Be quiet!Take care!Listen to me carefully

Please listen to what I'm saying

Instead of using an imperative, you can use a phrase instead. Here are some common ways of phrasing an order, in order of the most indirect to the most direct:

Would you mind possibly… (+ ing) (Most indirect)Would you mind possibly moving your car? It's parked right in front of mine.

I was hoping you could … (+ infinitive without to)I was hoping you could spare me a few minutes this morning.

Do you think you could … (+ infinitive without to)Do you think you could do this photocopying for me?

If you have a couple of minutes spare…If you have a couple of minutes spare, the office needs tidying up.

I'd like you to…I'd like you to file this correspondence for me.

I want you to…I want you to finish this by tomorrow.

4. Use sequencing words

You can use sequencing words to make instructions clear.

Firstly, make sure the appliance is disconnected.Secondly, open the back with a screwdriver.Then, carefully pull out the two black cables….

Warnings

You can use the imperative to warn someone of danger. All the words in the warning are stressed, but the last word has a higher tone than the first word:

"Watch out!""Look out!""Don't cross!"

Advice

When you give advice using the imperative, the words are stressed normally:

"Eat an apple – it's much better for you than a biscuit!"

"Don't tell him you're resigning now! Wait until Monday when he's in a better mood."

You can often read articles in magazines that give advice on a subject. Sometimes, this advice is presented as "Dos and don'ts".

For example:

Travelling long-distance

Do try to sleep well the night beforeDo drink plenty of waterDo try to walk about the plane during the flightDon't drink alcoholDon't eat heavy mealsDon't wear restrictive clothing

Requests

You can also use the imperative to make a request, but you should use a polite word before the verb:

"Please take a seat.""Please wait here.""Please hold the line.""Please don't smoke here."

In written English, you might also see "Kindly" used as a polite word:

"Kindly return the documents as soon as possible.""Kindly forward this to the Sales and Marketing department.""Kindly send me 2 copies of your brochure."

She doesn't like swimming, does she?(No, she doesn't.)

He can't cook, can he?(No he can't.)

He's interesting, isn't he?(Yes, he is.)

We've been here before, haven't we?

How to make question tags

To make a question tag in English, use the auxiliary verb (if there is one) in the sentence.

She doesn't like… (doesn't is the auxiliary)

He can't cook… (can't is the auxiliary)

He's interesting… (is is the auxiliary)

We've been here… (have is the auxiliary)

Negative and positive tags

If the auxiliary is negative, the tag is positive.

NEGATIVEShe doesn't like…

…does she?POSITIVE

If the auxiliary is positive, the tag is negative.

POSITIVEHe's interesting…

…isn't he?NEGATIVE

No auxiliary?

If there isn't an auxiliary in the verb, use the right form of 'do' instead.

He likes tennis, doesn't he?

You saw her last week, didn't you?

We don't know that for a fact, do we?

Pronunciation

If your voice goes up on the tag, you make a question. If your voice drops on the tag, then you aren't making a question, but you are asking someone to agree with you.

There are four main types of if sentences in English, often called conditional sentences.

These sentences are in two halves, with the if part in one half and the other part where you can use words such as can, will, may, might, could and would.

If + present form + present form

"If you heat ice, it melts."

In this type of sentence, you could use when instead of if. It's always true that when you heat ice it melts. This is why this type of sentence is sometimes called a zero conditional.

If + present form, + will, can or may

"If I am late, I will call you."

"If you need me, you can call me at home."

"If it gets any hotter, we may have a thunder storm."

In these sentences (or first conditional sentences), there is a strong possibility that the first part (coming after if) is going to happen. The second part says what will happen as a result.

If + past form + would, could or might

"If I got a pay rise, I would buy a new car."

"If you left your job, you could travel around the world."

"If you were nicer to him, he might lend you the money."

In these sentences, the first part with if shows that the event is unlikely to happen. In English, we often use this type of sentence (called a second conditional) to talk about hypotheses, or imaginary future events.

For example, "If I was President of the United States, I would change some laws." But I know that I'll never be the President of the USA – I'm just saying what I would do if I was in his/her position. Note: in American English, it is correct to use "if I were…" In British English, it's more common to say "if I was…"

If + past perfect + would/might/could have done

"If I had revised, I would have passed my exams."

"If we had gone out earlier, we might have got to the cinema on time."

"If you had told me there was a problem, I could have helped."

In these sentences (or third conditional sentences), the first part of the sentence with if didn't happen. So there is no possibility of the second part of the sentence happening. I didn't revise, so I didn't pass my exams and there is nothing I can do about it now. English speakers use this type of sentence to show how things could have been different.

