issue 2 • 2011 • Article 6

Climate Disaster Resilience of Dhaka City Corporation: AnEmpirical Assessment at Zone Level

Gulsan Ara Parvin, Graduate School of Global Environmental Studies, Kyoto UniversityRajib Shaw, Graduate School of Global Environmental Studies, Kyoto University

Parvin, Gulsan Ara and Shaw, Rajib (2011) "Climate Disaster Resilience of Dhaka City Corporation:An Empirical Assessment at Zone Level," Risk, Hazards & Crisis in Public Policy: Vol. 2: Iss. 2,Article 6.Available at: http://www.psocommons.org/rhcpp/vol2/iss2/art6DOI: 10.2202/1944-4079.1069

©2011 Policy Studies Organization

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Climate Disaster Resilience of Dhaka CityCorporation: An Empirical Assessment at

Zone Level

Gulsan Ara Parvin, Graduate School of Global Environmental Studies, KyotoUniversity

Rajib Shaw, Graduate School of Global Environmental Studies, KyotoUniversity

Abstract

Along with the threat of climate change and its related hazards, rapid urban growth is leadingto unplanned urbanization, high population density and environmental degradation of Dhaka,Bangladesh. Already the severity of climate-related hazards, especially flooding, is increasing. It ispredicted that among the coastal mega-cities Dhaka would be the most vulnerable to climatechange. This research measures the existing level of climate disaster resilience of Dhaka CityCorporation by assessing the problems and potentialities in different sectors. The Climate DisasterResilience Index (CDRI) was calculated for 10 different zones of Dhaka City Corporation. CDRIanalysis comprises five different dimensions (physical, social, economic, institutional and natural),25 parameters and 125 variables (development issues). Findings show that besides location, theutility services, accessibility to roads, housing and land-use, health, social capital andenvironmental conditions are each playing a role in determining the resilience level of differentzones. It is interesting to note that the planned residential areas have relatively higher levels ofclimate disaster resilience, while old parts of the city and densely populated low income areashave lower levels of resilience. Dhaka, being the primate city of the country, continuously facesnumerous challenges and opportunities. It is expected that by utilizing CDRI results in policyformulation and development planning, these challenges could be minimized and opportunitiesenhanced, leading to a more resilient city in the future.

KEYWORDS: climate disaster resilience, Dhaka City Corporation, zone

Author Notes: The authors would like to thank the Global Centre of Excellence (GCOE) HumanSecurity Engineering program and Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) for theirsupport for CDRI research in Dhaka City Corporation. A large number of officials working at thecentral and zonal level of Dhaka City Corporation have made valuable contributions to datacollection. Therefore, the authors would like to extend their deepest gratitude to all these officials.Finally, International Environment and Disaster Management Laboratory of Kyoto University andUrban and Regional Planning Department of Bangladesh University of Engineering andTechnology are highly acknowledged, since without their local support and guidance, it wouldhave been quite difficult to conduct this study.

Introduction In climate change terms, cities are arguably one of the most important battlefields. Already more than half of the world’s population is living in cities and by 2050 this will increase to more than two-thirds of the global population. More than 90% of these new urbanites will be located in developing countries (Roy 2009). Explosive growth and high population density, low stages of economic growth, and poor state of the environment in many developing countries are contributing to aggravate cities’ vulnerabilities, enhance disaster risks, and reduce climate disaster resilience (Razafindrabe et al. 2009; Roy 2009). The present context of the urban growth and development trend of Dhaka, Bangladesh is a reflection of this.

Dhaka, the capital of Bangladesh, is the hub of administrative, political, economic, industrial, cultural, educational, and research activities in the country. Unfortunately, among the megacities it is considered the most vulnerable to climate change (WWF 2009). With an urbanization rate of over 2.5%, Dhaka is also one of the fastest-growing cities in the world in recent decades (Roy 2009; Hossain 2006). This recent rapid urbanization is taking place in the lowlands, which serve as retention ponds during flooding seasons. Most of the natural drainage and canals used to drain excess water are encroached upon (Rahman 2010; Dewan, Nishigaki, and Komatsu 2004). Urbanization has marked effects on global and local environmental conditions, including climate change and related hazards (Grimm 2000, cited in Dewan and Yamaguchi 2009). In Dhaka, flooding is already a common environmental problem and its severity is increasing. In fact, Dhaka is located in a flood plain and bounded and crossed by a large number of interconnected canals and rivers. By virtue of its geography along with rapid urbanization, Dhaka is considered to be one of the cities most susceptible to climate-related disasters, especially floods. For the overall economic growth and development of the country, it is necessary to manage these problems efficiently and enhance Dhaka’s climate disaster resilience.

The Climate Disaster Resilience Index (CDRI) identifies an area’s strengths and weaknesses in facing and managing any climate-related disaster. In the urban context, it measures the capacity of a city’s infrastructure and services to withstand disasters and evaluates how the communities and institutions within a city are expected to deal with such an event (Shaw, Takeuchi, and Joerin 2010). In order to reduce risk and increase the efficiency and effectiveness of preparedness, it is necessary to have a better understanding of the level of climate disaster resilience of a specific area. Assessments of climate disaster resilience should be incorporated into the formulation of any disaster management or risk reduction plan or program, in order to better target specific actions.

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Parvin and Shaw: Climate Disaster Resilience of Dhaka City Corporation

Published by Berkeley Electronic Press, 2011

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/223533078_Land_use_and_land_cover_change_in_Greater_Dhaka_Bangladesh_Using_remote_sensing_to_promote_sustainable_urbanization_Applied_Geography?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-72798c8e-efc2-4174-9e68-c9c5ee661dd5&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2MDQxNjU3NTtBUzoxODMxODUwNDQ0MTg1NjBAMTQyMDY4NjEyNjk1Mg==

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228631457_Climate_disaster_resilience_Focus_on_coastal_urban_cities_in_Asia?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-72798c8e-efc2-4174-9e68-c9c5ee661dd5&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2MDQxNjU3NTtBUzoxODMxODUwNDQ0MTg1NjBAMTQyMDY4NjEyNjk1Mg==

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287103824_DEM_based_flood_extent_delineation_in_Dhaka_City_Bangladesh?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-72798c8e-efc2-4174-9e68-c9c5ee661dd5&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2MDQxNjU3NTtBUzoxODMxODUwNDQ0MTg1NjBAMTQyMDY4NjEyNjk1Mg==

Initiatives aiming to enhance the climate disaster resilience of a city require detailed and careful assessment of its current levels of vulnerability and resilience. It is important to bear in mind that there are large differences in risk and vulnerability within urban areas (Satterthwaite, Dodman, and Bicknell 2009). It is natural that a city, especially a megacity like Dhaka, covers a large and often physiographically heterogeneous area, with different exposure and susceptibility to hazards. Furthermore, the population of a city and the conditions under which people live are diverse. Therefore, some parts and some residents of a city may be more vulnerable than others (Klein, Nicholls, and Thomalla 2003). In fact, a city contains different micro-zones with potential micro-climates due to the variation in land use, settlement pattern, function, density, characteristics of residential areas, and the communities living there. This diversity contributes to differences in disaster risk, which in turn affects differences in human development and resilience (ISDR 2010).

