UNIVERSITYOFCALIFORNIARIVERSIDE

AnimacyMatters:AnimatingBlackandBrownLiberationinArtisticCounterpublics

ADissertationsubmittedinpartialsatisfactionoftherequirementsforthedegreeof

DoctorofPhilosophyin

Englishby

MichaelGeraldDatcher

DissertationCommittee: Dr.EricaR.Edwards,Chairperson Dr.VorrisL.Nunley Dr.TiffanyA.López

CopyrightbyMichaelGeraldDatcher

2016

TheDissertationofMichaelGeraldDatcherisapproved:

_________________________________________

_________________________________________

_________________________________________

CommitteeChairperson

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Completingaprojectofthismagnitudeisnotpossiblewithoutassistance,

guidanceandsupport.First,Iamdeeplyindebtedtomydoctoralcommittee

chairpersonDr.EricaR.Edwards,whoseinspiringscholarship,insightfulguidance

andgenuinesupportpropelledmethroughthisintellectualendeavor.Dr.VorrisL.

Nunley’ssuggestedreadingsandcriticalfeedbackhelpedtoreshapethe

Dissertationinwaysthatwereunexpectedandproductive.IleanedheavilyonDr.

TiffanyA.López’sexpertizeontheworkofGloriaAnzaldúaandCherríeMoragato

fashiontheproject’sLatina/ocomponents.

Iamappreciativeofthefinancialsupport,andtimeofffromteaching,

providedbyLoyolaMarymountUniversity.Aspecialnodgoestomycurrentand

formerLoyolaMarymountUniversitycolleaguesDr.BarbaraRico,Dr.JudyPark,Dr.

DavidKilloran,Dr.LindaBannister,DeanDr.PaulZeleza,DeanMichaelEngh,S.J.,

ProfessorEvelynMcDonnellandProfessorRubénMartinezfortheirsupportbefore

andduringmydoctoralstudies.Similarly,Iamdeeplyappreciativeofthepublic

intellectualsaffiliatedwithLeimertPark’sartisticcounterpublicTheWorldStage,

includingDwightTrible,ConneyWilliams,ProfessorEmeritusEugeneB.Redmond,

KamauDaáood,PeterJ.Harris,A.K.Toney,PaulCalderón,JawanzaDumisani,

WilliamBelcherandJenoyneAdamsHortonfortheirgraciousandessentialsupport.

Inmanyways,thisDissertationisdedicatedtomytwointellectualmentorsDr.

BarbaraChristianandProfessorJuneJordan,whoinspiredmealongthispathasan

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undergraduateattheUniversityofCaliforniaatBerkeley.Iwishtheywerealiveto

readthisDissertation:Iambecausetheywere.

IamgratefulforDr.MonicaA.Coleman’sscholarlyexample,whichledmeto

startmydoctoralstudies.MymotherGladysSteen,sisterCynthiaDatcherand

brotherElginDatcherhavesupportedmyintellectualpursuits—evenwhenthey

didn’tunderstandthem.MystepfatherNormanAveryhasbeenaconsistentand

reliablesoundingboardduringgoodtimesandbad;hisintellectualheftand

curiosityhelpedtopropelthisresearchinwaysthathemaynotfullyunderstand.

Finally,MydaughtersHarlemColeman-DatcherandEyerusalemColeman-Kitch

inspiredmetopursuemydreams,includingthisdoctoralproject,sotheycouldhave

aphysicalexamplethatdream-makingispossible,necessaryandawayoflife.

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ABSTRACTOFTHEDISSERTATION

AnimacyMatters:

AnimatingBlackandBrownLiberationinArtisticCounterpublicsby

MichaelGeraldDatcher

DoctorofPhilosophy,GraduatePrograminEnglishUniversityofCalifornia,Riverside,June2016

Dr.EricaR.Edwards,Chairperson

FollowingJaneBennettandMelY.Chen’stheoreticalinterventionsregarding“levels

ofaliveness,”culturalproduction,animacyhierarchiesandracialmattering,this

studyexploreshowtwentiethandtwenty-firstcenturyAmericanliteraturecan

functionasanemancipatoryrepositoryforAfricanAmericanandLatina/o

embodiedracializedsubjects.Themethodologyinvolvesclosereadingsand

theoreticalinterventionsinformedbyBennett,Chen,GloriaAnzaldúa,BrunoLatour,

MichelFoucault,PauloFreireandEricaR.Edwards,whileinvestigatinghowart-

tetheredcounterpublicscanhelpresistthehegemonicforcesofneoliberalismon

theAfricanAmericanandLatina/ocommunities.Throughtheaforementioned

methodology,AnimacyMattersinterrogatesthefollowingquestions:Cantwentieth

andtwenty-firstcenturyAmericanliterature,specifically,functionasasourceof

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effectiveliberatorystrategiesforBlackandBrownfolkoperatedoninthesovereign

sphere?Whattheoreticalinterventions,andpracticalapplications,needtobe

animatedinorderthatstrategiesfoundinliterary-basedculturalproductioncan

positivelyinfluenceBlackandBrownmaterialconditionsandmobilizetheir

liberatoryaction“offthepage”?Howcanart-basedcounterpublics,andthepeople

whoinhabitthem,animateBlackandBrownliberatorythoughtandaction?

Ultimately,inthispresenthistoricalmomentwhenracializedbodiesare

increasinglyunderviolentattackbytheStateandtheneedisardentforalternative

solutions,thisstudyaffirmsandseekstobuildonEricaR.Edwardscontentionthat

“Literatureisarepositoryforcounterstoriesandalternativevisions...narrativeis

adialogicsiteforreimaginingpossibilities.”

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TABLEOFCONTENTS

Introduction 1

ChapterOne 47

ChapterTwo 79

ChapterThree 118

ChapterFour 149

Coda 175

Notes 178

Bibliography 197

1

Introduction

Lafacultadisthecapacitytoseeinsurfacephenomenathemeaningofdeeperrealities,toseethedeepstructurebelowthesurface.Itisaninstant“sensing,”aquickperceptionarrivedatbythepartofthepsychethatdoesnotspeak,thatcommunicatesinimagesandsymbolswhicharethefacesoffeelings,thatis,behindwhichfeelingsreside/hide.Theonepossessingthissensitivityisexcruciatinglyalivetotheworld.1 —GloriaAnzaldúaWhythepathologyofracewassodominantapartofWesternconsciousnessorwhatmightbedonetochangethatcharacterwasoflessconcernthanhowBlackpeoplesmightsurvivetheencounter.2 —CedricRobinsonAttheriskofseemingridiculous,letmesaythatthetruerevolutionaryisguidedbyagreatfeelingoflove.Itisimpossibletothinkofagenuinerevolutionarylackingthisquality...Wemuststriveeverydaysothatthisloveoflivinghumanitywillbetransformedintoactualdeeds,intoactsthatserveasexamples,asamovingforce.3 —Ernesto“Che”Guevara

LIBERATIONVIBRATIONS

WhyistheembodiedBlackandBrownsubject(operatingasracializedmatterfor

thisdiscussion),toooftenthetargetofirrationalviolence?Inparticular,whyare

2

alarmingnumbersofunarmedBlackboysandmenmetwithlethalforce,while

interactingwithState-sponsoredsecurityapparatuses?Whydoeslethalviolence

againstBlackandBrownracializedmattergoinsufficientlypunished?Whydon’t

BlackandBrownlivesmatter?

AversionoftheaforementionedquestionsanimatedalivelyforumonAugust

3,2013,atVibrations.ThevenueisaBlack-owned,grassrootsculturalcenterinan

Inglewood,Californiaworking-classneighborhoodwithaprimarilyAfrican-

AmericanandLatina/opopulation.Thegatheringwasanintergenerational

discussionandinformationsharingsessionorganizedtorespondtoaseriesof

challengesfacingthelocalandnationalAfricanAmericanandLatina/o

communities,including,butnotlimitedto1)theFebruary26,2012Sanford,Florida

killingofunarmedblack17-year-oldTrayvonMartinby28-year-oldmixed-race

LatinoGeorgeZimmerman,andthesubsequentnotguiltyverdictsreceivedby

Zimmerman;2)the“school-to-prison”pipeline4inAfricanAmericanandLatina/o

neighborhoods;3)theintergenerationalmisperceptionandmiscommunicationin

theAfricanAmericanandLatina/ocommunities,andthedelimitingeffectsonsocial

justiceorganizingworkresultingfromthesemisperceptionsand

miscommunications.

AnothertypeoflivelyforumoccurredonNovember24,2014,inFerguson,

Missouri.Theoutdoorrallyalsoaddressedthequestionsthatopenedthischapter.

Thegatheringwasanintergenerationaldiscussionandrallytoaddressthe

announcementofwhetherornotFerguson,Missouri,policeofficerDarrenWilson

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wouldbeindictedfortheshootingofunarmedBlackteenagerMichaelBrown.

MichaelBrown’smother,LesleyMcSpadden,wasarallyspeaker.Whenamedia-

feedattherallyannouncedthenonindictmentdecision,adistraughtMcSpadden

saidtothecrowd,“Everybodywantsmetobecalm.Dotheyknowhowthosebullets

hitmyson?Whattheydidtohisbodyastheyenteredhisbody?Nobodyhadtolive

throughwhatIhadtolivethrough...Theystilldon’tcare.They’renevergonna

care.”5

ItissignificantthatMcSpadden’scommentsfocusedontheimpactofState

violenceonherson’sblackbody.Herinterrogatives,“Dotheyknowhowthose

bulletshitmyson?Whattheydidtohisbodyastheyenteredhisbody?”arean

acknowledgementthattheattackwasanassaultonanembodiedBlacksubject,on

Blackmatter.McSpaddenrecognizedthattheassaultonherson’sBlacklifewasa

carelessassault,evidencedbyherstatement,“Theystilldon’tcare.They’renever

gonnacare.”Thisperceivedcarelesssentimentisechoedbyotherrallyparticipants

whocanbeheardshouting,“Theydon’tcareaboutus.”“Theydon’tcareaboutus”

canbereadasaperceivedlackonvaluethattheStatehasforBlacklife,whichisto

say,aperceptionthatBlacklivesdon’tmatter.Blackembodiedmatterdoesn’t

matter.

Takencollectively,McSpadden’sresponse,andthoseofrallymembers,echo

nationalAfricanAmericanconcernsthattheperceived,relativelylowvalueofBlack

lifeiscontributingtothestartlingphenomenaofunarmedBlackmenbeingkilledby

theState’ssecurityapparatuses.In2014alone,Statesecurityforceskilledthe

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followingunarmedBlackmen:EzellFord,AkaiGurley,EricGarner,MikeBrown,

DontreHamilton,RumainBrisbonandCharly“Africa”LeundeuKeunang.6

Thisstudywillanalyzestrategies,bestpracticesandchallengesrelatedtothe

socio-politicalandeconomicliberationofBlack&Latina/osubjects.Theproject

willexplorehowtheState’shegemoniceffortstopushBlacksubjectstowardbare

lifeprovidestheframeworkfortheState’seffortstopushLatina/os—andother

marginalizedpopulations—towardsbarelife.

RespondingtoAristotle,FoucaultandHannahArendtinHomoSacer:

SovereignPowerandBareLife,GeorgioAgamben’sbarelifenotioninterrogatesthe

spacebetweenbiologicalexistence(zoē)—whatheterms“merelife”—andlife

tetheredtopoliticalagencyandspeech(bios)—orwhatheterms“goodlife.”

Agambenargues,“ThefundamentalcategoricalpairofWesternpoliticsisnotthatof

friend/enemybutthatofbarelife/politicalexistence,zoē/bios,exclusion/inclusion”

(Agamben8).EwaPlonowskaZiarekassertsin“BareLife”that,“barelife,wounded,

expendable,andendangered,isnotthesameasbiologicalzoē,butratherthe

remainsofthedestroyedpoliticalbios”(Ziarek195).Theirpoliticalbiostargeted

anddestroyed,BlacksubjectslikeMichaelBrownandEricGarnercanhavetheir

barelife,Blackbodiesdestroyedwithoutaccountability,becausetheyhavebeen

“[s]trippedfrompoliticalsignificanceandexposedtomurderousviolence,barelife

isboththecounterpartofthesovereignonthestateofexceptionandthetargetof

sovereignviolence.”7ThislackofStateaccountabilityforkillingBlackcitizens

cohereswithAgamben’sunderstandingofhomosacer.

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Agambenmakesagenealogicalconnectionbetweenbarelifeandthearchaic

Romanlawconcepthomosacer,sacredman.“Theprotagonistofthisbookisbare

life,thatis,thelifeofhomosacer(sacredman)whomaybekilledandyetnot

sacrificed(Agamben8).“Maybekilled”isareferenttosacredman’sexclusionfrom

thenormaloperationsofthejuridicalorderregardingcitizensand“unpunishability

ofhiskilling”(Agamben81).Sacredandexpendable,Blacklifealignswith

Anzaldúa’sunderstandingoftheindigenousAztecCoatlicuegoddess/conceptin

Borderlands/LaFrontera.Coatlicuerepresentsdualityinlifeand“depictsthe

contradictory...sheisthesymbolofthefusionofopposites”(Anzaldúa69).This

CoatlicuecontradictoryconceptofBlackembodiedmatter—desiredanddespised—

hasbeenexacerbatedbyBlackfolkbeingintheState’scrosshairs.Themembersof

theState’ssecurityapparatuses,thesesovereignrepresentatives,whokilledMichael

BrownandEricGarnerareoperatingin“thesovereignsphere…inwhich[theyare]

permittedtokillwithoutcommittinghomicide”(Agamben104).Asaresult,Black

matter,theembodiedBlacksubject,thesacredman,isoperatedoninthissame

sovereignspherewhereBlacklifehasbeenreducedtobarelife.Thereisaneedfor

thisstudybecausethereisaneedtoexplore,asZiarekwrites,“whetherbarelife

itselfcanbemobilizedbyemancipatorymovements”(Ziarek194).

AnimacyMatters:AnimatingBlackandBrownLiberationandArtistic

CounterpublicsreframesZiarek’sinquiryanddrivesthedirectionandscopeofthis

argumentinthefollowingways.Whatstrategiescanbeeffectivelyformulatedto

animateemancipatorythoughtandmobilizeemancipatorythoughtinto

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emancipatoryaction?CanAmericanliterature,specifically,functionasasourceof

effectiveliberatorystrategiesforBlackandBrownfolkoperatedoninthesovereign

sphere?Whattheoreticalinterventions,andpracticalapplications,needtobe

animatedinorderthatstrategies,foundinliterary-basedculturalproduction,can

positivelyinfluenceBlackandBrownmaterialconditionsandmobilizetheir

liberatoryaction?Howcanart-basedcounterpublics,andthepeoplewhoinhabit

them,animateBlackandBrownliberatorythoughtandaction?

Thisstudy’sliberation-relatednomenclatureispurposeful.Thehistoricand

contemporarysocio-politicalandjuridicalforcesoperatingonBlackandBrown

communitiesintheUnitedStatedhavehadthepracticalimpactofdelimitingthelife

coursesofsignificantmemberstheserespectivecommunities.8

MobilizingbarelifeBlackandBrowncitizenspresentsaseriesofproblems.

Whenacitizenisexcludedfromthegoodlife,andispushedtothemarginsofthe

societalorder,theirindividualizedfocuscanbecenteredonmerelifesurvival

ratherthanemancipatoryaction.Theenergeticorientationinvolvedin“tryingto

findawayoutofnoway”cantacksubjectsawayfromtheportofcollectiveaction,

theportofallhandsondeck.ThisstudyarguesAmericanliteratureisalighthouse

thatcanshowawayoutofnoway.Narrativecanilluminatenewliberatory

possibilities.

EricaR.Edwardswritesthat“Literatureisarepositoryforcounterstories

andalternativevisions...narrativeisadialogicsiteforreimaginingpossibilities.”9

ThecounterstoriesofCherríeMoraga,ToniCadeBambara,SalvadorPlascencia,

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IshmaelReed,GloriaAnzaldúa,JuneJordan,WandaColemanandKamauDaáoodare

sorichinalternativeimaginationandemancipatoryvisionthattheycanhelpguide

barelifetojustice—eveninthesovereignsphere.

ToniCadeBambara’sTheSaltEatersisanarrativethatfollowsthelivesofa

seriesofcommunityactivistswithtiestothefeminist,CivilRights,BlackPower,

Chicana/oPower,andAnti-WarMovements.Thethrustofthenarrativeispropelled

bythestoryofcommunityactivistVelmaHenry,whohasrecentlyattemptedsuicide

bycuttingherwristandplacingherheadinagasoven.Burned-outfromlivingbare

life,deathispossible.Atthestartofthenovel,sheisunderthecareofacommunity

healer,MinnieRansom,whoaccessesindigenousAfricanreligioushealing

modalitiesinherattempttohealVelma.Velmaresiststhehealingtosuchanextent

thatMinnieasksher,“Areyousuresweetheartthatyouwanttobewell?”10Minnie

Ransom’squestioncanbeunderstoodas“Doyouwanttobemorealive?”

JaneBennettandMelY.Chenareleadingscholarsengagingtheintersection

of“levelsofaliveness,”culturalproductionandrace.11Thescholars’life-related

nomenclaturewillbehelpfulinthisstudy.Chenwrites,“Usinganimacyasacentral

construct,ratherthan‘life’or‘liveliness’—thoughtheseremainacriticalpartofthe

conversationinthisbook—helpsustheorizecurrentanxietiesaroundthe

productionofhumannessincontemporarytimes”(16).Understandingthe

productionofBlackandBrownhumannessiscentraltothisproject.Inthecontext

ofthesovereignsphere,theState’s(anditsrepresentatives)inabilitytoacceptthe

full,richhumanityofBlackandBrownsubjectsencouragesothersubjectsto

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devalueBlackandBrownhumanity—andencourages,attimes,BlackandBrown

folktodevaluetheirownhumanity,theirownlevelofanimacy.

Thereisnosinglestandarddefinitionofanimacy,butithasbeenvariously

describedas“aqualityofagency,awareness,mobilityandliveness”(Chen15).Both

ChenandBennettcouchtheirexaminationofanimacyinadiscussionofmateriality.

Chenimaginesanimacy“asaspecifickindofaffectiveandmaterialconstructthatis

notonlynonneutralinrelationtoanimals,humans,andlivinganddeadthings,but

isshapedbyraceandsexuality,mappingvariousbiopoliticalrealizationsofanimacy

inthecontemporarycultureoftheUnitedStates”(18).Bennett’sgoal“istotheorize

materialitythatisasmuchforceasentity,asmuchenergyasmatter”(Bennett20).

BothChenandBennettexplorethemappingofmatteronanimacy

hierarchies.Inthismaterialhierarchy,astonewouldbeplacednearthebottomof

theanimacyhierarchybecauseithasrelativelylowlevelsofagency,awareness,

mobilityandaliveness.Algae,dogandhumanbeingmatterwouldappearaswe

moveuptheanimacyscale.Atthehumanbeinglevel,Chenintroducesraceintothe

equation,addinghumandifferentiationandrelativehumanvaluetothediscussion.

Whatistheprocessbywhichonehumanlifeisdeemedmorevaluablethan

another?Whodeterminestheprocessofrelativehumanvalue,howdotheyassume

thispositionofpower,andwhatdeterminativetechnologiesdotheyemployalong

theway?ForChen,language,intheformofdefining,insultingandshaming,isa

technologyemployedtomapracializedmatterontheanimacyscale.“[I]fanimacy

gradationshavelinguisticconsequencesandlinguisticconsequencesarealsoalways

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politicalones,thenanimacygradationsareinextricablypolitical”(Chen68).

PositioningBlackandBrownsubjects,BlackandBrownracializedmatter,atthe

bottomofthehumananimacyhierarchyisapoliticalact;ithasbeenandisbeing

accomplished,inpart,bysubjectsatthetopofthehierarchyusingpoliticalpowerto

defineBlackandBrownsubjectsaslessthanhuman—asapproachinganimality.

ReadingMarx’sunderstandingofcapitalism’simpactondisenfranchisedsubjects,

Chenwrites,“[H]umananimality(barbarity)representsthesimultaneous

legitimationofenslavement,arelativelackofphilosophicalawarenessotherthan

recognitionofone’sneedtoberuled,andadispossessionofrighttoself-

determination(hence,justifiedenslavement)”(60).

Whensubjectsatthetopthehumanhierarchyareabletodefinesubjectsat

thebottomaslessthanhuman,itallowslessthanhumantreatmenttowardsbottom

dwellerstobenormalized;itallowsthenormalizationofState-sponsoredviolence

againstunarmedBlackandBrowncitizenstosuchadegreethatsaidviolencecango

regularlyunpunished,asinthecasesofMichaelBrownandEricGarner.Asimilarly

troublingnegativeexternalityofState-sponsoredviolenceagainstunarmedBlack

andBrowncitizensisthatitcontributestoanenvironmentwherenon-State-

sponsoredviolenceagainstthesecitizenscangounpunished,asinthecaseof

TrayvonMartin.TheStatesetsthesocio-politicalandjuridicalmappingformoving

BlackandBrownsubjectstowardsbarelife;subjectsoftheState(including,at

times,BlackandBrownsubjects)followtheroadmaptoassistinmovingBlackand

Brownsubjectstowardsbarelife.

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Thewho,whyandhowofbarelifedirectionalmovementiscriticalinthe

aforementionedprocessandwillbecriticalthroughoutthisdiscussion.BothChen

andBennettinvestigatevariousaspectsofmovement,asitrelatestothewaysin

whichpowerintersectswithmatterandhowmatterismappedonanimacy

hierarchies.BennettborrowsBrunoLatour’stermactanttoactivateheranalysis.

“Anactantisasourceofactionthatcanbeeitherhumanornonhuman;itisthat

whichhasefficacy,candothings,hassufficientcoherencetomakeadifference,

produceeffects,alterthecourseofevents.Itis‘anyentitythatmodifiesanother

entityinatrial;’somethingwhose‘competenceisdeducedfromitsperformance’

ratherthanpositedinadvanceoftheaction”(Bennettvii).Assourcesofaction,

modifiersofentities,andproducersofeffect,actantsliterallymovematter.

Inherdiscussionofvibrantmatterandthe“thing-power”concept,Bennett

expandsonLatour’sactantnotionbyaddingandhighlightingaffect:themovement

ofemotions.Bennettavers,“Thenotionofthing-poweraimsinsteadtoattendto

theitinactant...sincethingsdoinfactaffectotherbodies,enhancingand

weakeningtheirpower”(3).Chen,too,highlightsaffectinherreadingofLatour,but

accentuatesaffect’spotentialtomovemultiplebodiesatonce,aperspectivethat

thisargumentwilllaterexplore.Chenwrites,“Idefineaffectwithoutnecessary

restriction,thatis,Iincludethenotionthataffectisnotsomethingnecessarily

corporealandthatitpotentiallyengagesmanybodiesatonce,ratherthan(only)

beingcontainedasanemotionwithinasinglebody.Affectinheresinthecapacityto

affectandbeaffected.YetIamalsointerestedintherelativelysubjective,

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individuallyheld‘emotion’or‘feeling’”(24).Chenwouldlikelybeinterestedin

Anzaldúa’srelativelysubjectiveandindividuallyheldaffectbecauseit’srootedin

animatingpersonalandandsocietalchange.Anazaldúawritesaboutanimatingher

creativeprocess:

My‘awakeneddreams’areaboutshifts.Thoughtshifts,realityshifts,gendershift...IamplayingwithmySelf,Iamplayingwiththeworld’ssoul,IamindialoguebetweenmySelfandelespíritudelmundo.Ichangemyself,Ichangetheworld.SometimesIputmyimaginationtoamorerareuse.Ichoosewords,images,andbodysensationsandanimatethemonmyconsciousness,therebymakingchangesinmybeliefsystem(92).

AnzaldúaandChenareconcernedwiththerelationshipbetweenaffectandanimacy,

especiallyasitrelatestoincreasingagencyinracializedembodiedmatter.

BennettandChen’sinterventionsintotherelationshipsbetweenmatter,

animacy,actantsandaffectallowsustoreturntothetopicraisedbyZiarek:whether

barelife,itself,canbemobilizedbyemancipatorymovements.Whitemalesubjects,

asinhabitantsatthetopoftheanimacyhierarchyintheUnitedStates,operateas

powerfulactants.Historicallyandcontemporaneously,European-Americanmales

havehadthemostpowertoeffectandaffectothersubjectsalongtheanimacy

hierarchy—includingotherWhitemalesubjects.Historically,European-American

malesubjects,asjuridicalagentsandcreatorsofjuridicalstructures,have

powerfullyeffectedhowBlackandBrownsubjectsinterfacewiththelegalsystem.

Whitemalesubjectslegallyinstitutionalizedasystemofforcedservitude,whereby

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Blacksubjectsweresoldaslaborandhadnolegalclaimovertherightsoftheirown

bodies.TheaffectofchattelslaveryonsomeBlacksubjectsinvolveddebilitating

depression,severeshameandself-destructiveself-loathing.12

Inthecontextoftheaforementionedsocio-politicalchallengestoorganizing

barelifesubjects,animatingBlackandBrownsubjectstowardliberatoryaction

necessitatesanembraceofaesthetics,affectandethics.Bennettholdsasimilar

position,whileacknowledgingtheunpredictable,indeterminateandpotentially

dangerousnatureoftheaesthetics-affect-ethicalrelationship:

Onecanbeginbyacknowledgingthatthereisnowayto guaranteethatanaestheticdispositionwillproduceoreven inclinetowardgoodness,generosity,orsocialjustice.Affectcan

joinnarcissism,beautycanserveviolence,andenchantmentcanfostercruelty...Thereare,however,somepositivewaystorespondtotheethicalindeterminacyofaffect,thoughhere,too,nocureexists.Onecan,forexample,argueonbehalfofaparticularethicaluseofaffector,inwhatisperhaps,amoreeffectivestrategy,tellexemplarystoriesofsuchusesinthehopeofenchantingbodiesandinflectingimaginationstowardsthem”(BennettEnchantment148).

Bennettiscorrectandprudentinaddressingtheunpredictable,indeterminateand

potentiallydangerousnatureoftheaesthetics-affect-ethicalrelationship.Thisstudy

willacknowledgetheseconcerns,whilereading“exemplarystories”inAmerican

literaturethatilluminateliberatorytechnologiesandstrategies;itwillarguethatan

embraceofaesthetics,intheformof“creativenarratives,”canmoveBlackand

Brownsubjectsintoemancipatoryaction.Theprojectaversthatnovels,plays,and

poemsquamatterareactantswhichaffecthumanmatterenoughtomovehuman

matterintoliberatoryaction.

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ThisstudywillarguethatBlackandBrownsocially-engagedcultural

producers(liberatorynovelists,playwrights,poets,essayists)arealsoactants.

Theseculturalproducers’subjectpositionsasBlackandBrownartists,places

pressureontheideathatsubjectspositionedatthebottomofthehumananimacy

scalehaverelativelylittlepowertoeffectandaffectsubjectsontheanimacyscale

abovethem.Whileacknowledgingtheproblematicsinvolvedin“romanticizing”the

artist,thisstudywilldemonstratethatsomeactivist-orientedartistshavetheability

toaffectindividualsandgroups,enoughtoanimatethemintoethical,socialjustice-

related,emancipatoryaction.Socially-engagedartistshavetheaffectivepowerto

moveindividualsandgroupstothinkdeeplyaboutthemoralunderpinningsof

injusticeandhelpmovethesesameindividualsandgroupsfromthoughttoaction—

fromthoughtto“doinggood.”

ReadingKant’sanalysisofmoralmotivation,Bennettwrites:

[M]oralmotivationinvolvesthepowerthat[Kant]attributestomoralexemplarsandarchetypes.Theseideal,trueformshaveakindofcentripedalforcethatdrawshumansintheirvicinityintotheirorbit;theyinfectfreebeingsandinduceconductresemblingthatoftheexemplarorarchetype(136).

Socially-engagedBlackandBrownartistsarenotnecessarily“moralexemplars,”but

theiractivistorientation,accesstopublicplatformstoexpresstheirart,andgeneral

commitmenttosocialjusticecansignifyadesireto“dogood”13fortheirrespective

communities;theycanoperateas“examples”amongthefolk,whileperforminga

“healing”role.AnimacyMatterswillexamineAmericanliterature,featuring

14

socially-engagedBlackandBrownartist-activist-healer-orientedcharacters,who

areendeavoringtomovecommunitymemberstowardemancipatorythoughtand

action;itwillanalyzehowthesecharactersdrawBlackandBrownsubjects“intheir

vicinityintothetheirorbit”and“infect”themwithatodesireengageinconduct

resemblingthatofanartist-activist-healer—whichistosay,infectthemwitha

desiretodogood.

Thisprojectisalsointerestedinunderstandinghowanartist’sabilityto

moveliberatoryideasintoliberatoryactioncaninfectacriticalmassofBlackand

Brownsubjects,sothatthesesubjectswillbeinspiredtoco-createa“movement”of

peopleworkingtoturnliberatoryideasintoliberatoryaction.AligningwithChen’s

readingthataffect“potentiallyengagesmanybodiesatonce,”AnimacyMatters

aversthatindividualsocially-engagedBlackandBrownartists,creatingalone,orin

concertwithotherartists,havethepotentialtoaffect“manybodiesatonce,”helping

toanimatealiberatorymovement.UsingAfricanAmericanandLatina/oliterary

narrativesisaproductiveapproachtostudythewaysinwhichBlackandBrown

socially-engagedartistsperformleadershiprolesinemancipatorymovements,

because,asEricaR.Edwardsargues,“[T]wentiethandearlytwenty-first-century

AfricanAmericannarrativehasbeenasiteofdiscursivestrugglewherebyidealsof

blackleadershiphavebeenbothmadeandunmade,post-civilrightsblackfiction

andfilmhaveoftenforgedpoliticalcontestationthroughtheformalachievementof

curiosity:apoliticsandaestheticsofseriousinterrogation,playfulquestioning,

thoughtfulpuzzling,andfantasticreinvention.”14

15

Forexample,Bambara’sTheSaltEatersandSalvadorPlascencia’sThePeople

ofPaperareliberatoryliterarynarrativesmarkedbyseriousinterrogation,playful

questioning,andfantasticreinvention.Anovelpublishedin1980atthedawningof

Americanneoliberalism’srisetopervasiveinfluence,TheSaltEatersisculturallabor

thatchroniclesBlack(andpeopleofcolor)communityactivistsstrugglingto

developandimplementdiscursivebestpracticestohelptheirfracturing

communitiesresisthegemonicstatepressures.Publishedin2005neartheapexof

Americanneoliberalism’srise,ThePeopleofPaperisanovelthatexaminestheways

inwhichLatina/osseekliberationfromthehegemonicgazeofadisciplining,

mysterious,forceinthesky.AihwaOngunderstandsneoliberalismasaconstruct

thatintroducesamarket-basedrationaletoabrandofgovernancethatis

disciplinaryandisrootedinthenotionofoptimization.15Specifically,Ongasserts

thattheAmericanformofneoliberalism(themostpervasiveandmostfrequently

exportedmodel)isa“marketrationalitythatpromotesindividualismand

entrepreneurismthatengendersdebatesaboutthenormsofcitizenshipandthe

valueofhumanlife.”16ForTimothyBrennan,alongwiththegoalofdismantlingthe

welfarestate,“neoliberalismarguesthatanunrestrainedmarketlogic,freedfrom

governmentalrestraints,willcuresocialillsandleadtogeneralprosperity.”17David

Harveymaintains,“Neoliberalismis,inthefirstinstance,atheoryofpoliticaland

economicpracticesthatproposesthathumanwell-beingcanbeadvancedby

liberatingindividualentrepreneurialfreedomsandskillswithinainstitutional

16

frameworkcharacterizedbystrongprivatepropertyrights,freemarketsandfree

trade.”18

Ifneoliberalismcanbeunderstoodasavulgarembraceofhuman

commodificationmasqueradingasliberatorytechnology,thenPlascencia’sand

Bambara’snovelscanbeunderstoodasculturallaborthatunmaskshuman

commodificationmasqueradingasaliberatorytechnology.Inthesenovels,ankhing

animatesBlackandBrownliberationwithinneoliberal-eraartisticcounterpublics

byemploying“spirit”asanactanttoresistStatehegemonytowardsBlackand

Brownsubjects.Ankhingcanbedefinedasstageinsocio-politicalandeconomic

struggle,wherebyindividualsandgroupsorganizethemselvestoresisthegemonic

forces,whichseektodelimittheirsubjectivity,social,politicalandeconomicagency,

anddelimittheirpowertodeterminetheirownlifecourses.19

ANKHINGANDTHESPIRIT

Forthisargument,theankhfunctionsasanindigenousEgyptianspiritual

iterationofakindofanimacy.InKemetic(ancientEgyptian)traditionalspiritual

cosmology,theankhrepresents“life,tolive,living.”20ThisKemeticrepresentation

hasausefulrelationshiptothisproject’sunderstandingofanimacy(aqualityof

agency,awareness,mobilityandaliveness).Theunderstandingoftheankhas

animacyiscriticalbecauseitunderscorestheagencyandmobilityofthisindigenous

Africanspiritualtechnology.Ankhquaanimacyisparticularlyproductiveinastudy

thatexaminesBlackandBrownliberatoryagencyandismindfulofZiarek’s

17

concern:“Whetherbarelifeitselfcanbemobilizedbyemancipatorymovements.”

Theaction,movementandaffectthatankhinggerundsignifiesistheaction,

movementandaffectwhichanimatessocio-politicalmovements.Ankhingbuilds

uponandreinventsaction,movementandaffectinthecontextofliberatory

communallabor,wherebymenandwomenmeetincounterpublicstobringlifeto

themselvesandothers,byanimatingemancipatory,spirit-infusedmovements.

Duringtheaforementionedprocesses,ankhingoperatesasanactant,a“sourceof

actionthatcanbeeitherhumanornonhuman;itisthatwhichhasefficacy,cando

things,hassufficientcoherencetomakeadifference,produceeffects,alterthe

courseofevents.”

SocialjusticeisthegoalofBambara’sandPlascencia’sankhing-tethered,

socio-politicalmovements.MolefiKeteAsantelinkstheankhtotheKemeticnotion

“maat,”anethics-relatedconceptthatvalueslivingaliferootedinjustice,21andto

theancientMaliannotion“nommo,”thegenerativeandproductivepowerofthe

spokenword.22InTheSaltEatersandThePeopleofPaper,nommobreatheslife,

breathesspirit,intosocialjusticeworkduringtheankhingprocess.