There are different types of infinitive in English.

The most common is the "to do" form of the verb, as in "I want to study English", which we use after many verbs.

There's also the "bare infinitive" (infinitive without "to") which we use after modal verbs, other auxiliary verbs, or certain other verbs in the active voice, such as make or let.

Other types of infinitive are the continuous infinitive ("He wants to be working as a teacher by next year"); the perfect infinitive ("I'm sorry, but I seem to have forgotten your name") and the passive infinitive ("He hopes to be selected for the short list").

Verbs that take the infinitive

Here are some common verbs which you must follow with the infinitive ("to do"):

afford, agree, appear, ask, attempt, beg, choose, decide, deserve, expect, forget, help, hope, intend, offer, plan, promise, refuse. threaten, want, wish.

Some of the verbs above can also be followed with an object and an infinitive:

ask someone to dobeg someone to dochoose someone to doexpect someone to dowant someone to do

These verbs are followed by an object and an infinitive:

advise, allow, encourage, force, forbid, invite, order, permit, persuade, teach, tell, warn.

Some verbs, such as continue, begin and start can be followed with the infinitive or gerund with no change in meaning.

For verbs that take the gerund, as well as verbs that take both, see our page on gerunds.

Adjectives and infinitives

You can use an infinitive after an adjective. For example:

"I'm happy to help you.""English is easy to understand.""It's lovely to sit in the garden."

To do / for + ing

When you talk about how you use something (often on a particular occasion), use the "to do" form.

"Use these scissors to cut this paper.""Here – use this bowl to put the sugar in."

When you talk about the general purpose of an object, use for + ing.

"These scissors are for cutting material.""We use the other remote for changing channels."

Also use the infinitive to talk about purpose.

"He studied hard to pass the exam." (Sometimes you'll see "in order to", as in "He studied hard in order to pass the exam."

Negative infinitives

If you want to make the infinitive negative, put the "not" before "to".For example, "I decided not to apply for the job" and not "I decided to not apply for the job".

Split infinitives

Many English grammar experts say that putting an adverb between the "to" and the rest of the infinitive is bad writing style. Where possible, you can put the adverb at the end of the sentence so you don't separate the two parts of the infinitive.

For example: "He decided to quickly eat lunch" becomes "He decided to eat lunch quickly."

Here are some useful ways to describe where things are.

Location

Two things can be next to each other. (For example, A is next to B in the alphabet.)

One thing can be between (or in between) two other things. (For example, B is between A and C in the alphabet.)

One thing can be near another. For example, London is near to Oxford.

The opposite of near is far from. For example, Edinburgh, the capital of Scotland, is far from London.

One thing can be opposite another thing. If you are sitting face to face with another person, then you are sitting opposite that person.

If you are in a queue, someone can be behind you (so you are before that person) and someone can be in front of you (so you are behind that person).

One thing can be on another thing. For example, my computer is on my desk.

One thing can be under another thing. For example, I have a mousepad under my mouse.

Below means a lower level. In a group of four football teams (team A, team B, team C and team d), team C are below team B.

Above means on a higher level. Team A are above Team B, and team B is above team C.

On top of means that something is physically located above another thing.For example, there is a pile of things on my desk. First, there is a newspaper. On top of the newspaper there is a book. On top of the book is a cup of coffee.

At the top means that something is located at the highest point. "We're pleased that she is at the top of her class for English."

At the bottom means that something is located at the lowest point. "We're not pleased that she is at the bottom of her class for Maths."

Direction

Across means on the other side. "I live at no 1, London Road. Across from me (on the other side of the road) is no 2, London Road."

"Go across the road." (=cross the road)

Walk along the river. (follow the river)

Walk by the river. (walk near the river)

Walk beside the river. (walk next to the river)

Go up the stairs.

Go down the stairs.

(You can also walk up or down a road or street.)

Go through the tunnel. (You go in one side, then you come out on the other side.)

Go straight on (at a crossroads or a roundabout).

Go round the corner.

Walk around a town. (Walk in a circle, or in a random pattern.)

Go past something – walk past something so that it then is behind you.

Go over something – go over / cross the railway line.

Direct questions – yes / no questions in English.

1. He likes swimming.2. He can swim long distances.3. He is a good swimmer.

To make sentence 1 into a question, you need to add does. The does goes before he.

Does is only used if the subject is he, she or it – in all other cases, use do.

The verb like goes after the subject, but it doesn't have an 's' on the end.

Remember: after auxiliary verbs (like do, does, have, can, etc.) the verb is in the infinitive, without 'to'.

"Does he like swimming?" Not "Does he likes swimming?" or "Do he like swimming?"