Recognizing the diversity within a city and its impact on patterns of vulnerabilities and resilience, it is critical to assess the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats of micro-zones within a city. It is recommended that for a well-governed urban center, it is necessary to identify place-specific needs through detailed local information (Satterthwaite, Dodman, and Bicknell 2009). There are a number of studies and initiatives addressing different aspects of Dhaka’s resilience and climate and disaster vulnerabilities, but they have considered the whole city as a single unit, neglecting the issue of zone-level diversity and its implications for resilience. The Hyogo Framework for Action has emphasized the importance of identifying local risk patterns and trends (ISDR 2007) before any attempts to reduce disaster risk are made.

Considering the importance of micro-level assessment of a city’s resilience, this paper attempts to depict the micro-level variations of climate disaster resilience of Dhaka through the Climate Disaster Resilience Index (CDRI). This study measures the resilience level of the 10 zones of Dhaka City Corporation from socioeconomic, physical, institutional, and natural perspectives. It also identifies various issues that the local authorities should prioritize in order to enhance their resilience. Overview of Dhaka City Corporation Location and History Dhaka City is located at the center of Bangladesh, bounded by the River Buriganga on the south, the Turag on the west, Tongi Khal (canal) to the north, and the Balu and Shitalakhya rivers on the east. Although the city has a very long

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Risk, Hazards & Crisis in Public Policy, Vol. 2 [2011], Iss. 2, Art. 6

http://www.psocommons.org/rhcpp/vol2/iss2/art6DOI: 10.2202/1944-4079.1069

history dating back to the seventh century A.D. (UNEP, DoE, and BCAS 2005) and served as a provincial capital during the regime of Mughal Emperor Zhangir, Dhaka was established as a Municipality in 1864. After Bangladesh gained independence in 1971, it was declared the capital. In 1978 Dhaka Municipality was awarded the status of Corporation, and finally in 1990 Dhaka Municipal Corporation was renamed as Dhaka City Corporation (DCC). At that time, DCC was divided into 10 zones to decentralize its administrative and functional duties (DCC 2010). Throughout its history, Dhaka has experienced a number of dramatic historical events and continuous changes in its physical, social, economic, institutional, and natural environments. An overview of present-day Dhaka City Corporation is presented below. Administrative and Functional Organization of DCC The executive power of DCC is vested in and exercised by the Mayor, who is an elected official. The Mayor is assisted by the Chief Executive Officer (CEO) and the CEO is in turn assisted by the Secretary, the Heads of Departments, and the Zonal Executive Officers (ZEOs). DCC is divided into 10 zones and 90 wards. Each zone has a Zonal Executive Officer and each of the wards of the City Corporation is administered by the ward commissioner, who is elected through the direct votes of the ward’s residents. Aside from these administrative personnel, there are about 12,200 employees of DCC carrying out the duties required to fulfill the civic needs of the city dwellers.

Rather than the formulation and implementation of the city’s master plan or development plan, DCC is primarily responsible for performing duties related to DCC’s maintenance and administrative activities. Among a long list of DCC’s functions, the responsibilities worth mentioning are slum and community development, delivery of primary healthcare facilities, solid waste management and conservancy, holding taxation, maintenance of roads, provision of street lighting, foot paths, parks, and playgrounds, control of markets and food, provision of trade licenses, and registration of births and deaths. Overview of DCC’s 10 Zones According to the DCC website, Dhaka City Corporation covers 360 km2, with a population of 8 million people (2004 estimation) and a density of 22,222 persons per km2. The population density of DCC is more than double the megacity average. However, population is not evenly distributed in all zones. Different zones have different population densities, land use, and functional characteristics. Table 1 provides a brief introduction to the 10 zones. Figure 1 illustrates where they are located within DCC.

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Table 1. Characteristics of DCC’s 10 Zones

Zone Types of Land Use and Prime Features Area in km2

Population density per km2

1

Commercial Middle- and low-income residential City bus terminal

10.14 59,105

2

Commercial Mix of higher-, middle-, and low-income

residential Old town having traditional business, market

3.02 125,423

3

Commercial Middle- and low-income residential Graveyard

5.4 71,715

4

Central business district of DCC Administrative area (secretariat, press club,

media center) Residential area (higher income, middle

income, and low income)

14.02 52,307

5

Commercial Planned residential Higher-income residential University Open space and water bodies

12.86 37,141

6

Commercial Planned residential National Parliament and residential area for

parliament members Industrial (small part)

12.82 38,411

7

Commercial Middle- and low-income residential Agglomeration of garment industries City’s central bus terminal

19.04 31,284

8 Newly developed residential area National Botanical Garden and Zoo

23.68 14,624

9

Commercial Planned and higher-income residential Cantonment Open space

25.53 14,102

10 Commercial Planned and higher-income residential

6.0 11,106

Source: Community Series, Dhaka District (2001).

4



10

7

6

3

54

12

9

8

N

R. F= 1:80000

Dhaka 10

7

6

3

54

12

9

8

N

R. F= 1:80000

10

7

6

3

54

12

9

8

10

7

6

3

54

12

9

8

10

7

6

3

54

12

9

8

N

R. F= 1:80000

Dhaka

Figure 1. Map of Dhaka City Corporation Showing 10 Zones Key Environmental and Disaster Risk-Related Challenges in DCC Dhaka dominates the nation in terms of population share, economic contribution, trade and commerce, politics, administration, and even environmental degradation. The city continuously faces numerous challenges, issues, and opportunities. The following are particularly relevant in the present context of global climate change and its impact on Dhaka City. Migration and Slums in Dhaka City Besides the natural growth of the population, large-scale rural to urban migration is one of the principal factors responsible for rapid urban growth in Dhaka City. The majority of the migrants to Dhaka City live in slums and squatter settlements. The latter are simply slums illegally located on land belonging to the government, semi-governmental organizations, public organizations, and other organizations. In the Bangladeshi context, slums are defined as settlements with a minimum of

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10 households, which lack security of tenure and are predominantly characterized by very poor housing, very high population density, poor environmental services, and low socioeconomic status (Islam, Mahbub, and Nazem 2009; Roy and Abdullah 2005). It is estimated that there are over 3 million people, perhaps more than 40% of the city’s population, living in the slums and squatter areas of Dhaka City. This number is increasing. Cities Alliance (2010) estimates that every year about 500,000 people migrate to Dhaka City from coastal and rural areas. It is claimed that Bangladesh is one of the rare countries where natural hazards are the main cause of migration (Piguet 2008, cited in Michael et al. 2009). Furthermore, according to the International Organization for Migration (IOM), 70% of the slum dwellers of Dhaka City have come to Dhaka after facing environmental hardship. But their hardship does not end when they arrive, since they live in unhygienic conditions with few utility services. Unplanned Growth and Flood Vulnerability in Dhaka City Rapid Urbanization and Unplanned Growth. Dhaka has been one of the fastest-growing cities in the world in recent decades (Hossain 2006; Roy 2009). UNEP (2005) projected that Dhaka would be the second largest city in the world in 2015, with a population of 23 million. The rapid increase of population in Dhaka City is aggravating acute urban problems and placing tremendous pressure on urban land, infrastructure, utilities, and amenities. Additionally, there is severe scarcity of land in Dhaka City (Morshed and Parvin 2009). The central part of Dhaka City is already built up and expansion of the city is constrained by physical barriers like rivers, canals, and low-lying flood-prone areas around the city (Roy 2009). However, Dhaka is expanding past these barriers in all directions through rapid development of housing estates (Hossain 2008; Rahman 2010).