Theetymologicaloriginsoftheword“spirit”includestheLatin“spirare,”

whichtranslatesas“tobreathe.”23Spiritisbreathandspeechandsong;its

expressionsignifiesthatlifeisindwelling,andwitheachexhalation,thespirithails

toallpresent:recognize—Iam.Thiscallforrecognitionisbothapowerplayand

powertrap.Spirit’sself-hailingisapowerplayinthatitisadeclarationofidentity,

anestablishingofsubjectivityintheworldofphenomena;itisapowertrapinthatit

18

isacallforrecognitioninthecontextofunequalpowerrelationsthatleavesthe

relativelylesspowerfulcalleratthemercyoftherelativelymorepowerful

receiver—whomaychoosenottorecognizearacializedcaller.FranzFanonargues:

Manishumanonlytotheextenttowhichhetriestoimposehimselfonanothermaninordertoberecognizedbyhim.Aslongashehasnotbeenrecognizedbytheother,itisthisotherwhoremainsthefocusofhisactions.Hishumanworkandrealitydependonthisotherandonhisrecognitionbytheother.Itisinthisotherthatthemeaningoflifeiscondensed.ThereisnoopenconflictbetweenWhiteandBlack.OnedaytheWhitemasterrecognizedwithoutstruggletheBlackslave.Buttheformerslavewantstohavehimselfrecognized...ItiswhenIgobeyondmyimmediateexistentialbeingthatIapprehendthebeingoftheotherasanaturalreality,andmorethanthat.IfIshutoffthecircuit,Imakethetwo-waymovementunachievable,Ikeeptheotherwithinhimself.Inanextremedegree,Ideprivehimevenofthisbeing-for-self.24

Resistancetothislackofrecognition,andresistancetothisdeprivationofthebeing-

for-self,necessitatesabreath,aspeechact,asongofresistance.Sometimesthesong

isashoutorashriek,becausethatisallthatspirit,allthatbreath,canproducewhen

respondingtodehumanizingforces.Thesearethehegemonicforcesthatare

seekingtorobthebodyoflifeandspirit—forcestryingtogivethespirittheblues.

InTheSpirituals&theBlues25JamesH.Cone,whosefoundationalworkin

liberationtheologyconnectsBlackfreedompossibilitiestosocio-cultural

institutionsaccessibletoworking-classblackfolk,arguesthatAfricanAmerican

spirituals,andtheirsecularprogeny,theblues,arecriticallibratorycultural

productionsoftheBlackexpressiveculturetradition.Conepositsthatthepower

sourceofBlackspirituals,andtheblues,is“BlackSpirit”(5).Conesetsthecontext

19

forhisdefinitionofBlackSpirit,byfirstsharinghisspiritualhushharbor26

experienceofgrowingupinaBlackchurchinBearden,Arkansas.

AtMacedoniaA.M.E.Church,theSpiritofGodwasnoabstract, novagueperceptionofphilosophicalspeculation.TheSpirit wasthe‘powerofGoduntosalvation,’that‘wheelinthemiddle ofthewheel.’TheSpiritwasGodhimselfbreakinginto thelivesofthepeople,‘buildingthemupwheretheyweretorn downandproppin’themuponeveryleanin’side.’TheSpirit wasGod’spresencewiththepeopleandhiswilltoprovide themthecourageandstrengthtomakeitthrough(Cone2).

AlthoughConeisspecificallydefining,here,the“theSpiritofGod”(andnottheBlack

Spirit),heissuggestingthatthetwonotionsareimbricated.Coneissuggestingthat

the“spiritthatwasGod’spresencewiththepeople”istheBlackSpirit,and

suggestingthattheBlackartists,theBlackspiritualssingers,whohelpedtobring

theBlackSpirittoMacedoniaA.M.E.’sparishioners,wereabletodosobecausethat

sameBlackSpiritwasintheBlackspiritualssingers.Conearguesthatasaresultof

thisBlackSpiritpresence,thesingerswereabletoinvoketheBlackSpirit

throughoutthecongregation,likeadialecticalcontagionthatspreadstheweary

blues,whilesimultaneouslyservingasaliberatorybluesvaccine.TheSpiritresists

thestate’sbiopower,thestate’sabilitytomakeliveandletdie;27Spiritrejectssocial

death28asitembracesBlackbecoming.Theholyshout,yell,andscreamannounce,

“I’malive.”Thisspiritualdialecticbetweenartistandcommunitycreatesaunitythat

canbeplacedintheserviceofcollectivistemancipatorylaborinsideandoutside

hushharborwalls:

‘Havemercy,please.’Thiscryisnotacryofpassivity,butafaithful,freeresponsetothemovementoftheBlackSpirit.Itisthetothe

20

movementoftheBlackSpirit.ItistheBlackcommunityacceptingthemselvesasthepeopleoftheBlackSpiritandknowingthroughhispresencethatnochainscanholdtheSpiritofBlackhumanityinbondage...Blackmusicisunitymusic.Itunitesthejoyandthesorrow,theloveandthehate,thehopeandthedespairofBlackpeople;anditmovesthepeopletowardthedirectionoftotalliberation(Cone5).

Thespeechactoperatingasmoanandlyric,‘Havemercyplease’,isapublic

acknowledgmentofimmensediscomfort;itisablueslamentinoculatingfellow

bluespeople.SharedepistemicsorrowsvisitedupontheracializedBlacksubjects

animatestheconductivityoftheBlackSpiritinthecommunalspace.Experiential

knowledgeofthebluesallowstheBlackSpirittopassfromperson-to-personina

hushharborblackchurch,orpassfromperson-to-personinahushharborblack

culturalcenter.Thistransferencecanoccurduringanankhingprocessatthe

momentofartisticperformance.TheSpiritcanpassfromancestortoperson(when

invokedbyaspeechact,operatingasamoanandlyric)when,asFredMotenasserts,

“shriekturnsspeechturnssong.”29

However,Conemakesaccesstothiselegiac/emancipatorydialectic

restrictive.Hemakestheessentialistargumentthat“itisnotpossibletorenderan

authenticinterpretationofblackmusicwithouthavingsharedandparticipatedin

theBlackexperiencethatcreatedit.Blackmusicmustbelivedbeforeitcanbe

understood...Andthatexperienceisavailableonlytothosewhosharethespirit

andparticipateinthefaithofthepeoplewhocreatedthesesongs”(5).Certainly,the

specific,racializedexperienceofaBlacksubject(whoseancestorsbegantheir

sojourninNorthAmericaasBlackobjects,asproperty,ascapital)islikelytohave

21

uniqueinsightintothemeaningandspiritofspiritualsandtheblues.However,

relativelylowmelaninlevelsdonotoccludethespiritfromenteringintoa

nonmelaninizedsubject,especiallywhenthatnonBlacksubjecthasexperienced

theirownspecifictypeofspirit-saturated,elegiac/emancipatorydialectic.Itis

possiblethataWhite,transgenderwhistle-blower,whohasbeenimprisonedfor

revealingStatesecrets(thatStatecitizenshavearighttoknow),probably

understandsenoughaboutthebluestomoanherwaythrough16barsuntilshriek

turnsspeechturnssong.

Thepowerfulartisticbeautyofthespiritualsandtheblues,andthepowerful

artisticbeautyoftheBlackSpiritthatanimatesthem,hasthepotentialtoliberate

Blacksubjects;BlackSpiritisinformedbynature,byembodiedexperience,butnot

confinedbynature,byracializedphenomena;theepidermiscannotholdit.This

culturalproductionhasthepotentialtoliberateanysubjectwhohasknown

significantsubjugationandiswillingtoletthepowerful,emancipatoryspiritofart

haveitsway.Whileremainingawareofhisaestheticandphilosophicalracism,

G.W.F.Hegel’sinsightisproductive:

ForthebeautyofArt,isbeautythatisbornandbornagainoftheSpirit;andastheSpiritanditsproductionsstandshigherthannaturewithherphenomena,sodoesalsothebeautyofArtstandhigherthanthebeautyofnature...forinsuchafancythereisinvolvedbothspiritualityandfreedom.30

Itisthisspiritualityandfreedom,thespiritualandthepolitical,thattheankhing

processseekstohonor,cultivateanduseasliberatorytechnologiesinartistic

22

counterpublics.Ankhingtechnologiesembracethepowerofthesensorium;inthe

ankhingprocess,feelingandtherationalarenotstrangebedfellows,theyare

embodiedbedsisters.AudreLordeargues:

Therearemanykindsofpower,usedandunused,acknowledgedorotherwise.Theeroticisaresourcewithineachofusthatliesinadeeplyfemaleandspiritualplane,firmlyrootedinthepowerofourunexpressedorunrecognizedfeeling...[I]thasbecomefashionabletoseparatethespiritual(psychicandemotional)fromthepolitical,toseethemascontradictoryorantithetical.‘Whatdoyoumean,apoeticrevolutionary,ameditatinggunrunner?’Inthesameway,wehaveattemptedtoseparatethespiritualandtheerotic...Thedichotomybetweenthespiritualandthepoliticalisalsofalse,resultingfromanincompleteattentiontooureroticknowledge.31

Lordeisinterrogatingmasculinistmodalitiesofpowerandadvocatingforamore

expansive,genderedsubjectivitythatisopentotheuseof“whatisdeepestand

strongestandrichestwithineachofus,beingshared:thepassionsoflove,inits

deepestmeanings”(Lorde56).

BuildinguponLorde,eroticpoweriseroticenergyanderoticvibration.This

vibrationcanbetransformedintoliberatorymotionandliberatorymovements.The

aforementionedtransferencewasondisplayatVibrationsduringthatwarm,August

nightinInglewood,California,describedinthischapter’sopening.Thesocialjustice

passionsinacrowdedroomofarticulate,committedactivistsexchangingideasand

exchangingenergy,engenderedapalpableeroticismtotheproceedings.Inphysics,

theLawofConservationofEnergydictatesthatenergycannotbecreatedor

destroyedbutonlychangesformsoristransferredfromoneobjecttoanother.32

Yet,inthistransference,apercentageofheatandenergyislost.WhenLorde

23

suggeststransformingeroticenergyintoliberationenergy,shedoesnotseemto

takeintoaccounttheenergylostintheprocess.Thisslippageiswhyartistic

counterpublicslikeVibrationsaresocritical;theyarevenueswhereactivistscanre-

energizewithlike-mindedindividuals,generatingthelifeforcenecessaryto

maintaineffectiveengagementinliberatorylabor.Paradoxically,inthere-vivifying

exchangeoferotically-charged,liberationenergy—liberationenergyislostinthe

fire.Incircularfashion,thislostenergyre-emphasizestheneedforartistic

counterpublicssimilartoVibrations.

CoterminouswithLorde’sunderstandingoferoticpower,thepower

propellingankhingtechnologiesinVibrations-likeartisticcounterpublicsisoften

suspiciousofrigidhierarchies,thoughnotimmunetothem.Ankhing-tethered

processesseemtohaveanepistemologicalopenness,thoughnotreplete,to

nonpatriarchalmodalitiesofleadership,arespectforthegenerativepotentialitiesof

thecommunal,andabatteredwearinessfromwhatEricaR.Edwardscallsthe

“violencesofcharisma,”33whichemanatesfrom“oneofthecentralfictionsofblack

Americanpolitics:thatfreedomisbestachievedunderthedirectionofasingle

charismaticleader”(Edwardsxv).EchoingEdwards,theankhingprocess,itself,

resiststheGreatManapproachtocommunityliberationandembracesan

emancipatorycommunallaborapproach.

Althoughtheankh(andankhingbyassociation)isanunderstandableand

productivetechnologytoemploy,giventhesubject,directionandscopeofthis

project,theicon’suseisproblematicduetoitsconnectionto1960sthrough1990s-

24

eraBlackNationalist/Afrocentricmisogyny,homophobia,andnarrow,exclusionary

Blackessentialism.Inthecontextofvirulent1960sthrough1990s-eraanti-

Blacknessandalongtraditionofnon-AfricansdemonizingAfrica,itsculture,history

andprogeny,emancipatory-orientedAfricanAmericanslookedtoreclaimand

embraceAfricabyreclaimingoutwardexpressionsof“Africaness”(i.e.dashikis,

braids,afros),andAfricaniconography,includingtheankh.However,this

reclamationprojectwasoftenrootedinromantic,simplisticnotionsthatprivileged

men,masculinistideasandmalefolkways,whilemarginalizingwomen,theirideas,

andfolkways.Asacomplementtothehyper-masculinity,theAfricanreclamation

projectoftenincludedahyper-homophobiathataggressivelydemonizedsame-

genderedloversas“unnatural,”“un-African,”white-mindedtraitorstotherace.34

Aseriesofeffectivefeministandqueercritiquesemergedtoaddressthe

aforementionedmisogynyandhomophobia.In“DoubleJeopardy:ToBeBlackand

Female,”FrancesBealewroteinthefoundationalTheBlackWoman,“Thosewhoare

exertingtheir‘manhood’bytellingBlackwomentostepbackintoadomestic,

submissiveroleareassumingacounter-revolutionaryposition.Blackwoman

likewisehavebeenabusedbythesystemandwemustbegintalkingaboutthe

eliminationofallkindsofoppression”(Beale93).Writinginthesameanthology,

whichsheedited,ToniCadeBambarawrote,“[TheBlackwoman]isbeingassigned

anunrealroleofmuteservantthatsupposedlyneutralizestheacidictensionthat

existsbetweenBlackmenandBlackwomen.Sheisbeingencouraged—inthename

25

oftherevolutionnoless—tocultivate‘virtues’thatiflistedwouldsoundlikethe

personalitytraitsofslaves.”35

CriticandactivistBarbaraSmith,whowasactiveintheCivilRights,Black

Liberation,Women’sRightsandGayRightsmovements,opinedaboutinterlocking

natureofracism,misogynyandhomophobia,“BlackpoweractivistsandBlack

nationalistsgenerallyviewedlesbiansandgaymenanathema—white-minded

traitorstotherace...BecauseIcameoutinthecontextoftheBlackliberation,

Women’sliberation,and—mostsignificantly—thenewlyemergingBlackFeminist

MovementthatIwashelpingtobuild,Iworkedfromtheassumptionthatallofthe

‘isms’wereconnected.”36

JeanBondandPatricíaPeerywroteabouttheaggressiveattacksthatBlack

womenenduredfromBlackmen—inthenameofrevolution:

Fortheirpart,manyBlackmenberateBlackwomen fortheirfaults,faultssonumerousandsopronounced thatoneishardputtodiscernintheirtirade,any ground,shortofinvisibility,onwhichBlackwomanhood mayredeemitself.Theydothis,blindtotheage-old implicationsofsuchavociferousrejectionofapartof themselves.Othersrunonaboutthenecessityof subordinatingwomentotheirsuperiorandmanlywill

intheplanningandexecutionofrevolution(BondandPeeryBlackWoman114).

.SharonPatriciaHollandarguedthatthegenealogyoftheseintra-communityattacks

andconnected“isms”canbetracedtoreligiousinstitutionsandideologiesthat

claimtobe“pro-Black,”butwhose“pro-Blackness”morphsinto“anti-Blackness”

whenreferencingBlackgaycommunitymembers.RespondingtoRonSimmons’

26

essay,“SomeThoughtsontheChallengesFacingBlackGayIntellectuals,”Holland

concursthatthereisgreatdealofhomophobiainorganizationsliketraditional

BlackChurchandtheNationofIslamandthat“religiousfigureslikeFarrakhan,

Asante,Madhubuti,BarakaandStaplesoften‘equatehomosexualityandadultery

withrapeandchildmolestation’andinterpretreligiousandcriticaltextstofitthis

equation.”37

Giventheaforementionedqueerandfeministcritiques,andthevoluminous

numberofunmentionedqueerandfeministcritiques,38whyemploytheankhinthis

emancipatory-centeredstudy,whenthesymbolistaintedbyassociationwithsome

ofthemostvileaspectsoftheBlackPowerandAfrocentricMovements?Thisstudy

isutilizingtheankh,despiteproblematicassociations,becausetheankhistoo

valuableasaspiritualtechnology,historicalartifactandculturaltouchstonetobe

dismissedduetoillicitassociationsoverthelast50years,whenit’sbeena

transformativeanimatingforceforover5000years.Insomeways,thisstudyisa

recoveryprojectfortheankh.InaKemetianspiritualapproachtomeditation,the

ankh(alongwithotherancientEgyptianiconography)playsacentralrole.While

usingextremelydeepbreathingtoreducethebreathcountandslowtheheart-rate,

whichfacilitatesaccesstothetrancestate,thepractitionervisualizestheankh

(oftenpairedwithothericonsinthespiritualsystem)movingthroughtheirbodyas

ahealingmodality(whenthereisaphysicalailment)orvisualizesholdingtheankh

andothericonsintheirhandasawayto“bringintotheirpossession”thequalities

thattheankhandtheotherheldiconsrepresent.39Originally,theankhwasa

27

technologyofhealingandself-liberation,whicharecriticalpiecestocommunity

liberation—andwhytheankhisworthrecovering.

ANKHINGINSPACE

Itmaybeproductivetosummarizeaseriesofdefiningelementsthatankhing

includesandexpanduponthenomenclaturefoundinthesedefiningelements.1)

Ankhingisastageinsocio-politicalandeconomicstruggle,wherebyindividualsand

groupsorganizethemselvestoresisthegemonicforces,whichseektodelimittheir

subjectivity,social,politicalandeconomicagency,anddelimittheirpowerto

determinetheirownlifecourses.2)Ankhingisastageinsocio-politicaland

economicstruggle,wherebyinspiration,strategyandcommunallaborcomingleto

servetheaforementionedsubjectsintheireffortstocollectivelythinkthroughthe

mosteffectivemeanstoresisthegemonicforces—andthroughthisidea-exchange,

inspire,motivateandmoveeachothertowardsbestpracticestoresisthegemonic

forcesseekingtodelimittheirsubjectivity,social,politicalandeconomicagency,

anddelimittheirpowertodeterminetheirownlifecourses.Thisprocessincludes

rigorousself-interrogationandgroupinterrogationtowardscreatingahealthy,

whole,ankhingprocessthatcanresultinhealthy,whole,ankhingpracticesand

outcomes.

Thoughnotspeakingspecificallyaboutankhing,Moragaoffersinsightinto

theefficacyofselfandgroupinterrogation:“InToniCadeBambara’snovelTheSalt

Eaters,theBlackcuranderaasksthequestion,‘Canyouaffordtobewhole?’This

28

linerepresentsthequestionthathasburnedwithinmeforyearsandyearsthrough

mygrowingpoliticization.Whatwouldamovementfocusedonthefreedomof

womenofcolorlooklike?Inotherwords,whataretheimplicationsoflooking,not

onlyoutsideofourculturebutintoourcultureandourselvesandfromthatplace

beginningtodevelopastrategyforamovementthatcouldchallengethebedrockof

oppressivesystemsofbeliefglobally.”403)Ankhingdesirestoanimateandnurture

nascentsocio-politicalandeconomicempowermentmovementsbyembracingthe

erotic,thespiritual,andothersensorium-tetheredepistemes.Thissensorium-

embracecanproduceagenerative,liberatorypowertostart,nurtureandsustain

individualsandgroupsintheireffortstoorganizeandmovethemselvesinthe

directionoffreedom.4)Theankhingprocessprivilegesalterity,diverseideas,

democraticdecision-making,andconcomitantcommunallabortoimplement

democraticallyagreeduponcoursesofaction,whileexplicitlyrejectingthetired

traditionofpatriarchal,GreatMan,top-downleadership-stylethathashistorically

markedracializedemancipatoryorganizinglabor.41

Theprecedingenhanceddefinitionofankhingisanappropriatesegueintoa

spatialintervention.Thereisasymbioticanddialecticalrelationshipbetweenthe

ankhingprocessandthesitewheretheankhingprocesstakesplace.InThe

StructuralTransformationofthePublicSphere,42JürgenHabermas’investigationof

thehistory,theworkingsandthechangingdynamicsofthe18thand19thcentury

European(England,GermanyandFrance)bourgeoispublicsphere,hebeginshis

studybydiscussingthat“public,”asitrelatestophysicalbuildings,doesn’t

29

necessarilymeanthatallcitizenshaveaccesstothesestructuresandthepowerthey

possess.“[I]ntheexpression,‘publicbuilding,’thetermneednotrefertogeneral

accessibility;thebuildingdoesnotevenhavetobeopentothepublictraffic.‘Public

buildings’simplyhousestateinstitutionsandassuchare‘public’.Thestateisthe

‘publicauthority’.Itowesthisattributetoitstasksofpromotingthepublicor

commonwelfareofitsrightfulmembers”(Habermas2).BrownandBlacksubjects

shareahistorymarkedbyjuridical,social,politicalandeconomicmaneuversbythe

StatetodenyorlimitBrownandBlackcitizensaccesstothepublicsphere,

signifyingthatBrownandBlacksubjectsarenot“rightful”membersoftheState

despitetheirnominalstatusasUnitedStatescitizens.

Theaforementioned“wrongness”ofBrownandBlackcitizens,inrelationto

deniedaccesstofullStatemembership,necessitatedthecreationofalternative

publicspheresbythese“wrongcitizens.”NancyFraserargues:

[M]embersofsubordinatedsocialgroups—women,workers peoplesofcolor,gaysandlesbians—haverepeatedlyfound itadvantageoustoconstitutealternativepublics.Ipropose tocallthesesubalterncounterpublicsinordertosignalthat theyareparalleldiscursivearenaswheremembersof subordinatedsocialgroupsinventandcirculatecounterdiscourses whichinturnpermitthemtoformulateoppositional interpretationsoftheiridentities,interestsandneeds.43IncontradistinctiontoHabermas,Fraserspeaksof“publics”todenotethatthereis

morethanthe“general”publicspherewhichHabermasidentifies;instead,thereare

manysphereswhichcanservetocounterthenarrativeregardingthe“general”

publicsphere.ThefailureofHabermastoconsideramorenuancedunderstanding

30

ofpublicspheres,asitrelatestosubjugatedpeoplesofcolorandsexualorientation,

iscuriousgivenTransformation’snuancedanalysisofstratifiedclasses.Fraser,

rightly,seestheneedforcounterpublicslikeVibrationstohelpsubordinated

peoples“formulateoppositionalinterpretationsoftheiridentities,interestsand

needs.”CatherineR.Squiresclaimsthat“Marginalizedgroupsarecommonlydenied

publicvoiceorentranceintopublicspacesbydominantgroupsandthusareforced

intoenclaves.Atdifferenttimesinhistory,AfricanAmericanshavebeenforcedinto

enclavesbyrepressiveStatepoliciesandhaveusedtheseenclavespacestocreate

discursivestrategiesandgatheroppositionalresources...[A]nenclavepublic

sphererequiresthemaintenanceofsafespaces.”44

Themaintenanceofsafespacesisessentialintheankhingprocess,which

includestheprocesswherebyinspiration,strategy,andcommunallaborcomingleto

animateandnurturenascentsocio-politicalandeconomicempowerment

movements,viaemployingevolvingdemocratic,nonpatriarchal,spirit-infused

technologies.Physical,intellectual,emotional,spiritual,gender,racialandsexual-

orientation/identification-basedmodesofsafetyareessentialforempowering

diversesubjectstospeak,thinkandstrategizefreelyinthecommunaleffortto

gatheroppositionalresources.Attimes,theembraceofdiversesubjectpositions,

withintheconfinesofacounterpublic,isakindofoppositionalresource.

Inclusivity,andtheacknowledgmentthatepistemologicallaborcanbegenerated

fromsubjugatedsubjectsinsideasubjugatedgroup,resiststhetroubling

phenomenaoftheoppressedmimickingthehegemonicwaysofdominantgroups.

31

Embracingcounterpublicinclusivityresiststhecounterpublicbecomingcounterto

thecounterpublic.

Itmaybeproductivetoofferanexpandedseriesofcounterpublic

characteristics.Squires’generativeunderstandingofthecounterpublicinvolves:

Spacesanddiscourses:protestrhetoric;persuasion;increased interpubliccommunicationandinteractionwiththestate;occupation andreclamationofthedominantandstate-controlledpublicspaces;

strategicuseofenclavespaces...Goals:fosterresistance;testargumentsandstrategiesinwiderpublics;createalliances;persuadeoutsiderstochangeviews;performpublicresistancetooppressivelawsandsocialcodes;gainallies…Sanctions:threatofviolence,disrespect,ordismissalfromdominantpublicsandstate;co-optationofcounterpublicity(Squires460).

Squires,rightly,focusesontheresistanceelementofthecounterpublicby

identifyingascounterpubliccharacteristics:“protestrhetoric”,“fosterresistance”

and“performpublicresistancetooppressivelawsandsocialcodes”.Forsome

subjugatedsubjects,subjectswhosematerialconditionsareadverselyimpactedby

Statepolicies,resistinghegemonicandsocietalforcesnegativeimpactupontheir

lifeworldsisapriority;forsomesubalterncitizens,liftingoppressiveyokesis

priorityenoughtomovethemtowardcounterpublicsforsolidaritywithfellow

oppressedcitizensandsolidaritywithfellowcommunallaborerscommittedto

developingandimplementingstrategicliberatoryactions.Squiresprivilegesintra-

counterpublicandinter-counterpubliccommunicationbecausethelaterperforms

thecruciallaborofproducingalliesandchangingmindsoutsidethegroup,whilethe

formerperformstheequallycriticallaborofidentifyingbestemancipatorypractices

32

andhelpingtonegotiatethedifficultiesthatadiversegroupislikelytofaceunder

oppressivepressures.

Squires’listingofcounterpubliccharacteristicscanbeexpandedbecause:1)

Squires’counterpubliccharacteristicsdonotincludeaprioritizationofintra-

counterpublicevolution.Evolutionisacriticalcomponenttoaliberatorygroup

becauseitsneedstobenimblewhenfacingaState’shegemonicpowers;2)Squires

doesnotincludespiritasanelement;and3)Squiresdoesnotincludeanexplicit

goaloftransformingsocieties.

ThisprojectexpandsSquires’counterpubliccharacteristics.Adding“intra-

counterpublicevolution”promotesanevolutionaryself/groupinterrogationabout

howtheself/groupcreates,developsandadjudicatesepistemologicalapproaches

andliberatorypracticestorespondtotheState’shegemonicforces.Thistypeof

evolutionisrequiredbecauseemancipatoryinternalstructures,andemancipatory

internalsystems,arenotstatic—especiallyunderthetotalizing,atomizinggazeofa

neoliberalimperative.Asaresult,anycounterpubliccharacteristiclistingmust

includeanevolutionary-relatedterm,becausewithoutanevolutionaryelement,a

counterpublicisindangerofbecomingaspacethatusedtobesafe,oraspacethat

usedtohavecounterpublicityoraspacethatsimplyusedtobe.

Secondly,counterpubliccharacteristicsmustincludeaspirit-relatedterm.At

times,thespiritisunrecognized(althoughpresent)incounterpublicsbecauseit

doesnothailitself;itdoesnotcallattentiontoitself.Spiritis.Spiritisembeddedin

thefeeling,intheenhancedsenseofself-worththatsomeoppressedindividuals

33

mayfeelwhenstandinguptodefendtheirsenseofhumandignity.Spiritisthe

technologythatcanallowthedispossessedtofeelgoodaboutthemselves,their

cultureandtheircommunity;itcanallowdisenfranchisedsubjectstofeelbeautiful

andvaluableenoughresistoppression.AsConeasserts,spiritisthegenerative

powerthatliterally“movesthepeopletowardthedirectionoftotalliberation.”A

listingofcounterpubliccharacteristicsmustincludeaspiritelementbecauseitis

theelevatedspiritofthepeople,whichcanallowthemtodotheworkofresisting

inside—andeventuallyoutside—thecounterpublic.

Thirdly,alistingofcounterpubliccharacteristicsmustincludeagoalof

transformingsocieties.Transformationofsocietiesmustbeagoalonalistof

counterpubliccharacteristicsbecauseperpetualliberatorystruggleisnotagoal,it’s

acurseofSisyphus.Perpetualstruggleisphysically,emotionallyand

psychologicallyexhaustingforeventhemostcommittedcommunitylaborer.There

mustbeanend-gameorburn-outisinevitable;notbreathingispossible.

TheadditionoftheaforementionedthreeelementstoSquires’understanding

ofcounterpublicscreatesadiscursivebridgetoMargaretKohn’snotionof

heterotopiasofresistance.InRadicalSpace,Kohnarguesthattheheterotopiaof

resistanceis“arealcountersitethatinvertsandcontestsexistingeconomicorsocial

hierarchies.Itsfunctionissocialtransformationratherthanescapism,containment,

ordenial.Bychallengingconventionsofthedominantsociety,itcanbeanimportant

locusofstruggleagainstnormalization.”45

34

KohnbuildsuponMichelFoucault’snotionoftheheterotopia.

Foucaultwritesaboutheterotopias:

Therealsoexists,andthisisprobablytrueforallculturesandcivilizations,realandeffectivespaceswhichareoutlinedintheveryinstitutionofsociety,butwhichconstituteasortofcounter-arrangement,ofeffectivelyrealizedutopia,inwhichallrealarrangementsthatcanbefoundwithinsociety,areatoneandthesamerepresented,challengedandoverturned:asortofplacethatliesoutsideallplacesandyetislocalizable(qtd.inKohn90).

The“counter-arrangement”ofwhichFoucaultspeaksallowsforanarrangementin

aspacewhereresistanceorganizing,forexample,canbeeffective.Resistance

organizingcanbeeffectiveatgeneratingliberatoryactions,whileeschewing

patriarchalapproachesandwhileemployingalternativespirit-basedpower

technologies.Thisculturallaborcanbeaccomplishedasitrespectsandcelebrates

intra-counterspacesubjectdiversity.KohnnotesthatFoucaultdoesnotclaimthat

heterotopiasareatoolofpoliticalemancipationandsocialtransformation(Kohn

91).46

HETEROTOPIASOFRESISTANCE

IncontradistinctiontoFoucault’sheterotopias,Kohn’sheterotopiasof

resistanceare“sitesforpoliticalemancipation;theirfunctionissocial

transformation.”Furthermore,Kohnarguesthatheterotopiasofresistanceare

“sitesthatfosteroppositionalpracticesbyshelteringcounterhegemonicideasand

identities”(Kohn129).By“counterhegemonicideasandidentities,”Kohnsuggests

thatheterotopiasofresistanceare“safehavens”forideasthatprivilegedemocratic-

35

stylesofinformation-sharing,decision-makingandthecommunallabor,while

functioningassafehavensforsubjects(andtheirideas),whomayrepresent

differencewithinheterotopiasofresistance;Kohnsuggeststhatalterityisnotonly

acknowledgedbutseenasasourceepistemologicalvalueandaresourceforthe

effectiveimplementationofcollectively-derivedstrategies.Kohnassertsthat

heterotopiasofresistanceare“democratic.Theirstatuesandby-lawsestablis[h]

rulestoguaranteebothvotinganddeliberation;theysetupprocedurestoensure

thateveryone[can]speakandtopreventanyonefromdominatingtheconversation

...Thesesitesmediat[e]individuals’identificationwithanoppositionalpolitical

project—apoliticalprojectmotivatedbydiverseexperiences”(Kohn129).

Kohn’snotionofheterotopiasofresistanceisalsoinclusiveofthespirit;the

sensoriumhasahomeinthe“houseofthepeople.”47Kohn’sresearchfieldfor

RadicalSpaceis19handearly20thcenturyEuropeanheterotopiasofresistance,

someofwhichshehailsas“housesofthepeople.”Thesehousesofthepeople

providedworkers,socialistsandcommunistswithsafehavenstostrategize,

organizeandfighthegemonicStateforces.Afterthecompletionofahouseofthe

peopleinBrusselsin1899,apoemwaspublishedonApril1,1899inthesocialist

newspaperLePeuple(Kohn151).Inthepoem,thereisaclearacknowledgmentof

thegenerativerolethatspiritplaysinheterotopiasofresistance:

Itishere,inthismarvelousplace Thatwewillraisethebattlecry Itisherethatardorwillawakenus Andwillmakeusrememberfecunddebates

36

Itisherethatwithwordsaflame Ourrepresentativeswillcometospeaktous Herethatoursoulswillbesparked Herethatwewillfindconsolation Itishereatthesourceofourstudy Fullofardor,we[illegibleword] Anditishere,connectedtocustom Thatwewillcometofraternize(qtd.inKohn152).

Giventhemundaneconstructionandunimaginativenomenclature,itis

understandablewhyKohnsaysthepoemhas“noliterarymerit”(Kohn152),butit

issignificantthatapoemwaswrittenandpublishedinasocialistnewspaperto

commemoratetheestablishmentofaheterotopiaofresistance.Itissignificantthat

aspirit-infused,culturalproductionwasputintheserviceofasafehavenfor

politicalradicalsandtheirsupporters.Kohnwrites,“Thepoemcallsthehouseofthe

people‘thesourceofourstudy.’Itisnotmerelyaplacewherebooks,teachersand

studentscometogether;rather,somethinginthesiteitselfprovidesamotivationfor

study...Thereisareasontounderstandtheworkingsofthesocialworldbecause

itispossibletochangeit.Thepoemalsoemphasizestheimportanceofplacein

encouragingemotionalidentificationandmotivatingaction.Wordssuchas‘aflame,’

‘pride,’‘ardor,’‘soul,’and‘spark’suggestthatpoliticsisaboutpassion,andpassion

ismoreeffectivelycapturedbyamaterialplacethananabstractconcept”(Kohn

152).

Kohnarguesthatheterotopiasofresistancearesiteswhereliberatory

subjects,asConealsoargues,can“feelthespirit”(Cone5).Inheterotopiasof

37

resistance,thespiritisatechnologyusedtoencourageliberatorysubjects’emotions

becauseemotionisasourceofpower.Liberatorysubjectsinheterotopiasof

resistancerecognize,asLordedoes,that“Thedichotomybetweenthespiritualand

thepoliticalisalsofalse,resultingfromanincompleteattentiontoourerotic

knowledge”(Lorde53).Heterotopiasofresistancemakeroomfortheusesofthe

eroticbecauseitisademocraticsitethatshelters“counterhegemonicideasand

identities”(Kohn129);itisacounterhegemonicsitepromotingtheknowledgethat

feelingandtherationalarenotstrangebedfellows,theyareembodiedbed-sisters.