If the sentence is in the past tense (he liked swimming), we use the past form of 'do' or 'does', which is did. The verb 'like' is still in the infinitive without 'to'.

For example, "Did he like swimming?" Not "Did he liked swimming?"

To make sentence 2 into a question, you don't need to use 'does' because you already have an auxiliary verb – can. So you put the can before he.

"Can he swim long distances?" Not "Can swim he long distances?" or "Does he can swim long distances?"

To make sentence 3 into a question, use is as the auxiliary.

"Is he a good swimmer?" Not "Does he is a good swimmer?" or "Does he be a good swimmer?"

Direct questions – "wh" questions

What is your name?Why do you want this job?How much do you earn?How soon can you start?When did you see the advertisement?Where do you live?Which newspaper did you see the advertisement in?Who gave you my name?

After the "wh word" (what, why, how, when, etc) comes the auxiliary (do, does, did or can), then the subject (you) , then the rest of the question.

Note: if 'who', 'which' or 'what' are the subject of the question, you don't need an auxiliary.

For example, "What happened?" Not "What did happen?" The thing that happened is what – the subject of the question.

"Who saw you?" Someone saw you – who was it?

Compare with "Who did you see?" You saw someone – who was it?)

"Which company made a profit?" A company made a profit – which company was it?

Compare with "Which company did you work for?" You worked for a company – which one was it?

Indirect questions in English

If you want to ask a question that is quite sensitive, try using one of the indirect phrases below:

Can you tell me…Could you tell me…I'd be interested to hear…I'd like to know…Would you mind telling me…

These questions are followed by either about, a "wh word" or if. Then you add the subject, then the sentence.

You don't need an 'auxiliary', such as 'do', 'does', 'did', or 'can'.

"Can you tell me what you like most about your present job?" Not "Can you tell me what do you like?"

"I'd be interested to hear about your experiences."

"Would you mind telling me if you have applied for a similar position before?"

In English grammar, it's sometimes hard to remember which preposition is used with which adjective. The list below is a handy reference for the more common adjectives.

afraid of"I'm afraid of heights."also scared of, frightened of

angry about something"She was angry about the new rules at work."

angry with someone"He was angry with his son for coming home late."

bad at something"The student was bad at Geography."also good at

crazy about something"She was crazy about the Spice Girls and had all their CD's."

different from or to something / someone"The English are different from the Americans."

happy to do something"She was happy to help."also glad to and pleased to

happy for someone"I was happy for him when he passed his exam."also pleased for

happy with someone / something"The boss was happy with his work."also pleased with and satisfied with

ill with something"She's ill with the flu."

nice to someone"Be nice to him – he's had a bad day."

polite to someone"The policeman was very polite to me."

ready to do something"I'm ready to start work now."

ready for something / someone"It takes me an hour to get the children ready for school."

responsible for something / someone"She felt responsible for her children."

tired from doing something (physically tired)"I'm tired from all this hard work."also exhausted from

tired with or of something (fed up, bored with)"She was tired of taking the train to work every day and decided to drive instead."

typical of someone"It's typical of her to do that for you – she always offers to help."

English Grammar Tip

The secret of remembering the right preposition in English grammar is through practice. Try to use them as much as possible and you'll soon be saying them without having to think.

English speakers use "wish" to show that they want a situation to be different. The verb after "wish" is one tense back, so that if you are wishing for a different present situation, the tense that follows "wish" is past simple or past continuous. If you are wishing that a past situation was different, the tense that comes after "wish" is past perfect. You can also use "wish" with modal verbs in English.

Wish and present situations

Situation: My sister is untidy. (Verb "to be" in the present simple)Wish:I wish she was tidier. (Verb "to be" in past simple)

Situation: I am going to London next week. (Verb "to go" in present continuous)Wish: "I wish I wasn't going to London next week." (Verb "to go" in past continuous)

Situation: I haven't studied for the English test. (Verb "to study" in present perfect)Wish: "I wish I had studied for the English test." (Verb "to study" in past perfect)

Wish and past situations

Situation: I didn't go on holiday this year. (Verb "to go" is in past simple)Wish: "I wish I had gone on holiday this year. (Verb "to go" is in past perfect.)

Wish with modal verbs

With could to refer to ability

Situation: I can't play a musical instrument.Wish: "I wish I could play a musical instrument."

With would to refer to habits and free will

Situation: He whistles in the office.Wish: I wish he wouldn't whistle in the office. (In this sentence you are stressing the fact he wants to whistle and makes a habit of it.)

You could also say: "I wish he didn't whistle in the office." (In this sentence you aren't stressing his desire to whistle, but you are just making a comment about a present situation.)