Since 1990, hundreds of real estate companies have emerged in Dhaka City to address the severe shortage of housing supplied by the Government. Most of these housing providers have projects in the low-lying areas of Dhaka. During the last decade, about 19 housing projects were initiated in the eastern fringe of Dhaka, which serves as the most important retention area in the city. Furthermore, housing projects of two larger real estate companies have filled up 2,300 m2 of water bodies on the eastern side of the city. On the southern side, 3,000 m2 of water bodies have disappeared due to the housing projects of another company. In the western part of the city, 91 acres of water bodies were lost from 1996 to 2006 due to the housing projects of real estate developers. RAJUK, the Government Authority for Dhaka’s development plan preparation, implementation, and development control, has used retention ponds for its own housing projects. The Dhaka Metropolitan Development Plan 1995–2015 indicates eight flood-flow zones and advises keeping them as retention ponds. But many of these areas are

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https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228434258_Rapid_urban_growth_and_poverty_in_Dhaka_City?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-72798c8e-efc2-4174-9e68-c9c5ee661dd5&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2MDQxNjU3NTtBUzoxODMxODUwNDQ0MTg1NjBAMTQyMDY4NjEyNjk1Mg==

already encroached upon by real estate developers and even by RAJUK (Rahman 2010). Since urbanization has marked effects on global and local environmental conditions, including climate change and related hazards (Grimm 2000 cited in Dewan and Yamaguchi 2009), this rapid urban growth of Dhaka City should be one of the key issues of concern when measuring the climate disaster resilience of the city. Flood Vulnerability. Due to this unplanned growth, annual flooding is one of the most worrisome issues. The severity of flood and water logging is increasing. Dhaka City experienced heavy flooding at least 10 times from 1954 to 2007 (1954, 1955, 1970, 1994, 1980, 1987, 1988, 1998, 2004, and 2007) (Rabbani 2009). The last four floods were catastrophic. These catastrophic floods affected more than two-thirds of the city area and population. The main cause of these floods in Dhaka City was the rise in water levels of the rivers bordering the city during the monsoon season (Faisal, Kabir, and Nishat 2003). Dhaka is surrounded by distributaries of two major rivers, the Brahmaputra and Meghna. All sides of Dhaka City are bounded by rivers and canals (Hossain 2008). In addition to the rise of river water, internal drainage congestion and uncoordinated operation of flow regulation structures contributed to flooding. Rapid and unplanned urban growth in Dhaka City causes serious encroachment of natural drainage and retention areas, hindering the natural flow of water and causing substantial water logging and flooding in almost every year of the past decade. Infrastructure, utilities, livelihood, trade and commerce, public health, and other sectors are badly affected and vulnerable to recurrent flooding and water logging in Dhaka (Alam and Rabbani 2009). Environmental Problems of Dhaka Dhaka faces numerous environmental issues in addition to flooding, many of which are aggravated by the city’s growth patterns. Not all of them can be detailed here. Following is a brief description of DCC’s primary environmental problems. Air Pollution. It can be said that the air pollution of Dhaka is critical. In Dhaka City, especially in the commercial areas, Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM) is 10 times higher than the standard of the World Health Organization (WHO). Along with the transport sector, the numerous open-air brick kilns around the city play a significant role in air pollution. Water Pollution. The unplanned industrial development along river banks and the unhygienic latrines of slum dwellers are the prime causes of severe water

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https://www.researchgate.net/publication/250061448_Vulnerabilities_and_Responses_to_Climate_Change_for_Dhaka?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-72798c8e-efc2-4174-9e68-c9c5ee661dd5&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2MDQxNjU3NTtBUzoxODMxODUwNDQ0MTg1NjBAMTQyMDY4NjEyNjk1Mg==



pollution in Dhaka City. The whole city is served by a single sewerage treatment plant, which covers only 50% of the city’s area (Roy 2009). Solid Waste Management. Only 44% of solid waste is disposed to the landfill sites, which are open with no gas collection system. Noise Pollution: Noise pollution has exceeded the tolerable limit in most parts of Dhaka (UNEP, DoE, and BCAS 2005). Chaotic Transportation System. Dhaka’s transportation system is unwieldy and chaotic. Transportation is extremely hazardous, expensive, and time consuming (Islam 2009). Nearly 0.6 million motorized and non-motorized vehicles ply the streets daily, causing heavy traffic congestion (Rabbani 2009). Climate Disaster Resilience Scholars claim that in addition to flooding/drainage congestion, Dhaka will be affected by heat stress due to climate change. Vehicle exhaust emission, industrial activities, increase of built-up areas, loss of open spaces, and increased use of air conditioning are contributing to heat generation in Dhaka, and this situation will continue in the future (UNEP, DoE, and BCAS 2005; Alam and Rabbani 2009). Rapid and unplanned urban growth; increase of slums and squatters; air, noise, and water pollution; inadequate and poor sewerage and sanitation; inadequate and inefficient waste management systems; a chaotic transport system; and encroachment of natural drainage are all aggravating both the causes and impacts of climate-related disasters (especially floods) in Dhaka City. These environmental challenges and disaster risks (see Figure 2) need to be incorporated into any study related to the city’s climate disaster resilience.