Asaresultoftheaforementionedqualities,heterotopiasofresistancearetheidea

sitesforthemanifestationoftheankhingprocess:thatprocesswherebyinspiration,

strategy,andcommunallaborcomingletoanimateandnurturenascentsocio-

politicalandeconomicempowermentmovements,viaemployingevolving

democratic,nonpatriarchal,spirit-infusedtechnologies.Thesynergybetween

ankhingqualitiesandheterotopiasofresistancequalitiesgivestheankhingprocess

thebestopportunitytoproducethebestpracticesfortheliberationofsubjugated

BrownandBlackpeople.

ARTISTICHETEROTOPIASOFRESISTANCE

ToniCadeBambara’sTheSaltEatersisaproductivespacetostartthe

interrogationofwhatthisprojectscalls“artisticheterotopiasofresistance”because

thenovelchroniclesactiviststryingtodefendthecollectivehumanityoftheir

communities.48Tocompletetheconstructionofthiscriticalterm,Iwillintroduce

thisproject’sunderstandingof“artistic.”Byartistic,thestudymeanstodescribe

38

spirit-infusedculturalproductions,thesubjectswhoproducethecultural

productionsandtheconcomitantsiteswhereculturalproductionsarecreated.

Artisticcanalsorefertoapreviously“nonartisticsite”thathasbeentransformed

intoanartisticsitebythespontaneouscreationofart,whichistosay,thata

nonartisticsitecanbeimprovisationally“repurposed”byculturalproducers

activelycreatingart“inthemoment.”Inrelationshiptoheterotopiasofresistance,

theprimaryfunctionsoftheartisticareto“bringthespirit”ingreatermeasureand

toenhancegenerativepowerintheserviceofemancipatorylabor.

Tosetthecontextforthisdiscussionoftheartisticheterotopiasofresistance

onthepagesofTheSaltEaters(brieflyhere,andfullyinChapterTwo),itmaybe

productivetodiscussan“off-the-page”examplesofartisticheterotopiasof

resistance-relatedsites.Throughoutthetwentiethandtwenty-firstcenturiesthere

havebeenorganizationsthathavehadseveralelementsofartisticheterotopiasof

resistanceandfeaturedartistsinleadershiproles.The1930seraLeagueofStruggle

forNegroRights(theCommunistParty’sfrontlineorganizationinitsoutreachto

AfricanAmericansduringthistime)understoodtherolethatartistscouldplayin

theLeague’s“transformingtheworld”agenda.PoetLangstonHugheswasthe

League’spresidentin1934.TheeffusiveHughespromotedacollectivist,inclusive,

styleofdecision-makingatthelocallevelbutultimatelytheLeagueofStrugglefor

NegroRightswasundertheswayandvulnerabletothedictatesofthetop-down

CommunistParty.49

39

TheCombaheeRiverCollectiveisamorerepleteexampleofanartistic

heterotopiaofresistance.TheCombaheeRiverCollectivehaditsoriginsinthe

NationalistBlackFeministOrganization.TheNationalBlackFeministOrganization

wasformedinAugust1973byBlackfeministsconcernedthattheNational

OrganizationofWomen-ledWomenLiberationMovementwasnotadequately

dealingwithraceandclass,andconcernedthattheBlackLiberationMovementwas

notadequatelydealingwithsexism.50ThefirstandonlyNBFOpresidentMargaret

Sloanexplainedthat,“byorganizingaroundourneedsasBlackwomen,weare

makingsurethatwewon’tbeleftout...whichwaswhatwasappearingtobe

happeninginboththeBlackLiberationandtheWomenLiberationMovements”

(Harris288).

Asearlyas1974,theBostonchapteroftheNBFObegantoorganize

themselvesaroundamoreexplicitlyanti-capitalist,socialistandBlacklesbian

feministagenda,eventuallyresultingintheformationoftheCombaheeRiver

Collective(Harris292-293).InApril1977,theCRCpublishedtheCombaheeRiver

CollectiveStatementofdefinition,history,andintent.Itbecameafoundational

documentintheestablishmentofstrategicidentitypoliticsasagenerative

resistancetool.Thestatementreadsinpart:

Weareactivelycommittedtostrugglingagainstracial,sexual,heterosexual,andclassoppressionandseeasourparticulartaskthedevelopmentofintegratedanalysisandpracticebaseduponthefactthatmajorsystemsofoppressionareinterlocking.Thesynthesisoftheseoppressionscreatestheconditionsofourlives.AsBlackwomenweseeBlackfeminismasthelogicalpoliticalmovementtocombatthe

40

manifoldandsimultaneousoppressionsthatallwomenofcolorface(Harris293).

Inthecontextofculturalproduction,TiffanyLópezarguesthattheprocessinvolved

in cultural and intellectual labor is as important as the labor itself.51Process

matters. After their initialmeeting to seewhat theyhad, theCombaheemembers

began the process of self-definition and strategizing in a series of meetings that

involved an intense variety of consciousness raising (Harris 299). They were

intentional about having an inclusive, democratic, and nonhierarchal approach.

Combahee’s approach alignswith ankhing, which is a stage in socio-political and

economicstruggle,whereby inspiration,strategyandcommunal laborcomingle to

help subjugated subjects collectively think through the most effective means to

resist hegemonic forces. Like Combahee’s approach, ankhing’s process includes

rigorous self-interrogation and group interrogation towards creating a healthy,

wholeseriesofbestpracticesandoutcomes.

InBambara’sTheSaltEaters,anankhing-relatedprocessmakesartistic

heterotopiasofresistancesaferandmoreproductive,similartohowankhing

workedwiththeCombaheeRiverCollective.Atthestartoftheactivist-oriented

novel,protagonistVelmaisunderthecareofacommunityhealer,MinnieRansom,

whoaccessestraditionalAfricanreligioushealingmodalitiesinherattempttoheal

theactivist.VelmaresiststhehealingtosuchanextentthatMinnieasksher,“Are

yousuresweetheartthatyouwanttobewell?”Thisquestionalsoservesasthe

novel’sopeningline.Inherworkasahealer,Minnieisabletoseeandengage

41

spiritualdeitiesor“haints”from“theotherside.”Minnie’sspiritualguide,main-

helperandprimaryinterlocutorisahaintknownasOldWife.OldWifeisaspiritual

deitywhoMinnieknewasachildwhenOldWifewasalive.

InTheSaltEaters,therelationshipbetweenMinnieandOldWifecanberead

asasignifierfortheunstablelivesofracializedandgenderedbodieswhoare

committedtocommunityspacesandcommunityhealing.Whileresisting

hegemonicStateforces,thehealinglaborexpendedinracializedcommunitiescan

beexhausting.Inoppressivecontexts,healingwhittlesawayatthehealer;energy

andspiritarelostduringthetransferofwellnessfromcommunityhealerto

communityinneed.OldWifewasacommunityhealerwhogavetohercommunity

untilshe“gaveuptheghost”andbecameahaint;OldWife’shauntingpresenceis

Minnie’sreminderofcommunityhealing’sinherentdangers.Thetransferofspirit

fromhealertocommunitycanresultinanti-oppressionlaborbecomingself-

oppressionlabor:laboringtillbreathbecomeslabored—healingtodeath.A

communityactivistcantransferherspiritintononexistence;shecanhealuntilshe

“ain’t,”healuntilshebecomesahaint.Insteadofhealingthecommunity,thehealer

simplybeginstohauntthecommunity.ArthurReddingarguesthat“[H]aints,thus

combinesadistinctregionalpronunciationofthewordhaunts,orghosts,withthe

traditionalcorruptionofain’t.Ghostsarehauntandain’t;ghostsarethe

nonexistent,theain’t,theother:Theyarebothinthesensethattheyareimmaterial

orfugitivepresencesoftheexiledandtheabandoned”(Redding9).52

42

TheSaltEatersnarrativebeginswithVelmaHenryindangerofbecominga

haint.VelmatheHealerhasgivenawayherenergy,givenawayherbreathby

stickingherheadintoanovenuntilshecannotbreathe.Exhaustedbyhealing

activism,VelmarelievestheStateofitsneedtoexercisebiopoweroverher;she

disciplinesherownbreath.Thisvulgarself-disciplineanimatesthebeginningofthe

text.MinnieasksVelma,“Areyousure,Sweetheart,thatyouwanttobewell?”

MinnieseekssuretyfromVelmabecauseMinnieisfamiliarwiththeworldofhaints;

sheknowstheycanchoosenonexistenceandbeatpeacewiththechoice.

HOWTHECHAPTERSANIMATE

Thisstudy’smethodologyisrootedintheliteraryarts(andnottheBlack

churchorWestAfricandance,forexample)becausereadingandwriting—andthe

denialofreadingandwriting—playsuchanoutsizedroletheexperienceAfrican

Americansvis-à-vistheState.WhenFredrickDouglassistaughtthebasicsof

readingandwritingbyMrs.Auld,herhusbandandslavemasterMr.Auldforbade

anyfurtherinstructionbecauseitwouldforever“unfit[Douglass]tobeaslave.”53

Mr.Auld’sconvictionaboutkeepingDouglassilliterateprovidesDouglasswitha

revelation:“Inowunderstoodwhathadbeentomeamostperplexingdifficulty—to

wit,thewhiteman’spowertoenslavethe[Blackpeople].Itwasagrand

achievement,andIprizedithighly.FromthatmomentIunderstoodthepathway

fromslaverytofreedom...Isetoutwiththehighhope,andafixedpurpose,at

whatevercostoftrouble,tolearnhowtoread.”54Douglassarguesthatthe

43

acquisitionofliteracycandramaticallyenhanceasubject’sanimacylevel;reading

andwritingcanmoveabarelifeindividualfrombondagetofreedom.InAnimacy

Matters,ankhingistheliberatorytechnologyemployedtoreadliteratureand

theorizewaystoenhanceanimacylevelswithintheLatina/oandAfricanAmerican

communities.Facilitywiththeliteraryartsisagenerativemeanstomoveupthe

humananimacyscale.InaliberatorystudyinvolvingBlackandBrownfolkseeking

heightenedanimacyinartisticcounterpublics,thecenteringofliteraryartsisan

essentialmoverootedinresistance.

Theconflationofspirit,animacyandartisticcounterpubliccancreatea

productiveenergythathelpstoresistthehegemonic,atomizingforcesof

neoliberalismontheAfricanAmericanandLatina/ocommunities.Thisproject

arguesthatsocio-politicallyengagedBlackandBrownartistsoperatinginartistic

counterpublicshavethepotentialtofacilitateliberatory,counterhegemoniclabor

againstthetotalizinggazeofneoliberalhegemons.Furthermore,thisstudycontends

thatartistically-rootedliberatorylaborisespeciallyeffectiveinthe“ankhing”

stagesofsocio-politicalandeconomicstruggle.TheKemetic-basedcoinageankhing

isthatprocesswherebyinspiration,strategy,andcommunallaborcomingleto

animateandnurturenascentsocio-politicalandeconomicempowerment

movements,viaemployingevolvingdemocratic,nonpatriarchal,spirit-infused

technologies.AnkhingstagesinAfricanAmericanandLatina/ocommunitiesoften

takeplaceinBlackandBrownemancipatorysitesthat,inmanycases,wouldfall

withinrhetoricianVorrisL.Nunley’sdefinitionofhushharbors:“Blackpublics[and

44

thisstudyargues,Brownpublics]whereBlack[andBrown]commonsense,

‘ideologylivedandarticulatedineverydayunderstandingoftheworldandone’s

placeinit,’isassumedtobehegemonicandnormative.”55

Sinceliteraryandculturaltextshavebeensiteswhereartistshave

representedandre-imaginedspirit-infusedworkinBlackandBrown

counterpublics,criticallyengagingliteraryandculturaltextsengendersabetter

understandingofhowcreativerepresentationsandre-imaginingsshapeAmerican

literature.Placingliteraryandculturalstudiesinconversationswithrhetoric,

theology,andurbanandpoliticaltheoryproducesamorerepleteunderstandingof

whatAmericanliteraturecanteachusaboutliberationinBlackandBrown

communities.AfricanAmericansandLatina/oAmericansshareahistoryofstate-

sponsoredjuridicalandsocio-economicoppression;56theemancipatorystories

BlackandBrownwriterstellaboutthemselves,andtheirrespectivecommunities,

canprovideinsightintoliberatoryleadershipstrategiesanddiscursivebest

practicestoresisttheState’soppressiveforces.

Thisprojectisdividedintofourchapters,eachinvolvingreadingAmerican

literature(focusedonAfricanAmericanandLatina/oliterature)withtheintentto

bringtothesurfaceemancipatorystrategies,bestpracticesandliberatory

challenges.InChapterOne,SalvadorPlascencia’sThePeopleofPaperisplacedin

conversationwithIshmaelReed’sMumboJumbo.Bothnovelsarepost-modernist

narrativesbuiltaroundculturally-relevant,community-oriented,history-based

mythologies.ThePeopleofPaperexaminestheculturalhistoryoftheworking-class,

45

primarilyLatina/ocommunityofElMonte,Californiaandinterweavesthiscultural

historywithafictionalized,mytho-poeticworldofawomanmadeofpaper.Mumbo

JumbomixesKemetianmythologywithHaitianmythologyandhistoricalfigures

fromtheBlackLiberationMovement.Bothtextsaredeeplyinterestedinwriting

andliteratureaswaystoaccessliberationforracializedsubjects.

InChapterTwo,thisprojectreadsBambara’sTheSaltEatersinconjunction

withCheríeMoraga’splayHeroesandSaints.Thesetwonarrativesdealwiththe

motivations,folkways,strategiesandchallengesofpeopleinvolvedinemancipatory

labor.Bothstoriesfeatureactivistswhosetroubledintimaterelationships

complicatetheirliberatorylabor.Thenarrativesexploretheimpactof

environmentalracismonBlackandBrowncommunities.TheSaltEaters’

protagonistVelmaworksasacomputerprogrammeratachemicalplant.Heroes

andSaintschroniclesthetravailsofafarmingcommunitythatisravagedby

chemicalpesticideusageinthelaborfields.Bothnarrativesexplorehowthe

racializedbodyisdevaluedanddebasedintheneoliberalcontext.

ChapterThreeexaminestwoimportantanthologiesdrivenbytheworkof

womenofcolorwhoarefeministactivists.ThisBridgeCalledMyBack:Writingsby

RadicalWomenofColor,editedbyCheríeMoragaandGloriaAnzaldúa,andJune

Jordan’sPoetryforthePeople:ARevolutionaryBlueprint,editedbyLaurenMuller

andtheBlueprintCollective,areexamplesofemancipatorylaborintheformsof

collectiveknowledgeproductionandcollectivebookmaking.Bothprojectsinform

46

thedemocratic,nonsexist,nonhomophobic,horizontalleadershipapproachto

liberatorylaborthatankhingseekstoprivilege.

ChapterFourexploresthevirulentanti-Blacknessofthispresenthistorical

momentintheUnitedStates,andhow,asEricaR.Edwardssuggests,fictioncanbea

resourceforforgingpoliticalcontestationthrough“theformalachievementof

curiosity:apoliticsandaestheticsofseriousinterrogation,playfulquestioning,

thoughtfulpuzzling,andfantasticreinvention.”Historically,theBlacksubjecthas

beenthetestinggroundforState-sponsoredoppressionaimedatAmerica’s

marginalizedsubjects,soaspecificexplorationofcreative-oriented,Black

resistancewillbeproductiveinunderstandingAmerican-styleoppressionand

resistance.Byreadingthesuperblycurious,thoughtfulandimaginativeworkof

KamauDaáoodandWandaColeman,thisfinalchapterarguesthatespecially

creativeandinventiveculturalproductioncanserveastechnologytoexpandBlack

subjectivityandserveascounterforcetosovereignandsocietalpressuresthatmove

Blacksubjectstowardbarelife.

47

ChapterOne

Andifwehadlearnedanythingfromthisstoryitwastobecautiousofpaper—tobemindfulofitsfragileconstructionandsharpedges,butmostlytobecautiousofwhatiswrittenonit.57

—SalvadorPlascencia

Well,MoseswentonstageandbegangyratinghishipsandsingingthewordsoftheBookofThoth,andastrangethinghappened.Theearsofthepeoplebegantobleed.58

—IshmaelReed

PAPERCUTS

Thisproject’sIntroductionprovidesthecontextandblueprintfortheargumentthat

istofollow.Insummary,theStatehasaggressivelypushedAfricanAmericanand

Latina/osubjectsdownthehumananimacyscale(ascalenotatingqualitiesof

agency,awareness,mobilityandaliveness)towardbarelifeviasocio-politicaland

juridicalmeans.Theankh,asanindigenousEgyptianspiritualiterationofanimacy,

powerstheliberatoryankhingprocess,wherebygroupsorganizethemselvesto

resisthegemonicforcesthatseektodelimittheirsubjectivityandagency—andtheir

abilitytobefullyalive.Ultimately,theIntroductionarguesthatAmericanliterature

isarepositorytoreimaginenewpossibilitiesforAfricanAmericansandLatina/osto

resistbarelifeandelevatetheiranimacy.Viareadingavant-gardeBlackandBrown

literature,ChapterOnewillarguethatankhing’svalorizationofcommunity

48

folkways,spiritandartcontributetotheelevationofLatina/oandAfricanAmerican

animacy.

Bookscanpapercut.IshmaelReed’sMumboJumboandSalvador

Plascencia’sThePeopleofPapersuggestthelaceratingpotentialofnarrativeon

paper.Thenovelsfunctionascommentariesonknowledgeproduction,the

relationshipbetweenknowledgeandpower,andhowwrittenknowledgecuts

racializedsubjectsintwo:barelife(“wounded,expendableandendangered”)and

goodlife(“lifetetheredtopoliticalagencyandspeech”).

TheOxfordEnglishDictionarystatesthattheoriginandoriginalmeaningof

“cut”isunknown,buttheOEDnotesthattheword’searliestappearance(including

“cutt”and“cutte”)occursbefore1300A.D.anditsdenotationbearsnoapparent

connectiontocut’smorefamiliar16THcenturyModernEnglishsignification,“The

actorresultofcutting.”59Theword’spre-1300entryreads:“1.=Lot:inthephrase

drawcuts(orlaycut)appliedtoareadywayofcastinglots,bythechanceof

drawingsticksorstrawsofunequallengths...hewhochancestodrawthebit

differinginlengthisthepersontowhomthelotfalls.”60Theearliestappearanceof

cutdealtwithdifference—anditsconsequences.InMumboJumboandThePeopleof

Paper,subjectscomeupshortwhentheydrawcutsdefinedbytheirracialized

bodies;theunequalwaysinwhichtheircoloredbodiesaremarkedresultsin

unequaltreatmentfortheircoloredbodies.Yet,thereisadialecticalaspecttothe

cut,todifference.Differenceinformsanddefines“standard,”asoppressedinforms

anddefinesoppressor;thereisliberatorypowerinthecut.Thecut’spoweris

49

producedbytheimprovisationalact(andvernacularphrase)ofturningalemon

intolemonade.FredMotenoffersacuttingderivationonthistheme:

Whatisneededisanimprovisationofthetransitionfromdescenttocut,anauditionoftheancientprefiguringtraceofthecutinthedepths,anactivationoflingeringbyandinthecut(andofthepossibilityofactionandlingeringandthepromiseoffreedominaction).61

Inthischapter,Iwillalsoarguethatankhingisaliberatorytechnologyrootedin

ancientindigenousAfricanspiritualityandthatitcontributestothepromiseof

freedominaction.

FLOWERPICKERSANDREVOLUTION

InThePeopleofPaper,theresidentsofElMonte,aprimarily-Latina/ocity

eastofdowntownLosAngeles,becomeawareofasovereign-likeforcethathasan

outsizedimpactontheirlives.Saturn—thesovereign(andanearhomophonetothe

word“sovereign”)—seemstohaveasophisticatedspyingapparatus;Saturntracks

theLatina/oresidents’comings,goings,publicmeetingsand,attimes,hasaccessto

theirprivateconversations.Saturn’ssurveillancepower“isofapiercingstrength

abletopenetrateasbestosandwoodshingles,tarpaper,plywood,thedarknessof

theattic.”62Theintensesovereignencroachmentiscoupledwiththeharshsocio-

politicalandeconomicrealitiesoftheagriculturallaborerfield,wherethe

“plantationpaidthirtycentsforeachpoundofcarnationsandfiftyforthethorny

stemsofroses”(Plascencia34).Inaneoliberalcontext,theaforementionedlabor

realitieshelptoproduce:

50

[T]hefirststreetgangbornofcarnations.Butforthemtherewasnosoftnessinpetalsandnoaromainflowers.Theyfeltonlysplintersandcallusesfromtillingthelandandsmelledonlythestenchoffertilizerandhorseshit.Theirshoeswerewetandthecuffsoftheirworkpantscrustedwithmud.Atmiddaytheytookofftheirshirtswringingthesweatandthentossingthemovertheirshoulders.Andalwaysacuttingknifewasinhand(Plascencia34).

Tiredoftheirlivesmovingtowardsbarelife,ElMontecommunitymembersdecide

toorganizeandfightback.Anagriculturalworkerinthefloralindustry-dominated

city,FedericodeleFealignswiththelocalgangEMF(ElMonteFlores)andbeginsto

organizeresistanceeffortsagainstthesovereign.Froggy,aveteranEMFgang

member,recountsanearlyFedericodeleFerecruitmentmeetingdirectedatEMF

gangsters.“[FedericodeleFe]saiditwasawasawarforvolitionandagainstthe

commodificationofsadness.‘Itisawaragainstthefatethathasbeendecidedfor

us’”(Plascencia53).

FedericodeleFespeaksofawaragainstfate.Awaragainstfatesuggestsan

unwinnablewaragainstwhathasalreadybeendetermined;itsignifiesabattle

againstthelot,thecut,onehasdrawninlife.However,thecutthrustupontheEl

Monteflowerpickers,thesecitizenswithknivesat-the-ready,isnotacutoftheir

ownchoosing.Thecutat-handisahand-me-downcutfromasovereignon-high.

Duringtherecruitmentmeeting,Froggy“askedwhohadgivenusthisfate.Federico

delaFeshookhisheadandsaidthathewasnotentirelysure.Allhecouldtellwas

thatitwassomethingorsomeoneinthesky”(Plascencia53).Thisgapbetweenthe

citizen’scut,andhowthecutcametobe,iswhereenoughhoperesidestoengagein

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anunwinnablewar.Ifacitizendoesn’tchoosethecut,maybethecitizen’sfateisnot

sealed:volitioncanhaveitssay.

Theexerciseofhumanagencyamidstextraordinaryobstacles,themakingof

awayoutofnoway,bespeakstotheexperienceofmanyracializedsubjectsinthe

UnitedStates:capturedAfricanssurvivingtheAtlanticMiddlePassagetoendurethe

MississippiMiddlePassageandprodigalMexicanssurvivingpassagealongtheRio

Grandetotheirancestralhomelandswheretheirnativebodiesaremarkedasalien.

Inthecontextofexpansivediscrimination,degradationanddeath-dealing,whatis

therelationshipbetweenvolition,desireandresistance?FredMotenavers,“Toact

onthedesiretobetheopposite,thedesirenottocollaborate,istoobject.How

mightresistancesuspendtheprocessofsubjection?”63

FedericodeleFe,theflowerpicker,decidesnottocollaboratewiththe

sovereignpowerwhohasdrawnalot,acut,forhimtoliveout:barelife.Despitethe

overwhelmingodds,heiscompelledbyvolitiontofightanunwinnablewaragainst

fatebychoosingtheoppositeofbarelife;FedericodelaFedesiresandpicksthe

“goodlife”—alifetetheredtopoliticalagencyandspeech.FedericodelaFe

exerciseshispoliticalagencybycallingameetingoflocalgangmembersand

speakingresistancetothem.“[If]wefightwemightbeabletogaincontrol,toshield

ourselvesandliveourlivesforourselves(Plascencia53).FedericodelaFeis

makinganaffectiveappealtoEMF;hewantstomovethemtobelievethatthegood

lifeispossiblefor“[T]hefirststreetgangbornofcarnations,”whofeel“only

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splintersandcallusesfromtillingthelandandsmelledonlythestenchoffertilizer

andhorseshit.”

Asaresistanceorganizer,FedericodelaFeisoperatingasanactant,“a

sourceofactionthatcanbeeitherhumanornonhuman...whichhasefficacy,can

dothings,hassufficientcoherencetomakeadifference,produceeffects,alterthe

courseofevents.”Employingspeech-tetheredaffect,FedericodelaFeisseekingto

alterthecourseofeventsthrougharesistancemovementby,asChenwrites,

affectivelyengaging“manybodiesatonce.”Theresistanceleaderisattemptingto

moveracializedbodies,Brownmatter,awayfrombarelifetowardsthegoodlife.

FedericodelaFeanimatesthisprocessbydiscouraginggangsterflowerpickers

fromcollaboratingwithasovereignforcedeterminedtodrawunsavorycutson

theirbehalf.

Alongwithdefiningthebattleasawaragainstfate,FedericodelaFedefines

thebattleasawaragainstthe“commodificationofsadness.”Thebarelifeisasad

life.Removedfrompoliticalagencyandspeech(andundertheatomizinggazeofa

sovereign),thebarelifeofElMonte’sLatina/oagriculturalworkersslidesdownthe

humananimacyscaletowardsanimality:akindofsubhumanobject.Theflower

picker’sbarelifebecomes“sadnessitself,”the“sadthingitself”;thingified,theEl

Monteagriculturalworkerbecomesacandidateforcommodification.In“Estranged

Labor,”Marxwritesthattheworker:

[D]oesnotfeelcontentbutunhappy,doesnotdevelopfreelyhisphysicalandmentalenergy...theworker’sactivityisnothisspontaneousactivity.Itbelongsto

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another;itisthelossofhisself.Asaresult,therefore,man(theworker)nolongerfeelshimselftobefreelyactiveinanybuthisanimalfunctions—eating,drinking,procreating,andinhishumanfunctionshenolongerfeelshimselftobeanythingbutananimal.Whatisanimalbecomeshumanandwhatishumanbecomesanimal.64

Above,Marxwritesabouttheworkerwhosefateisdeterminedbyacapitalist

system(asocio-economicrepresentativeofthesovereign)determinedtoexploitthe

worker’ssurpluslabor.Marx’ssolutionistofomentaresistancemovementtoover-

turnthesovereign’ssystem:revolution.FedericodelaFehasasimilarstrategy.The

initialrecruitmentandorganizingmeetingwiththedisenfranchisedmembersof

EMFisrepresentativeoftheinitialelementintheankhingprocess.Thefirstelement

inthequarternateankhingprocessisastageinsocio-politicalandeconomic

struggle,wherebyindividualsandgroupsorganizethemselvestoresisthegemonic

forceswhichseektodelimittheirsubjectivity,social,politicalandeconomicagency,

anddelimittheirpowertodeterminetheirownlifecourses.FedericodelaFe’swar

ofvolitionagainstthecommodificationofsadnesssignifiesthatcollectivewillis

necessarytodeterminecommunitylifecourses—andcollectivewillisnecessaryto

resistbecomingacommunityofcommodities.

LIBERATEDWOMAN

SubcomandanteSandra’sroleinThePeopleofPaperhighlightsanother

elementoftheankhingprocess.AstheIntroductionaddressed,male-ledliberation

movementsinthe20thcenturyhavebeentakentotaskfortryingtocircumscribe,

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andunderminewomen’srolesinemancipatorylabor.Historically,womenhave

beenpushedtowards“supportroles”thatdidn’tfullyrespecttheirpotential

leadership,organizingefficacyandstrategiccontributionstothecauseat-hand.

Rampantmisogynyinliberationmovementsisharmfultothemorale,motivation

andeffectivenessoffemaleemancipatorylaborers—andit’sacostlystrategicmove.

Constrictingliberation-mindedwomen’scontributionstofreedomworkconstricts

liberatoryresourcesfrommovementsthattraditionallyare“out-resourced”bythe

hegemonicpowerstructurestheyareresisting;strategically,itiswisetoencourage

fullparticipationfromallwillingliberatorylaborers,especiallythosewhose

genderedsubjectpositionmayresultinamorecomprehensivebestpracticespool.

Asaliterarytheoreticalinterventionwithpragmaticreal-worldliberatoryconcerns,

ankhingchampionsaninclusiveapproachtoliberatorylabor.

SubcomandanteSandra’semancipatoryroleinThePeopleofPaperisa

productivearenatoexplorethepositiveexternalitiesofthemoreinclusive

approachtoliberatorylaborthatankhingencourages.Thesecondelementof

ankhingisastageinsocio-politicalandeconomicstruggle,wherebyinspiration,

strategyandcommunallaborcomingletoservesubjugatedsubjectsintheirefforts

tocollectivelythinkthroughthemosteffectivemeanstoresisthegemonicforces—

andthroughthisidea-exchange,inspire,motivateandmoveeachothertowardsbest

practicestoresisthegemonicforcesseekingtodelimittheirsubjectivity,social,

politicalandeconomicagency,anddelimittheirpowertodeterminetheirownlife

courses.Thisprocessincludesrigorousself-interrogationandgroupinterrogation

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towardscreatingahealthy,whole,ankhingprocessthatcanresultinhealthy,whole,

ankhingpracticesandoutcomes.

IntheElMonteFloresrevolutionarycampaignagainstthesovereign

hegemonicforceSaturn,Sandraisselectedforacriticalleadershipposition.As

SubcomandanteSandra,sheisinchargeofoverseeingtheinitiationofnewEMF

members.OnlyEMFgangmembersaretrustedenoughtoengageinthe

revolutionarystruggleagainstSaturn.FedericodelaFe’sexclusiveutilizationof

gangmembers,andtheirhumanizingdepictioninthenovel,servesasapowerful

counter-narrativetogangmembers’routinedemonization.Astherevolutionaryin

chargeofinitiatingnewgangmembersinaliberationstruggle,Subcomandante

Sandrahasthepowertoveteachpotentialemancipatoryworker.Philosophically,

FedericodelaFeembracestheuntappedliberatorypotentialofoneofAmerica’s

mostdemonizedpopulations;SubcomandanteSandraisinchargeoftransforming

theliberatorypotentialofthesegangstersintoliberatoryeffectiveness.Asafemale

leaderinaprimarilymaleorganization,SubcomandanteSandrabringsan

alternativeapproachtoleadership—andthroughhersuccess,highlightsthe

emancipatorybenefitsofinclusivityandintra-groupdifference.Subcomandante

Sandradrawsthecutofgenderdifferenceandemploysitsleadershipbenefits

towardshercommunity’seffortstoresistbeingstrippedfrompoliticalsignificance

andexposedtomurderousviolencebecauseElMonte’sracializedunderclasshave

drawnthecutofclassandpoliticaldifference.

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InorderforapotentialnewmembertojoinElMonteFlores,theyhaveto

showtheircourageandfightingskillsbygoingthrougha“brinca.”Abrincaisthe

“beingjumpedintothegang”processwherebythepotentialrecruithasto

simultaneouslyfightsixcurrentmembers.Thenovelimpliesthatbefore

SubcomandanteSandra’sriseinleadership,thesixmembersselectedforthebrinca

werethemostviolentEMFgangsters;thisstrategywasemployedtotestthenew

gangmembers’toughness.SubcomandanteSandraapproachesthebrinca

differently:

[Subcomandante]Sandracoordinatedtheinitiations;thoughshehonoredthetraditionsofEMF,shedidsointhekindestway,electingthemeekestmembersforthebrincas,sparingasmuchinjuriesaspossible(Plascencia68).

Thepassageabove,narratedbytheformerbrincaorganizerFroggy,suggeststhat

SubcomandanteSandradidnotthinkthe“testingtoughness”approachtoinitiating

newEMFmemberswasthebestpractice;thepassageindicatesthatthe“testing

toughness”approachwascreatingexcessiveinjuries,whichwerecounterproductive

toresistinghegemonicforces.

However,it’simportanttonotethataftertheimpliedgroupinterrogationof

theformerinitiationpractice(whichSubcomandanteSandradeterminednottobe

thebestpractice),shedoesn’tcompletelyeliminatethebrincapractice.Instead,the

initiationleader“honoredthetraditionsofEMF”viamaintainingthepracticebut

adjusteditsimplementationby“electingthemeekestmembersforthebrincas,

sparingasmuchinjuriesaspossible.”SubcomandanteSandra’snuancedmethodof

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bestpracticecreationandimplementationindicatesacollectivistleadership

approachthatconsidersresultsandprocess.Completelydiscardingtheinherently

violentbrincapracticewouldhaveresultedinareductionofevenmoreinjuriesbut

couldhavefomenteddissentamongmemberswhovalueEMFtraditions.

SubcomandanteSandrabalancesbestpracticesfortheliberationmovementwith

bestpracticesthatwillbeacceptedbyliberationmovementmembers.This

balancingactindicatesaleadershipcapacitynotpreviouslyexhibitedby2ndin

commandEMFmemberComandanteFroggy,thepreviousleaderinchargeof

initiation—whopromotedSubcomandanteintotheposition.

Beforeherpromotion,SubcomandanteSandrahadbeenromantically

involvedwithComandanteFroggy,butafterherpromotionsheinitiatedchangesin

therelationship.ComandanteFroggydescribesthechangebysaying,“Shediscussed

onlybattlestrategyandlogisticsinmypresenceandrefusedtoacknowledge

anythingIsaidunlessIcalledher“SubcomandanteSandra(Plascencia65).”

Itisnotdifficulttoimaginepeopleengagedinliberationstrugglebecoming

involvedromantically,especiallyiftheyareincloseproximity.Essentially,

ComandanteFroggypromoteshisgirlfriend.However,itisnoteworthythat

SubcomandanteSandraiscommittedtoestablishingrespectthroughhereffective

leadershipinthepublicrealmofemancipatorylabor(i.e.developingmoreeffective

initiationbestpractices)butalsointheprivatedomainofherrelationshipwithher

boyfriend/ComandanteFroggy.Bymaintainingliberatorylabor-oriented

conversationsandinsistingontheuseofherliberatorylabortitle,Subcomandante

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Sandrachangesthedynamicwithinherprivaterelationship;assheisstrugglingfor

communityemancipation,sheisstrugglingforprivateemancipationaswell.

SubcomandanteSandra’sprivateemancipationstruggleisareferenttotheoften

invisiblestrugglewomenengageinwithintheirhome’sprivatedomain:thestruggle

forphysicalsafety,respectandrightofself-determination.