The "had done" form (or past perfect) is one of the least used tenses in English. We only really use it in the following situations.

* When it's important to say which event happened first in the past

* In reported speech

* To show regret about the past

* In conditional (if) sentences

Normally, when we say what happened in the past in English, we use the simple past or past continuous form.

For example, "He got up early to go to the beach. He spent all day there and went home as it was getting dark."

We know which order things happened in, so we don't need the past perfect tense.

Sometimes, we need to explain which events happened before other ones (especially if we "jump" around in our story). When we need to show that one thing happened before another, we can use the past perfect form.

For example, "I was hungry, as I hadn't eaten all day." (Being hungry happened after not eating all day.)

Compare these two sentences:

"When he got to the airport, the plane took off." (The plane took off after he arrived at the airport.)

"When he got to the airport, the plane had taken off." (The plane took off before he arrived at the airport.)

Reported speech in English

"I didn't see her," he said.Because his words are in the past, when we report them we need to go one tense back and use the past perfect.

"He told me he hadn't seen her."

This is also the case if the words are in the present perfect."I have never been to Scotland."She said that she had never been to Scotland.

To show regret

I wish I hadn't gone to the party. (But I went.)If only she hadn't bought that car. (But she did.)

Conditional sentences (when we speculate about past events)

If I had worked harder, I would have passed the exam. (But I didn't work harder, so I failed.)

If you had told me, I could have helped. (But you didn't tell me, so I couldn't help.)

If they had left earlier, they might have caught the plane. (But they didn't leave earlier, so they didn't get the plane.)

We use some and any with uncountable nouns and plural nouns. The general rule is that you use "some" in positive sentences and "any" in negative sentences and questions.

"I have some ideas.""I don't have any ideas.""Do you have any ideas?"

However, we can also use "some" in questions.

"Would you like some tea?" (I expect the answer to be "Yes".)

When we use some in a question, we limit what we are offering the other person.

For example, "Can I get you something to drink? – Coffee, or tea?" means I am offering you a limited choice of things to drink.

When we use "any" in a question, we are not limiting the choice.

For example, "Would you like anything to drink?" includes a whole range of things to drink."Do you have any questions?" (You can ask me anything you like!)

We can also use any in positive sentences which have a negative meaning. We often use "any" with "hardly", "without" or "never".

"There's hardly any petrol left in the car – we need to go to a garage.""He went out without any money on him.""She never has any problem understanding."

We can also use "some" and "any" at the end of a sentence, as pronouns.

"Do you need any money for the shopping?""It's OK, but I've already got some." (some = some money)

"Who ate all the chocolates?""Not me. I haven't had any." (any = any chocolates)

Compound uses of some and any

We can combine some and any with other words:

Something – anythingSomewhere – anywhereSomeone – anyoneSomebody – anybody

The rules for using these are the same as the rules for using some and any.

"I need to find somewhere to live." (positive sentence)"Is there anywhere you would recommend?" (question)"I didn't know anyone at the party." (negative sentence)"Somebody at the party spilt beer on the carpet." (we're not sure who)

Do you feel confident about quantifiers in English Check out our grammar exercise to check your understanding of some, any, no and a.

Using the correct tense and verb form is important in English grammar. Here's a simple rule to help you choose which tense to use – which tense you use depends on how you see the event or action.

Routine or permanent situations

– use the simple form. For example, "I live in London" tells you that "live" is true all the time – London is my home.

"I lived in the countryside when I was a child" – this was a long-term situation in the past.

Temporary or continuing situations

– use the continuous form. For example, "I'm working as a secretary at the moment" – the job isn't permanent and maybe I'm doing it for a while until I get another job.

"House prices are rising" – they are continuing to rise and haven't stopped rising yet.

"She was wearing a black dress" – she put it on before I saw her and she still wore it after I saw her – wearing the dress continued over a period of time.

Connecting different times

– use the perfect form to show that one event was completed before another, or to show that one situation continues from one time to another.

For example, "I have lived here for two years" – I started to live here two years ago and I still live here.

"I will have finished the report before next week" – some time before next week, but I don't know exactly when.

"He had studied law before he met her" – he studied law before he met her, but we don't know when.

We can use "used to" to talk about a past habit or state.

An example for a state: "He used to live in London" (but he doesn't now)

An example for a habit: "He used to go on holiday to Scotland every year" (but he doesn't now)

"Used to" is the same for all subjects, and you follow it with the infinitive without "to":

I used to smoke.You used to smoke.He used to smoke.She used to smoke.We used to smoke.They used to smoke.