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a. Solid waste dumped on the road. (Zone 3)

b. Filling of water bodies for housing project. (Basundhara City Project, Zone 9)

c. Housing in the low-lying flood-prone areas. (Zone 9)

d. Chemicals and waste from the tannery industry pass through open drains, which overflow during the rainy season. (Zone 3)

Figure 2. Environmental and Disaster Risk Issues in Dhaka Climate Disaster Risk Reduction and Management By virtue of its topographical, geographical, and geological characteristics, Bangladesh is extremely vulnerable to natural hazards, especially climate-related hazards like floods, cyclones, and storm surges. In spite of having experienced many disasters, the approach in disaster management was mostly oriented towards

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relief and rehabilitation until the 1980s. With the catastrophic floods in the late 1980s and a devastating cyclone in 1991, the Government of Bangladesh realized the need to emphasize disaster risk reduction, preparedness, response and management. In addition, the potential threats of climate change and related natural hazards have made the Bangladesh Government more aware of taking steps towards more effective disaster management. In the last few years, the Government has undertaken several initiatives, including administrative setup, institutional arrangements, structural and non-structural measures, plan and policy formulation, budget allocation, and program and project implementation. Some of these initiatives aimed to improve disaster management in Dhaka specifically. Below is a brief history of Dhaka’s disaster risk reduction and management efforts. Flood and Drainage Management in Dhaka Dhaka faces a variety of environmental challenges and disaster risks, but flooding is the main concern. Since flooding is not a new phenomenon, Dhaka has a long history of flood management initiatives. However, most are related to structural mitigation measures. The first flood protection embankment along the River Buriganga was constructed in 1864 (Dewan, Nishigaki, and Komatsu 2004; Huq and Alam 2003). Intense development related to flood management started after an unanticipated flood in 1988. In 1989, a massive program was implemented, and included 30 km of earthen embankments, 37 km of raised road, floodwalls, 12 sluice gates, and a pumping station. In addition to these measures, a rail cum road embankment has been proposed along the Balu River in the eastern part of the city. It would be constructed under phase II of the Dhaka Integrated Flood Protection Project (Huq and Alam 2003).

In order to solve the drainage and water logging problem in Dhaka, the Storm Water Drainage Improvement Plan was undertaken by Dhaka Water Supply and Sewerage Authority (WASA). Different parts of natural canals were replaced by box culverts. Unfortunately, most of these canals and low-lying areas are encroached upon because of the rapid and unplanned growth in Dhaka. Dhaka WASA has begun to construct the Storm-Water Drainage Network that consists of canals, underground pipes, box culverts, and pumping stations. Dhaka City Corporation and Bangladesh Water Development Board have also constructed pumping stations and installed small pumps to drain storm water (Huq and Alam 2003).

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Disaster Management by Dhaka City Corporation As mentioned, formulating and implementing development plans is not historically one of DCC’s main duties. The City Corporation has no typical master plan, development plan, or disaster management plan. Every fiscal year, ward commissioners submit their development plans indicating the sectorial development budget for each ward. Similarly, each zone prepares its maintenance budget and plan.

In August 1999, however, the Disaster Management Bureau of Bangladesh Government published and circulated the Standing Order on Disasters (SOD), which included a provision for establishing a Disaster Management Committee at the City Corporation level and outlined detailed roles of the committee. In accordance with the SOD, Dhaka City Corporation formed its Disaster Management Committee (City Profiles Series 2006) chaired by DCC mayor and composed of engineers, zonal officers, ward commissioners, conservancy officers and staff, and volunteers of DCC. In addition to the internal members of DCC, Fire Service and Ambulance Department, Water and Sewerage Supply Authority, Electric Supply Authority, Red Crescent, Metropolitan Police, and National Cadet Core are also part of the Disaster Management Committee of DCC. This Disaster Management Committee is vested with duties related to pre-disaster, disaster, and post-disaster initiatives and management. Disaster management activities are mostly focused on flood-related disasters and are described below. Pre-Flood Activities. In the rainy season from July to October, Dhaka City faces heavy rainfall, tornadoes, water logging, and flood. In preparation, during July–August DCC arranges campaigns, meetings, and seminars at the ward level to increase awareness. People are generally advised on how and when they will move to the nearest shelter, how and where they will register their family, what types of emergency food, materials, and help they may need, and who they should contact during emergency. At the same time, various departments of DCC also make preparations and stock appropriate emergency items that will help them respond to flooding and water logging. The Disaster Management Committee of DCC ensures speedy dissemination of flood and cyclone forecast to relevant officials and organizations. DCC also determines safe centers and emergency shelters for evacuation, assigns responsibilities, and arranges disaster drills. Flood Response Activities. DCC has 500 wireless phone sets in the field and three control rooms at different parts of the city where officers and staff work round the clock during flood events. A display board is hung in the control room to tally the

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damage and needs in different parts of DCC. The Honorable Mayor, high officials, and central coordination committee members of DCC visit the control rooms to gain situational awareness and obtain information on overall activities. Relief and rehabilitation works are monitored. Emergency instructions are provided to other organizations and service departments like DESA, WASA, Fire Service, Red Crescent, etc.

Relief materials like dry food, candles, purified drinking water, clothes, saline water, etc. are distributed among the affected people. Where it is not possible to sink tube wells, WASA is instructed to supply sufficient water by water tank. Dhaka City Corporation Conservancy staff clean temporary toilets, dispense bleaching powder, and spray insecticides to control mosquitoes, etc. twice a day. In order to limit potential health crises, during disasters DCC deploys a medical team to the relief center. Additionally, DCC has 25 mobile medical teams that move from camp to camp. Medical teams are sufficiently equipped with oral saline, fever medicine, diarrhea medicine, and other primary healthcare supplies. Post-Flood Activities. Within 1–2 weeks after any disaster, DCC sends a report outlining the estimated work required, with comments, to the relevant departments. It also organizes a meeting to exchange views, experiences, problems, and difficulties during the disaster. After a flood event, DCC conducts surveys and estimates the number of canals and drains (both on the surface and underground) requiring clearing. DCC prepares eviction/demolition lists of shops, houses, and all types of unauthorized structures as well as lists of roads that are to be raised above flood water level. Additional Progress. In addition to these regular and routine activities, over the last few years, DCC has organized workshops, exercises, drills, awareness campaigns, and rallies as part of its disaster management and risk reduction activities. Since 2004, disaster preparedness and response training has been provided to 120 ward commissioners of DCC and some school teachers and religious leaders (imams of mosques). The Disaster Management Volunteer Group in every ward is being processed and the National Plan for Disaster Management 2008–2015 has proposed the preparation of the Dhaka City Corporation Disaster Management Plan by the Disaster Management Committee. But according to the chief town planner of DCC, who is one of the primary persons in the Disaster Management Committee, the existing manpower and logistics are not sufficient to prepare and implement a disaster management plan and hazard map for each zone.

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Community Participation in Disaster Management. In Dhaka City Corporation, community participation is limited to disaster response activities only. During any disaster, especially flood, community members play crucial roles in providing emergency shelter and food. With the prior permission of DCC, community organizations, business associations, private companies, and especially NGOs cook food and distribute it to the people affected by flooding. They also provide bottled drinking water, dry foods, and emergency medicine. This kind of social cohesion and community support in the face of disaster is reflected in responses to previous catastrophic events like the floods in 1988 and 1998 and the cyclones in 1991 and 2007. Young volunteers often join in the reconstruction activities too. But the level of community involvement in pre-event activities is poor in almost all parts of the city.