Thenovelfurtherilluminatesthisprivatestrugglewhenitisrevealsthat

SubcomandanteSandra’sfatherhadbeensophysicallyabusivethroughouther

childhoodthatsheeventuallymovedintoFroggy’shome.WhenSubcomandante

Sandra’sFather’scomestoretrieveherfromFroggy’shouse,Froggycutsher

father’sneckwithacarnationknife.SubcomandanteSandra’sresponsegives

insightintotheintersectionofgendered,privateemancipatorystruggleand

gendered,communityemancipatorystruggle:

[E]venthoughmywholelifeIwantedtofleefrommyfatherIdidnotlikeseeinghimwrappedintheshredsofmyshawl

andburiedinthemiddleofaflowerfield.IremainedsubcomandanteofEMFbutmovedoutofFroggy’s.Icouldnotsleepinthesameroomwiththemanwhohadkilledmyfather.[I]movedintoastuccoattheedgeofElMonte.Isleptalone,cushionedbyrugsandpillows.Iwasaquietsleeperanddidnotthrashaboutorevensnore,butIbegantowakewithweltsonmyarmsandmyribssoreandbruised.ItwasnotuntilIlookedinthemirrorandnoticedtheblackeyeonmyfacethatIknewIhadbeendreamingofmyfather(Plascencia55).

ThroughoutthenarrativethenovelsuggeststhatSubcomandanteSandragrewup

inanElMonteagriculturallaborfamily—thetypeoffamilyshewashelpingto

createbestpracticesfortofightasovereigncommittedtodelimitingElMonte

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agriculturallaborers’lifecoursesandpushingthemtowardsbarelife.Her“whole

life”SubcomandanteSandrawanted“toflee”andliberateherselffromafathershe

waslikelytryingtoliberate—despitethefactthathe“beathersomuchthatshe

couldnolongerrememberwhatitwasliketoproperlyknit”(Plascencia54).

SubcomandanteSandra’sironicandoppressiveprivatecontextmakesher

publicemancipatoryeffectivenessthatmuchmoreimpressiveandinstructive.The

effectivenessismoreimpressivebecauseSubcomandanteSandrahastofirstself-

liberatejusttoengageincommunityliberation;hereffectivenessisinstructive

becausenegotiatingprivate-arena,genderedoppressionequipsherwithan

enhancedskill-setthattranslatesintoadroitlynegotiatingpublicarenacommunity

oppression—aspecificskill-setenhancementthatamaleEMFleaderisunlikelyto

possessgiventhespecificallygenderedwayinwhichtheskill-setisdeveloped.

SubcomandanteSandra’sexperienceoperatesasanargumentforliberation

movementleadershipwithgenderdiversity;herexperiencealsooperatesasan

exampleofwhyankhingpromotesgenderdiversityforstrategicandethical

reasons.

SubcomandanteSandra’sEMFleadershiproleisaconstructivespaceto

examineanotheraspectofankhing’sfocusoncreatingahealthy,whole,ankhing

processthatcanresultinhealthy,whole,ankhingpracticesandoutcomes.“Whole”

willbethecentralnotionforthenextpartofthisdiscussion.Consideringa

liberationlaborer’swholelife(asopposedtojustthepartsthatspecificallyrelateto

emancipatorythoughtandaction)isessentialtocreatingeffectiveactivism.When

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anemancipatoryworker’swholelifeisconsideredbytheemancipatoryleadership,

itcanpromoteastyleofactivistengagementwiththecommunitythatconsiders

communitymemberswholelives,whichistosay,theirmaterialconditions,their

childrenandagedparents,theiremotional,psychologicalandphysicalhealth.

Whenawholelifeisconsidered,itsignifiesthatbothliberatoryworkersand

communitymembersinneedofliberationarewholehumanbeingswithexpansive

subjectivityandnotjustactivistswithajobtodooroppressedfolkwhoneedtobe

organized.

FedericodelaFeisasingle-fatherraisinghispre-teendaughterLittle

Merced.Asaresult,FedericodelaFe’sresistanceleaderandfatherrolesare

coterminous.Thenovelhighlightsthepracticalwaysinwhichtheactivists’

personalandpoliticalcanoverlapwhenMercedmenstruatesforthefirsttime:

‘Iranoutofmyroomintohekitchen,yellingformyfather.Hesawthebloodandstoodup,butnotbeforecoveringhisnoteswithajaggedslaboflead.’

‘It’sSaturn,’Isaid.Helaughedandthenwrungawettoweloverthekitchensinkandthenhandedittome.Hesaidnottoworry,thateverythingwouldbeokay,andthenpickedupthephone.

‘SubcomandanteSandra’(Plascencia85).

Itissignificanttonotethattheresistanceleader’sdaughterthinkshermenstrual

bleedingisbeingcausedthesovereignforceSaturn.Liberationworkerswith

childrenareliberationworkerswhoareexposingtheirchildrentothepowerful

forcesseekingtodelimitlifecourses.Attimes,theexposuretosuchforceshave

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unexpectedconsequences—likechildrenattributingthemostintimatefunctionsof

theirbodiestoanexternalhegemon.

Shouldactivismbeginathome?Shouldactivistteachtheirpreteenchildren

emancipatorywork,iftheyknowthatexposuretotheworkmayinflict

psychologicalandorphysicaldamage?Whatisthecostofnotteachingactivismat

home?Thesearethequestionsthatliberationworkerswithchildrenmust

confront—alongwithdilemmasrelatingtochildcare,schooltransportationand

menstruation;theeffectivehandlingoftheseprivateconcernsiswhatallows

activiststoengageinpublicactivistwork:door-knocking,informationdistribution,

fundraisingandcommunitymeetings.

WhenFederico’sdelaFe’sdaughterLittleMercedbeginstomenstruatefor

thetime,hecallsoneoftheleadersinhisresistancemovementforassistance.Most

likely,FedericodelaFecallsSubcomandanteSandrabecausethereisatrustfactor

thatcomeswithsharedleadership.Also,onecouldarguethatFedericodelaFeuses

LittleMerced’sfirstmenstruationasanopportunitytointimatelyintroducehis

daughtertoapotentialliberatoryrolemodel.Intheprocess,SubcomandanteSandra

humanizesliberationlaborandmakesitmorerelatablebyaddressingashared

genderedneed.SubcomandanteSandrasays:

IshowedLittleMercedhowtousethenapkinandmixavinegarwash.Becausewelivedwithintheashenboundaries,LittleMercedwouldstarthercycleatthesametimeIandeveryotherwomaninElMontedid.InElMonte,sisterhoodandsolidaritywerealwaysmarkedbybloodshed.Ipummeledgirlsonthemouth[duringEMFinitiations],theirbloodspillingoutoftheirchinsandonto

62

myknuckles.AndthenInursedtheirbrokenskin,putarnicacompoundsontheirbruises,andwelcomedthemintoEMF.Ihikedupmydressandpulledmyunderweardown,exposingthestainedquiltedpad.‘See,I’mjustlikeyou,’Isaid.LittleMercednodded.IhuggedherandleftFedericodelaFe’shouse(Plascencia85).

SubcomandanteSandraaddressesLittleMerced’sspecificprivateneedby

showingher“howtousethenapkinandmixavinegarwash”;simultaneously,the

resistanceleaderframestheinteractionasanusheringofthepre-teensubjectinto

ElMonte“sisterhood.”Itisasisterhoodandsolidarity“markedbybloodshed.”

LittleMercedjoinsawomen’scirclewithcoordinatedbloodshedfromuterinewalls

andritualizedbloodshed“spillingoutoftheirchins.”Combined,bothkindsof

bloodshedsignifyafemalesubjectwhohasmaturedenoughtoengageinbattle

againstasovereignforcedeterminedtodelimitherlifecourse—andthelifecourses

ofthosewhoshareherbloodlineandcommunity.

SimilartoFedericodellaFe,SubcomandanteSandraisoperatingasan

actant:“asourceofactionthatcanbeeitherhumanornonhuman...hasefficacy,

candothings,hassufficientcoherencetomakeadifference,produceeffects,alter

thecourseofevents.”Asaleaderamongthiscommunityofwomen—andaleader

ofmen—SubcomandanteSandraisabletoarticulatethepowerofcommunityby

sayingtoayoungfemalecommunitymember,“See,I’mjustlikeyou.”Female

resistanceleaderSubcomandanteSandraisalsodeclaring,byextension,toLittle

Merced,“See,youarejustlikeme.”SubcomandanteSandra’sdeclarationisasubtle

andpowerfulmove;throughherownpersonalvulnerability,sheisaccessingthe

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vulnerable,private,spaceofayoungfemalecommunitymembertohelplaythe

foundationforLittleMerced’sentranceintothepublicspaceofemancipatorylabor.

SubcomandanteSandra’sstrategicmovealignswithankhing’sdictumthata“whole”

(privateandpublic)approachisthemosteffectivemeanstoresisthegemonic

forces;strategically,thiswholeapproachcaneventuallyinspire,motivateandmove

LittleMercedtowardstakingthenecessaryactionstoimplementthespecificbest

practicestoresisthegemonicforcesthataretryingtopushthewomen,menand

youthinhercommunitytowardsbarelife.

THELIFEANDTIMESOFJESGREW

IshmaelReed’sMumboJumboisanovelconcernedwithlifeandliving—and

theforcesdeterminedtodelimitlifeandliving.SimilartoThePeopleofPaper’s

Brownsubjects,MumboJumbo’snarrativefeaturesfictionalizedBlacksubjects

resistinganaggressivepushtowardsbarelife.InMumboJumbo,subjectsarenot

onlyresistingbeingstrippedfrompoliticalsignificanceandexposedtomurderous

violence,theyareresistingbeingstrippedfromtheirverysouls—andsoulitself.

InSpiritualsandtheBlues,ConearguesthatsoulfulBlackartistsare

expressinganindwellingGod-energy,anindwellingspiritualenergy,which

manifestsasaniterationof“life”thatcanengageinemancipatorylabor.Thesouls

ofBlackfolkcanliberateBlackfolk.Blackartistscananimatelifeindisenfranchised

communitiestosuchanextentthatcommunitymemberscanresistbeingpushed

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towardsbarelife,andinsteadstruggletowardswhatAgambencallsthe“good

life”—lifetetheredto“politicalagencyandspeech.”

InMumboJumbo,thereisaversionofthisart-tethered,Blacksoulenergy

thatcanmovesubjectsawayfrombarelifeandtowardsthegoodlife;itiscalledJes

Grew.“JesGrewhasnoendandnobeginning...Wewillmissitforawhilebutit

willcomeback,andwhenitreturnswewillseethatitneverleft.Yousee,lifewill

neverend;thereisreallynoendtolife,ifanythinggoesitwillbedeath.JesGrewis

life”(Reed204).InMumboJumbo’snarrative,theAtonists,apowerfulcollectionof

anti-blacknesshegemons,includingMasons,KnightsTemplarandTeutonicKnights

arededicatedtosuppressingandultimatelydestroyingtheBlacksoulexpressionJes

Grew.Strategically,iftheAtonistscandestroyJesGrew,destroyBlackSpirit,

destroyBlacksoul,therewouldbenoforcepowerfulenoughtocounteracttheforce

movingBlacksubjectstowardsbarelife.AcomplementaryconcernfortheAtonists

isthatBlacksoulis“spreading”tosomewhitesubjects,creatingapotentially

powerfulallyclassfortheBlackcommunity.InThePeopleofPaper,ahistorically

andsocio-economicallymarginalizedsubpopulation(Latina/ogangmembers)serve

asLatina/ocommunityresistancefighters;inMumboJumbo,ahistoricallyand

socio-economicallymarginalizedsubpopulation(Blackartists)serveasJesGrew’s—

andaBlackcommunity’s—resistancebrigade.Thenarrativeexplainsthatanti-Black

forces“willtrytodepressJesGrewbutitwillonlyspringbackandprosper.Wewill

makeourownfutureText.Afuturegenerationofyoungartistswillaccomplishthis”

(Reed204).Theattemptto“depressJesGrew”isahegemonicattempttodepress

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itsfunctionalityasanactant,its“sufficientcoherencetomakeadifference,produce

effects,alterthecourseofevents.”

JesGrew,thiscorollarytotheBlackspirit,offersanopportunitytothink

criticallyaboutthepoweravailabletosomesoulfulBlackartiststohelpinitiate

changeandalterthecourseofevents—without“romanticizing”theartistinthe

process.ThisstudyarguesthatsomesoulfulBlackartistshavethepowertoinspire

andmovedisenfranchisedsubjectstowardsliberatorythoughtandactionandaway

frombarelife.Blackartistsrelativelymarginalizedandalienatedsubjectpositions

intheirowncommunities,ironically,positionsthemaspotentialfreedomfighters

fortheircommunities.Motenacknowledgesthelatentpowerofthealienatedwhen

hewrites“[A]lienationanddistancerepresentthecriticalpossibilityoffreedom.”65

MumbuJumbosuggeststhatBlacksoulfulartists,operatingasaliberatoryvanguard,

willcreatesomeBlackcommunity’s“ownfutureText.”Thisstatementcanberead

assoulfulBlackartists“writethefutureStory”ofsomeBlackcommunitiesbyliving

liberatedlivesandcreatingculturalproductsthatengenderliberationfortheir

communities.IdentifyingsoulfulBlacksartistsasasubpopulationwhocanaltarthe

courseofeventsisnotromanticizingartists,it’sidentifyingsoulfulBlackartistsasa

subpopulationwhocanaccessandemploythe“spirit,”theJesGrew,topowerfully

enhancetheirownanimacyintheserviceofanimatingtheircommunities(through

affect)towardsliberatorythoughtandaction.

TofurtherdistancetheemancipatorypowerofsoulfulBlackartistsfromthe

notionoftheromanticartist,itmaybehelpfultoexplorehowthepoweris

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producedbytheinternalworkingsandarchitectureofthespirit.Inthespiritqua

emancipatorypowercontext,Latourwouldbeinterestedinwhatthespiritcan“do,”

or,intheBlackvernacular,“howitdo,whatitdo.”Improvisationisoftenone

elementpresentwhenthespiritdowhatitdo.Addressingactants,Latourwrites,“I

neveract;IamalwaysslightlysurprisedbywhatIdo...Thatwhichactsthrough

meisalsosurprisedbywhatIdo,bythechancetomutate,tochange.”66

Improvisationistheartandthepowerofsurprise;inthisstudy,improvisationisthe

undeterminedorindeterminacymademanifestinmusicorspiritorliterature.

HenryLouisGates,Jr.framesMumboJumboasatextaboutindeterminacy.“Itis

indeterminacy,thesheerpluralityofmeaning,theveryplayofthesignifieritself,

whichMumboJumbocelebrates...It’scentralcharacterJesGrew,cannotbe

reducedbytheAtonists,astheycomplain:‘It’snothingwecanbringintofocusor

categorize;oncewecallit1thingitformsintosomethingelse.’”67

Inthejazzimprovisationalmoment,theindeterminacymoment,thetrust

thattherightseriesofnotestoplaywillrevealthemselvesattheappropriate

momentrequiresacertainlevelofbelief,faith.Theindeterminacymomentrequires

afaiththatthespiritwillprovideasalvificintercessionsothattheunplannedmusic

willnotfalter;itrequiresthecouragetoembracetherealitythat,attimes,themusic

willfalter—andembracetherealitythatthefailurewillhappeninfrontofan

audience:inthepublicsphere

Thisriskoffailureisoneofthereasonswhyjazzimprovisationisexcitingfor

themusician.Itisacourtingofdanger.Fortheaudience,improvisationisoften

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excitingforasimilarreason.Itisanopportunitytowitnesssomeonetakingrealrisk

inapublicforum;ittitillatesinthatwaypeoplegathertowatchahumanbeingwalk

acrossahighwirebetweentwobuildings.Publicfailureisarealpossibility.When

publicfalteringisrealized,itbecomesapublicspectacle.Publicfailureasspectacle

isagrotesquetypeofentertainment—andthereforeitspossibilityisentertaining.

Theartistproducingartinthishigh-riskcontextisarticulatingandembodyinga

typeoffreedom;itisaliberatorymodalitythatmeldsthecreativeandthesocio-

political.Thishigh-riskartfunctionsasaninterpreterfortheartist:“Iamfreefrom

formandexpectations;Iamfree-formandcreateanticipation.”PoetKamau

Daáood’sodetoJohnColtrane,“LiberatoroftheSpirit,”speaksoffreedomandform:

“JohnColtranewasafreedomfighter/liberatorofthespiritfromtheshacklesof

form/expandingbeyondtheboundaries/blowawaydecay.”68

GiventhetraditionallydisenfranchisedsubjectpositionofBlackartists,one

canreadtheJohnColtranereferent“JohnColtranewasafreedomfighter/liberator

ofthespiritfromtheshacklesofform”asasocio-politicalsignifier:Blackartistsas

resistancefightersareresistingobjectificationandresistingthepushintotheform

knownasbarelife.Inorderforthisresistancetobepossible,thespiritmustbe

liberated“fromtheshacklesofform”becausethespiritistheliberatorypower

source.Aliberatedspiritmakespossibleanexpansivesubjectivity.Whenthereis

expansivesubjectivity,itispossiblefortheBlacksubjectto“expandbeyondthe

boundaries”definedbyactantspositionedhigherontheanimacyhierarchy.A

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liberatedspiritandexpansivesubjectivityallowsBlacksubjectstoresistbeing

hailedashomosacer.

BLACKSPIRITANDTHEFREEDOMBOOGIE

Thisprojectacknowledgestheproblematicsinvolvedintheorizingabout

spiritconceptslikeJesGrew.Howdoesonecriticallyengagetheesotericwithout

floatinginthebadlandsofunverifiable,rootlessconjecture?Thisproblemisfurther

complicatedwhenraceisintroducedintheformofBlackSpiritbecauseitexpands

theaforementionedbadlandsinto“unverifiable,essentialist,rootlessconjecture.”

JaneBennett’sexplorationofcriticalvitalismmayprovideafiretrailthroughthis

problematicterrain.

Criticalvitalismwasanearly20thCenturyphilosopho-scientificmovement

thatcongealedaroundtheworkofHenriBergsonandHansDriesch.Kantian-

inspired,boththinkerswrestledwiththe“Whatislife”questionbyinterrogatingthe

natureofthe“vitalforce”thatanimatedmatter.69FollowingKant,boththeorists

werecarefultoseparatethisvitalforcefromaspiritualimperative;they

“distinguishedthemselvesfromthose‘naïve’vitalistswhopositedaspiritualforce

orsoulthatwasimmunetoanyscientificorexperimentalinquiry.”70Inthiscritical

vitalismcontext,Bergson’sélanvitalnotionwillbemostproductiveforthis

discussion:

Bergson’s[élanvital]isalsobasedonthedistinctionbetween Lifeandmatter...Lifenamesacertainpropensityfor‘the utmostpossible’activeness,abiasinfavorofmobileand

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morphingstates.Likewise,mattermustbeunderstoodas leaningtowardpassivity,atendencyinfavorofstable formation...[L]ifeisnotsusceptibletoquantification...Life ‘splays’itselfoutinnewformsthatarenotevenconceivable beforetheyexist,saysBergson,andweretheytobequantified andmeasured,itwouldalreadybetoolate,forlifewill havemovedon.71

LikeJesGrew,Bergson’sfree-moving,animatinglifeforce,élanvital,isdefinedbya

“propensityfor‘theutmostpossible’activeness,abiasinfavorofmobileand

morphingstates.Ӄlanvitalisinfinitepossibilitiesofagency,movementandchange;

itisliberated.Theindeterminatenatureandinfinitenumberofexpressive

options—theinfinitefreedomofexpression—makesélanvitalunquantifiable;these

qualitiesmakeitthatwhichcannotbeknown.However,élanvitalcanbeseenand

feltbecauseoftheeffectsandaffectitproduces.Thisunderstandingofélanvitalis

reminiscentofCone’sunderstandingoftheBlackSpiritfromtheIntroduction:

[TheBlackSpiritual]isafaithfulfreeresponsetothemovementoftheBlackSpirit.Itisthemovementofthe

BlackSpirit.ItistheBlackSpirit.ItistheBlackcommunity acceptingthemselvesasthepeopleoftheBlackSpiritand knowingthroughthechainsofhispresencethatnochains canholdtheSpiritofBlackhumanityinbondage(Cone5).

BothBlackSpiritandélanvitalcentermovement.TheBlackSpiritis

tetheredto“freeresponses”andtheélanvitalisconnectedto“infinitefreedomof

expression.”Bothnotionsaredeeplyconcernedwiththerelationshipbetween

liberationand“life.”However,unlikeBlackSpiritanditsfictionalcounterpartJes

Grew,élanvital’sphilosopho-scientificunderpinningsaredistinguishedfrom

“religiousnotionsofthesoul;[Bergson]alsorejectedtheideathatthevitalforce

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couldhaveanyexistenceapartfromthebodiesinwhichitoperated.”72Departing

fromBergsonandBennett,thisstudyarguesthatthevitalforcecanhaveexistence

outsidethebodyinwhichitoperates—andcanbespreadfrompersontoperson—

liketheJesGrewvirus.InSpirituals&theBlues,Conedescribesthesceneinthe

MacedoniaA.M.E.churchwheretheSpiritis“breakingintothelivesofthepeople.”

ConealludestothewellknowntraditionalBlackchurchpracticeofamember

“catchingtheHolySpirit”andthatSpiritbreakingintopersonafterpersonasit

spreadsthroughoutthecongregation.

Likethe“HolyDance”thatoftenissymptomaticofachurchmemberwhohas

caughttheHolySpirit,“dancemania”isasymptomofJesGrewandasymbolfor

freedom:

Dancemaniasinundatetheland.J.A.Rogers,writes,‘It isjusttheepidemiccontagiousnessofjazzthatmakesit, likemeasles,sweeptheblock.’PeopledotheCharleston, theTexasTommy,andotheranonymouslycreated symptomsofJesGrew.TheWallflowerOrderremembers the10thCenturytarantismwhichnearlythreatened thesurvivaloftheChurch.EvenParacelus,a‘radical’ whostartledtheacademiciansbylecturinginthe vernacular,termsthesemaniasa‘disease’(Reed64).

InorderfortheSpirittotravelfrompersontoperson,likeanliberatoryairborne

virus,adeliverancedisease,ithastobeabletoexist“outsidethebodyinwhichit

operates”duringthejourneyfrompersontoperson.ThisSpiritthatcantravel

throughacongregationisthesameSpiritthatcantravelthroughajazzclub

audiencewhenthesoul-stirringjazzsingerDwightTribleisfrenzyingthrough

“Mothership”;itisthesameSpiritthatcanmovethroughtheaudienceatTheWorld

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StagewhenpoetKamauDaáoodistrancingthrough“PapaLeanGriot”;itisthesame

SpiritthatmovesthroughtheHouseofBlueswhensoulfulcroonerJillScottis

hittinglow-downhigh-noteson“One”;itisthesameSpiritthatcanmakehundreds

ofheadsbounceinunisonashiphopartistKendrickLamarchantsthrough“The

BlackertheBerry.”SoulfulartistscanbeconduitsoftheSpirit.

Whensoulfulartistsarealsoengagedinsocialjusticework,theSpiritmoving

throughthemisanactantinsocialjusticemovements;73theSpiritoperatingin

them,andasthem,performsthecriticalworkoffomentinggroupaction.Socially-

engagedartistsfacilitatethegroup-dynamicprocesswherebycommunitymembers

aremovedsignificantlyenoughto“catchtheSpirit”ofheightenedsocialjustice

commitmentbywitnessingcommunitymembersaroundthembeingmoved

significantlyenoughto“catchtheSpirit”ofheightenedsocialjusticecommitment.

ThisinitialSpirit-catching-processisnotsufficienttomaintaincommitmentbutit

functionsasanaffectivefoundationonwhichtobuildasustainablefuture

commitmenttosocialjustice.Socially-engagedartistsareoftenpositionedas

inspiring“openingacts”or“consciousentertainment”inbetweenemancipatory

speakersonsocialjusticeprograms,ralliesanddirectactions.However,thisstudy

arguesthattheSpiritthatmakessoulful,socially-engagedartistsinspiringas

“creativefiller”isthesameSpiritcanmakesthemeffectiveleadersinsocialjustice

movements.Intheemancipatorylaborcontext,thisprojectseekstomoveartists

frommargintocenter.

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LIBERATORYARTTHEIVES

InMumboJumbo,thereisaliberatoryorganizationthatcentersartistsas

leaders,strategistsandintelligenceagents.Mu’tafikahisaninternationalforceof

specializedagentswholiberateartandculturalartifactsproducedbypeopleof

colorbutcontrolledbyEuropeanandAmericaninterests.Mu’tafikah’seffortsare

ancillarytoJesGrew—andvis-a-versa—becausebothareconcernedwithliberation.

JesGrew“iscompoundedbytheMu’tafikahwhoareresponsibleforarttheftsnow

ravishingprivatecollectionsofEuropeandAmerica.1oftheirnumber,an

internationalMu’tafikah,hasliftedthesacredPapyriofAnistoredintheBritish

Museumandreturneditto‘BrothersinCairo’(Reed63).TheMu’tafikahmembers’

subjectpositionsasartistsofcolorcontributetotheirveryspecializedart-centric

mission.Artistsleadingtheorganizationlikelyplaysaroleindeterminingthatart

repatriationisarevolutionaryactworthriskingMu’tafifkahmembers’libertyand

possiblylife.InMumboJumbo,artistleadersvaluetheliberatorypowerofart.

Mu’tafikah’sinternational,multi-racialprofilealsospeakstotheirdesireto

support“ThirdWorld”liberationstruggles.Intheirundergroundheadquarters:

Mu’tafikaharecarefullypackingitems.Theyaretobesenttoacontact‘Frank’somewhereinthePacificIslandswhowillinturnshipthemtotheirrightfulownersinAsia.‘Tam’aNigerianmusicianandwriterwillreturn5000masksandwoodsculpturetoAfrica.HehadbegunbyliftingaBeninbronzeplaquewithleopardfromtheLinden-MuseuminStuttgart,Germany...[Tam]repatriatedmasksandfigures—carriedtoEuropeasbootyfromNigeriaGoldCoast,UpperVoltaandtheIvoryCoast...Another[agent],aSouthAfricantrumpeter,‘Hugh,’isinL.A.

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transmittingBlackAmericansoundsonhome.HerealizesthattheessentialPan-Africanismisartistsrelatingacrosscontinentstheircraft,drumbeatsfromtheaeons,soundsthatarestillwithus(Reed82).

Thenomenclature“repatriated”issignificant.Inthe1950sand1960s,therewasa

well-knownwaveofAfricanstudentswhostudiedatEuropeanandAmerican

universitiesandrepatriatedbacktotheirhomecountries;manyrepatriated

studentsemployedtheirbroadenedskill-setsinhomelandliberationstruggles.74

“[Tam]repatriatedmasksandfigures”suggestsmorethanasimplereturnof

“booty”thathadbeen“carriedtoEurope.”GiventheThirdWorldLiberationcontext,

repatriatedsignifiesaliberation-alignedroleforthemasksandfigures.

TheWest’ssystematicpillagingofAfricanresources(includingAfrican

peoples)duringandaftertheAtlanticSlaveTradedepressedAfricans’relative

animacy,decimatedlocalandnationaleconomies,anddevaluedAfricancultural

production.ThefactthatMu’tafikahcountrymenandalliesarewillingtoriskliberty

andlifetorepatriateartenhancestheperceivedvalueofAfricancultural

production;itsuggeststhatartis“worth”deathandthatartis“valuable”aslife,

whichistosay,defyingdeathandlivinglifeforAfricanartenhancesthevalueof

Africanart,whileenhancingindividualAfricananimacyandAfricandiasporic

animacy.75

ThroughSouthAfricanMu’tafikah“Hugh’s”culturallabor,Reedarguesthat

“essentialPan-Africanismisartistsrelatingacrosscontinentstheircraft.”Here,

ReedreframesPan-Africanism(apoliticalphilosophythatsupportsAfrican

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disaporicpoliticalandeconomicunity)asapoliticalphilosophypromotingartistic

culturalexchangethatcentersart.TherelativelyprivilegedpositioningofWestern

artvis-à-visnon-Westernartspeakstotherelativelyprivilegedpositioningof

Westernsubjectsvis-à-visnon-Westernsubjects.Generally,thedialecticsbetween

culturalproductandculturalproducerallowsarelativelyhighervaluationfor

WesternartbecauseWesternsubjectsareitscreators.Inaneoliberalcontext,

wherebodiesandlifeitselfarecommoditieswithraciallyinfluencedvalue,the

relativelyhigheranimacyofWesternsubjectsisundergirdedbytheiralignment

withartwhichismorehighlyvalued.Byextension,enhancingtherelativevalueof

non-Westernart,Africanartinparticular,isapoliticaltechnologythatenhancesthe

valueandanimacyofAfricansubjects.WhenAfricansubjectspossessmore

animacy,morelife,itismoredifficulttodemonizeAfricanlife.Withless

demonization,itiseasiertoresistthepushintobarelife.Inthiscontext,Mu’tafikah’s

riskingoflibertyandlifetorepatriateAfricanartbecomesarevolutionary

imperative.RepatriatingBlackartrevolutionizeshowtheAfricanDiasporaviews

itselfthroughtheprismofAfricandiasporicartandhasthepotentialto

revolutionizehowtheWestviewsAfricansubjectsthroughtheprismAfrican

subject-createdart.

TheMu’tafikahheadquartersoperatesasacounterpublic:anartistic

heterotopiaofresistance.FromtheIntroduction,Fraseraversthatcounterpublics

help“subordinatedpeoplesformulateoppositionalinterpretationsoftheir

identities,interestsandneeds.”Mu’tafikah’soppositionalinterpretationisan

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interpretationofpoliticalphilosophythatprivilegesartasarevolutionary

technology.Furthermore,Kohnarguesthatheterotopiasofresistanceare“sitesfor

politicalemancipation;theirfunctionissocialtransformation...[Heterotopiasof

resistance]aresitesthatfosteroppositionalpracticesbysheltering

counterhegemonicideasandidentities.”Inthebasementofathree-storybuilding

ontheedgeofChinatown,theMu’tafikahheadquartersisasitewherealternative

ideasaboutart’semancipatoryroledrivesthegroup’sgoalofsocialtransformation.

Mu’tafikahisplayingaroleintransformingthepoliticallandscapebytransforming

howAfricansubjectsandtheirartareperceived;theyareanorganizationrootedin

thebeliefthatundergirdingthevalueofAfricanart,undergirdsthevalueofAfrican

subjects.Thisart-basedstrategicchoiceisnotmeantreplacetraditionalformsof

socio-economicandpoliticalresistanceworkavailabletohistorically

oppressedpeoples;itisdesignedtoserveasacomplementtotraditionalresistance

work.

AstheIntroductionarguesaboutartisticheterotopiasofresistance,artistic

canrefertoapreviously“nonartisticsite”thathasbeentransformedintoanartistic

site.Abasementinathree-storyontheedgeofChinatownhasbeenrepurposedas

anartredistributioncenter.Mu’tafikahheadquartersisnotasitewhere

internationalartisvisitedbytheWesterners,butaWesternweighstationwhere

ProdigalArtstopsonitswaybacktoitscountryoforigin;itistheanti-museum:art

comestothepeople,asopposedtothepeoplecomingtotheart.

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TheMu’tafikahanti-museumconstructisbothanexplicitandimplicitattack

ontraditionalWesternmuseums.Theanti-museumconstruct’sexplicitelementis

definedbythephysicalattack,thebreechingofthemuseum’sbordersintheprocess

offorciblyremovingmuseumholdings.Thisattackcanbereadasacounter-attack,a

counteroffensiveinthebattletodefinetheroleofartincommunities.Thisart

counter-attacksuggestsartshouldnotbe“held”asaseriesofholdings,primarily

accessibletoaprivilegedfewbutartshouldbefreetomoveamongstthe

communitiesresponsibleforitsproduction.

THEDOMINOAFFECT

SimilartoMumboJumbo,ThePeopleofPaperfeaturesanartisticheterotopia

ofresistance.FedericodelaFe’slivingroom,especiallyaroundthedominoestable,

istransformedintoaliberatorysite.76Asthedaughteroftheinsurgentleader,Little

Mercedfrequentlyseesherdomesticspace,specifically,herfamilydominoestable,

becomethecenterforresistanceorganizingandstrategizing.“Myfathersatbent

overthedominoestablesketchingplansandchewingtheleavesofhistea.Oncethe

fungusrecededbackintoflowerfields,thedailygamesofdominoesresumed.

FroggymadeSandrasubcomandanteofEMFandassubcomandante,Sandrasatnext

toFroggy...Theywouldsitandstudythechartsthatmyfatherhaddrawn...‘Here

iswhereweattack,’myfathersaid.”77

ThroughoutThePeopleofPaper,FedericodelaFe’slivingroomdominoes

tableisanexusbetweenorganizingandculture.InmanyLatinAmericanand

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Caribbeancountries,andbyextension,manyLatino/aandCaribbeancommunities

intheUnitedStates,playingdominoesisasignificantformofculturalexpression.78

Thedominoestableisanaffectiveculturalsiteforcommunitybuildingandforthe

intra-familyexchangeoffolkwaysandmores.Storiesandfeelingsaresharedover

dominoes.InLatinAmericanandCaribbeancommunities,dominoesisoften

referredtoasanartformorasport(inCuba,afterbaseball,itisreferredtoasthe

“2ndNationalPastime”).79Skilledpractitionersoftheartform,insomecommunities,

areknownas“dominologists.”80FedericodelaFeusesdominoesartasacultural

technologytogainthetrustofEMFgangmembers(andputthematease)ashelays

outinsurgencyplans.Dominoeshaveculturalcurrency.Usingthedominoestable

asstrategizingsitesubtlybutpowerfullycreatesasharedcomfortlevel,afeelingof

comfortforthecommunityliberatoryworkat-handbecauseEMFcommunity

membersshareafamiliaritywiththeartformanditsculturalrelevancy.

Thedominoestableuseisanaffectiveandeffectiveleadershipmoveby

FedericodelaFesinceheisnotoriginallyfromElMonte;hisuseofthegame

communicatesthesamemessagethatSubcomandanteSandracommunicatedto

FedericodelaFe’sdaughterLittleMercedduringherfirstmenstruation:“See,I’m

justlikeyou.”Thisleadershipstrategycanbeanaffectiveandeffectiveorganizing

modeloffthepageaswell.Whenactivistsandorganizerscanrootliberatorywork

inaffectiveculturally-relevantactivitiesandsites,itcandoakindofemancipatory

workthateventhemostsophisticatedorganizingtechnologiescannotmatch.