To make the negative, use "didn't" + use + to + verb. (Remove the final /d/ ending from "used".)

I didn't use to smoke.He didn't use to smoke.

To make the question, use "did" as the auxiliary, and take the final /d/ ending off "used":

Did you use to smoke?Did she use to smoke?

To talk about past habits in English, you can also use would + infinitive without "to":

We would go to Scotland every year when I was a child.We would travel there by car overnight.

However, you cannot use "would" in this way to talk about past states. For this, you must use "used to".

Be used to + doing

There's a big difference between used to live – to talk about past habits or states and is used to doing – to talk about our familiarity with a place, or activity.

The form is subject + verb to be + used to + verb in the ing form / noun

I am / was used to studying English every day.I am used to his jokes. (example with a noun)You are / were used to studying English every day.He is / was used to studying English every day.

You can change the verb "to be" with the verb "get" to talk about the process of becoming used to something (rather than the state of being used to something).

"If you live in England, you will get used to driving on the left!" (= you will become used to it)"He finally got used to the winter weather.

Don't make the mistake of combining both forms "used to do" and "be used to doing", as in "I am used to study."

Remember: Either "I used to study" (past habit but no longer true) or"I am used to studying" (I am familiar with studying).

There are many words and expressions to refer to time. You can use these to sequence events and to make stories and anecdotes more interesting.

The present – permanent

Use the present simple tense to refer to permanent situations in the present.

I now live in a small town.Nowadays I live in a small town.These days, I don't have much of a social life.

The present – temporary

Use the present continuous tense to refer to temporary situations in the present.

At present / At the moment I'm living in a small town.For the time being I'm living in a small town, but I hope to move soon.

Talking about a period of time in the past

My mother started work as a nurse in the 1960s.In those days she lived in London.Back then nurses were badly paid.At that time, nurses lived in special accommodation.

Talking about a single event in the past

At one time she lost her door key and had to stay in a hotel.On one occasion she nursed the son of a famous politician.

Sequencing events in the past

There are many ways to sequence events in the past. Here are some of the more common ones.

After (in the middle of a sentence)Afterwards / After that / After a while (at the beginning of a sentence)Then / Before (in the middle or at the beginning of a sentence)Before that / Previously / Until then (At the beginning of a sentence)By the time (in the middle of a sentence followed by a past perfect tense)By then / by that time (at the beginning of a sentence)

I went shopping after I finished work.I worked all day in the office. Afterwards / After that, I went shopping.

I went shopping. After a while, I got bored.I worked before I went shopping.I went shopping at 6pm. Before that / Previously / Until then I had worked all day in the office.I worked all day, then I went shopping.I was desperate to go shopping by the time I had finished work.I worked until 6pm. By then / By that time, I was glad for the opportunity to go shopping.

Other expressions to refer to the next event in a story

Later onBefore longAt that moment / SuddenlyMeanwhileAt the same timeSimultaneously (a more formal way of saying meanwhile / at the same time)

I worked and then went shopping. Later on I met some friends for pizza.I waited for a while in the restaurant. Before long, the waiter came up and asked me…At that moment / Suddenly, I heard the door slam.Meanwhile / At the same time / Simultaneously my phone started to ring.

People who are no longer "around"

An ex-president = no longer the president: "The ex-president of France is still influential."A previous / former boss: "A previous boss taught me how to make presentations.""My former boss now works for a different company."My late wife = my wife who has died: "My late wife painted watercolours."

There are two types of relative clauses in English: those that add extra information (non-defining relative clauses) and those that modify (or define) the subject of the sentence (defining relative clauses).

Defining clauses

These clauses define the noun and they identify which thing or person we are referring to. Use a relative pronoun to refer to the noun: "who" for a person, and "which" or "that" for a noun.

Things

"The present which he bought me is beautiful."

People

"The man who has started an English course is from Spain."

Using whom

Whom is used to refer to the object of the verb.

"The people with whom I was sitting were very noisy."

However, it is hardly ever used in spoken English. Instead, "who" is used with the preposition (with the �preposition coming at the end of the clause):

"The people who I was sitting with were very noisy."To whom are you speaking? = "Who are you speaking to?"For whom are you buying the present? = "Who are you buying the present for?"

Using that

In spoken English, "that" is often used instead of "which", "whom" or "who".

"The present that he bought me is beautiful."

"The man that has started an English course is from Spain."

When, where and whose

When: "Is there another time when (that) I can call you?"

Where: "Can you tell me where I can buy wrapping paper?"

Whose: (possessive) "Have you seen the TV show whose catchphrase is "Deal no deal?" �

Omitting that, who and which

If the pronoun ("that", "who", "which") is the object of the verb, it can be omitted.