The disaster management activities of Dhaka City Corporation are mostly related to preparedness (especially for floods), distribution of relief, and some post-disaster reconstruction. There are few attempts at the DCC or community level to reduce disaster risk and enhance the community’s disaster resilience. But in order to prepare and implement an effective and efficient disaster management plan, it is necessary to understand the disaster risks, vulnerabilities, and the level of disaster resilience of every part of the city. This study is an attempt to assess the climate disaster resilience of 10 different zones of DCC using an index approach. The CDRI would vividly depict the strengths, weaknesses, problems, and potentialities of each zone, providing valuable inputs and guidance for the city’s Disaster Management Plan preparation and implementation. Methods The resilience of a city depends on the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats (SWOT) related to hundreds of different aspects within multiple sectors of that city. It is quite hard to incorporate and assess SWOT for every sector and every aspect in a single analysis. Furthermore, many of these aspects cannot be easily measured or quantified due to their qualitative or subjective nature. Although there are limitations to any analysis of resilience, the CDRI is an attempt to measure the climate disaster resilience level of Dhaka City Corporation at the micro-level. A brief description of the approach follows. Questionnaire/Data Collection Sheet This study followed a methodological approach similar to that used by Parvin et al. (2011) and detailed by Joerin and Shaw (2011). Data used to assess the level of disaster resilience were collected using a questionnaire. The questionnaire

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https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235290223_Chapter_3_Mapping_Climate_and_Disaster_Resilience_in_Cities?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-72798c8e-efc2-4174-9e68-c9c5ee661dd5&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2MDQxNjU3NTtBUzoxODMxODUwNDQ0MTg1NjBAMTQyMDY4NjEyNjk1Mg==

comprised five different dimensions: physical, social, economic, institutional, and natural. Under each dimension were five different parameters (e.g., under the physical dimension, electricity, water supply, accessibility to roads, etc. are included as parameters) and each parameter consisted of five different variables (questions). The questionnaire was treated as a 5×5×5 matrix. There were a total of 125 questions used to assess climate disaster resilience (CDR). Respondents used a 5-point rating scale to assess the resilience level for each variable, where 1 means the worst situation and 5 means the best.

In addition to answering the 125 questions, respondents were asked to assign a weight (from 1 to 5, least to highest) to the parameters under each of the dimensions according to the perceived importance to climate disaster resilience. Similarly, variables under each parameter were also assigned weights according to their perceived importance. Approach to Data Collection and Analysis Data were collected from each of the 10 micro-level administrative units (or zones) of Dhaka City Corporation. The researchers directly approached the zone-level officials (generally relevant higher-level officials) for each zone of DCC. Researchers conducted face to face interviews with the officials in order to complete the questionnaire and assign weights to the parameters and variables. Depending on the zone, data were provided by single officials, or by small groups of relevant officials. Variable scores were averaged to obtain scores for parameters and then dimensions. Data analysis, representation of results, and data management required for Climate Disaster Resilience Mapping (CDRM) were done using Microsoft Excel software. Limitations and Challenges of the Study Two main limitations were identified while conducting this research. Absence of Published Data and Dependency on the Perception of the Respondents. Accuracy is important for this type of study, but not all relevant data are available through reputable published sources. Here, researchers needed to depend on the perception of the respondents. In order to measure the level of climate disaster resilience of different zones, researchers asked many questions and tried to use a consistent 5-point scale. Officials gave their responses based on their own evaluation and perception. Since these officials are working on climate disaster-related matters and also on development matters in their respective areas, their answers are considered a relatively good approximation of relevant conditions. Nonetheless, published and more reliable data could make CDRI more effective.

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Researchers tried to minimize the effects of this challenge by verifying results with published data when available. Confusion during Priority Selection. Most challenges were faced during prioritization and weighting of the parameters (development sectors: e.g., water, electricity, population, health) and variables (e.g., incorporation of DRR and CCA in the development plan, building according to building codes, people living in proximity to polluted areas, etc.). Zone-level officials of DCC were asked to prioritize the most important sectors and issues to climate disaster resilience in their zones. But the officials sometimes found prioritization confusing. Sometimes they felt all were important. However, assigning all the same level of importance was prohibited. Furthermore, this priority selection was also subjective and done on the basis of each official’s own judgment. In order to minimize these problems, small meetings were organized when possible, where officials from different departments of a zone discussed priorities and mutually agreed upon the selection of priority sectors and weights to assign the sectors and issues. Results: Climate Disaster Resilience of DCC Zones This section describes the level of climate disaster resilience of DCC, as represented by the overall CDRI and from the physical, social, economic, institutional, and natural perspectives. This section also identifies the different development sectors and issues that are significantly correlated with each other. Furthermore, the development sectors (parameters) and issues (variables) that have been prioritized by zone officials to enhance climate disaster resilience in each zone are listed. Overall Resilience The Climate Disaster Resilience Index (overall CDRI) scores of each of the 10 zones are presented in Figure 3. The overall CDRI for each micro-level area (zone) is the average of the scores that the zone obtained in the physical, social, economic, institutional, and natural dimensions.

Overall CDRI scores among the 10 zones range from 2.4 to 3.1. In this study, scores of 1–2 are considered to represent poor/low levels of resilience, 2.1–3 medium resilience, 3.1–4 good resilience, and 4.1–5 the best level of resilience. Overall CDRI scores for the 10 zones denote low/poor to medium levels of resilience. It is interesting to note that the planned residential areas (Zones 6, 9, and 10) have relatively higher scores in the Climate Disaster Resilience Index,

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while the old parts of the city (except Zone 2) and the densely populated low-income areas located in the fringe areas have lower scores than other areas.

Overall CDRI of 10 Zones

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Figure 3. Climate Disaster Resilience of DCC Zones: Overall CDRI

In the overall CDRI assessment, only three zones (2, 6, and 9) obtained

scores that are considered to represent a good level of climate disaster resilience. Although these three zones are part of Dhaka City Corporation and have many characteristics similar to other zones, there are a few features that make these zones stand out. For instance, Zone 2 is the smallest zone in DCC (3 km2), but accommodates the highest number of people per square kilometer (125,423). In spite of being an old part of the city and having high density, Zone 2 obtained a relatively higher score in overall CDRI. In fact, this zone is located on high land, free from flooding. Additionally, many old or long-term residents and rich, traditional businessmen live in Zone 2. As a result, relatively higher scores in physical, social, and economic dimensions have lifted this zone to a good position in overall CDRI. On the other hand, Zone 6, which is the location of the National Parliament and residential areas of parliament members, and Zone 9, which is the diplomatic zone and the location of all embassies, have relatively higher scores in physical, economic, institutional, and natural dimensions and subsequently obtained higher scores in overall CDRI. Resilience in Five Different Dimensions Among all the five dimensions of the CDRI assessment, physical CDRI has the highest scores, while the natural dimension has the lowest average scores for all zones (see Figure 4). These scores range from 1.8 to 3.4 and imply poor to good levels of climate disaster resilience by dimension. In none of the dimensions did

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any of the zones score above a 4, which represents the best level of resilience. Further, none of the zones has equal resilience levels in every dimension. Figures 5 and 6 present each zone’s CDRI level in the five different dimensions. Charts and maps are provided to help illustrate the variation in resilience levels in different dimensions and zones.