Strategysessionsinneighborhoodbarbershopsandbeautysalons,information

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sharingmeetingsbeforeFridaynightbingo,andrecruitmentoutreachbeforesoccer

andbasketballleagueplaywouldallalignwithFedericodeleFe’suseofthe

dominoestableasculturally-relevantliberatorytechnologies.Community

organizersintroducingemancipatoryideastothecommunityintheaforementioned

waysarealsosendinganunderlyingmessage:“See,I’mjustlikeyou.”

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ChapterTwo

EMBODIEDHIEROGLYPHICS

ChapterOnearguesthatankhing’sprivilegingofcommunityfolkways,spiritandart

contributetotheelevationofLatina/oandAfricanAmericananimacy.ChapterTwo

examineshowsovereignrepresentativesfocusonattackingBrownandBlack

bodies,especiallyBrownandBlackactivistbodies,asawaytosystematically

subvertthecollectiveanimacyofBrownandBlackcommunities.Inthischapter,the

imbricatedrelationshipbetweenankhingandcounterpublicsisexploredasa

generativewaytoresistattacksonBrownandBlackcommunitiesbyengendering

environmentswhereanimacycanbenurtured.

ToniCadeBambara’sTheSaltEatersbeginswithaninterrogativerootedin

fleshandsoul:“Areyousure,sweetheart,thatyouwanttobewell?”Localhealer

MinnieRansomposesthiswellnessquestionattheradicalSouthwestCommunity

InfirmarytoactivistVelmaHenrywhohasrecentlytriedtodestroyherfleshby

stickingherheadinanoven.Distinguishingbetween“body”and“flesh,”Hortense

Spillersdefinesthefleshas“concentratedethnicity”thathas“zerodegreeofsocial

conceptualization.”81Pushedtowardsthe“frontiersofsurvival,”82barelife,the

Africanfemalesubjectis“atargetofrape—inonesense,aninteriorizedviolationof

bodyandmind—butalsothetopicofspecificallyexternalizedactsoftortureand

prostrationthatweimagineasthepeculiarprovinceofmalebrutalityandtorture

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inflictedbyothermales.”83VelmaHenry’sheadintheovenisadisturbingsignifier

ofaninteriorizedviolationofbodyandmind,amanifestsignofinternalizedmicro

andmacroaggressions.TheseaggressionsleaveVelmaHenry’sfleshwounded,

markedwith“hieroglyphsoftheflesh.”84Fleshlyhieroglyphs,racialized

disjunctures,arenotalwaysvisibletothenakedeye;theyareoftenhiddenbyskin

andhistory.Hieroglyphsofthefleshtravelstealthilybeneaththecolorline,a

bloodlettingUndergroundRailroadconnectingAfricanfemalebodiespastand

present.Spillersaversthat:

Theseundecipherablemarkingsonthecaptivebodyrenderakindofhieroglyphicsofthefleshwhoseseveredisjuncturescometobehiddentotheculturalseeingbyskincolor.Wemightwellaskifthisphenomenonofmarkingandbrandingactually‘transfers’fromonegenerationtoanother,findingitsvarioussymbolicsubstitutionsinanefficacyofmeaningsthatrepeattheinitiatingmoments.85

VelmaHenry’sself-harmingmovetowardstheovencanbereadasasymbolic

substitutionforhand-me-downancestralpain:anoutwardarticulationof

transferableinternalizedoppression.AlexanderWeheliyeaddressesand

complicatesoppression’stransferability(inthecontextoftheputativelyliberated

subject)byarguing,“’hieroglyphicsoftheflesh’...[are]transmittedtothe

succeedinggenerationsofblacksubjectswhohavebybeen‘liberated’andgranted

bodyintheaftermathofdejureenslavement.Thehieroglyphicsofthefleshdonot

vanishonceaffixedtoproperpersonhood(thebody);rathertheyendureasapesky

potentialvitaltothemaneuveringsof‘culturalseeingbyskincolor.’”86

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Hieroglyphicsoftheflesh’sdangerousresilienceinBlackandBrown

communitiescreatesaneedforspatialresistance:counterpublicsdedicatedto

resistingexternalandinteriorizedoppression.Fraseropines“[M]embersof

subordinatedsocialgroups—women,workers,peopleofcolor,gaysandlesbians—

haverepeatedlyfounditadvantageoustoconstitutealternativepublics...where

membersofsubordinatedsocialgroupsinventandcirculatecounterdiscourses

whichinturnpermitthemtoformulateoppositionalinterpretationsoftheir

identities,interestsandneeds.”87

AsacomplementtoFraser’scounterpubicrationale,itmaybehelpfulto

reiterateSquires’counterpublicgoals:“fosterresistance;testargumentsand

strategiesinwiderpublics;createalliances;persuadeoutsiderstochangeviews;

performpublicresistancetooppressivelawsandsocialcodes;gainallies.”88

BuildingonFraser,SquiresandFoucault,Kohn’sheterotopiaofresistancenotion

arguesforcounterpublicsas“sitesforpoliticalemancipation;theirfunctionissocial

transformation.”89InTheSaltEaters,Clybourne’sBlackresidentsneedtocreatean

emancipatory“alternativepublic”becauseoftheexternalandinteriorizedthreatof

hieroglyphsoftheflesh.Resistingthefleshisrevolutionary:itdemandsa

transformationofsociety.Choosinglifeischoosingbios.

RESISTINGGRAPESOFWRATH

InCheríeMoraga’splayHeroesandSaints,McLaughlinresidentschoosebios

bychoosingtocreateaheterotopiaofresistance.FictionalMcLaughlinintersects

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withthetragicnonfictionelementsofMcFarland,aSanJoaquinValleyfarming

communitynearCaliforniaHighway99.90Inthetext,pesticideisdroppedfrom

cropdusterplaneslatenightandchemicalswaftsdownuponrowsandrowsof

grapegroves.Earlymorning,rowsandrowsoffarmworkerspickgrapesinthe

freshlysprayedgrapefields.Pregnantwomenlaborinthesepesticidefieldstoo.

Newmothers’newbornchildrenbegintobearwitnesstotheravagesofthe“profit-

over-people”neoliberalimperativeunderlying“BigAg,”theAmericancorporate

agriculturebusiness.Bodiesarebornflesh.Babiesarebornwithnoarmsandlegs.

Thebabieswhoemergeintactdietoosoonofcancersandotherailmentsthat

shouldnotbefallchildren.MothersofMcLaughlin,agrassrootsactivistgroup,holda

politicallyandeconomicallydangerousnewsconferencetodemandhumaneand

honorabledealingsbetweenfarmownersandfarmworkers.Attherally,the

mothersrisklosingjobstheirfamiliescannotaffordtolose;theystandupfortheir

children.Mothersholdsignswithsuccinctstoriesonthemandreadaloudtheirloss

narratives:

AMPARO:SandyPérez.DiedAugust1,1982.Ailment:acuteLeukemia.Age9.

MOTHER:FrankieGonzales.DiedMarch16,1986.Ailment:bone cancer.Age10.MOTHER:JohnnyRodríguez.DiedJuly10,1987.Ailment:adrenal

glandtumor.Age5. MOTHER:RosalindaLorta.DiedJune5,1980.Ailment:chest muscletumor.Age5.

MOTHER:MairaSánchez.Died.August30,1987.Ailment:pituitarytumor.Age6.

MOTHER:MarioBravo.DiedNovember26,1987.Ailment:canceroftheliver.Age14.

MOTHER:MemoDelgado.DiedOctober24,1988.Ailment:adrenal

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glandtumor.Age.6. YOLANDA:EvalinaValle.DiedNovember2,1989.Ailment:...ailment ...eramihija...era...mihija!91

Themothers’publicresistancetotheirchildren’sbodiesturnedflesh,totheir

childrenpushedbeyondthebordersofbarelifeuntodeath,isaturningpointin

McLaughlin’ssocio-politicaltrajectory.Thefalloftheirchildrenmovesthemothers

tocollectivelyriseupandpushbackagainstcommunalhieroglyphicsoftheflesh.

Themothersareseekingtransformationoftheirlivesandtransformationofsociety

itself.Thetransformationisrootedinthefields.InHeroesandSaints,thefields

wherethefarmlaborersliveandworkaretransformedintoanalternativepublic,a

counterpublicwherecounterdiscoursesarecirculatedandcounterhegemonicideas

aredeveloped:aheterotopiaofresistance.

Inadditiontofunctioningassitesforpoliticalemancipationandsocietal

transformation,Kohnarguesthatheterotopiasofresistancearesitesthatfoster

“oppositionalpracticesbyshelteringcounterhegemonicideasandidentities.”Inthe

fields,McLaughlinfarmworkersbegintodevelopthecounterhegemonicideathat

theydeservetobetreatedwithdignity,respectandconcernfortheirhealth,despite

theirrelativepowerlessnessvis-à-visfarmowners.ConsistentwithOng’s

understandingofAmericanneoliberalism,profiteeringfarmownersdropdeath-

dealingpesticidesonthegrapefields;thisisbehaviorthatcallsintoquestionthe

agriculturecapitalistsvalueforLatina/olife.

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TheprimarilyLatina/oMcLaughlincommunity’scancerratesandbirth

defects(whichseemlinkedtofarmowners’discriminatoryattitudesandpolicies)

driveconcernedneighborDoñaAmparointoaction.Amparoisafactoryworkerand

inhabitantofthefederally-subsidizedhousingthatabutsthegrapefields.LikeThe

PeopleofPaper’sfarmingcommunitymemberFedericodelaFe,Amparodecidesto

fosterresistanceamongherneighbors;shehopestheywillassistherinchallenging

asovereignwhoistryingtodelimitfarmworkers’lives.

Amparo’sstrategyinvolvesgettingherneighborstoseetheenvironmental

racismasadirectattackonthecommunity’schildren.Despitesignsthatthelocal

drinkingwaterisunsafe,theschoolboardrefusesanofferfromthewatercompany,

Arrowhead,toprovidefreedrinkingwaterforthelocalelementaryschoolthat

servicesthechildrenofMcLaughlin’sfarmworkers.Amparoorganizesapress

conferenceattheelementaryschool.TheTVnewsreporter,AnaPerez,setsthe

sceneandsummarizestheenvironmentalracismclaims:

ANAPEREZ:Acrowdisbeginningtoformouthereinfront ofMcLaughlin’selementaryschool.Mostly

mothersandotherneighborshaveshownupthismorning.Thereisnosignofschoolofficialsasofyet.Localresidentsareoutragedbytheschoolboard’sdecisiontorefuseArrowhead’sofferoffreedrinkingwaterfortheschoolchildren.Theybelievethelocaltapwater,contaminatedbypesticides,tobethechiefcauseofthehighincidenceofcanceramongthechildreninthearea.Theyclaimthattheextensivespraying,especiallyaerialspraying,causesthetoxicchemicalstoseepintothepublicwatersystem.Themajorityofresidentsarefromanearbyhousingtractoffederally-subsidizedhousing.Ithasbeenallegedthatthehousingwasbuiltonwhatwasonceadumpsiteforpesticideswiththe

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fullknowledgeofcontractors.92

Amparoprocuresa“cancermap”andbeginstosharethemapwithneighborsto

inspirearesistancemovementagainsttheenvironmentalracismplaguingtheir

community:

AMPARO:I’msorryhija.(beat.)Vente.Quieroenseñarlesalgo YOLANDA:Que? AMPARO:Hiceunmapa.(Sheunrollsthechartontothetable.)

Achartofallthehousesinlavecindadquetienegenteconhealthproblems.

YOLANDA:Letmesee. AMPARO:Miren,thereddotsmeanthosehousesgot someonewithcancer.Estospuntosazulesdonden tienentumors.Losgreenonessonparabirthdefects ylosamarillos,themiscarriages. YOLANDA:Whatarealltheseorangedots? AMPARO:Bueno,smallerproblemscomoproblemas delestómago,lasronchas,cosasasí. YOLANDA:Cheezus,it’sthewholedamnneighborhood. CEREZITA:Where’sourhouse? AMPARO:Aquídondeestántheorangedotandthegreen

dot. CEREZITA:That’sme,thegreendot.93ItissignificantthatAmparochoosestheState-owned,State-controlledandState-

administeredelementaryschoolasasitetofosterresistance.Likethefederally-

subsidizedhousinginwhichmostofthefarmerworkerslive,thetextsuggeststhat

theelementaryschoolabutsthefieldsaswell.Thereisnosignificantboundary

betweenthefieldswhereBrownfarmworkerslabor,thehousingwhereBrown

farmworkerslive,andtheschoolswherefarmworkers’Brownchildrenare

educated.Thefluiditybetweenthesefields-centeredsitesindicatesthatthefarm

owners,supportedbytheState,circumscribeBrownfarmworkers’identities,

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hailingthemasobjectsintheserviceoffarmownerprofits.Objectified,farm

workers’dignity,healthandagencyaresubverted.Thisqualityoflifesubversionis

mademanifestintheMcLaughlinSchoolBoard’srefusaltoacceptcleandrinking

waterforthefarmworkers’children;itisaState-endorsedrefusaltofullyvaluethe

livesoffarmworkerchildrenandaState-sanctionedpolicythatmakestangiblethe

beliefthatBrownchildrendonotmatter,thatBrownmatterdoesnotmatter.

Thestrategicpressconference,featuringfarmworkermothersnarrating

theirlossnarrates,isanattempttodowhatSquiresarguescounterpublicsmustdo:

persuadeoutsiderstochangetheirviewsandgainallies.Theprocessofpersuading

outsiderstochangetheirviewsbeginswiththeinsiders.Subjectsorganizedinside

thecounterpublicwhoareresistingthehegemonicgaze,alsomustresistthe

hegemon’spowertoinfluenceself-perception.Thecounterpublicinsidershaveto

sufficientlyresisttheinternalworkingsofthehieroglyphicsofthefleshtopersuade

themselvesthattheirlivesareworththerisk-takingthatliberatorylabordemands;

theymustpersuadethemselvestoresistwithurgency.Now.Thecounterpublicqua

heterotopiaofresistanceallowstheoppressedtoresistinthedelimitednow;the

nownessofbarelifecancreateanurgencywheresubjectscanresistinthenowas

aninvestmenttowardsfuturefreedoms.Similarly,inWeheliye’sdiscussionabout

theintersectionoflawandflesh,hecontendsthat“habeasviscusunearthsthe

freedomthatexistswithinhieroglyphicsoftheflesh.Fortheoppressedthefuture

willhavebeennow,sinceMantucksawaythisgroup’spresent”(Weheliye158).

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Thecounterpublic-inspiredpressconferencealsocohereswithSquires’

counterpublicgoalofperformingpublicresistance.Publicresistanceisan

evolutionarystageincounterpublicliberatorylabor.Afteremancipatorystrategies

andtheoreticalframeworkshavebeenadjudicatedanddecideduponinthe

subalterncounterpublicsafehaven,thepublicexpressionofthesedecisions(i.e.

publicresistance)iswhattransformsliberatoryactivismfromtheorytopraxis.

SOVEREIGNSILENCE:SILENTBUTDEADLY

Publicresistanceisafreedomresponsetothediscipliningnatureofsilence,a

silencetetheredtothesovereign’shegemonicgaze.AsDerridaargues,sovereign

poweris“silentasitisunavowable.SilentandunavowablelikeSovereigntyitself.

Unavowablesilence,denegation:thatisthealwaystheunapparentessenceof

sovereignty.”94InHeroesandSaints,whentheMcLaughlinSchoolBoardqua

sovereigndecidestorejectArrowhead’sofferofcleandrinkingfortheelementary

schoolchildren,thesovereignisdisavowingtheapparentrealitythatthearea’swell

wateriscontaminated,negatingthatthebirthdefectsarerelatedtodangerous

pesticideuse.WhentheMothersofMcLaughlinbreaktheirsilenceandpublicly

speakoutduringthepressconference,theyareattackingthevery“essenceof

sovereignty.”Thispublicresistanceinresponsetobarelifeanddeathisapower

movethatimbricateswithLorde’scontentionabouttheintersectionofsilenceand

death:

ToquestionortospeakasIbelievedcould

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havemeantpain,ordeath.Butallthehurt insomanyways,allthetime,andpainwill eitherchangeorend.Deathontheotherhand isthefinalsilence.Andthatmightbecoming quickly,now,withoutregardforwhetherIhad everspokenwhatneededtobesaid,orhadonly betrayedmyselfintosmallsilences,whileIplanned somedaytospeak,orwaitedforsomeoneelse’s words.AndIbegantorecognizeasourceofpower withinmyselfthatcomesfromtheknowledge... Iwasgoingtodie,ifnotsoonerthenlater,whether ornotIhadeverspoken.Mysilenceshadnotprotected me.Yoursilencewillnotprotectyou.”95 Motivatedbythedeathoftheirchildren,theMothersofMcLaughlinresist

disciplinarysilenceandnamethedeath-dealingsilentsovereignintheprocess.The

children’sanalogouscausesofdeathspeaktothestrongpossibilityofacommon

causeofdeath.Bybreakingtheirsilencetonarrateandnametheirlossnarratives,

themothersmakeapparentthepreviouslyunapparentessenceofsovereignty.In

testifyingtothedeadlynatureofthesovereign(alongwithitssilentnature),the

mothersareutteringtheforbidden,engagingindiscursiveindiscretion.Foucault

contendsthat“Silenceitself—thethingonedeclinestosay,orisforbiddentoname,

thediscretionthatisrequiredbetweendifferentspeakers—islesstheabsolutelimit

ofdiscourse,theothersidefromwhichitisseparatedbyastrictboundary,thanan

elementthatfunctionsalongsidethethingssaid.”96

InMcLaughlin,muchliketheboundarybetweenworksitesanddomestic

sites,theboundaryisporousbetweenwhatissaidandwhatisforbiddentosay.Itis

forbiddenforfarmworkerstosaythattheiremployers’neoliberalpracticesare

killingtheirchildren,buttheirchildren’sbarelifebodiesspeakthroughtheir

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mother’slips:hieroglyphicsofthefleshturngrievingmothersintoventriloquistsof

theflesh.

Itisdangeroustonamesovereigndeath-dealersandtoarticulatethewaysin

whichtheydistributedeath.Inthecorporateagricultureneoliberalcontext,making

thesovereignvisiblecancostapersontheirlivelihoodortheirlife.Speakingout

againstBigBusinessisriskybusiness.ThroughoutHeroesandSaints,thespecterof

sovereignviolenceisrepresentedbythefarmowners’armedmenpatrollingthe

grapefieldsinlow-flyinghelicopters.Theporousboundariesbetweenthefields,

farmworkers’homesandthesovereign’sskymakesthedomesticsphereaplaceof

anxiety.Theaforementionedanxietyisillustratedduringaprotestrallyinthefields

outsideofsubsidized-housingresidentDolores’window:

CEREZITA:Mira‘amá.They’reallgoinghousetohouse, givingoutpamphlets.FatherJuanito’sthereand DonGilberto.Theyevengotthenewscameras. DOLORES:Getyourfaceoutofthewindow. CEREZITA:Nobody’slookingoverhere. DOLORES:Quítatedeallí,tedigo. DOLORESdisengagesCEREZITA’Sraiteandmoves herawayfromthewindow. CEREZITA:Ah,‘amá! DOLORES:Pues,youdon’tknowwhocouldbeoutthere. Allthisprotestaisbringingthegunsdownfrom thesky.97 Throughouttheplay,Dolores’reticencetoengagethesovereign(dueto

concernsregardingherfamily’sphysicalandeconomicwell-being)operatesasa

counterbalancetoresident-turned-activistAmparo’sengagementwiththe

sovereign.Thejuxtapositionofthesetworesidentsde-romanticizesliberation

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work,whilehighlightingtheveryrealdangersinvolvedwhenrelativelyless

powerfulsubjectsparticipateinliberatorylabor.Thenuanceddifferencesbetween

theseLatinaMcClaughlinresidentshumanizestheirindividualstruggleand

dismantlessimplisticcharacterizationsoftheworkingpoor.

OFWOMENANDHEROES

Fromthesafedistanceoftime,spaceormoreresourcedsubjectposition,itis

notdifficulttocriticizesomedisenfranchisedsubjectsfornotstandingupfortheir

rights—especiallywhendisenfranchisedsubjectsaroundthemareengagingin

courageousemancipatorywork.Dolores’childrenoftenpraiseAmparoforher

activistworkandwonderwhytheirmotherdoesn’texhibitthesamepassionfor

engagingthesovereign.Dolores’retortspeakstotheintersectionofdomestic

compositionandeconomicrealities.

DOLORES(entering):Esunametiche,Amparo.YOLANDA:Theyshotthroughherwindowslastnight.CEREZITA:Who?YOLANDA:Whoknows?Theguysinhelicopters...DOLORES:Poreso,tediga[AMPARO]betterlearntokeep

herdamnmouthshut.Ellasiempregottube puttinglacucharaenlaolla.Isawhertalk totheTVpeepolastweekrightinfrontofthe house. YOLANDA:Whatareyouscaredof? DOLORES:TheycometotalktoAmparoonthejobyesterday. MARIO:Who? DOLORES:Thepatrones. MARIO:Theowners? DOLORES:Nottheowners,perotheirpeepo.Theygivehera warningthattheydon’likehertalkingaboutthe

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rancheros. YOLANDA:Cabrones. DOLORES:Shegointuloseherjob. MARIO:GottohandittoNinaAmparo.She’sgothuevos,man. DOLORES:Shegotahusband,nothuevos.Who’sgointu supportCereifIstopworking?98

Dolores’perspectiveisinformedbyaproblematicheteronormativeunderstanding

offamilyconstruction.Yet,beneaththisproblematicconstructionliestheeconomic

insecuritytetheredtoworking-poorhouseholdsrelyingononeincome.Losingajob

canbecatastrophicwhenthereisnopartnertofillthegap.Thiseconomicrealityis

heightenedwhendependentchildrenarefactoredintotheequation.The

aforementionedscenesignifiestheironythroughoutHeroesandSaints:whenthe

dispossesseddefendtheirchildrenagainstthesovereign,theyriskendangering

theirchildren’swelfareatthehandsofthesovereign.Theconfluenceofinjustice,

economicconditions,childwelfareandactivismnecessitatesamorenuanced

understandingofwhatconstitutesahero.Amparocanbeconsideredliberatory

figuregiventhewayssherisks(andeventuallyloses)herjobtoprotesther

community’smistreatment.IdentifyingDolores’choicesasemancipatoryrequires

closerexamination,especiallywhenjuxtaposedagainstAmparo’sactions.

DoloresframesAmparo’sactivismasaprocessofconstantlyplacing“la

cucharaenlaolla,”puttingher“spooninthepot.”Doloresuseofthisidiomatic

expressionsuggeststhatshebelievesAmparoiscreatingproblemsforthe

communityby“stirringuptrouble.”AmparoisalarmedthatDoloresspokewiththe

“TVpeepolastweekrightinfrontof[her]house.”Doloresisconcernedthather

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house,andherfamilialinhabitants,willbetetheredtoAmparo’sattemptstoavow

theunavowableactionsofthesilentsovereignthroughthemedia.Doloreswantsto

silenceAmparo;shewantsAmparoto“learntokeepherdamnmouthshut.”“Learn,”

theeducationverb’suseissignificant.AccordingtoDolores,Amparohasn’t

embracedthesovereign’seducationaldictates,whichentailsembracingabarelife

subjectposition.Amparohasn’tacceptedthesovereign’slessonaboutMcLaughlin’s

Latina/ocommunity’srelativepowerlessness,whichmakesengagingtherelatively

powerfulsovereignafutileexercise.HowcanAmparo’sactionsbeliberatory,

especiallywhentheyrepresentadirectaffronttoDolores’morereadilyapparent

liberatoryactions?

Inthepassageabove,Doloresenterstheroomandlearnsthatsomeonehas

shotbulletsthroughthewindowintoAmparo’sfamilyhome.Certainly,aterrifying,

violentactgiventhenarrative’srepeatedreferencestodeath-dealingarmedmenin

helicopterswhopatrolandfireatthesovereign’sbehest.Theplay’sshortopening

scene(whichfeaturesnodialogue)endswiththe“soundofalow-flyinghelicopter

invad[ing]thesilence.It’sshadowpassesoverthefield.”99Itseemsapparentthat

DoloresiswellawareofMcLaughlin’sclearandpresentdangers.Yet,whenYolanda

asksDolores(inthepassageabove),“Whatareyouscaredof?”Dolores’answer

doesn’tmentionhelicopters,guns,bullets,orshatteredwindows.Instead,Dolores

answerswith:“TheycometotalktoAMPAROonthejobyesterday.”Dolores’job

concernsaretrumpedbyherviolenceconcerns.Thisduty-bounddecisionto

protectherjobisrootedinherchildren’swelfare.Dolores’husbanddesertedthe

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familynarrowinghercapacityforrisk-takingasthesolefamilialeconomic

supporter.Doloresisdefendingherfamily’slong-termprospectsbysecuringher

job’slong-termprospects;thismotivationisilluminatedbytheinterrogativethat

endsthepassage:“Who’sgointusupportCereifIstopworking?”ForDolores,

safeguardingherchild’ssurvivalwithagriculturallaborisliberatorylabor.

Inthepassageabove,Doloresjuxtaposesherunderstandingofliberatory

laborwithAmparo’sunderstandingofliberatorylabor.Unlikeherchildren,Dolores

doesnotthinkthatherapproachemancipatorylaborislessvalidthanAmparo’s

approach.Infact,DoloresiscriticalofAmparo’semancipatorylaborbecauseshe

feelsAmparoisametiche,or“busybody,”whosestirringofthepotmaycreate

problems(duetoaffiliation)forDoloresatwork—orthroughherwindows.After

AmparoshowsDoloresthecancermap,chroniclingthecarcinogeicimpactofBig

Agriculture’sneoliberalpolicies,DoloressnatchesthemapfromAmparoandsays,

“Thisisthelas’timeI’mgointusayit,Idon’wan’thisbiznisinmyhouse.”100

ActivistAmparo’sresponsetoDoloresisnoteworthy;itgivesinsighttoAmparo’s

approachtoorganizingandalsoendsSceneOne:“DOLORESthrowsthechartout

thedoorandgoesbacktofeedingCEREZITA,shovingthefoodintohermouth.

AMPAROleavesinsilence.Fadeout.”101

Amparo’ssilentresponsetacitlyacknowledgesthevalidityofDolores’

liberatorylaborstrategy.Amparosilenceoperatesasadiscoursestrategy;she

doesn’thavetoagreewithDolores’approachnordoesshehavetodemonize

Doloresfornotengagingthesovereignwithdirectaction,fornotavowingthe

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unavowable.Amparounderstandsthattherearemanysilencesandmanystrategies

forengagingsilence.Similarly,Foucaultargues,“Thereisnotonebutmanysilences,

andtheyareanintegralpartofthestrategiesthatunderlieandpermeate

discourses.”102Amparo’ssilentresponsetoDoloresalsofunctionsasanembraceof

alterity.

Creatingaheterotopiaofresistanceinthefields,withitsporousborders

betweenworkanddomesticspaces,necessitatesvaluingalterity.Amparo

understandsthatdifferenceisaresource.Kohnsuggeststhatheterotopiasof

resistanceare“safehavens”forideasthatprivilegedemocratic-stylesof

information-sharing,whilefunctioningassafehavensforsubjects(andtheirideas),

whomayrepresentdifferencewithinheterotopiasofresistance;alterityisnotonly

acknowledged,butseenasasourceofepistemologicalvalueandaresourceforthe

effectiveimplementationofcollectively-derivedstrategies.103IntheMcLaughlin

fieldsquaheterotopiasofresistance,AmparoandDolores’differentstrategic

emancipatoryapproachesenhancetheepistemologicalpossibilitieswithinthe

fields;theiralterityisaresourcethatengendersliberatorybestpractices.Amparo’s

strategicsilencetoDolorescohereswiththesecondelementintheankhingprocess

inthatitsupportseffortstocollectivelythinkthroughthemosteffectivemeansto

resisthegemonicforces—andthroughthisidea-exchange,inspire,motivateand

moveeachothertowardsbestpracticestoresisthegemonicforcesseekingto

delimittheirsubjectivity,social,politicalandeconomicagency,anddelimittheir

powertodeterminetheirownlifecourses.

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Amparo’ssilentresponsedoesn’talienateDolores;itdoesn’tjudgeher.

Instead,Amparo’sstrategicsilenceempowersDolorestostandstronginherown

child-centered,“immediatematerialneeds”approachtoliberatorylabor.Also,this

nonjudgmentstrategycreatesthespaceforDolorestoeventuallyself-interrogate

andpotentiallytransitiontoapositionwhereshecanhonorherfamily’simmediate

materialneedsandengagethesovereignwithdirectaction.Self-interrogationand

intra-counterpubicevolutionneedtobecriticalelementsinheterotopiasof

resistance.Effectiveemancipatorycounterpublicsmusthavedeeply-embedded,

inward-focusedinterrogationconcerningthewaysinwhichthegroupcreates,

develops,andadjudicatesepistemologicalapproachesandliberatorypractices;

dynamicallyevolvingandstrategicallychangingisessentialinrespondingtothe

State’shegemonicforces.Thistypeofintra-counterpublicevolutionisrequired

becauseemancipatoryinternalstructuresandemancipatoryinternalsystemsare

notstatic—especiallyunderthetotalizing,atomizinggazeofaneoliberalforce.

ThenonstaticnatureoftheMcLaughlinfieldsiswhateventuallyprovides

Doloreswiththeimpetustoself-interrogateherliberatoryapproachandevolve.

Theincreasingnumbersofputativelypesticide-relateddeathsbeginstoradicalize

McLaughlin’sLatina/ocommunitymembers,includingpeopleclosetoDolores.Asa

powerfulprotestact,unnamedcommunitymembersbegintodisinterLatino/a

children’scorpsesandhangthemfromwoodencrucifixesinthegrapefields.104

Followingthepesticide-relateddeathofEvalinaValle,Dolores’infant

granddaughter,theLatina/ocommunityisoutraged.Communitymemberswalk

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towardsgrapefieldsinEvalina’spublicfuneralprocessioncarryingphotosoftheir

deadanddisabledchildren.105Dolores’armlessandleglessdaughterCerezita(who

intheprecedingscenehasatransfiguration-likeexperiencewheresheis

transformedintoamanifestationoflaVirgendeGuadalupe)106addressesthe

funeralprocession:

Putyourhandinsidemywound...Youarethemiracle peoplebecausetoday,thisday,thatredmemorywill spilloutfrominsideyouandfloodthisvalleyconcoraje. Andyouwillbefree.FreetonamethislandMadre.Madre

Tierra.MadreSagrada.Madre...Libertad.107Above,Cerezitaisevolvingfromavictimofneoliberal-drivenenvironmentalracism

toacommunityactivistfightingagainstneoliberal-drivenenvironmentalracism.

Shegivesvoicetobarelifebyspeakingfrombarelife—andintheprocessmoving

awayfrommarginsoflife.Thespeaking(andself-defining)subjectmovesinthe

directionawayfromobjecthood.Objectifiedsubjectsshape-shiftwhentheycenter

themselves.

Intheirresponsetoenvironmentalracism,themothersfunctionas

ventriloquistsofthefleshastheyspeakfortheirbarelifechildren.WhenCerezita

says,“Putyourhandinsidemywound,”sheisnotonlyspeakingforherself,butalso

connectingherownsufferingtohercommunity’ssuffering.However,Cerezitadoes

notdwellinvictimhood.Instead,shehailsherfellowcommunitymembersas

“miraclepeople,”whohavetheagencytoturntheirhardshiphistory(“red

memory”)intocourage(“coraje”).CerezitacallsfortheMcLaughlincommunity

memberstoevolveintonewsubjectpositionsdefinedbythecouragetoseekand

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speakemancipationfromthesovereign’sdelimitingsilentyoke,toseekandspeak

“libertad.”

DoloresispresentforCerezita’sspeech.Witnessingherdaughter’spublic

stepintocommunityactivismopensDolorestoamoredirectengagementwiththe

sovereign.FatherJuanandCerezitawantYolandatoofferherdeadinfant’sbody

(Evalina)asritualcrucifixioninthegrapefields:

TheybothturntoYOLANDA.YOLANDAnowunderstandsthatsheistoofferupherdeadinfant.Shegoestothecoffin,takesitfromthealtarboys,kissesit,thenhandsitovertoJuan.108

Throughouttheplay,Doloreshadaggressivelydissuadedherchildrenfromany

formofanti-sovereignactivism;however,DoloresdoesnotintervenewhenYolanda

handsoverEvalina(Dolores’granddaughter)forcrucifixionasaprotestagainstthe

death-dealingsovereign.Furthermore,Doloresdoesnotintervenewhenhergod-

childBonniebringstoFatherJuanthewoodencrossthatistobeusedforthe

crucifixion.EvenwhenitbecomesclearthatCerezitawillbeaccompanyingFather

Juantothegrapefieldsfortheprotestcrucifixion,Doloresdoesnotintercede.

Instead,whenCerezitaisabouttopassDoloresonherwaytothegrapefieldswith

FatherJuan,Doloresmakesagesturethatsignifiesherevolvingpolitical

consciousness:

CEREZITApausesbrieflyasshepasseshermother. CEREZITA:Mamá. DOLORESblessesher.CEREZITAandJUANproceedoffstage intothevineyards.109

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Intheabovepassage,Doloresgivesher“blessing”toCerezita’sdesiretoengagein

directactiontoprotesttheneoliberalfarmowners’death-dealingpractices.This

verbalgesturealignsDoloreswiththeMcLaughlinMotherswhoavowedthe

unavowableonbehalfoftheirbarelifechildren;throughutterance,sheismaking

thetransitionintodirectactionagainsttheneoliberalfarmowners.