"The company that she works for is based in London." ("That" is an object pronoun.)

= "The company she works for is based in London." ("That" can be omitted.)

But:

"The company that employs her is based in London." ("That" is a subject pronoun.)

The company employs her (the company is the subject). In this case, it is not possible to omit "that". You need the pronoun because it is the subject of the verb.

Non-defining relative clauses

These clauses add further information.

"My students, who are all adults, are learning English to get a better job."

"The textbooks, which the students like, have lots of helpful examples."

Commas are used to separate the relative clause from the rest of the sentence.

"That" cannot be used instead of "who"or "which" in non-defining relative clauses.

You can use "some", "none", "all" and "many" with "which" and "whom" to add extra information:� � � � �"My students, many of whom are from Europe, are learning English to get a better job.""The textbooks, some of which the students like, have helpful examples."

Comparing defining and non-defining relative clauses

The meaning of the sentences changes if you use a non-defining clause rather than a defining clause. Compare the following:

Non-defining"The students, who had revised hard, passed the exam." (All the students revised and they all passed the exam.

Defining"The students who had revised hard passed the exam." (Only some of the students revised, and these were the ones who passed the exam.)

Sentences like "It's essential that he be informed" or "If I were you, I'd leave" are examples of the subjunctive.

The subjunctive is more common in American English and formal British English than it is in spoken or informal British English. It's used to refer to situations that are not real (but are desirable) or hypothetical situations.

We typically use the subjunctive after verbs such as recommend / suggest / propose / insist / demand / ask or phrases such as it is essential / vital / necessary that…

Examples

I suggest that he examine the proposal carefully.They demanded that he leave immediately.I ask that you be vigilant about security.It is vital that we accept this offer.

The subjunctive is also common in conditional sentences, such as "If I were you, I'd…" or "If he were…" etc. Again, this is far more common in American English than in British English where you might also hear "If I was you" or "If he was…"

Other examples of hypothetical sentences using the subjunctive are with "suppose", "wish", "if" and "as if":

Suppose I were your boss. How would you feel?I wish it were easier to explain, but…If it weren't for his quick thinking, we would have been in great danger.He talks about his country as if it were a paradise

How to form the subjunctiveUse the base form of the verb (without "to"). This form is the same for I, you, he / she, we or they, and can be used to describe either present or past situations. The exception is the verb "to be" where the past subjuntive form is "were".

Avoiding the subjunctiveBritish English speakers will typically avoid the subjunctive by using a form such as "should":

I suggest that he should examine…They demanded that he should leave…

Alternatively, a gerund is also possible with verbs such as suggest / propose / recommend / insist + onI suggested examining…I recommended taking…They proposed delaying the decision.He insisted on speaking.

In English, the gerund (or ing form) – for example swimming or smoking – is a type of noun. (Don't confuse it with the present participle, which we often use in continuous tense forms, for example.)

The gerund can be the subject of a sentence: "Swimming is good for you"; or the object of a sentence, "I don't like swimming".

After some verbs

You use the ing form after some verbs such as enjoy, admit, appreciate, can't stand / help / bear, deny, avoid, mind, understand, consider, finish, imagine and resent.

For example, "I can't stand doing nothing", or "She denied breaking the copier".

With other verbs, use the gerund after a preposition.

admit to (doing)approve of (doing)argue about (doing)concentrate on (doing)feel like (doing)forget about (doing)insist on (doing)plan on (doing)talk about (doing)think about (doing)

(See our page on infinitives for verbs that are followed by the infinitive.)

With 'from' and 'to' with some verbs

Prevent / stop someone from doing: "He prevented her from leaving."

Look forward to doing: "We look forward to hearing from you soon."

Object to doing: "Does anyone object to me smoking?"

Get used to doing: "It took him a long time to get used to living in a city."

Prefer something to doing something else: "I prefer cooking to doing the dishes."

After prepositions

"Before going out he turned off the heating."

"I'm tired of arguing."

"These are used for cracking walnuts."

"I passed the exam by remembering the equations."

In some fixed expressions

"As well as doing…""It's no good doing…""It's no use doing…"

Some verbs can use either the 'to do' or the 'ing' form

See / hear / watch someone do / doing

With the verb form do, you see or hear the whole action. For example,"I heard him tell you about the letter."

With the verb form ing you only see or hear part of the action. For example, "I saw her drinking a coffee in the bar."

Remember / regret

If you use ing after these verbs, you are talking about something that happened before. "I remember coming here as a child" – I'm not a child any more, but I remember the times when I came here before.

"I regret not studying." (I didn't study in the past and I regret it now.)