Overall CDRI in Five Dimensions

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Figure 4. Climate Disaster Resilience in Five Dimensions

Dhaka:CDRI-Five Different Dimensions

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Figure 5. Climate Disaster Resilience Levels of 10 Zones in Five Different Dimensions

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Figure 6. Map of Dhaka City Showing Resilience Levels of Different Zones in Different Dimensions Note: CDRI scores 1–2=poor, 2.1–3 = medium, 3.1–4= good, and 4.1–5 = best resilience level

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Physical CDRI. Electricity, water supply, sanitation and solid waste, roads, housing, and land use are the main assessment indicators of climate disaster resilience in the physical dimension. In Dhaka, Zones 9, 10, and 5, which are planned residential areas for higher-income groups, have relatively better conditions in almost all variables of the physical dimension, and thus achieved higher physical CDRI scores. The main part of Zone 6 is a planned residential area for middle- and higher-income people. Again, the National Parliament is also located in Zone 6. Therefore, the physical conditions, like accessibility of roads, land use and housing, as well as electricity and water supply, are relatively better. Zone 6 is assessed as good in physical resilience against climate disaster. In fact, following of the building codes, home ownership, and accessibility of roads is higher in all these planned areas.

Zone 9, the diplomatic area, does not face interruption in electricity and water supply, which is very common in other areas. Zone 9 obtained the highest score (4.03) in the physical dimension. It should be noted that this score is the highest among all the CDRI scores in all dimensions. Zones 2 and 7 are not planned areas, but they are considered as good in physical resilience (scores of 3.14 and 3.47, respectively). Electricity and water supply, housing, land use, and accessibility of roads contributed to their scores. In these areas, houses are not constructed following the building code, but the zones have relatively higher levels of houses above flood level and free from polluted ground, as well as higher levels of ownership. These factors contributed to relatively higher scores in physical CDRI. Interruption in electricity and water supply is severe in zones that have lower scores in physical CDRI, especially Zones 4 and 8. Further, most of the buildings are constructed without following the building code. Social CDRI. Social CDRI scores range from 2.2 to 3.6, which denotes medium to good levels of climate disaster resilience from a social perspective. Out of 10 zones, only four zones are considered as good; the rest of the six zones are medium. Zone 7 obtained the lowest score and Zone 5 obtained the highest score. Contrasting with physical dimension, the social CDRI scores are relatively higher in Zones 1, 2, and 3, which are densely populated old parts of Dhaka. In the case of Zones 1, 2, and 3, social capital factors like community participation, acceptance of community leaders, and ethnic linkages play a role in obtaining the higher score in the social dimension of CDRI. Similarly, community support during emergency and relief work, and support from NGOs/CBOs and religious groups are also better in these zones and contribute to their social resilience. These are the old parts of the city, where a large number of residents have lived for a long time and have strong feelings of community. Unlike Zones 1, 2, and 3, social issues like health, education, and awareness contributed much to the good

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social CDRI score of Zone 5. Also, compared to the other planned residential areas, Zone 5 is a relatively old area established in the 1950s. Therefore, this zone has a higher level of community participation and ethnic linkages.

Zones 4 and 7 have the lowest social CDRI scores. Here also, social capital, community preparedness, and health status played a role in their lower scores. Zone 4 is the principal central business district of Dhaka and Zone 7 is a mixture of residential and commercial areas. In part due to flooding (in Zone 4) and water logging (in Zone 7), about one-fourth of the population of these two zones suffers from water-borne diseases, which is more than in other areas. Economic CDRI. CDRI scores in the economic dimension imply medium to good levels of resilience against climate disaster. These scores vary from 2.1 to 3.4. Only two zones were found to be good and the rest of the eight zones are medium in economic CDRI. In economic dimension, Zones 9 and 10 again obtained the highest scores (3.11 and 3.41, respectively). As noted elsewhere, these are planned residential areas for higher-income groups. From income, employment, and household asset perspectives, these zones are in a good position. In both of these zones, about 40% of the households have motorized vehicles, which is a much higher proportion than in other zones. Furthermore, in these two zones the slum population is very low, about 10%. In contrast, Zones 1 and 3, which have the lowest scores (2.1 and 2.4, respectively) are the most densely populated poor areas of Dhaka. Most of the slums are located here and more than 40% of the population lives below the poverty line. Here, low income, unemployment, and lack of household assets are the prime factors for their low scores in Economic CDRI. Institutional CDRI. Institutional CDRI scores range from 1.8 to 3, which reveals poor to medium levels of resilience. It should be noted that only Zone 7 obtained an institutional CDRI score of less than 2, which denotes poor resilience. In fact, the mainstreaming of disaster risk reduction and climate change and the overall management of disaster are handled centrally by Dhaka City Corporation. However, with respect to the effectiveness of a zone’s crisis management framework, knowledge dissemination, institutional collaboration, and good governance, some zones evaluated themselves as medium to good and some zones rated themselves lower. While still considered to have medium levels of resilience, Zones 6 and 9 obtained the highest institutional CDRI scores (3 and 2.8, respectively). Zones 7 and 10 had the lowest scores. Natural CDRI. Natural CDRI scores vary from 1.8 to 2.8, representing poor to medium levels of resilience. Zones 1 and 3 have poor resilience levels, and the rest of the eight zones have medium levels of resilience. As noted earlier, Zones 1

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and 3 are the location of the poorest communities of the city. More than 50% of the area of these two zones is very exposed to climate-related hazards. Located on the banks of River Buriganga, both of these zones face severe flooding almost every year. Further, drainage congestion enhances water logging problems during the rainy season. Apart from this, the air, soil, and water quality is considered poor in these zones. Zone 3 houses tannery industries and Zone 1 contains the city bus terminal, the water terminal, and different types of small industries. Therefore, the overall environmental condition is poor in these zones. Moreover, high population density, poor housing conditions, and very limited green spaces have made these zones poor in the natural dimension of CDRI. It should be noted that although other zones are rated as medium in natural CDRI, during the rainy season the water logging condition is severe in some zones, especially Zone 4 and some parts of Zone 9. Ecosystems and environmental conditions are not so sound anywhere in Dhaka City. Important Development Sectors and Issues to Enhance Climate Disaster Resilience Each of the zone authorities was asked to prioritize the sectors (parameters) and issues (variables) that they consider important to enhancing the climate disaster resilience of their respective zones. From the analysis of the scores in five different dimensions, it is seen that zone officials prioritized dimensions, sectors, and issues differently. However, some development sectors and issues were consistently identified as high priority. Table 2 presents a few sectors and issues identified as most important to enhancing each zone’s climate disaster resilience.