Sovereign-sponsoredviolenceengendersDolores’evolutionintofulland

directengagementwiththesovereign.JustafterJuanandCerezitareachthegrape

fieldsfortheritualcrucifixion,“theshadowandsoundofahelicopterpassoverhead

...Thenthereisthesuddensoundofmachinegunfire.”110Throughouttheplay,

Doloresisconcernedthatappearingaffiliatedwiththeresistancemovementwould

makeherchildrentargetsofsovereignviolence.Inparticular,Doloresworriesabout

thearmedmeninhelicopterswhopatroltheborderlessfields;sheisdistressed

enoughbythepossibilityofviolencethatshepreventsherchildrenfromstanding

nexttoherhouse’swindows.CerezitaiswithFatherJuaninthegrapefields,sothe

machinegunfireisrepresentativeofDolores’worstfears.Initially,Dolores(andthe

otherLatina/ocommunitymembers)screaminterror,droptothegroundand

covertheirheads.Suddenly,Dolores’sonMariorises,raiseshisfistandshouts,

“Burnthefields”!111Dolores(andtheothercommunitymembers)risewithMario

andbegintoshout,“enciendanlosfiles!”DoloresandtheMcLaughlinresidentsrush

outtothevineyardsscreaming,“Asesinos!”or“murderers”(Moraga149)!

Itissignificantthat“asesinos”istheplay’slastpieceofdialogue(it’s

repeatedthreetimes)andsignificantthatDolores(amongotherLatina/o

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communitymembers)ischanting“murderers.”Doloresisverballyidentifyingthe

farmownersquasovereignasdeath-dealers.Sheisavowingtheunavowableabout

thedeath-dealerwhooperatesinsilenceandwhosepowerisundergirdedby

intimidatingpeopleintosilence.Bytheplay’send,Doloreshasevolvedfromusinga

liberatorystrategythatusessilencetosupportherchildrentoaliberatorystrategy

thatbreakssilencetosupportherchildren.Dolores’evolutiontodirectaction

againstthesovereigndoesnotinvalidateherpriorstrategyinprotectingherjobto

careforherchildren.Inheterotopiasofresistance,strategicbestpracticesarenot

basedoneither/orparadigms.Sinceemancipatoryinternalstructuresand

emancipatoryinternalsystemsarenotstatic,strategicbestpracticesarenotstatic.

IntheMcLaughlinfields,withitssocio-economicandphysicaldangers,andits

porousbordersbetweendomesticandworkspaces,aheterotopiaofresistance

situatedinthisfluidcontextmustbefluid.Doloresstrategicevolutionisindicative

ofthisfluidity.

Amparo’snondemonizingresponsetoDolores’initial“silentstrategy”aligns

withtheankhingapproach,whichprivilegesalterity,diverseideasanddemocratic

decision-making.BynotattackingDolores’initialnonengagmentwiththe

sovereign,AmparoavailsDolorestoopportunitytoevolveatherownpace,dictated

byherownmaterialconditions,andthespecificcircumstanceswithinherown

familyunit.Dolores’familyconditionshavechangedinradicalways,inclusiveof:

hergrandchildEvalina’spesticide-relateddeath—andCerezita’sdirectsovereign

engagementandapparentmurderinthegrapefields.Thesecontextualchanges

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necessitatearadicalchangeinstrategythatismorecloselyalignedwithAmparo’s

moreeasilyrecognizablecommunityactivism.Astheankhingprocesssuggests,

Amparo’sembraceofalterityanddiverseideas,versusanautocratic,top-down

leadershipstyle,provestobeamoreefficaciouswaytoencouragecommunity

memberstoengageindirectactionagainstthesovereign.

FROMPAGETOPAVEMENTTOPOLITICSOFTHESPIRIT

Amparo’sapproachwithDolorescanbeamodelforreal-worldcommunity

activists.Thereisaproblematiccommunityorganizertraditionwherebyactivists’

relateastheexpertsoncommunityproblems(asopposedtocommunitymembers

beingtheexpertsabouttheirowncommunities).112Thistraditioncanbe

exacerbatediftheorganizershaveputativelymore“sophisticated”theoreticaland

ideologicalunderpinningsthanthefolktheyareattemptingtoorganize.

However,thisstudyisnotarguingagainstorganizershavingacommandof

progressivetheoreticalandideologicalepistemologiestoframetheirmotivations

andapproachestocommunityactivism.Generally,progressivetheoreticaland

ideologicalepistemologiescanbeproductivetechnologiesincommunityactivism

whentheyareemployedinwaysthatarenotcondescendingandtotalizing,whichis

tosay,whentheyareemployedinwaysthatdonotdisrespectsite-specificand

culturallyspecificepistemologiesofthecommunitiesthatarebeingorganized.

Amparo’sengagementwithDoloresisrootedinrespect—whichiswhyitproves

productive.Incommunityactivism,respectisanextremelyusefultechnology;the

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HeroesandSaintsnarrativeisarepositoryofpossibilitiesforexamininghowrespect

functionsineffectivecommunityactivism.Theplay’sfictivenarrativecanfunction

asaresourceforreal-worldactivistswhoareinterestedindevelopingbestpractices

toorganizecommunitieschallengedbysovereignagentspushingcommunity

memberstowardsbarelife.

SpiritualityisanothertechnologyfoundinfictiveHeroesandSaintsthatcan

serveasarepositoryforreal-worldeffectiveactivism.Earlierinthisstudy,Kohn

arguesthatheterotopiasofresistanceemploythespiritasatechnologyto

encourageliberatorysubjects’emotionsbecauseemotionisasourceofpower.Like

Kohn,Conebelievedresistancesitesneedtobespaceswherepeoplecould“feelthe

spirit.”Boththeoristssuggestthatsubjectsneedtofeelapassionfortheircause.

Sincethespirit-fueledsensoriumplaysacriticalroleinemancipatorylabor,

spiritualityorreligiondoesn’thavetofunctionasthe“opiateofthemasses.”

Instead,the“dichotomybetweenthespiritualandthepoliticalisalsofalse,”as

Lordeargues.113Ifthereisafalsedichotomybetweenthespiritualandthepolitical,

isthereapossibilitythattherecanbeaproductiverelationshipbetweenthe

spiritualandthepolitical?

InHeroesandSaints,therelationshipbetweenthespiritualandthepolitical

isbothproductiveandcontradictory.Throughoutthetext,Doloresisrepresented

asareligiouswomanwhoplacesherliberatoryhopesinGod,whileAmparois

represented,primarily,asawomanwhoplacesherhopesinactivism.These

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designationsareseenwhenthewomenarerepairingDolores’crumblinghousein

theearlymorning:

DOLORES:Thishouseisfallingapart.Ayúdanos,Dios! AMPARO:YouthinkGodisgointutakecareofit? Workingiswhatchangesthings,notoraciones. DOLORES:Yetedije,I’mnotgoingtoyourprotesta. AMPAROputsonthegloves,beginsdiggingintothe

frontyard.DOLORESgoesovertothesideofthehouseandstartsapplyingplastertoit.

AMPARO:Sabesque?Idon’evengotochurchnomore,ni recibircommunion...cozI’mtireofswallowing whattheywanttoshovedownmythroat.Body ofChrist...pedo. DOLORES:Ihatewhenyoutalklikethis.Itmakesme sicktomystomach.114Dolores’useofthephrase“Ayúdanos,Dios!”or“Godhelpus”isrepresentativeof

herproblem-solvingapproach.Through“oraciones”or“prayers,”Doloresseeks

God’shelptodealwiththenegativeexternalitiesassociatedwithlivingunderthe

sovereign’shegemonicgaze.Dolores’prayersoperate,inhercosmology,asdirect

actiontoengageherSovereignwhohasdominionoverthesovereign.Dolores’

accesstoherSovereignprovidesheraccesstoanemancipatorytechnologymore

powerfulthanAmparo’sbrandofcommunityactivism.Dolores’socialjustice

technologyispoweredmyfaithandprayer;itallowshertodeclarewithconviction,

“I’mnotgoingtoyourprotesta.”ForDolores,acommunityprotestagainstthe

sovereignnotonlyplacesherfamilyatrisk,itplacesherfamilyatrisk,whilelacking

herSovereign’sliberatorypowertorespondtotherisk.

ForAmparo,theSovereignresidesinsidethepeopleandinsidethelaborthe

peopleproduce.“Labor”and“inside”arethesignificantterms.Amparo’sactions

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suggestabeliefthatMcLaughlincommunitymembersmustexploreinside

themselvesuntiltheycomeintocommunionwiththepartoftheselfthatissacred,

thepartoftheselfthatisworththeriskinherentindirectlyengagingtheneoliberal

sovereign.InAmparo’scosmology,communityactivismlaborisanexpressionof

spirituality.Diggingfortruthaboutthehegemon’sdeath-dealingpracticesis

Amparo’swaytodefendandpraisetheindwellingspiritofcommunitymembers.

WhileDoloresisplasteringtheoutsideofthehouse,Amparoisdiggingintheyard.

Amparodigsuparubberhose,unearthingtheremainsofatoxicwastedumptheir

homeswerebuiltupon.Despiteexcavatingthetruth,Doloressays,“NoesNada.”

However,Amparochallengesherreligiousfriend’sdisbelief:“Youdon’believeme,

buttheyburyalloftheirpoisonsunderourhouses.”115Dolores’faithisstronginthe

thingsunseenbutshestrugglestobelieveinwhatcanbeseen—especiallywhen

whatisseenisthedeath-dealingapparatusthatconfirmshowlittletheneoliberal

sovereignvaluesherlife—andthelivesofherchildren.

Asabarelifesurvivalstrategy,Doloreschoosestoplasteroverthe

sovereign-producedfamilialfissures:makingtheseentheunseenforsurvival’s

sake.Amparoquestionsthissurvivalstrategybyframingitasanappeasement

strategy:

Whatyouthinkthatcrackcomesfrom?Anearthquake?Thehouseissinking,tedigocomoquicksand...Theyliedtous,Lola.Theythoughtwewastoostupidtoknowthedifference.Theythrowsomedirtoveradump,putsomecasasdecartónontopofitydicenqueit’sthe“AmericanDream.”Pues,thisdreamhas

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turnedtopesadilla.”116

AmparoencouragesDolorestoconfronttherealitybeforehereyesand

beneathherfeet.ThesovereignissinkingMcLaughlincommunityresidentsintoa

death-dealingheapoftoxicwaste.Withtheassertion,“Theythoughtwewastoo

stupid,”AmparoappealstoDolores’intelligenceanddignitybyframingthe

sovereign’sactionsasattacksonthecommunity’sintelligenceanddignity.Inthe

neoliberalcontext,thesovereignissellingacleverlywrapped“AmericanDream,”

buttheconcealedcontentsincludeapoverty-wagejob,uncleandrinkingwaterand

aricketyhousebuiltoncancer-causingtoxicwastesite.Thesovereignassumesthe

immigrantLatina/oworkerswillpaythegrotesquepricemark-upbecausethe

mythicAmericanDreamadvertisingcampaignhasbeensoeffective.Without

demonzingher,AmparoindirectlyurgesDolorestoreconsiderherappeasement

approachsincethesovereignliedandsoldthemacrumblingpesadillaornightmare

wrappedinashinypackage.

TheAmericanNightmarewiththecrumblingfoundationDoloresis

plasteringcanbereadasasignifierforthefamilydwellinginsideitsunstablewalls.

Dolores’relationshipwithherson,Mario,isincreasinglystrainedbecauseshecan’t

accepttheopensecretthatheisgay.WhenshefinallyconfrontsMario,Dolores

frameshissexualorientationasacrumblingofhis“manhood”andanaffronttoher

Sovereign:

DOLORES:Godmadeyouamanandyouthrow itaway.Youloweryourselfintohalfaman. MARIO:Idon’twanttofight‘amá.I’mleavingin

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themorning.Givemeyourblessing.Send meonmywaywiththesignofthecross andamother’slove. DOLORES:Nopuedo. MARIO:Youdon’thavetoapproveofit,‘amá. DOLORES:Nopuedo.Peepolikeyouaredying.

Theygotthásickness.HowcanIgivemibendiciónparaunavidaquetevaamatar.Godmakesthissicknesstoshowpeepoit’swrongwhattheydo.Dímequetevasacambiarytedoymibenediction.Tuereselúnicomacho.Iwantyoutolive.

MARIO:Iwanttolivetoo.Ican’tmakeyouseethat. Yourgod’sdoingalltheseeingforyou.117InformedbyherunderstandingofGod,Doloresassertsthatsame-gendered-loving

mendevolvedownthehumananimacyhierarchytothe“lower”stratuminhabited

by“half-men.”However,forDolores,thesehalf-menaren’t“halfasalive”as

heterosexualmen;theyslidesofardownthehumananimacyscaletowardsbarelife

thatembracingsame-gendered-lovecallsintoquestiontheirverydesireto“wantto

live.”Doloresaversthatasame-gendered-lovelifeisalifethat“vaamatar,”a“life

thatisgoingtokill.”Moretroubling,Dolores’sovereignGodisthedeath-dealer;her

sovereignGodcreatedadeath-dealingdisease,AIDS,toshowsame-gendered-lovers

thatsame-gendered-loveiswrong.Dolores’Godkillsinthenameoflove—whileit

killsbecauseoflove.

ThehegemonicreachofDoloreskillerSovereignissototalizingthatithas

thepowertopre-emptamother’sloveforherson.WhenMarioasksDoloresto

sendhimonhisjourneywith“thesignofthecrossandamother’slove,”she

answers“nopuedo,”or“Ican’t.”It’simportanttonotethatDoloresdoesn’tsay,“I

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don’twantto.”ThedecisiontolovehersonisremovedfromDolores’purview;itis

notanissueofchoice:shecan’t.Dolorescan’tlovehergaysonbecauseonlyher

SovereignGodcandecideforher.Dolores’SovereignGodspeaksforherand

decideswhichwordscannotbeuttered.Aswiththesilentsovereignfarmowners,

DoloresissilencedbyherownSovereign.Aswiththesilentsovereignfarmowners,

Dolores’Sovereignrestrictsherabilitytoundergirdandprotectherfamily;it

delimitsheragency.Dolorescan’tmakethe“signofthecross,”can’tconfera

blessinginthenameoflove.LikeDolores’voice,herbodyiscontrolled.Thisbodily

controlisinclusiveofDolores’eyes—andthewaysinwhichtheyviewtheworld.

Dolores’Sovereigndisallowsherfromseeinghersonasfullyhuman.Not

onlydoesDoloresseeMarioasapartialman,sheseemshimaspartiallyalive.

DolorestellsMario,“Iwantyoutolive,”becauseherSovereign-controlledvision

seeshiminhabitingasubjectivityneartheborderoflifeduetohissexual

orientation.Dolores’Sovereignandthefarmownersovereignalignintheir

perspectivesonMario.Bothsovereignspushhimdownthehumananimacyscale

andtowardsbarelife.Theneoliberalsovereign’sdownwardthrustisprimarily

propelledbyatoxiccocktailofclass,raceandprofiteering.Farmownerstargetthe

economicallydistressed,migrantLatina/oworkersbecausetheyaresociallyand

politicallyvulnerable.InHeroesandSaints,politicallyandsocio-economically

vulnerablesubjectsareeasiertoexploitastheytypicallyhavefewerpoliticaland

socio-economicresourcestodefendthemselvesagainstneoliberalfarmowners

committedtopoliciesandconcomitantpracticeswhichmaximizeprofitswhile

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harmingworkersintheprocess.Mario’slifecourseisdelimitedbythefarmowners’

death-dealingneoliberalismtosuchanextentthatheisforcedtoseekliberation

outsidethebordersofthehometownfarmingcommunity.Thedistanceheseeks

fromhisfamilystandsinoppositiontoLatina/ofamily-orientedfolkwaysand

moresdemonstratedinHeroesandSaints,whichpromoteintra-familyphysicaland

emotionalproximity.Mario’sdesiretostepoutsidethesephilosophicalandphysical

boundaries,tochooselife,requiresablessingfromhismother—thegiverofhislife.

Ultimately,Dolorescannotconfertheblessingforlifebecauseshe’sacceptedthe

dictatesofherSovereignGodandtheneoliberalsovereignwhohavebothchosen

deathforthelifethatcamethoughher.

SimilartotherelationshipbetweenAmparoandDolores,therelationship

betweenFatherJuanandCerezitahighlightsthecontradictoryandproductive

relationshipbetweenthespiritualandthepolitical.FatherJuanisaproponentof

liberationtheologybutnotalwaysanadherenttothetheo-politicalphilosophythat

centerssocialjusticeforthedispossessed—andcallsreligiousleaderstoleadthe

charge.118AsaJesuit,FatherJuanisforcedtoconfrontthedangersofliberation

whennewscomesthatsixSalvadoranJesuitpriests(andtheirhousekeeperandher

daughter)havebeenmurderedfordefendingtherightsofthepooragainstthe

neoliberalsovereign.FearforhisownlifemakesFatherJuanstruggletoplacehis

liberationtheologyphilosophyintopractice.Inthenarrative,FatherJuanfleeswhen

thethreatofsovereignviolenceemergesduringdirectactionsbeingwagedby

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McLaughlinresidentsagainsttheneoliberalsovereignfarmowners.Witnessingthis

pattern,CerezitabeginstoengageFatherJuanabouthismotivationsandintentions:

CEREZITA:Whydidyoubecomeapriest,FatherJuan?

JUAN:Toomanyyearsasanaltarboy...and becauseofthefabric. CEREZITA:Thefabric? JUAN:Yes.Literally,theclothitselfdrewmetobe a“manofthecloth.”Thevestment,thepriest’s bodyasleepunderneaththatcloth,theheavy weightofittranquilizinghim. CEREZITA:Willyoualwaysbeapriest,FatherJuan? JUAN:There’snochoiceinthematter.Onceordained, you’regivenupvolitioninthatsense.The priesthoodisanindeliblemark.Youarebruised byit,notviolently,butitspresenceisalwaysfelt. Aslowdullache,aslightdiscolorationintheskin...

*** CEREZITA:Butthat’syourjob,isn’tit.Father,tomake peoplesee?The‘theologyofliberation.’The spiritualpracticeoffreedom.Onearth.Doyou practicewhatyoupreach,Father?119Intheabovepassage,CerezitachallengesthecontentionthatFatherJuancanbe

bothaliberationtheologypractitionerandaSovereignrepresentative.Responding

toCerezita’sinterrogatives,FatherJuanconfessesthattheweightofthevestments

is“tranquilizing”hisbody.Atranquilizedbodyisunabletoforcefullymoveinto

liberatoryactionwhen“theliberatorymoment”callsforliberatoryaction.

ThroughoutHeroesandSaints,FatherJuanisdefinedbyhisinabilitytoactonhis

purportedliberationtheologyphilosophy—especiallyintheliberatorymoments

whentheMcLaughlincommunitymembersneedhimmost.

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FatherJuanexplainstoCerezitathatoperatingasanordainedSovereign

representative,“there’snochoiceinthematter.”FatherJuanhas“givenupvolition.”

Thepriest’swillisnothisown;FatherJuan’swillisownedbytheSovereign.

Althoughhisliberationtheologyphilosophydictatesamoral,politicaland

philosophicalimperativetohelpCerezitaandtheotherMcLaughlinyouthwhoshe

hashelpedtoorganizeagainstthesovereignfarmowners,FatherJuan’swillfalls

shortwhenitcometostandingtallbytheirside.SimilartoDolores’Sovereign-

dictatedrefusaltoblessMario,FatherJuanisthesecondadult“caregiver”to

sacrificechildrenonthealtarof“abdicatedvolition.”

Whetherreligiousorneoliberal,thesovereignimpactontheMcLaughlin

youthismarkedbyviolence.Theneoliberalfarmowners’death-dealingpolicies

etchindelibleviolenceseeninbadlydeformedbodiesandbodiesthatneverform

intoadults.InHeroesandSaints,religiousSovereignviolenceislesslegiblebutnot

necessarilylessviolent.Intheplay,religiousSovereignviolencehasawayof

workinginsideout;itdoesdamagebyencouragingthehostsubjecttododamageto

him/herself—andtothoseintheircare.DoloresallowstheSovereignworking

withinhertostoptheflowofmaternallovetowardshergaysonbecauseofwhohe

choosestolove.TheloveshedeniesMariohurtshimbuttheharmtoDoloresis

palpableaswell.Earlierintheplay,beforeDoloresrefusestoconferherblessings

onMario,shesaysaboutherchildren,“[Y]ouwalkaroundfullofholesfromallthe

placestheytakefromyou.Allthetimesyouworryforthem...allthetimesyousee

themsufferontheirfacesandyourhandsaretieddownfromhelpingthem.”120Itis

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thereligiousSovereignwhotiesdownDolores’handsfrommakingthesignofthe

crosstoblesshergayson.Consequently,itistheSovereignwhohelpsgeneratethe

invisible,nonlegible“holes”thatDolorescarriesinside.However,theseindwelling

holesarenotempty;theyareoccupiedbyaSovereignwhoworksinside/out.The

SovereignworksfrominsideDolores’consciousnessbyfunctioningasher

subjectivity;theSovereignconvincesDolorestoconvinceherselfthatshemustdeny

lovetoherson.

FatherJuanclaimsthatlifeasareligiousSovereignrepresentativeleavesan

“indeliblemark”thatbruises,causes“aslightdiscolorationintheskin,”butthatitis

notviolent.Yet,FatherJuan’sinabilitytopracticehisliberationtheologyco-signs

thecontinuationofneoliberalsovereignprofiteeringpoliciesthatmarkbrown

bodiesaslessvaluableonthehumananimacyscale.FatherJuan’ssovereign

appeasementpolicy,despitehisclaims,operatesasviolenceagainsthisownbrown

bodyandthebrownbodiesheischargedwithshepherdingtowardslifein

McLaughlin.Co-signingdeath-dealingneoliberalpoliciesmanifestsasanabdication

ofhisspiritualfatherduties:FatherJuanisnotshepherdinghisflocktowardslife;he

isallowingtheneoliberalsovereigntopushhisflocktotheedgeofbarelife.Similar

tothewaythereligiousSovereignandtheneoliberalsovereignaligntocontrol

Dolores’actions,FatherJuan’sreligiousSovereignandneoliberalsovereign

collaboratetoputhis“bodyasleepunderneaththatcloth,theheavyweightofit

tranquilizinghim.”

111

InthecontextofFatherJuanabdicatinghisreligiousandpoliticalduties(asa

proponentofliberationtheology),activistAmparofunctionsasbothheroandsaint

inHeroesandSaints.Amparo’selevationintoa“saintly”figureisoneoftheplay’s

mostinterestingintersectionsofthespiritualandthepolitical.Throughouttheplay,

Amparoisskepticalofreligion(anditsrepresentatives)asaliberatorytechnology.

Amparo’sskepticismemergesinherresponsetoDolores’“HelpusGod,”comment,

whiletheyarerepairingDolores’home(whichcanbereadasasignifierinforthe

Latina/oMcLaughlincommunity):“YouthinkGodisgointutakecareofit?Working

iswhatchangesthings,notoraciones.”Thework-that-changesisthecommunity

activismthatAmparoengagesinthroughoutthenarrative;theworkisthecancer

educationcampaign,organizingviaprivateconversations,publiclyresisting

corporatesovereigndeath-dealingpracticesandspeakingatprotestrallies.

Amparo’scommunityorganizingoperatesassalvificemancipatorylabor.The

activistpromotesandmodelsaccesstocommunitysalvationviaorganizing

communitymemberstosavethemselves.Amparoallowsherbodytosufferto

mitigatethesufferingofcommunitymembers.

Amparo’sactivist-relatedsufferingechoesthesufferingofJesusduringthe

Passion.InChristiannarratives,thePassionchroniclesJesus’sufferingatthehands

oftheRomanStateapparatusduringhisfinaldays.ThePassionstartswithJesus

leadingapeacefulprocession-likerallyonhiswaytowardsJerusalemandconcludes

withtheRomanStateapparatusbreakinghisbodyinthepresenceofhis

followers.121Whilespeakingatapeacefulrallyagainsttheneoliberalsovereign,a

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policeman,“KnocksAmparodownwithhisnightstick”(Moraga133),andproceeds

tomethodicallybeatheruntilherbodyisbroken.

Followingthebeating:

DONGILBERTObringsAMPAROoutinawheelchair Shehasablackeyeandwearsahospital

gownandcarriesasmallpurseinherlap... AMPARO:Theycutoutmyspleen.Fatheritwas

completelysmash. DONGILBERTO:...[Thedoctor]saysthatthespleen

isthepartofthebodythat‘stáconnectadoconelcoraje.

JUAN:It’stheplaceofemotion,ofhumanpassions. AMPARO:Pues,thatpoliciagotanotherthingcoming ifhethinkhecouldtakeawaymipassion.122Inthecrisesmoment,whencommunitychildren’sbodiesaresufferingunderthe

yokeofneoliberalprofit-maximization,Amparooffersupherbodytosufferonthe

frontlineofresistance.Amparo’sblackeyeandbrokenspleensignifythe

communityactivist’sstigmata.Bearingwitnesstochildrensufferinginthenameof

profitschangesthewayAmparoviewstheworld;itchangeshervision.Amparo’s

blackeye,thismarkofshameandviolence,isalsoapassionmarkofhonor.The

passionmarksignifiestransformationalfigures’abilitytotransformdishonor

(sufferedinanactofservice)intohonor.IntheRomanCatholicpassionnarrative,

Jesus’Passionmarksonhishands,feetandsidearephysicalsignifiersofhis

sufferingforthecommunityheisserving.InthePassionnarrative,theyarewounds

oflove.

SimilartoJesus’narrative,Amparo’sblackeyeandcrushedspleentella

communitylovestory.Amparo’spassionforhercommunitymovedhertothefront

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linesofliberatoryaction.TheactivistengagesinherownPassionPlaybyleadinga

communityprocessiontochallengetheneoliberalsovereign’sdeath-dealing

policies.Amparo’spublichumiliation,includingherbodybeingbroken,inspires

numerouscommunitymemberstocommittoembracingAmparo’sactivistlifestyle;

herliberatory-tetheredsacrificeandsufferinginspirescommunitymembersto

sacrificeandsufferinthenameofliberation.Amparohelpstocreateaspiritual

movement,rootedinactivatingtheinnerspirittowardsoutwardliberatorylabor.

DoñaAmparo’sedifyingactionselevatesherand(bytheirassociation)elevates

activistsintoasalvificroleintheMcLaughlincommunity:itinspiresthefaithfulto

rejectbarelifeevenifmeansriskingdeath.

InspiredbyAmparo’scourage,FatherJuan,CerezitaandMarioriskdeathto

confrontneoliberaldeath-dealers.Throughoutthetext,FatherJuanconsistently

failstoalignhisliberationtheologyphilosophywithhisliberationtheologylifestyle.

However,afterwitnessingAmparo’sbodybeingbrokenforjustice(andfailingto

intervene),FatherJuanhasa“come-to-Amparo”moment—whichengenders

courageinthefaceofoppression.Despiteawarningthatthefarmownerneoliberal

representativeswillopenfireonanyonewhoentersthevineyardstoengagein

ritualprotest,FatherJuandecidestodefydeathtoresistbarelife.

BONNIE:Now,isthetimeFather? JUANnodsthentakesthecrossfromher.Anotherchild bringsJUANsomerope.HegoestoCEREZITA,touches hercheekandreleasesthelocksontheraite...YOLANDA nowunderstandsthatsheistoofferupherdeadinfant. ...JUANandCEREZITAheadouttothevineyard.123

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Earlierinthetext,whenitwas“time”forFatherJuantotakealiberatorystand,he

ran.Inthepassageabove(whichoccursafterAmparo’sbodyisbrokenfortakinga

liberatorystand),FatherJuan,“nodsandtakesthecross”whenthetimefor

emancipatoryactionarrives.AsintheJesusnarrative,FatherJuanacceptsand

“takesuphiscross.”

ThecrossisbothasignifierofFatherJuan’sliberatoryresponsibilitytothe

McLaughlincommunityandasymbolfortheultimatepricethathemayhavetopay

foracceptingthecross.Crucifyingdeadchildreninthevineyard(asritualprotest

againstneoliberalfarmowners’deal-dealingpolicies)hasbeenstrictlyforbidden.

Protestersviolatingthebanhavebeenthreatenedwithdeath-dealingbullets.Yet,

FatherJuanandCerezita“headoutthevineyard.”It’ssignificantthatFatherJuan

makesthissalvificmovetowardsthevineyardwithCerezitabecauseinthesame

scene,“AbrilliantbeamoflighthasenteredtheroomandwashedoverCEREZITA.

Sheisdrapedintheblue-starredveilofLaVirgendeGuadalupe...Thecrossrests

atthebaseoftheraite.Thelight,brighternow,completelyilluminatesCERE’S

saint-likeexpressionandthesmallcross.”124

SimilarlyinspiredbyAmparo’sactivism,Cerezitatransformsintoa

liberatoryiterationofaVirginMary-Jesushybrid(justbeforetheygotothe

vineyardCerezitaechoesJesus’narrativeandsaystothecommunity,“Putyour

handinsidemywound”).Whenthereader/audienceisintroducedtoCerezita,her

bodyisalreadybroken.Cerezita’sbrokenbodyhauntsthetextasanembodimentof

neoliberalism’simpactonMcLaughlin’syouth,McLaughlin’sfuture.Cerezitatells

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individualcommunitymembersto“Putyourhandinsidemywound”because

neoliberalfarmowners’dealing-policieshavewoundedthechildren,thefutureof

McLaughlin—andtheadultsholdsomeresponsibilityforthisturnofevents.

Cerezitaisbothindictingadultsforpastinactionandseekingtoinspireadults

towardfutureliberatoryaction.Cerezitaistransformingheropenwoundintoa

liberatoryportal.Thechild’sopensorefunctionsasanopenmouthcalling

neighborstoenterandpickuptheircross.Theopenwoundspeaksthe

unavowable;itbreaksthesilencethattheneoliberalsovereignemploystostealthily

dealdeath.Cerezita’sembodiedsufferingnamestheperpetratorandprovidesthe

salvificpathwaytoresisttheperpetratorandrejectbarelife.“Putyourhandinside

mywound”istheliberatorypassword:thepasswordtotheresistancefields.

JustbeforeCerezitaandFatherJuanentertheresistancefieldstoperformthe

protestritualcrucifixion,“Doloresblesses[Cerezita].”Dolores’ritualacttoaffirm

herdaughter’sactivistagencyshowsevolutionfromherinabilitytoconfera

blessingsonherson’sactivistagency.DoloreswasunabletoblessMario’sagentic

decisiontoescapebarelifebecauseshecouldn’tresistherSovereignGod’s

influence.However,afterAmparo’ssalvificsuffering,Doloresisabletoresistthe

neoliberalsovereignandherownSovereign’sinfluenceandblessCerezita’sdirect

actionagainstthepurveyorsofbarelife—eventhoughthedeath-dealershave

threateneddeathtothoseenteringthefields.Doloresmakesatransitiontoan

ideologicalpositionthatassertsthatresistingbarelifeisworthriskinglife.This

ideologicalshiftisacriticalstepinagenticliberatoryevolutionbecauseit

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presupposesahigherpositionontheanimacyscalethanthedisenfranchised

subject’ssocio-politicalstandingwouldindicate:Brownlifemattersenoughtodiein

itsdefense.

MomentsafterFatherJuanandCerezitaentertheresistancefields,with

Dolores’blessing,“theshadowandsoundofahelicopterpassoverhead...then

thereisasuddensoundofmachinegunfire...Mariosuddenlyrises,raiseshisfist

intotheair.”125FollowingAmparo,FatherJuanandCerezita’ssalvificmoves,Mario

makesastrategicshift.Mariomarksthisstrategicshiftwithanembodiedritualized

movementwhichhasgesturalechoestoDolores’“signofthecross”blessingmotion.

Mariomoveshisfistskyward,heavenward,toblesscollectiveresistanceagainst

neoliberalfarmowner’sdeath-dealingpolicies.Mario’ssignifyingfist-as-blessingis

aliberatoryevolutionarystepfromhispriorneedtoseekablessingfromhis

mother.Mariotransitionsfromonebeseechingablessingfromhismothertoone

conferringablessingtohiscommunity—anextraordinaryagenticliberatory

evolution.

Strategically,Marioshiftsfromrejectingbarelifebyescapingtheneoliberal

sovereigntorejectingbarelifebyconfrontingtheneoliberalsovereign.The

evidenceofthisstrategicshiftisfoundinthewordsthataccompanyhisraisedfist

blessing:“Burnthefields!”Duringtheplay’sclimax,inapowerfulreversal,Mario

switchesfromasubjectseekingliberationbyrunningfromtheMcLaughlinfieldsto

asubjectionseekingliberationbyrunningintotheMcLaughlinfields—toburn

them.Mariodirectlyengagestheneoliberalsovereignbydealingdeathtothecash

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cropsthatmotivatedtheneoliberal’sdeath-dealingpolicies.LikeTheSaltEaters’

VelmaHenry’sembodiedanswerto“Areyousure,sweetheart,thatyouwanttobe

well?”Mario’smovingbodyanswers“yes”towellnessbyanswering“no”tobare

life.

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ChapterThree

Wehavegottoknoweachotherbetterandteacheachotherourways,ourviews,

ifwe’retoremovethescales. —ToniCadeBambara126

DIFFERENTSISTERS

InChapterTwo,theimbricatedrelationshipbetweenankhingandcounterpublicsis

exploredasagenerativewaytoresistattacksonBrownandBlackcommunitiesby

engenderingenvironmentswhereanimacycanbenurtured.ChapterThreeargues

foranexpansiveunderstandingofthecounterpublicnotionbyaverringthatradical

anthologiescanexistascounterpublics.Thechapterexploreshowankhing’s

embraceofanegalitarianethosandalteritycanassistculturally-tethered,activist

writerswhogatherinanthologiestoreimaginepossibilitiesthatelevatethe

animacyofBrownandBlackfolk.

Writingabouttheintersectionofraceandanthologies,BrentHayesEdwards

opines,“[Ananthology]necessarily‘presumessomeideaofdifference’...andaims

topresentthespecificcontoursofthatdifference,inawaythatbotharticulatesit—

makesitspeak—andmarksitoff.”127Theracializedanthologycanframedifference

asagenerativeentity.Theanthologyhasthepowertospeakandmarkdifferenceas

athingofvalue.ThecontributorstothecriticalanthologiesPoetryforthePeople

119

andThisBridgeCalledMyBackgivevoicetodifferenceandmarkdifferenceas

beautiful.