If you use the to do form after these verbs, then you are referring to something in the future.

"Please remember to turn off the lights." (Please don't forget to do it later.)

"I regret to inform you that…" (I'm just about to tell you some bad news.)

Stop

"I want to stop smoking." (I want to break my habit.)

"She stopped to sit down." (She stopped walking so that she could sit down.)

Try

Try + ing = try out this experiment.

Try reading something in English every day." (You may be surprised at the results!)

Try to do = try hard to do something.

"Please try to be quiet when you come in." (Please make an effort.)

Linking words help you to connect ideas and sentences, so that people can follow your ideas.

Giving examples

For exampleFor instanceNamely

The most common way of giving examples is by using for example or for instance.

Namely refers to something by name."There are two problems: namely, the expense and the time."

Adding information

AndIn additionAs well asAlsoTooFurthermoreMoreoverApart fromIn addition toBesides

Ideas are often linked by and. In a list, you put a comma between each item, but not before and.

"We discussed training, education and the budget."Also is used to add an extra idea or emphasis. "We also spoke about marketing."

You can use also with not only to give emphasis."We are concerned not only by the costs, but also by the competition."

We don't usually start a sentence with also. If you want to start a sentence with a phrase that means also, you can use In addition, or In addition to this…

As well as can be used at the beginning or the middle of a sentence."As well as the costs, we are concerned by the competition.""We are interested in costs as well as the competition."

Too goes either at the end of the sentence, or after the subject and means as well."They were concerned too.""I, too, was concerned."

Apart from and besides are often used to mean as well as, or in addition to."Apart from Rover, we are the largest sports car manufacturer.""Besides Rover, we are the largest sports car manufacturer."

Moreover and furthermore add extra information to the point you are making."Marketing plans give us an idea of the potential market. Moreover, they tell us about the competition."

Summarising

In shortIn briefIn summaryTo summariseIn a nutshellTo concludeIn conclusion

We normally use these words at the beginning of the sentence to give a summary of what we have said or written.

Sequencing ideas

The former, … the latterFirstly, secondly, finallyThe first point isLastlyThe following

The former and the latter are useful when you want to refer to one of two points.

"Marketing and finance are both covered in the course. The former is studied in the first term and the latter is studied in the final term."

Firstly, … secondly, … finally (or lastly) are useful ways to list ideas.

It's rare to use "fourthly", or "fifthly". Instead, try the first point, the second point, the third point and so on.

The following is a good way of starting a list."The following people have been chosen to go on the training course: N Peters, C Jones and A Owen."

Giving a reason

Due to / due to the fact thatOwing to / owing to the fact thatBecauseBecause of

SinceAs

Due to and owing to must be followed by a noun.

"Due to the rise in oil prices, the inflation rate rose by 1.25%."

"Owing to the demand, we are unable to supply all items within 2 weeks."

If you want to follow these words with a clause (a subject, verb and object), you must follow the words with the fact that.

"Due to the fact that oil prices have risen, the inflation rate has gone up by 1%25."

"Owing to the fact that the workers have gone on strike, the company has been unable to fulfill all its orders."

Because / because of

Because of is followed by a noun.

"Because of bad weather, the football match was postponed."

Because can be used at the beginning or in the middle of a sentence. For example, "Because it was raining, the match was postponed."

"We believe in incentive schemes, because we want our employees to be more productive."

Since / as

Since and as mean because.

"Since the company is expanding, we need to hire more staff."

As the company is expanding, we need to hire more staff."

Giving a result

ThereforeSoConsequentlyThis means thatAs a result

Therefore, so, consequently and as a result are all used in a similar way.

"The company are expanding. Therefore / So / Consequently / As a result, they are taking on extra staff."

So is more informal.

Contrasting ideas

ButHoweverAlthough / even thoughDespite / despite the fact thatIn spite of / in spite of the fact thatNeverthelessNonethelessWhileWhereasUnlikeIn theory… in practice…

But is more informal than however. It is not normally used at the beginning of a sentence.

"He works hard, but he doesn't earn much.""He works hard. However, he doesn't earn much."

Although, despite and in spite of introduce an idea of contrast. With these words, you must have two halves of a sentence.

"Although it was cold, she went out in shorts.""In spite of the cold, she went out in shorts."

Despite and in spite of are used in the same way as due to and owing to. They must be followed by a noun. If you want to follow them with a noun and a verb, you must use the fact that.

"Despite the fact that the company was doing badly, they took on extra employees."

Nevertheless and nonetheless mean in spite of that or anyway.