Since Dhaka is one of the fastest-growing cities in the world, its built-up area is increasing and its green space and environmental condition is degrading rapidly. Therefore, most of the zonal officials place emphasis on the ecosystem and environmental policies. They also believe that education, awareness, and community preparedness are crucial to enhancing the city’s climate disaster resilience, since these aspects will increase the community’s ability to face disaster. Employment and road facilities would enhance any community’s CDRI.

Given the prime concern of climate disaster resilience, when prioritizing the development issues, most of the zonal authorities highlighted issues that are directly related to climate disaster. These included incorporation of Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) and Climate Change Adaptation (CCA) in the zone development plan, community participation, NGO and CBO participation, annual budget for disaster management, and interconnectedness and promptness during disaster.

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Table 2. Most Important CDRI Development Sectors (Parameters) and Issues (Variables) in Dhaka City

Most Important Parameters of CDRI Average Score (out of 5)

1. Ecosystem services 2. Environmental policies 3. Education and awareness 4. Employment 5. Accessibility of roads 6. Community preparedness

4.3 4.2 4

3.7 3.6 3.6

Most Important Variables of CDRI 1. Incorporation of DRR and CCA measures in zone’s

development plan 2. Extent of participation of zone’s population in community

activities 3. Capacity of zone’s health facility to face

emergency/hazardous situations 4. Total % of zone’s population living in proximity to

polluted industry/dumping ground/sea/beach 5. % of zone’s annual budget targeting disaster risk

management 6. Existence of an emergency team during disaster 7. Extent of use of zone-level hazard maps in development

activities 8. Awareness or knowledge of population about the threat and

impacts of disasters 9. Extent of support from NGOs/CBOs or religious

organizations after a disaster 10. Interconnectedness/collaboration with neighboring zones

for emergency management during a disaster 11. Promptness of zone authorities to disseminate emergency

information to communities during a disaster

4.4

4.1

4 4 4 4 4

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3.9

3.9

3.9 Interrelated Sectors and Issues in Climate Disaster Resilience After the assessment of priorities, the relationships between different sectors (parameters) and development issues (variables) were examined. Table 3 shows sectors and issues that have a strong correlation.

Development sectors and issues included in CDRI assessment may have influenced each other. Therefore, correlation analysis was conducted to identify

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the sectors and issues that may be related. This type of analysis would help in formulating effective policies to enhance the climate disaster resilience of DCC. Table 3. Parameters Having Higher Correlation Values

Parameters Having Higher Correlation Value Correlation Value • Housing and land use vs. household assets • Budget and subsidy vs. knowledge dissemination • Income vs. land use in natural terms • Household assets vs. ecosystem services • Accessibility of road vs. land use in natural terms • Housing and land use vs. income

0.83 0.85 0.82 0.88 0.79 0.79

The planned residential areas of Dhaka City are mainly for people in

higher-income groups. For instance, Zones 5, 9, and 10 are all planned residential areas, where most of the people have good employment with higher income and better household assets. This is supported by the high correlation values in the cases of housing and land use vs. household assets, housing and land use vs. income, and income vs. land use in natural terms. It is also interesting to note that household assets has a strong correlation with ecosystem services. In fact, the higher-income groups who have better household assets live in planned residential areas, which have relatively better ecosystem services as well. In this study, ecosystem services consider urban air, water, and soil quality and urban salinity and biodiversity.

Another interesting correlation is between accessibility to roads and land use in natural terms. It is seen that areas that are more vulnerable to climate-related hazards and have less green space are also poor in different aspects of accessibility to roads. For example, in Zones 1, 3, and 7 about half of the zones are located in areas vulnerable to climate-related hazards. The amount of parks, playgrounds, and green space is limited and disappearing fast. These zones also have poor accessibility to roads; the % of land use as transportation is not good and interruptions on the roads after heavy rains are relatively longer. Roads in these zones are more exposed to climate-related hazards, like floods, than in other areas.

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Implication of Zone-Level CDRI in the Planning and Development Processes of DCC The Hyogo Framework for Action (HFA) 2005–2015 prioritized five actions to reduce risk and build the resilience of nations and communities to disaster. The first is to prioritize disaster risk reduction at the local level. HFA outlines the importance and specificity of local risk patterns and trends. Research also supports the idea that natural hazards, disaster, and risks are essentially geographical in nature (Shahid and Behrawan 2008). Rather than addressing a broad area, risk and resilience analysis should be conducted within a more concentrated area. The HFA and various studies recognize the importance of local-level diversity and variation in determining disaster outcomes. It is important to capture this variation in the assessment of climate disaster resilience. A few areas/sectors where CDRI assessment of 10 zones of DCC would have wide implications are identified below. Strategic and Detailed Area Plan Preparation and Hazard Mapping Due to having a wide scope of work-, national-, state-, or city-level planning may not always address the real needs, problems, limitations, and opportunities of local communities. Therefore, master plans always need action plans or detailed area plans for local communities. For instance, Dhaka Metropolitan Development Plan (DMDP) is divided into three parts: Strategic Plan, Urban Area Plan, and Detailed Area Plan. Since the approach of CDRI is to try to plot the climate disaster resilience level at the micro-level of a city through detailed analysis of its physical, social, economic, institutional, and natural conditions, it can be a supplementary tool for detailed area development plan preparation for communities.

Furthermore, overall CDRI and CDRI scores associated with the five different dimensions can vividly depict the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats of each zone. Therefore, during strategic planning or policy formulation, it is easy to recognize the priority sectors and needs of a specific area. Eventually, this kind of strategic planning will be more effective for the locality. Since CDRI provides information related to areas vulnerable to climate-related hazards, located on hazardous ground, having poor settlement patterns and environmental conditions, and such other detailed information, it would help in preparing accurate hazard and vulnerability maps for each zone.

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Monitoring Progress Along with the preparation of detailed plans and a strategic plan for an area, CDRI results can help monitor the pace of progress in all the five dimensions of CDRI. It has been stated earlier that in analyzing various development sectors and issues, CDRI produces results and values that indicate the strengths and weaknesses of the sectors in the context of climate disaster resilience. Thus it leads to specific action planning and implementation. These planning and implementation actions can be monitored and progress can be measured if this approach is repeated at regular intervals (3 or 5 years). Further, if data related to CDRI variables and parameters can be regularly collected and made available in published form, monitoring would be easy and rapid. Development Budget Allocation In addition to the strategic planning and detailed area action planning, the budget allocation process of a specific area can be guided by the outcome of CDRI. CDRI can facilitate zone-specific, priority issue-specific, and risk and vulnerability specific budget allocation. For instance, CDRI results show that priority issues and development budget allocations cannot be the same for Zone 9 and Zones 1 or 3. The climate disaster resilience of a local area can thus be enhanced using the CDRI approach through more effective budget allocation, formulation of effective and efficient strategic planning, detailed area or community-level action planning, and, finally, implementation of these activities at the zone level. Capacity Building of the Local- and Central-Level Decision Makers, Planners, and Implementers Since CDRI analysis at the zone level provides detailed information related to zone-specific climate disaster-related vulnerabilities, risks, and resilience, it would act as an important resource for decision makers, planners, and implementers. It would make them aware of each of the sector and development issues that needs to be prioritized. It would identify the risks and areas where special attention and action planning are needed. By providing location-specific data, CDRI would enhance the capacity of central- and local-level city officials, decision makers, planners, and implementers.