IntheprefaceofCherríeMoragaandGloriaAnzaldúa’sfoundationalThis

BridgeCalledMyBack:WritingsbyRadicalWomenofColor,Moragarecounts

touchstonesinherpoliticalevolution.MoragamentionstravellingtoAfrican

Americanwriter/activistBarbaraSmith’shometodiscusstheyet-to-be-completed

ThisBridgeanthologyandthelesbian-led,anti-racismorganizinginBoston.Moraga

writes:

Barbaracomesintothefrontroomwhereshehas madeabedforme.Shekissesme.Thengrabbing myshoulders,shesays,verysolid-like,‘We’re

sisters’.Inod,putmyselfintobed,androllaroundwiththisword,sisters,fortwohoursbeforesleeptakeson.IearnedthiswithBarbara.Itisnotagivenbetweenus—ChicanaandBlack—tocometoseeeachotherassisters.Thisisnotagiven.Ikeepwantingtorepeatoverandoverandoveragain,thepainandshockofdifference,theshockofcommonness,theexhilarationofmeetingthroughincredibleoddsagainstit.128

TheabovepassagesuggeststhatevenasMoragaluxuriatesintheburgeoning

interculturalsisterhoodrootedinemancipatorylabor,“theshockofdifference”

remindsherofthechallengesandopportunitiesthatalteritybrings.“Shocking”isa

significantnomenclaturechoiceasadescriptorofdifference.TheOxfordEnglish

Dictionarydefinestherootword“shock”as“Asuddenordisturbingimpressionon

themindorfeeling;usually,oneproducedbysomeunwelcomeoccurrenceor

perception,bypain,grief,orviolentemotion.”129Inhermeetingwithafellowqueer

120

writerandactivist,whoisAfricanAmerican,thewordsistersleavesadisturbing

impression(powerfulenoughtokeephertossingandturninginbedfortwohours)

becauseMoragaisshockedbythetangibledifferencesthatracerepresents.

MoragahasmuchincommonwithSmith,asisterly-likeparallelism,so

confrontingtheirracialdifferencestriggerstheviolentemotionsandsleeplessness.

Duringhertossingandturning,Moragawantstokeeprepeatingsistersoverand

overbecauseshehastoconvinceherselfthatsisterhoodbornofliberatorytheory

andpraxiscantrumpdifferencebornofsocialconstructionandsubjectposition.

Raceisreal.Race’sdefinitionincludessocialconstructionbutdifference’simpacton

racializedsubjects’lifecoursesissotangiblyspecificthatitconcretizesdifference.

AlthoughMoragaischallengedbythedifferencesbetweenSmithandherself,

alterityisnotdemonized.Racialdifferenceoperatesasadifferenttypeof

opportunity:adifficultopportunity.Kohnaversthatdifferenceisavaluedqualityin

heterotopiasofresistancebecausealteritycreatesopportunitiesfornew

epistemologies,whichcanleadtonewliberatorybestpractices.In

contradistinction,thedubious“color-blind”discoursepopularizedbyconservative

criticShelbySteele’sTheContentofOurCharacterarguesthatracehasan

unnecessarilyoutsizedroleinsociety.Steelearguesthatracialanimuswill

dissipatebyignoringracialdifference,focusingon“charactercontent”andby

embracingacolor-blindapproachduringsocio-politicalinteractions.130Thecolor-

blindapproachisbuiltonadenialofhistoricAmericanwhitesupremacyanda

denialofAmericanstructuralracism’scontinuingimpactonpeopleofcolor.

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CoheringwithKohn’sembraceofalterityandrejectingSteele’simaginary

erasureofdifference,Moragawrestleswithdifferencebecauseshebelievesthe

emancipatorypayoffwillbeprofitable.Moragaframesherprecarioussisterhood

withSmithinthelanguageoflaborandpayoff:“IearnedthiswithBarbara.”

Moraga’searnedsisterhood(inclusiveoftheshockofdifference)isemblematicof

whatheterotopiasofresistancedemandforeffectiveemancipatorylabor.However,

theprecariousnatureofinterracialliberatorylaborshouldnotcompletely

overshadowtheexcitementoftheworkat-hand.Intheimmediateaftermathof

difference’sdisturbingimpression,Moragaaddressestheexultationofinterracial

liberatorylabor:“theexhilarationofmeetingthroughincredibleoddsagainstit.”

Interestingly,theoddsagainsteffectivemultiracial,socio-politicaland

economicorganizingenhancestheexcitementaroundthisliberatoryenterprise.The

Americanneoliberalcontextofteninvolvesthemostvulnerablecompetingforthe

fewestresources.Asaresult,creatingBlackandBrownenvironmentsthatcanbe

utilizedtoorganizeandstrategizeagainsthegemonyfunctionsasaninspiring

victoryoverneoliberalism’satomizingconcerns.Moraga’sstrugglewithand

embraceofshockingdifferenceareimportantstagesintheankhingprocess.In

socio-politicalorganizingdrivenbystrategyandinspiration,theankhingprocess

privilegesalterity,diverseideas,democraticdecision-making,andconcomitant

communallabortoimplementdemocraticallyagreeduponcoursesofaction.The

ankhingprocessworkswellwithinheterotopiasofresistance;bothshareasimilar

alterity-friendly,democraticethos.Asamultiracialliberation-orientedanthology,

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ThisBridgeCalledMyBackfunctionsasaheterotopiaofresistance(withelementsof

theankhingprocess)becauseit’sanalterity-friendly,democraticspace.

BRIDGETORESISTANCE

ThisBridgeCalledMyBackisacounterpublicspacequaheterotopiaof

resistance:itis“arealcountersitethatinvertsandcontestsexistingeconomicor

socialhierarchies.Itsfunctionissocialtransformationratherthanescapism,

containment,ordenial.Bychallengingconventionsofthedominantsociety,itcanbe

animportantlocusofstruggleagainstnormalization.”131Theliberatoryanthology

isaspaceinhabitedbyself-identifiedradicalwomenofcolorwhoareinterestedin

(likeKohn)“sitesthatfosteroppositionalpracticesbyshelteringcounterhegemonic

ideasandidentities.”132

ThisBridgeCalledMyBack’sforty-fivewritingsincludeamanifesto,poems,

essays,commentary,lettersandinterviewsbyBlack,Latina,AsianandNative

Americanwriterswho,AngelaY.Davisargues,dispel“alldoubtaboutthepowerofa

singletexttoradicallytransformtheterrainofourtheoryandpractice...This

Bridgehasallowedustodefinethepromiseofresearchonrace,gender,classand

sexualityasprofoundlylinkedtocollaborationandcoalition-building.Andperhaps

mostimportant,ithasofferedusstrategiesfortransformativepoliticalpractice.”133

ThefirsthalfofDavis’notehintsatthepragmaticallyproductiveanthology’sroleas

anactant:asourceofactionthatcanbeeitherhumanornonhuman;itisthatwhich

hasefficacy,candothings,hassufficientcoherencetomakeadifference,produce

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effects,alterthecourseofevents.134DaviswritesthatwhatThisBridge“cando”is

“transformtheterrainofourtheoryandpractice.”ThesecondhalfofDavis’note

aboutThisBridgeoffering“strategiesfortransformativepoliticalpractice”suggests

thatthissingletextisengaginginthetransformativelaborthatisahallmarkof

heterotopiasofresistance.ThisBridgeisanthologyascounterpublic.ThisBridgeis

counterpublicasheterotopiaofresistance.

UsingKohn’snomenclature,ThisBridgeCalledMyBack’soriginisrootedina

needforAmericanfeministwomenofcolortocreate“safehavens.”135Inthe

volume’sintroduction,MoragaandAnzaldúarecountAnzaldúa’smistreatmentby

whitefeministsataSanFrancisco-areawomen’sretreatinFebruary1979andthe

duo’sexperiencewiththeelitismandracismduringatwo-year-stintworkingasthe

onlytwoChicanasforanationalfeministwritersorganization.136Frustratedwith

theresistancetochange,MoragaandAnzaldúaendeavortocreateasafehavenfor

radicalfeministsofcolor.Theirsafehavenisn’tanotherorganizationoranedifice.

Theeditorsexplainthatafterthenationalfeministorganization“repeatedlyrefused

toaddressitselftoitselitistandracistpractices,welefttheorganizationandbegan

workonthisbook.”137Thewriters-activistsseeksafetyinabook.Structurally,This

Bridgeisanalternativepublicthatconsistsofenoughspacetogiveeachwritera

“roomofherown.”Theradicalanthologystructureisbuiltonidentityand

difference.

Intheoriginalcallforsubmissionthatwouldeventuallyleadtowork

acceptedintoThisBridge,MoragaandAnzaldúawrite,“wewanttoexaminethe

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incidentsofintolerance,prejudiceanddenialofdifferenceswithinthefeminist

movement.Weintendtoexplorethecausesandsourcesof,andsolutionstothese

divisions.Wewanttocreateadefinitionthatexpandswhat‘feminist’meansto

us.”138Asaheterotopiaofresistance,ThisBridgedoesdouble-dutyinsheltering

counterhegemonicideasandidentities.Theanthologyprovidesashelteredspace

forradicalfeministsofcolortothinkandworkthroughtheirownunderstandings

ofafeministidentities.Thebookrejectsthenotionofatop-downepistemological

approachthatwouldhavenationally-recognizedEuropean-Americanfeministsand

European-American-lednationalfeministorganizationsdevelopanddictatethe

scopeanddefinitionoffeministidentity.Inordertoeffectivelyrejectadenialof

difference(andembracethebenefitsofalteritythatitsuggests),ThisBridgeseeksto

aprovideasafehavenwhereradicalwomenofcolorcanspeakfreelyabout

intoleranceandprejudicewithinaputativelyliberatoryfeministmovement.This

Bridgeengagesinintra-feministstruggleandsimultaneouslyengagesinmacro-level

liberatorylabor,whilesupportingequalrights,equitabletreatmentandmutual

respectforwomeninanationalandinternationalcontextoftenhostiletowards

women.

Thisintra-feministandmacro-levelliberatorylaborimbricateswiththe

ankhingprocessbecauseinThisBridgeradicalfeministsofcolorcollectivelythink

throughthemosteffectivemeanstoresisthegemonicforces,andthroughthisidea-

exchange,inspire,motivateandmoveeachothertowardsbestpracticestoresist

hegemonicforcesseekingtodelimittheirsubjectivity,social,politicalandeconomic

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agency,anddelimittheirpowertodeterminetheirownlifecourses.Theprocessof

examiningincidentsofintolerance,prejudiceanddenialofdifferencesincludes

rigorousself-interrogationandgroupinterrogationtowardscreatingahealthy,

whole,emancipatoryprocessthatcanresultinhealthy,whole,emancipatory

practicesandoutcomes.FollowingNancyFraser,ThisBridgecohereswiththe

ankhingprocessbyfunctioningasasubalterncounterpublic“wheremembersof

subordinatedsocialgroupsinventandcirculatecounterdiscourses,whichinturn

permitthemtoformulateoppositionalinterpretationsoftheiridentities,interests

andneeds.”139

OFPOETRYANDPRAXIS

SimilartoThisBridge,JuneJordan’sPoetryforthePeople:ARevolutionary

Blueprintservesasaspacewherecounterdiscoursesarecirculatedtoformulate

oppositionalinterpretationsofidentities,interestsandneeds.Inapragmaticand

powerfulintroduction,JuneJordanspeaksaboutthealienationsheexperiencedasa

resultofanAmericaneducationalsystemthatdidnotreflectherexperiencesor

valueherculturally-tetheredepistemologies:

WhenIwasgoingtoschool,toomuchofthetimeI foundmyselfanalienbodyforce-fedstoriesand factsaboutpeopleentirelyunrelatedtome,ormy family...historyorfuture.Iwasmadetolearnabout ‘thepowerful’:thosewhowonwarsorwhoconqueredterritory orwhoseoddideasaboutpoetryandloveprevailed insidesomedistantcountrywhereneitherofmyparents normyselfwouldfindwelcome.140

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ThealiendiscoursesfoisteduponJordanalienateherbecausetheyarenotrootedin

herculturalorexperientialnarratives.Instead,these“force-fed”storiesaretiedto

sovereignnarrativeschroniclingtheuseofsovereignpowertowinwarsand

conquerpeoples.Jordan’seducationalexperiencesinspirehertocreatea

heterotopiaofresistanceintheclassroom.Jordanseekstoturntheuniversity

classroomintoarealcountersitethatinvertsandcontestsexistingsocial

hierarchies.

SinceJordanviewstheimpositionofa“deadwhitemen”literature

curriculumasadamaginghegemony,herinitialresistanceactistoradically

reimaginewhatconstitutesliteratureworthytobetaughtataneliteeducational

institutionliketheUniversityofCaliforniaatBerkeley.Byaligningwith

heterotopiasofresistanceanddecenteringdeadwhitemenliterature,JuneJordan

imaginesapedagogicalspacethatchallengesconventionsofthedominantsociety

andtransformstheuniversityclassroomintoacounterpublicthatfunctionsasan

importantlocusofstruggleagainstnormalization.Decenteringdeadwhitemen

literatureisasignificantstepagainstnormalization;itnecessitatescentering

diverseliteraturesandembracingdifferenceitself.Decenteringdeadwhitemen

literaturenecessitates“rescuingthecanon”byanimatingthecanon:privileging

alivenessoverthedead.141

Asanartisticcounterpublic,JuneJordan’sPoetryforthePeopleisvestedina

collectivistapproachtointerrogatingandreimaginingthecanon.However,before

exploringthiscollectivistcanonapproach,itmaybehelpfultodiscussthe

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collectivistdesignofthebook.JuneJordan’sPoetryforthePeopleisahyper-hybrid

text.Thebookisananthologyinthatitincludesacollectionofpoemsandessays

aboutpoetryfrom(then)emergentstudentpoetslikeRuthFormanandSamiya

BashirandestablishedliteraryfigureslikeAdrienneRich,AudreLorde,JuneJordan,

JoyHarjoandNtozakeShange.Theestablishedandemergingpoetsarepresented

side-by-side;thisnonhierarchalpresentationprivilegesideasandartisticmeritover

perceivedstatusandname-recognition,whiletacitlyvalidatingtheworkofthe

studentpoets.

Also,PoetryforthePeopleisapragmatic“blueprint”forhowtodevelopa

pedagogicalandartisticcounterpublic,includingliberatorybestpracticesthatlead

tothehighestqualityepistemologicalandartisticproduction.Thebookfeatures

specificwritingtechniquesabouthowtospeakindividualized“truth”tosovereign

power,approachestoworkshop-orientedcritique,samplesyllabiandsample

readinglistsfromAsianAmerican,Latina/oAmerican,Caribbean,AfricanAmerican,

Children’sLiterature,Women’sLiteratureandQueerLiterature.Aligningwiththe

ankhingprocessandKohn’sargumentregardingheterotopiasofresistance,this

embraceofalteritycommunicatesahighvaluationfordifferenceasaneffective

technologyforemancipatoryculturallabor.

PoetryforthePeoplehighlightstheimportanceofpublishingand

disseminatingliberatoryculturallaborintheformofpoetrychapbooksandpublic

readingsatanti-warprotests,politicalralliesandState-controlledspaceslikepublic

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universities.Inherlistingofcounterpubliccharacteristics,CatherineSquires

mentions:

protestrhetoric;persuasion;increasedinterpubliccommunicationandinteractionwiththestate;occupationandreclamationofthedominantandstate-controlledpublicspace...fosterresistance;testargumentsandstrategiesinwiderpublics;createalliances;persuadeoutsiderstochangeviews;performpublicresistancetooppressivelawsandsocial

codes;gainallies.142LikeSquires,PoetryforthePeoplefocusesonthepublicpresentationofliberatory

culturallaborasaformofpublicprotestrhetoricagainstsovereignpowerthat

seekstofosterresistance,persuadeoutsiderstochangeviews,reclaimpublicspace,

createalliancesandgainallies.Withgreatspecificity,PoetryforthePeoplelaysouta

pragmaticblueprintforstrategicwaystoselectworkforpublication,raisemoney,

seeksponsorship,workwithprinters,organizepublicreadings,effectivelyengage

themediaandhowtosolicitcriticalfeedbackduringtheseprocessessothatasbest

practicesareidentifiedtheycanconsistentlyevolveandimprove.

PoetryforthePeople’sauthorshipsignalsitsembraceofademocratic,

nonhierarchalethos.AlthoughtheclassPoetryforthePeople’spedagogical

approachisJuneJordan’sconceptandisincludedinJuneJordan’sPoetryforthe

People,sheisnottheauthorofthetext—noraneditor.Theeditorsofrecordare

LaurenMullerandtheBlueprintCollective.Atthetimeofpublication,Mullerwasa

graduatestudentintheUniversityofCaliforniaBerkeley’sEnglishdepartmentwho

hadtaughtwithJordanforfouryears.TheBlueprintCollectiveconsistedofPoetry

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forthePeoplestudentpoetsShantiBright,GaryChandler,AnandaEsteva,Sean

Lewis,StephanieRose,ShellySmith,ShellyTeves,RubénAntonioVillalobosand

PamelaWilson.Thebookwasco-writteninMuller’shouse,where“Fourpoetswrote

quietlyandintentlyinthebedroom;inthestudyandinthekitchen,therewerefive

computersandfacingeachscreenweretwoorthreepoetsnegotiatingwordchoice,

examplestoproveapoint,andparagraphplacement.”143JuneJordan’scommunal

approachtoteachingthePoetryforthePeopleclassinspiredthecommunal

approachtowritingJuneJordan’sPoetryforthePeople.Bothofthesecommunal

processesimbricatewiththecommunallaborethosankhingchampions.Inthecase

ofJuneJordan’sPoetryforthePeople,collectiveworkleadstocollective

acknowledgment.Thisacknowledgmentisconnectedtotherespectandbenefits

thataccompanypublishededitorsofrecord—evenwhentheyarestudents.

JuneJordan’sPoetryforthePeople’scommunalethosinformshowthis

heterotopiaofresistanceaddressesrescuingthecanon—andfromwhomthecanon

needstoberescued—andwhythereneedstobearescue.Thebookincludes

analysisfromestablishedliteraryfiguresandstudentpoetsaboutthecanonandits

impactontheirownlivesandAmericansocietyingeneral.AsJordansuggests,when

Americansubjectsstudycanonizedliteraturethatdoesreflecttheirexperience,

theirexperienceisdelegitimized.Thisdelegitimizationcanresultinfeelingsofsoul-

crushingalienationfromthehomeland,fromthenationalpublic.Asone

consequenceofthephenomena,subjectsdevelopheterotopiasofresistanceto

counterthisdeath-dealingalienation.

130

FIRINGTHECANON

InthecounterpublicJuneJordan’sPoetryforthePeople,AdrienneRich

commentsonencounteringcanonicalpoetrywhilewritingpoetryfromthesubject

positionofarelativelyprivilegedyoungwhitewoman(shewasastudentatHarvard

duringtheperiodinquestion).Thisinsightfulpassageissignificantenoughtoquote

atlength:

Whentheideasorformsweneedarebanishedwe seektheirresidueswhereverwecantracethem. Buttherewasonemajorproblemwiththis.Ihadbeen bornawomanandIwastryingtothinkandactasif poetry—andthepossibilityofmakingpoetry—were auniversal—agenderneutral.Intheuniverseof masculineparadigm,Inaturallyabsorbedideasabout women,sexuality,powerfromthesubjectivityofmale poets—Yeatsnottheleastamongthem.Thedissonance betweentheseimagesandthedailyeventsofmyown lifedemandedaconstantfootworkofimagination, akindofperpetualtranslation,andanunconscious fragmentationofidentity:womanfrompoet.Every groupthatlivesunderthenamingandimage-making powerofadominantcultureisatriskfromthis mentalfragmentationandneedsanartwhichcan resistit.144

Indiscussingthe“canonicalvoice”anditsgenderedrepresentative,Richconflates

“universal”and“universeofthemasculine”toconstructaliterarysovereign.This

masculine-genderedsovereignpowerhasthepowertocommunicatethesovereign

experienceasexperienceitself:thewhitemaleliteraryvoiceistheuniversalvoice,

thehumanexperience.Initshyper-universality,thewhitemalecanonicalvoice

doesn’thavetoproclaimitsuniversality;instead,asanembodimentofwhitemale

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socio-politicalsovereignpower,thecanonicalvoiceisuniversalbecausethe

sovereignpowerinsiststhatitisso.Thisinsistenceisproducedinsilencebecause

silenceisthenatureofsovereignpower:sovereignpoweris.

Whenthe“is-ness”ofsovereignpoweristetheredtowhitemalesubjects,the

“naturalness”ofthissovereignpowerisextendedtowhitemalesubjects.Inthe

canon,thewritingsoftalentedwhitemalewritersbecomenaturallyuniversal.

Thesewritingsarenotseenasthespecificexpressionsofwhitemalesubjectivity;

theyareseenasuniversalexpressionsofthehumanexperience:universal

expressionsofaliveness.Thisstateofaffairssetsthestageforsovereigncreative

death-dealingthroughacanonicalprism.AsRichexperienced,inamasculine

paradigm,nonwhite,nonmalepoets“naturallyabsor[b]ideasaboutwomen,

sexuality,powerfromthesubjectivityofmalepoets.”Absorbingapowerful

sovereignintoasubjectcanhavetheeffectofalienatingthesubjectfromherselfor,

asRichdescribestheprocess,resultina“fragmentationofidentity.”Thecanonhas

thepowertoseparatetheselffromtheself.Fragmentationofidentityisdeath-

dealingbyanothername.

Thecanon’sadverseimpactonrelativelyprivilegedwhitefemalesubject

suggeststhattheimpactcouldbemoreadversewhenclassandraceareintroduced.

Themultipliereffectofinterlockingoppressions(i.e.gender,class,race,sexuality

oppressions)isdifficulttoquantify,butitisimportanttointerrogatethewaysin

whichthesemultipleoppressionsimpactwomenofcolorinrelationtothecanon.

PoetMarilynChinwrites“It’safixedendgame:Therewillalwaysbeanimperialist,

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Eurocentricbias.Thepowers-that-bewholordovertheselectionprocessareand

forevermorewillbeprivilegedwhitemalecritics...WhatIlearnedfrommyyouth

asamarginalizedandisolatedwestcoastAsianAmericanpoetisthis:it’snofunto

be‘excluded’...asamatteroffact,itfeelslikehell.”145

ItisimportanttonotethatthatChinusestheidiomaticexpression“feelslike

hell”toarticulateherexperienceofcanonicalexclusion.146IntheAmerican

imaginary,hellfunctionsasateleologicaldestinationtetheredtodeathand

repetitivedying(see:therelatedidiomaticexpression“alivinghell”).Chinistying

canonicalexclusiontobarelifeforembodiedracializedfemalesubjects.Talented

anddeservingfemalewritersofcolorbecomeakindof“walkingdead/writingdead”

vis-à-visthecanon.Thesewritersproduceexceptionalandacclaimedworkbutthe

workitselfexistsontheouterboundariesofthelivingword.

Femalewriterofcolorsurvivalintheliteraryafter-lifeisat-riskbecauseof

exclusionfromlegacy-makinganthologiesthatvalidatewriters.Chinarguesthat

thisliterarybarelifeforfemalewriter’sofcolorisexacerbatedbyoverwhelmingly

whitemalecriticswho“willdecidewhowillbevalidatedalongwithShakespeare

andMiltonandlatter-daysaintsofthelikeofKeats,YeatsandEliot.Theywillguard

the‘canon’jealouslywiththeirelaborate‘critical’apparatus;anddrivenbytheir

ownDarwinianinstinctto‘survive,’theywilldothebesttheycanto‘exclude’us.”147

Chinaversthatwhitemalecriticshavesetupazero-sumgameofliterarysurvival

wheretheimbricatedcritical,scholarlyandpublishinginfrastructuresfavorwhite

malewriters.Thisfavorableterrainforwhitemalewriterscontributestoaliterary

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environmentwherethewhitemale’sspecificconcerns,interests,desires,

aspirations,fears,cosmologiesandaestheticsensibilitiesbecome“universal”

concerns,interests,desires,aspirations,fears,cosmologiesandaesthetic

sensibilities.Asaresult,talentedandambitiousfemalewritersofcolorfind

themselvesinadeadlytrick-bag:inordertowritetranscendent“universal”

literature(andavoidliteraryhell),theymustdietothemselvesandberebornas

whitemen.

Sincemanytalentedandambitiousfemalewritersofcolorfirstgetonthe

literaryroadtohellbylearningaboutthecanonthroughtheireducationalprocess,

letusreturntoJuneJordan’seducationalexperience.Jordanconfessesthatshe

hatedschoolbecausetheliteratureshewasexposedtodidnotreflecther

experience.Jordanwascaughtupinpedagogicalandepistemologicalphenomena

thatcouldbeentitled“ReadingDeadWhiteMenWhileBlack.”Jordanframesthese

deadwhitemenaseducationalandartisticdeath-dealers:deadwhitemaleauthors

werekillingJordan.Jordantethersdeadwhitemenliteraturetopresenthistorical

momentoppression;sheaversthatthisoppressioncanbeovercomebyeducational

andartisticalterity.Jordanarguesthatresistingdeath-dealingbythedeadis

emancipatorylaborthathasthepowertoliberatetheselfandsubaltern

communitiesfromeducationalandartisticalienation.Commentingontheprocess

oftransformingtheuniversityspaceintoacounterpublic,Jordanwritesabout

overcomingthedead.“AsateacherIwaslearninghownottohateschool:howto

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overcomethefixed,predetermined,graveyardnatureofsomuchformaleducation:

comeandbeburiedhereamongtheseother(allegedly)honorabledead.”148

Inmanyways,heterotopiasofresistancefunctionasalternativeeducational

spaces;theyaredemocratic-orientedpedagogicalinstitutionswheresubjectsteach

eachothertointerrogateandacquirenewepistemologies.JuneJordan’sPoetryfor

thePeoplefallswithinthiscounterpublicsphere.Thehybridanthologyisframed

(andsubtitled)asa“revolutionaryblueprint.”Anarchitecturalblueprintlaysout

thecourseofactiontobuildastructure.Thisrevolutionaryblueprintlaysoutthe

courseofactiontobuildanart-based,pedagogicalheterotopiaofresistance.

LIBERATIONPEDAGOGY

BrazilianpedagogicaltheoristPauloFreirearguesthateducationcanbe

transformativeforsubalternsubjectswhentheyareencouragedtotransform

themselvesandtheirenvironments.Freirerootsthistransformativepedagogical

processinhisconscientizaçāonotion.Conscientizaçāorefersto“learningtoperceive

social,political,andeconomiccontradictions,andtotakeactionagainstthe

oppressiveelementsofreality.”149TalentedAmericanfemalewritersofcolorface

thecontradictioninherentinacanonthatpurportstorepresentthebestliterature

intheEnglishlanguage,whileseeminglybasingitsselectioncriteriaonthebest

literaturewrittenbywhitemales—andthosewhocaneffectivelyimitatewhite

males’specificconcerns,interests,desires,aspirations,fears,cosmologiesand

aestheticsensibilities.

135

Femalewritersofcolorareoftenfirstexposedtotheaforementioned

contradictionsinpedagogicalinstitutions.Inresponse,JuneJordan’sPoetryforthe

People,asanartisticcounterpublic,takesapedagogicalapproachtoresistance.The

blueprintisdesignedtoteachinterestedpartieshowtocreateanddevelopartistic

counterpublicsintheirrespectivecommunities.However,theanthology’s

pedagogicalapproachtothisrevolutionarylaborisnottop-down.Instead,June

Jordan’sPoetryforthePeopleembracesademocraticmodelfeaturingshared

leadership,fluidityofteacher/studentroles,thehumanizingpowerofself-

knowledgeandtheimportofliberatorypraxis.

Jordandefinespoetryas“Amediumfortellingthetruth.”150Jordanseemsto

embracea“nommo-like”roleforthewordwherebywordsquapoetryhavethe

powertoaffectandeffectphenomena:thewordcaninfluencethebodybymovingit

intoactionandinfluencethebodypoliticbycallingitintoself-reflection.ForJordan,

thewordisafreedomagent:agencyisitscallingcard.Freire’sunderstandingofthe

wordisimbricatedwithJordan’sunderstanding.Freirewrites,“Withinthewordwe

findtwodimensions,reflectionandaction,insuchradicalinteraction,thatifoneis

sacrificed—eveninpart—theotherimmediatelysuffers.Thereisnotruewordthat

isnotatthesametimeapraxis.Thustospeakatruewordistotransformthe

word.”151Freireseesadialecticalrelationshipbetweenwordby-products

(reflectionandaction)wherebyreflectionandactionareinformedandchangedby

eachother.Forinterlocutorsofthe“trueword,”reflectionandpraxisalternatively

teachandlearnfromoneanotherasiftheyweresubjectsthemselves.Thetwo

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notionsareengagedinadialecticalradicalinteractionthatanimatesboth

sufficientlyenoughtobringamoreexpansivelifetotheinterlocutor.

ForJordan,theinterlocutoristhepoetwhospeaksthetruewordandpoetry

isamediumfortellingthetruth.Whenthistruthisspokentomanifestationsof

power,truewordhasthepowertogalvanizepeopleinthedirectionofliberation.

Thegalvanizingelementisdrivenbypoetry’sabilitytoconnectpeopletoone

anotherastheynamesovereignsilence.Thisnamingcanengendercourageinthe

dispossessedandencouragethemtonametheirindividualandcollectiveworlds.

JuneJordan’sPoetryforthePeople’seditorsassertthat“Poetrynameswhathasbeen

silencedandallowsustounderstandandarticulateconnectionstooneanotherand

totheworldweinhabit.”152Freireapproachesthisintersectionoftrueword,

namingandliberatorypraxisinthefollowingway:

Humanexistencecannotbesilent,norcanitbenourished byfalsewords,butonlywithtruewords,withwhichmen andwomentransformtheworld.Toexist,humanly,isto nametheworld,tochangeit.Oncenamed,theworldin itsturnreappearstonamersasaproblemandrequires ofthemanewnaming.Humanbeingsarenotbuilt insilence,butinword,inwork,inaction-reflection.153

Asapedagogicaltechnology,JuneJordan’sPoetryforthePeopleisarevolutionary

blueprintforcreatingartisticcounterpublicswheresubjectscannamethemselves

andtheirrespectivecommunities.

Namingtheselfandthe“collectivewe”isasubalternpowermove.InMelY.

Chen’sunderstandingoftheanimacyhierarchy,thoseatthetopofthehierarchy

havethepowertodefineandnamethosebelowthem.IntheUnitedStatescontext,

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socio-economicallyandpoliticallywell-resourcedwhitemales(astop-dwellers)

havethepowertodefineandname(oftenwithdamagingnames)peopleofcolor.

Chenarguesthat,“Insults,shaminglanguage,slursandinjuriousspeechcanbe

thoughtofastoolsofobjectification,butthesealso,incrucialways,paradoxically

relyonanimacyastheyobjectify,therebyprovidingpossibilitiesfor

reanimation.”154Objectificationde-animateshumansubjects,effectivelysliding

themdowntheanimacyhierarchy.Thisslipperyslideisadeathslideforracialized

matter.Giventheintersectionalityinclusiveofraceandclassoppression,thesedual

forcespushpeopleofcolordownintothenetherregionsofthehumananimacy

scalewherebarelifeisawayoflife.However,whensubalternsubjectsusetrue

wordtonametheself,theprocessoperatesasareanimatingformofresistance.

JuneJordan’sPoetryforthePeople,usingpoetryquatrueword,teachessubjectsto

buildartisticcounterpublicsthatcanfomentresistanceagainstaneoliberal

sovereign’satomizinggaze.

Theaforementionedteachingaspectiscriticaltoartisticcounterpublic

viability.Inheterotopiasofresistance,learningisoftenaccompaniedbyunlearning.

Subalternsubjectsmayneedtounlearnthenames(andtheirnegativeexternalities)

thatwerehandeddownfromsubjectshighertheanimacyscale.Thisunlearning,

thisreleasingofcounterproductiveepistemologies,makesroomfornew

emancipatoryknowledgestotakeroot.JordanandFreirearguethat

democratically-oriented,criticalmodesofdialogueareespeciallyeffectiveinthe

liberatorypedagogicalprocess.Freirewritesthat“Dialogueistheencounter

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between[menandwomen],mediatedbytheworld,inordertonametheworld...

Ifitisinspeakingtheirwordthatpeople,bynamingtheworld,transformit,

dialogueimposesitselfasthewaybywhichtheyachievesignificanceashuman

beings.”155Inapedagogicalcontext,dialoguesuggestsrespectbetweenthe

interlocutors;itconnotesmutualityinthelearningprocesswherebyteacherand

studentarelearningtogether,whilecreatingnewepistemologiesfromtheir

dialecticalengagement.ThisprocessstandsindirectoppositiontowhatFreire

definesasthe“banking”pedagogicalapproach.

Thebankingpedagogicalapproachisatop/down,unidirectionaleducational

modelwhereintheteacher“deposits”informationintoadocilestudent.Freire

writes:

Educationthusbecomesanactofdepositing,in whichthestudentsaredepositoriesandtheteacher isthedepositor.Insteadofcommunicating,theteacher issuescommuniquésandmakesdepositswhichthe studentspatientlyreceive,memorizeandrepeat.This isthe“banking”conceptofeducation,inwhichthescope ofactionallowedtothestudentsextendsonlyasfaras receiving,filing,andstoringdeposits...itisthepeople themselveswhoarefiledawaythroughthelackofcreativity, transformation,andknowledgeinthis(atbest)misguided system.Forapartfrominquiry,apartfromthepraxis, individualscannotbetrulyhuman.156LikeFreire,Jordanisadvocatingforaneducationalmodelthatrejectsthestudentas

apassiveobject;insteadhermodelisrootedincreativityandencouragesthe

studenttoexpandtheirsubjectivitybycriticallyexploringtheirhumanexperience

andthehumanexperienceofothers.Withinexplorationsofthehumancondition,

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“creative”studentssituatetheirownpersonalexperience.Inthisbroadhuman

context,thestudentisabletoconnectherlifetotheexpressionsoflifearoundher,

thereby,connectingherlifetohumanexpressionsofbeauty,valueandpoweronthe

planet.Equallyimportant,thecreativestudentismoreinclinedtorecognize

humanity’sdiversearticulationsofbeauty,valueandpowerand,asaresult,the

studentismoreinclinedtoappreciateherownuniquehumanexpressionasan

essentialcontributiontohumanity’sdiversearticulationsofbeauty,valueand

power.Thisembraceofthehumanisnotonlytantamounttoresisting

objectification,itistantamounttoresistingthepushtowardsanimality.