"The sea was cold, but he went swimming nevertheless." (In spite of the fact that it was cold.)"The company is doing well. Nonetheless, they aren't going to expand this year."

While, whereas and unlike are used to show how two things are different from each other.

"While my sister has blue eyes, mine are brown."

"Taxes have gone up, whereas social security contributions have gone down."

"Unlike in the UK, the USA has cheap petrol."

In theory… in practice… show an unexpected result.

"In theory, teachers should prepare for lessons, but in practice, they often don't have enough time."

In English, the verbs "make" and "let" are followed by an object and the infinitive without "to":

They can't make you work late.She made him do the exercise again.

She lets the students sing in class.His parents let him paint his room black.

Be careful: in the passive, "make" is followed by the infinitive with "to":

They were made to do the exercise again.

"Have" can also be used in this pattern:

Please have your secretary call me as soon as possible.

(Please ask your secretary to call me…)

Other English verbs not followed by the infinitive + to

Modal verbs (can, will, would, etc) are followed by the infinitive without "to":

I can see him clearly.They will leave early tomorrow.If I were you, I would talk to her.

(Click here for more information on modals.)

See / hear / watch someone followed by the infinitive without "to":

She saw the girl steal the money. (She saw all the action of stealing.)I heard him tell her about the party." (I heard all about the party.)I watched them do the exercise. (I watched them complete the exercise.)

But remember:If you follow these verbs with the gerund form (ing), you only see part of the action.

She saw him talking to the teacher. (She didn't see the whole conversation.)

Using the correct tense and verb form is important in English grammar. Here's a simple rule to help you choose which tense to use – which tense you use depends on how you see the event or action.

Routine or permanent situations

– use the simple form. For example, "I live in London" tells you that "live" is true all the time – London is my home.

"I lived in the countryside when I was a child" – this was a long-term situation in the past.

Temporary or continuing situations

– use the continuous form. For example, "I'm working as a secretary at the moment" – the job isn't permanent and maybe I'm doing it for a while until I get another job.

"House prices are rising" – they are continuing to rise and haven't stopped rising yet.

"She was wearing a black dress" – she put it on before I saw her and she still wore it after I saw her – wearing the dress continued over a period of time.

Connecting different times

– use the perfect form to show that one event was completed before another, or to show that one situation continues from one time to another.

For example, "I have lived here for two years" – I started to live here two years ago and I still live here.

"I will have finished the report before next week" – some time before next week, but I don't know exactly when.

"He had studied law before he met her" – he studied law before he met her, but we don't know when.

There are some rules to help you make comparisons in English.

1 If the adjective (describing word) is one syllable, you can add -er.

For example, small – smaller; big – bigger; nice – nicer.

2 If the adjective has two syllables, but ends in -y, you can change the end to -ier.

For example, lucky – luckier; happy – happier.

3 With other English adjectives of two syllables and more, you can't change their endings. Instead, you should use more + adjective.

For example, handsome – more handsome; beautiful – more beautiful and so on.

4 When you compare two things, use 'than'.

"She's younger than me.""This exercise is more difficult than the last one."

5 When you want to say something is similar, use 'as – as'.

For example, "She's as tall as her brother" or "It's as nice today as it was yesterday."

6 When you want to say one thing is less than another, you can either use 'less than' or 'not as – as'.

For example, "This programme is less interesting than I thought" or "This programme is not as interesting as I thought."

7 Remember that some adjectives are irregular and change form when you make comparisons.

For example, good – better; bad – worse; far – further.

Using qualifying expressions

You can vary the strength of the comparison by using "qualifying" expressions.

1. Comparing two things

You can use "a lot", "much", "a little", "slightly" and "far" before "more / less than":

"She's a lot more intelligent than him.""This car is much faster than the other one.""They are much less wealthy than they used to be.""He's a little taller than his sister.""She's slightly less interested in football than him."We are far more involved in charity than they are."

When you use these qualifying expressions in English, remember the rules about using -er. If the adjective is one syllable, or ends in -y, add -er:

"He's far taller than her." (NOT "He's far more taller…")"I'm much lazier than you!"

When the adjective is two syllables and more, you need either "more" or "less":

"He's a little more prepared for the exam than she is." (NOT "He's a little prepareder…")

2. Saying how two things are similar

You can use "almost as … as", "not quite as … as", "(not) nearly as … as", "nowhere near as … as", "twice as … as" and "half as … as" to change the extent of the similarity.

"She's almost as good as you!""He's not quite as confident as Susie.""I'm not nearly as intelligent as her!""This painting is nowhere near as famous as the first.""She's twice as old as him!"He's half as interesting as you!"

Now try our grammar quiz to test your understanding of comparative forms!