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Comparative Analysis of the Locality With the use of the CDRI, the comparative position of zones in five different dimensions (social, economic, physical, institutional, and natural) can be examined. The results of this examination can be valuable inputs in the policy formulation process of development organizations. Through CDRI, policymakers, city authorities, local level development initiators and partners, and also donors and funding agencies can be made aware of the status of climate disaster resilience at the zone level. As a result, their priority selection, budget allocation, policy formulation, action planning, and implementation can be made easier, more efficient, and more effective. Conclusion It is widely assumed that more resilient cities or communities are less vulnerable to weather-related and other hazards (UN/ISDR 2002, cited in Klein, Nicholls, and Thomalla 2003). In order to build more resilient cities, it is necessary to assess the existing levels of resilience and vulnerabilities. But there is not much systematic and reproducible analysis to show what makes cities resilient and how resilience can be enhanced (Klein, Nicholls, and Thomalla 2003). In this context, the Climate Disaster Resilience Indexing of Dhaka City provides some guidance on measuring the resilience level of a city.

In this study, Climate Disaster Resilience Index (CDRI) analysis of Dhaka City Corporation (DCC) explores how resilient the different zones of DCC are. By examining the problems, potentialities, strengths, and weaknesses of 10 different zones of City Corporation, this study assesses the ability of each zone to absorb, maintain, and recover (bounce back) from a hazardous situation.

CDRI scores of the zones range from 2.4 to 3.1 out of 5, which implies poor to medium levels of resilience. Planned residential areas, which generally house medium- to high-income groups and are in relatively new parts of the city (Zones 9, 10, and 6), have higher scores in overall climate disaster resilience. These zones also have higher scores in physical and economic dimensions of climate disaster resilience, while social climate disaster resilience is comparatively lower than in the old part of the city.

Zones 1, 4, and 7 obtained overall CDRI scores ranging from 2.4 to 2.5, which are the lowest of the 10 zones. These zones have different socioeconomic and physical characteristics and the reasons behind their low levels of resilience are different. Zones 1 and 4 are the two most densely populated areas of Dhaka and contain a large number of slums and squatters. These two zones are also highly vulnerable to flooding and water logging. In contrast, although the

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population density of Zone 7 is lower than that of Zones 1 and 4, it is also vulnerable to water logging. The institutional dimension score of this zone is the lowest. Coupled with this lowest level of institutional resilience, low scores in social, economic, and natural dimensions of climate disaster resilience contributed to Zone 7 being the worst performer in the CDRI assessment.

The social resilience of planned residential areas can be enhanced without much resource allocation, since the social dimension comprises parameters and variables that do not require as many resources as in other dimensions. Community awareness, preparedness against disaster, community participation, ethnic linkages, and community support during disasters can be promoted by motivation and awareness building in the community. Therefore, as an immediate and initial effort, the city authority should emphasize these social issues to enhance the climate disaster resilience of each zone.

This CDRI assessment shows that different zones have different levels of climate disaster resilience. Since zones differ in location and functional characteristics, their problems, vulnerabilities, and potentialities are different. Therefore, zones need to have zone-specific development plans, programs, and sectorial priorities in order to enhance their climate disaster resilience. But the regretful fact is that zones have neither any power nor the ability to prepare a development plan addressing their local problems and needs. In 1990, Dhaka City Corporation was divided into 10 zones with a view to decentralizing administration. Every zone has an office for administration and there are about 10 sub-departments to operate and manage administration and development activities within the zone. But there is no cell or department to handle or manage disaster risk. Any sort of development plan and program formulation is done solely by the central authority of the City Corporation. However, at the central level, too, there is no specific plan for disaster management. Since the Standing Order of Disaster (Government order) made the provision for constituting a Disaster Management Committee at the City Corporation level, DCC has formed this committee and this committee has some prescribed duties to perform before, during, and after any disaster (discussed in the section Climate Disaster Risk Reduction and Management). It is claimed that from the perspective of climate change, fast-growing cities pose difficult challenges for local governments (Roy 2009). In spite of numerous challenges, no remarkable steps have yet been taken to mainstream climate change adaptation and disaster risk reduction at all levels of DCC.

Recently, the Government of Bangladesh published the National Plan for Disaster Management 2008–2015. This plan recommends the preparation of a City Corporation Disaster Management Plan for each city. So it is expected that in the near future DCC will prepare its disaster management plan. This Disaster Management Plan of Dhaka City Corporation should incorporate zone-specific

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disaster management plans, where this CDRI analysis could provide important guidance. It is expected that CDRI outcomes would facilitate identifying need, problem-specific policy formulation, hazard mapping, disaster management plan formulation, budget allocation, and, finally, overall development plan implementation. Thus the climate disaster resilience of each zone would be enhanced. All the prime government offices, administrative organizations, industrial headquarters, educational institutions, health facilities, and businesses are located in Dhaka, and the proper functioning of all these organizations and institutions is the foremost requirement for the development and prosperity of the whole country. Therefore, reducing disaster risk and building climate disaster resilience in Dhaka is an urgent need. References Alam, Mozaharul, and M.D. Golam Rabbani. 2009. “Vulnerabilities and

Responses to Climate Change for Dhaka.” In Adapting Cities to Climate Change—Understanding and Addressing the Development Challenges, eds. David Satterthwaite, David Dodman, and Jane Bicknell. London: Earthscan, 93-110.

Cities Alliance. 2010. “Cities Without Slums, Climate Migration Drives Slum Growth in Dhaka.” http://www.citiesalliance.org/ca/node/420 (accessed May 27, 2010).

City Profiles Series. 2006. “Dhaka Bangladesh, Disaster Risk Management Profile.” http://emi.pdc.org/cities/cp_Dhaka-July 2006.pdf (accessed June 6, 2010).

Dewan, Ashraf M., and Yasushi Yamaguchi. 2009. “Land Use and Land Cover Change in Greater Dhaka, Bangladesh: Using Remote Sensing to Promote Sustainable Urbanization.” Applied Geography 29: 390-401.

Dewan, A.M., Makoto Nishigaki, and Mitsuru Komatsu. 2004. “DEM Based Flood Extent Delineation in Dhaka City, Bangladesh.” Journal of the Faculty of Environmental Science and Technology 19 (1): 99-110.

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Hossain, Shhadat. 2006. “Rapid Mass Urbanization and its Social Consequences in Bangladesh: The Case of the Megacity of Dhaka.” Paper presented at 16th Biennial Conference of the Asian Studies Association of Australia in Wollongong, June 26–29, 2006.

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Climate Disaster Resilience of Dhaka City Corporation: An Empirical Assessment at Zone Level