SHAMING-NAMING

InAnimacies:Biopolitics,RacialMatteringandQueerAffect,Chenclose-reads

anencounterwhereasovereignrepresentativeusesinsultsandslurs(“shaming-

naming”)topushasubalternsubjecttowardsanimalityinpublic.Thepublicaspect

ofshaming-naming157createsaspectaclethatvalidatesandconcretizesthe

dehumanizationbyallowingwitnessesto“co-sign”theinjuriousbehaviorthrough

theirinabilityorunwillingnesstostopthebehavior.Atapubliccampaignrally

relatedtohisreelectioninVirginia,UnitedStatesrepublicansenatorGeorgeAllen

wasbeingvideorecordedbyavolunteerfromtheopposingdemocraticcampaignof

JamesWebb.ThevideographerwasaVirginianofSouthAsianheritagenamed

ShekarRamanujaSidarthwhowastheonlynonwhitepersonattheevent.158Allen

pointstoSidarthandpubliclyproclaimstotheall-whitecrowd:

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Thisfellowhere,overherewiththeyellowshirt,macaca, orwhateverhisnameis.He’swithmyopponent.He’s followingusaroundeverywhereandit’sjustgreat...Let’s giveawelcometomacaca,here.WelcometoAmericaand therealworldofVirginia.159MacacaisTunisianslangformonkeyandthetermisusedasaracialpejorative

towardsdarker-skinnedTunisianswhoarereferredtoas“Blacks.”160AlthoughChen

concurswithjournalistswhoraisedconcernsaboutthesocio-politicalproblematics

ofawhitesovereignrepresentativecomparingadark-skinnedsubalternsubjecttoa

monkey,shetroublesthenotionoftheapriorihierarchalrelationshipbetween

humansandsimians.161

Thehorizontalrelationshipelementsthatmayexistbetweenhumanbeings

andmonkeysnotwithstanding,Allen’spubliccomparisonbetweendark-skinned

Sidarthandasimianwasmeantasapublicslur.Allenwasattemptingto

dehumanizetheonlypersonofcoloratapoliticalgatheringbynotonlyhailinghim

asasimianbutsuggestingthathisarrivalattheall-whiteUnitedStatessenatorial

eventwasSidarth’sintroduction“toAmericaandtherealworldofVirginia.”Allen

insinuatesthatVirginianresidentandAmericancitizenSidarthislegitimately

neitherbecausehisdark-skindropshimdowntheanimacyhierarchy(fromAllen’s

perspective)tothe“no-man’sland”betweenanimalityandbarelife.

TheillegitimatingaspectofAllen’sshaming-namingencounterwithSidarth,

alignswiththetroublingAmericantraditionoftopanimacyscaledwellerscalling

intoquestionthelegitimatecitizenshipofrelativelyloweranimacyscaledwellers.

AnargumentcanbemadethatAfricanAmericans,forexample,shouldnotembrace

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theirAmericancitizenshipbecauseoftheState-propelledviolentandvirulentanti-

BlacknessthathasdefinedsomuchoftheAfricanAmericansojournsinceBlack

folksinvoluntaryentryintoNorthAmerica.Whileacknowledginghistoricaland

contemporaryanti-Blackness(anditseffectsandaffects),thisstudyarguesthat

AfricanAmericans,inparticular,shouldclaimthebenefitsthatpurportedlyaccrue

toAmericancitizensbecauseasubstantialamountofsocio-politicalandeconomic

prosperityhasbeenbuiltontheexploitationofBlacklaborandBlackcultural

production.Itispossibletoembracethesecitizen-tetheredbenefitsandoffercogent

critiquesofState-sponsoredviolence,theprison-industrial-complex,environmental

racismandotherformsofinstitutionalizedviolence.

Inthepresenthistoricalmomentofheightenedxenophobia,American

citizenswhoarenotEuropean-Americanareincreasinglyvulnerabletoshaming-

namingandotherState-endorsedsocio-politicaltechnologiesthatdeemtheir

citizenshipillegitimate.ItmaybehelpfulheretoexploreLisaLowe’sunderstanding

ofhowtheStateanditsrepresentativesengagedarkercitizens.InImmigrantActs:

OnAsianAmericanCulturalPolitics,LowepropelsherstudybyarguingthatAsian

Americancultureisanarenaofcontestation,aforumwhereAmericansofAsian

descent,andbyextension,otherethnicAmericans,canarticulateacomplex

Americansubjectivity(versusthe“homogenous”abstractcitizenexpression)that

doesnotrequirethemtoforgetahistoryofexclusion,racism,racializedviolence

andgenderedoppression.162

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Lowe’spositiondiffersfromMarx’sassertionthatcapitalismmosteffectively

createsprofitthroughabstractlaborandviatheworkofabstractcitizens,whichis

tosay,thatby“homogenizing”citizensandseparatingthemfromtheproductsthey

produce,thecapitalistStatecanmoreefficientlyexploitabstractcitizensand

thereforemaximizeprofits.

Incontradistinction,Lowearguesthatitisthroughdifferentiationofthe

racializedsubjectthatcapitalismmaximizesprofits.Throughjuridicalmoveswhich

seektointerpellatenonwhitecitizensasother(andthereforeless),theState’s

imposedalterityallowsittopay“theother”less,providelessservice,andgenerally

treatracializedsubjects“lessthan”inanefforttoprotectprofitsinlegallyand

culturallysanctionedways.Andasanoutgrowthofthishegemonicprocess,many

racializedsubjectsacceptthistreatmenteventhoughtheyarenominallyAmerican

citizens.LoweaversthatherexplorationoftheAsianAmericaninteractionwiththe

StatecaninformananalysisofothermarginalizedpeoplesinrelationtotheState.

ForLowe,racializedbodiesaremarkedasexcess,andnot“naturally”

availableforcitizenship.WhenSenatorAllentellsEastAsianVirginiancitizen

Sidarth“WelcometoAmericaandtherealworldofVirginia,”AllenusesSidarth’s

EastAsianracializedbodytoexcludehimfromthepoliticalgatheringofcitizens.

Lowearguesthatthroughlegal,juridical,andculturalmeans,racializedbodiesare

excludedfromcitizenshipthroughaseriesofexclusionactsbasedontheirbody’s

racializedforms.163However,thereisawayfortheracializedsubjecttobecomea

“naturalized”citizen.Iftheyarewillingforgettheirpastandletgotofmemory,a

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dealcanbestruck.Racializedsubjectscanbeliberatedfromtheirracializedskinby

embracingafictionthatdoesn’tnecessarilyliveonapage.Loweargues:

[F]orAsianswithinthehistoryoftheUnitedStates—asforAfricanAmericans,NativeAmericansorChicanos—‘politicalemancipation’throughcitizenshipisneveranoperationconfinedtothenegationofindividual‘private’particular...[Acceptingabstractcitizenship]requiresaccedingtoapoliticalfictionofequalrightsthatisgeneratedthroughthedenialofhistory,adenialthatreproducestheomissionofhistoryastheontologyofthenation.164

Sidarthisunwillingtoaccedetothepoliticalfictionofequalrights,evidencedbyhis

volunteerworkdocumentingtheracistandxenophobiaattitudesofasitting

memberoftheUnitedStateSenate.Furthermore,Sidarth’sfictionrefusalisseenin

hiswrittenresponsetotheperceivedanimacyscalepositioningofSouthAsian

citizensinAmerica:“Iammacaca.”165

OnJune16,2015inNewYorkCity’sTrumpTowers,DonaldTrump

announcedhiscandidacyforPresidentoftheUnitedStates.Trump’sannouncement

speechwasdefinedbywhatChenwouldcall“insults,shaminglanguage,slursand

injuriousspeech.”WhilediscussingMexicannationalswhoareinterestedincoming

totheUnitedStates,Trumpsaid,“WhenMexicosendsitspeople,they’renotsending

theirbest.They’renotsendingyou.They’renotsendingyou.They’resendingpeople

thathavelotsofproblemsandthey’rebringingthoseproblemswithus.They’re

bringingdrugs,they’rebringingcrime,they’rerapists,andsome,Iassume,aregood

people.”166

TheassociationthatTrumpdrawsbetweenMexicanimmigrantsandbase

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criminalityismadethemoretroublingbecausethesewordswereutteredduringa

presidentialcandidacyannouncementspeech.Amanvyingforamulti-ethnic

country’shighestofficestartshiscampaignbyshaming-naminganentireethnic

group.OnecanargueTrump’sslur-strategywaspropelledbyhisbeliefthat

verballypushingMexicannationals(andmanyLatina/osbyassociation)towards

barelifewasgoodpolitics.LikeAllen,Trumpseemedtobestakinghiscampaignon

excitingacriticalmassofprimarilyEuropean-Americanvotersandorganizingthem

aroundtheideathattheywerethe“realAmericans.”InTrumpianpoliticallogic,as

realAmericanstheseEuropean-Americancitizenswouldbeabletoelevate

themselvessocio-politicallybydefiningthemselvesashigheronthehumananimacy

scalevis-à-visracializedsubjects.ThemessagetoracializedMexican-citizensseems

tobe“youarenotlikerealAmericans;youarelikethoserapistsandmurdersacross

theborder.”

TheironyofTrump’stroublingmessageisthatpartsofpresent-dayborder-

statesNewMexico,CaliforniaandTexaswereforciblytakenApril1846toFebruary

1848duringwhattheMexicangovernmentreferstoastheInvasiónestadounidense

aMéxico (UnitedStates'InvasionofMexico);ArticleIXoftheresultantTreatyof

GuadalupeHidalgograntedAmericancitizenshipwithfullcivilrightstoMexican

nationalswhochosetostaywithinthenewtreaty-definingUnitedStatesborders.167

AsRichardGriswolddelCastillomakesclearandLisaLoweechoes,inorderforthe

treaty-mintedMexican-Americancitizenstobelieveinthecivilrightsguarantees

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inherentinAmericancitizenship,theirbeliefrequiredthemtoaccede“toapolitical

fictionofequalrights.”

AGAINSTTHEHISTORYOFFORGETTING

SoonaftertheTreatyGuadalupeHidalgowassigned,theissueofequalrights

guaranteeswasonthemindofnewly-designatedMexican-Americanpowerbrokers.

In1849,duringCalifornia’sconstitutionalconvention,sixofthedelegateswere

nativeCalifornians(formerMexicancitizens).TheseMexican-Americandelegates

wereconcernedthatnewMexican-AmericanswhosephenotypesresembledNative

Americanswouldfacediscrimination,includingnotbeingabletoexercisethe

franchise.168TheperceivedanimacyscalepositioningoftheindigenousNative

Indianpopulation(theMexicanprogenitors)andthenewMexican-Americans

whosephenotypesfavoredtheseprogenitorswouldinfluenceacriticaldelegate

decisionregardingtheintersectionofraceandrights.GriswolddelCastillosuggests

thatalthoughtheMexican-Americandelegateswereawareoftheracismdrivingthe

decision-makinglogicoftheAnglodelegates,theBrowndelegatesultimately

argued:

fortheprotectionoftheirclassevenifitmeantendorsing theracistviewsoftheirAnglocolleaguestowardsIndians andBlacks.Mexicohadgrantedcitizenshipto‘civilized’Indians andtoBlacks,andtheTreatyofGuadalupeHidalgoclearly statedthatformerMexicancitizenswouldbegiventhe

opportunitytobecomecitizensoftheUnitedStates.Followingthebiasesoftheirage,theframersofthestateconstitutionsoughtwordingthatwouldexcludeBlacksandIndianswhileincludingMexicans...Itextendedthevoteto‘everywhite,

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malecitizenofMexicowhoshallhaveelectedtobecomeacitizenoftheUnitedStates.’169

PresidentialcandidateTrump’saggressivexenophobicdemonizationofMexican

immigrantsandMexican-Americancitizensisfurtherentrenchedinironybecause

someofthepeopleheisdemonizingcomefromfamilieswhosecitizenshippredates

Trump’sGermanimmigrantgrandfatherFriederichTrumpwhobecameacitizenin

1892.170The“insults,shaminglanguage,slursandinjuriousspeech”allows

sovereignpowerrepresentativeslikeTrumptousherBrownbodiestowardsbare

life—amovewhichhelpscreateasocio-politicalenvironmentwherebyinjurious

speechcanleadtoinjuredBrownbodies.Wordsmatter.

FollowingFreireandLowe,“truewords”matterbecausetheyarea

resistancestrategyagainst(Trumpian)forgettingandomission;theyarea

technologytonamethe“politicalfictionofequalrightsthatisgeneratedthroughthe

denialofhistory,adenialthatreproducestheomissionofhistoryastheontologyof

thenation.”ThisBridgeCalledMyBackandJuneJordan’sPoetryforthePeopleare

truewordanthologiesagainstforgetting.ReferencingtheAmericantraditionof

wearingribbonstorememberandsupportandAmericanmilitarytroops,Moraga

counterswith“Ifwemustwearribbons,letustiethemaroundourfingertoremind

usofthedailypracticeofcounteringUScollectiveamnesia...Wemustinsiston

whatweremembertobetrue.”171Truewordisoftentiedtomemorysoculturally-

tetheredmemoriescanbearesistanceresource.InThisBridgeCalledMyBack,Max

WolfValeriotapsintoherNativeAmerican(andMexicanancestral)culturalhistory

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asaliberatorytechnology.Inthecontextofbattlingbothexternalmaterial

oppressionagainsttheIndianNationandfightingalegacyofinternalized

hieroglyphsoftheflesh,Valerio’sresistancestrategyisthefollowing:“Iremember

theplacewherethesundoesnotmaligntheseasonsflutesofpenitents&

headdressessfortheOkanwerubourofferingsofdriedmeatintotheearthand

theholywomancomesoutanddancessheiswearingthesacredheaddress.”172

TogetherMoragaandValerioaresuggestingasalvificroleformemory;theymake

sacredtheprocessofknowingtheselfbyrememberingthepast.Asaninversionof

socio-religioushegemony,bothwritersarearguingthattheircommunitymembers

maybehealedbyimmersingthemselvesinthebaptismalofculturalmemory.

Moraga’sBarbaraSmith-related“we’resisters”quotethatstartsthischapter

isalsoarevisioningofsocio-religiousdoctrine.BothThisBridgeCalledMyBackand

JuneJordan’sPoetryforthePeoplerepresentnewformsofsacredtexts.Theseare

textscallingforabeliefinliberatorybridgesacrossrace,classandsexual

orientationinthenameofjustice.Thesetworevolutionaryanthologiesencourage

faithinactivistsandtheirsalvificsacrificiallabor.Moragaendstheaforementioned

prefacebyaffirmingherfaithinsacredactivistwork:“[Faith]helpedmecontinue

thelaborofthisbook.Iamnottalkingaboutsomelazyfaith...Iamtalkingabout

believingthatwehavethepowertoactuallytransformourexperience,changeour

lives,saveourlives.Otherwise,whythisbook?ItisthefaithofactivistsIamtalking

about.”173

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ChapterFour

Unitingthescarstomakesomethingbeautifulthehealerspeaks.174—KamauDaáood

LOVEANDTHEGOSPELOFHATE

ChapterThreearguesforanexpansiveunderstandingofthecounterpublicnotion,

whileaverringthatradicalanthologiescanexistascounterpublicsthemselves.The

chapteralsoexploreshowankhing’sembraceofanegalitarianethosandalteritycan

assistculturally-tethered,activistwriterswhogatherinanthologiestoreimagine

possibilitiesthatelevatetheanimacyofBrownandBlackfolk.ChapterFourargues

thatthesurrealnatureofBlacklifeinAmerica,whichpushesBlackfolktowardbare

life,callsforasurrealistapproachtoartthatisrootedincreativefreedom.The

chapterarguesthatankhing’sliberatoryembraceofartandspiritengendersartistic

freedom;thisartisticfreedomdirectlyenhancestheanimacyoftheproducersof

BlacksurrealistartandtheBlackconsumersofBlacksurrealistart.

ItwasaWednesdaynightsotheregularshadcometoheara“trueword.”

ThisBlackvernacularphraseforbiblicalnarrativepre-datesFreire’s“trueword”

butitisunknownwhetheritinspiredFreire’sterm.However,bothconceptsare

rootedintheconflationofwordanddeed.TheBiblestudystorythatnightwas

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specificallyaboutthewordandincludedverses4:16-17fromtheGospelofMark.In

thispedagogicalpassage,Jesusispresentedasamasterteacherwhohasgathered

hiscloseststudentstosharewiththemwisdomnarrativescalledparablesabouta

farmerwhosowswords:

Others,likeseedsownonrockyplaces,hearthewordand atoncereceiveitwithjoy.Butsincetheyhavenoroot, theylastonlyashorttime.Whentroubleorpersecutioncomes becauseoftheword,theyquicklyfallaway.175AttheendofBiblestudy,theregularsclosedtheireyesinpreparationforthe

traditionalBlackbenediction“MaytheLordwatchbetweenmeandtheewhenwe

areabsentonefromanother.”176Theregularsneverutteredthisprayerbecause

persecutionhadcomeandspokenfirstfromthelonevisitor’s45-calibermuzzle.

BiblestudyregularFeleciaSanderslaterrecalledthatbehindhershuteyelids,the

firstshot“soundedlikeatransformerblew...hecaughtuswithoureyesclosed.”177

Sandersopenedhereyestosee21-year-oldDylannRoofshoother26-year-

oldsonTywanzaSandersandher87-year-oldauntSusieJackson.Duringthe

elongatedshootingandscreamingandreloadingandrunningandhidingand

prayingandreloadingandconfusionandbloodandBiblesandchasingand

reloadingandreloadingandreloading,FeleciaSanderswasabletoeffectivelyplay

dead.Thisstealthstrategycouldn’tshieldherears:“AndIjustheard—Iheardevery

shot.Iheardeverysingleshot.”178Althoughwoundedseveraltimesandreducedto

crawling,TywanzaSanderstriedtoshieldotherswithhisBlackbody,including

AuntSusie.FeleciaSandersheardhersoncryout,“Where’sAuntSusie?I’vegotto

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gettoAuntSusie.”179FeleciaSanders,momentarily,openedhereyesandstarted

watchinghersoncrawltowardshisgreat-aunt,“Andhedidn'tstopuntilhegotto

gettoAuntSusie...Hegotthere.Hegotthere.Isaid‘Iloveyou,Tywanza.’Hesaid,

‘Mama,Iloveyou.Iloveyou.’AndIwatchedhimtakehislastbreath.”180Then,

FeleciaSandersclosedhereyestoo:shehadtoplaydeadtolive.

TywanzaSanders,SusieJacksonandsevenothersdiedduringThe

CharlestonMassacreathistoricEmanuelAfricanMethodistEpiscopalonJune17,

2015inCharleston,SouthCarolina.181Hoursbeforethemurders,theshooter

DylannRoofpostedaracistmanifestoonawhitesupremacistwebsite

lastrhodesian.comwhichincluded:

Niggersarestupidandviolent.Atthesametime,theyhavethecapacitytobeveryslick...Wehavenoskinheads,norealKKK[inCharleston],noonedoinganythingbuttalkingontheinternet.Wellsomeonehastohavethebraverytotakeittotherealworld,andIguessthathastobeme.182

Roof’sunimaginableandunspeakableactionsandmanifestobringtomindscholar

JerodSexton’seffortstomakesenseofthispresentmoment’santi-Blackness.

Respondingasacitizen,anAfricanAmericanandascholar,Sextonstrugglestofind

thepropervoicetoexpresshisconcerns.Firstpersonmaybetoopersonal,while

thirdpersonmaybetooremovedforsuchpersonallyviolatingviolence,sohe

settlesonsecondperson:

Youthinkalso,inthismoment,abouttheunspeakable,perhapsunimaginablewaysthatblackliveshavebeendevalued,andyouhavetroubledeterminingwhentostartthestory—orhistoryormythologyorfable—orhowfarafieldtodraw

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yoursphereofconcern.183

Roof’shate-filled,racistnarrativestoodinstarkcontrasttothestorythatvictims’

familymemberstoldRoof,andthenation,atthekiller’stelevisedbondhearingtwo

daysafterthemassacre.Amidstextraordinarygrief,themournerstoldRoofthat

theyforgavehimandthatlovewouldwin,nothate.AfterFeleciaSanderssaid,“We

welcomedyouWednesdaynightinourBiblestudywithopenarms,”Daniel

Simmons,Sr.’sgranddaughter,AlanaSimmonssomehowfoundasliverofbeautyin

thislatestblueschapterofthestoryBlackpeopleinAmerica:“Althoughmy

grandfatherandtheothervictimsdiedatthehandsofhate,thisisproof,everyone's

pleaforyoursoulisproof,thatthey—theylivedinloveandtheirlegacieswilllivein

love.Sohatewon'twin.”184AsDaáoodsuggestintheepigraphthatstartsthis

chapter,themassacre’smourners’stitchedtogether“thescarstomakesomething

beautiful.”

ARMYOFHEALERS

LosAngeles-basedpoetKamauDaáood’sworkinterrogatestheintersection

ofbeautyandbluesintheBlackcommunity.Giventhevirulentanti-Blackness

whichhasdefinedBlackfolks’sojournintheUnitedStates,Daáoodseemsinterested

inunderstanding,documentingandinterpretingAfricanAmericans’capacityto

createsublimityinthecontextofbarelife.AlongwithfellowLosAngeles-based

poetWandaColeman,KamauDaáoodfunctionsasabluespoetquacommunity

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healer.SimilartoTheSaltEaterscommunityhealerMinnieRansom,Daáooddraws

fromculturally-tethered,African-relatedtraditionstoengageinhisurban

curanderowork.WhereasMinnieRansomusedmusicasaliberatoryhealing

modality,DaáoodcentersBlackmusicasaliberatoryhealingtechnology.Daáood

alignswithConewhenheargues,“Blackmusicisunitymusic.Itunitesthejoyand

thesorrow,theloveandthehate,thehopeandthedespairofBlackpeople;andit

movesthepeopletowardthedirectionoftotalliberation.185Daáoodjuxtaposesjoy

andsorrow,hopeanddespair,inwaysthatareoftensurprisingandsurreal.The

poet’ssurrealistoeuvrehasbeeninformedbyLosAngeles’surrealjuxtapositionof

ethnicdiversityandethnicsegregation,extremewealthandcrushingpoverty,and

progressiveracialpoliticsandvirulentanti-Blackness.186ForDaáood,spatialand

racialconcernsshapepoeticculturalproduction.

Thepoem“ArmyofHealers”isemblematicofDaáood’sconcernsandhis

approachtoculturallabor.Thesix-partpoemisasurrealurbanelegy:anelegywith

anagenda.Inpartone,“ArmyofHealers”startsbroadlyandlaysoutthecruxofits

multitudinousargumentintheconciseopeningline:“Artislife.”187In

contradistinctiontotheaforementionedemancipatorylabortraditionofartbeing

relegatedtoliberatoryfringe,thisopeninglinerepositionsart.Daáood’sinitial

movenotonlycentersart,itequatesartwithlifeitself.Consequently,Daáood

animatesart.Inemancipatorymovements,liberatoryartistshaveanironic(and

uncomfortable)paralleltoracializedsubjectswhohavebeenpushedawayfrom

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humanbeingstatustowardsbarelifebytheState.Byarguingthatartislife,Daáood

resistsbarelifeforliberatoryartists.

ForDaáood,liberatoryartistsarehumanbeingproducersoflife,of

heightenedhumananimacy,sotheymustbecentraltohumanlife—and,asaresult,

liberatoryartistsmayhaveaheightenedsenseofknowledgeaboutwhatitmeansto

behumanbeings.Thisboldassertion(whichteetersonromanticizingartists)

echoeswriterJamesBaldwin’spositionaboutartists:

[Theartist’sstruggle]mustbeconsideredasametaphorforthestrugglethatisuniversalanddailyforallhumanbeingsonthefaceofthisterrifyingglobetogettobecomehumanbeings...thepoets,bywhichImeanallartists,aretheonlypeoplewhoknowthetruthaboutus.188

AligningwithBaldwin,Daáooddouble-downsonhis“artislife”openinglineby

averringinlinestwothroughfive:“therawmaterialtosculptjoy/and

meaning/religionandscienceinamix.”189Here,Daáoodbuildsuponhisclaimthat

artislife,byalsosuggestingthatartisa“meaning-making”technologywhichhelps

humanbeingsmakesenseofartqualifeonthis“terrifyingglobe.”Artisa“raw

material,”soartismatter:matterwhoselevelofanimacyisfluidaccordingto

Daáood.DaáoodandBaldwinsuggestthatwhenartisplacedintheserviceof

meaning-makingandepistemologicalacquisition,artcanfunctionasamixof

religionandscience(bothmeaning-makingtechnologies)thatmayelevatea

subject’spositiononthehumananimacyscale.

FollowingDaáood,thereligio-scientificaspectofartisreminiscentof

MatthewArnold’sperspectiveonart’sreligio-scientificpotentialities:

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Weshouldconceiveof[poetry]ascapableofhigheruses,andcalledtohigherdestinies,thanthosewhich,ingeneral,menhaveassignedtoithitherto.Moreandmoremankindwilldiscoverthatwehavetoturntopoetrytointerpretlifeforus,toconsoleus,tosustainus.Withoutpoetry,oursciencewillappearincomplete;andmostofwhatnowpasseswithusforreligionandphilosophywillbereplacedbypoetry.Science,Isay,willappearincompletewithoutit.190

Byidentifyingpoetry’s“higherdestinies,”Arnoldiscarvingoutasalvificrolefor

poetry.ConflatingDaáood’s,Baldwin’sandArnold’simbricatedperspectives,the

triumviratecollectivelysuggestthatartislifeandartcansaveasubject’slifeby

resurrectingasubject’sanimacyfrombarelife.Specifically,inthe“ArmyofHealer’s

firstsection,Daáoodsuggeststhatthepoet,ashealer,canhealherself.Daáood

concludesthepoem’sfirstsectionwith“thisisanarmyofhealers,/physicianheal

thyself/andradiate,radiate.”191Bydemonstrating,sharingandradiatingthis“auto-

salvific”energy,Daáoodarguesthatpoetscaninspireothersubjectstoheal

themselvesaswell.

THESURREALSTRESSBLUES

Inthe“ArmyofHealers’”thirdsection,Daáoodbeginstohighlightthe

intersectionofsurrealistandmusicaesthetics.Thesectionopenswith“theflowers

haveeyes/iftheyhadmouths/theirsongwithslayus.”Daáood’spersonificationof

flowers(byascribingtothemthepowerofsight)isamovethathasaseriesof

interrelatedeffects.Asobjectsofbeauty,flowersareoftenobjectified.Inthe

transnationalcontext,rosesarecutfromtheirnativeenvironmentandareoften

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exchangedbetweensubjectsassymbolsoflove,appreciationandcondolence(at

funerals).TheUnitedState’ssixbilliondollarfloralindustryisatestamenttothe

aggressive,profit-drivenobjectificationofnature.192Daáood’sflowerswitheyes

becomewitnesses.FollowingCarolynForché’s“poetryofwitness”notion(poems

thatdocumentsocietal“situationsofextremity”)“ArmyofHealers”evolvesintoa

poemofwitness.193

ForDaáood,flowersomnipresenceinnature,uniquely,allowsthemtoserve

witnesstothedecimationofnature(includingtheirownprofit-baseduprooting)at

thehandsofhumanbeings.Ironically,these“domesticated”flowersbecomemore

powerfulwitnessesoncetheyenterthelivingspacesofhumanbeings.Inparticular,

Daáood,poeticallyassertsthatflowersarewitnessestosocietal“situationsof

extremity”involvingtheBlackcommunity.Thefloralobserversarepositionedto

watchthetravailsofBlackbarelife.Theseflowersseeand“knowthechainson

[Blackfolk’s]tonguesarerustyandblue/slowsuicidethatstretchesoveralife

span.”194Achainedtongueisaslaveryimagereferencingconstrictedverbalagency.

BlacksubjectsarenotabletospeaktothehorrorsofBlackbarelifebecauseofthe

sovereign’spowertodemandsilentsufferingfromtheoppressed.Whenthe

oppresseddo“speaktheunspeakable,”whentheydospeakatruewordtopower,

theirexperience(andtheirpain)isoftendelegitimizedbythesovereign.Thisstate

ofaffairsgivesinsightintowhythechainsonthetonguearerustyandblue.Daáood

suggeststhatbeingdeniedtheabilitytospeakone’sstoryisemotionallyand

physicallypainful;literally,ithasthepowertogiveonetheemotionalandphysical

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blues.ThepoetarguesthatenforcedsilencedamagesthesoulsofBlackfolkand

enforcedsilencecontributestothephysicaloppressionthatresultsfrom

circumscribedagency.Thechainsarerustybecausetheyarealegacyofslavery:

theseblueschainshavecausedthebluesforatimelongenoughforrusttoformon

thechains.

Blackbarelife’sunspeakablehorrorscanbesodebilitating(“slowsuicide

thatstretchesoveralifespan”)thatiftheflowerwitnesses“hadmouths/theirsong

wouldslayus.”Slay,here,isareferencetotheperformance-relatedvernacular

term“kill,”(asin,“shekilledit”),whichsignifiespowerfullyaffectinganaudience.If

theseflowerwitnesseshadmouthstotestifyinsongaboutBlackbarelife,they

couldmovethecourtofpublicopinion;theycould“killit”whensingingaboutlife

thatresemblesslowsuicide.Daáooddoesnotgiftflowerswithmouthstosinga

movingodeforthosewhosuffer.However,thesuffererscansingtheirownsong.

ForDaáood,Blackspeakingvoiceshavebeendelimitedbyrustychains,butBlack

musichasfoundawaytobreakalinkonthesovereign’sstranglingchainofsilence.

DaáoodaversthatwhenspeechfailstoarticulatetheBlackexperience,bluespeople

turntowardsmusictotelltheirbarelifeblues:theyturntoartfortheirhealing.

Insectionfour,“ArmyofHealers”quapoemofwitnesstestifiesabouta

specificBlackmusician’slife.Thepoetwrites,“Arthurlearnedtofingerthe

saxophone/bypickingcottonwithbloodyfingersattheageoffive.”195Daáood’s

“pickingcotton”imageisinstructive.Asacashcropintheearly19thcentury

AmericanagrarianSouth,thecottonindustrywasthefinancialengineofthe

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Southerneconomy—and,byextension,theengineoftheAmericaneconomyasthe

nation’slargestexportinawebofglobalcapitalism.Discussingthecotton-rich

MississippiValley,theengineoftheengine,historianWalterJohnsonwrites:

[T]hedailystandardofmeasuretowhichslavesinthe MississippiValleywereheldmarkedtheconceptual reachoftheglobaleconomyinthefirsthalfofthe nineteenthcentury:lashesintolaborintobalesinto dollarsintopoundssterling.Cottonplanters,moreover, werenotsimplyconcernedwiththeirslave-generated profits(althoughtheysurelywere);theywereconcerned abouttheirslaves’productivity...Between1820and1860, theproductivityoftheaverageslaveontheaverage cottonplantationinMississippiincreasedsixfold.196Daáoodtethersthecotton-picking,saxophoneplayingsubject,Arthur,tothe

buildingofAmericanproductivity,thebuildingofAmericanwealth.Thisisawealth

thatcannotbeseparatedfromthepeculiarcalculusof“lashesintolaborintobales

intodollarsintopoundssterling.”JohnsonarguesthatBlackbodieswerepushed

towardshigherefficiencyforimmediateprofitsandasaninsidioussavingsandloan

entity:“Slaveholdersstoredtheirsavingsinslaves.”197Thisfinancialarrangementis

significantbecauseitguaranteedthatslaveholderswereabletoexploitBlack

presentmomentsandexploitBlackfuturesbymonetizingtheoppressionsaved

“insideBlackbodies.”Inthisprocess,Blackbodiesbecamerepositoriesfor

slaveholders’dreams.Thecruelironyisthattheslaveholder’sdepositeddreaminto

theBlackbodysqueezesouttheslave’sowndream.Thisisthetypeofbarelife

existencethatcansilencethetonguewithrustychains.Canthesubalternspeak—

whenthesqueezeddreamissilenced?

158

AsDaáood’srepresentativesubalternsubject,Arthurbreaksthesilencewith

art.Arthur’ssaxophonearticulatestheprecariousbalancingactofDreamingWhile

Black.Arthur“moistenshis[saxophone]reedswithdreamshecollected/ashesang

spiritualsbyhisgrandmother’sknees.”198Thesaxophonemouthpiece’svibrating

reed(whichproducesthesaxophone’ssound)isusuallymadefromgiantcane

(arundodonax),aplantusedinsomefolkculturesforhealingpurposes(asa

diuretic,asatreatmentformalaria,ect.)andaplantwhichhasreligio-ritual

functionality.199InancientEgypt,arundodonaxleaveswereusedintheritualized

wrappingofthedead;theceremonialcanepreservedBlackbodiessotheycouldtell

theirspiritualstoriesintheafterlife.200TheceremonialcaneinArthur’ssaxophone

mouthpieceallowshimtomusicallyreinterpretthespiritualshesang“byhis

grandmother’sknees.”Arthur’sgrandmotheristheconduitforthehieroglyphsof

theflesh;shepasseddownhermusicalstrategyforsurvivingoppression’s

ceremonialmarkingsofthefleshandsoul.Arthur’sspiritualsfirstmustmakethe

middlepassageacrossmoistvibratingcanebeforehisbarelifesongcanexitthe

saxophone.

FollowingFredMoten,Arthur’s“shriekturnsspeechturnssong”201asthe

songisexitingand,“hissoulspillsoutfromthebellofhishorn/sometimeshe

vomitsflowerssometimesbarbwire/itdependsonwhathishearthadto

stomach/thenightbefore.”202Daáood’snomenclatureissignificanthere.Arthur’s

barelifeblues“spillsout”thesaxophone.“Spills(asopposedto“blows”or“blasts”)

suggestthespillingofblood.Bloodisthehauntingcomplementtohieroglyphsof

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theflesh.Blood’shauntingpresencejustbelowthemarkedracializedskinisthe

vehiclethat,asHortenseSpillerssuggests,allowsforthegenerationalhandingdown

ofoppressionfromBlackbodytoBlackbody:bloodcarriesthephenotypeof

oppression’smarkerandmemory.IntheAmericanhistoricalcontextofvirulent

anti-Blackness,thebloodcoursingjustbeneathBlackskinhasconsistentlysurfaced

asaresultofvirulentanti-Blackness.InAmerica,Blackbodiesbleed.Thissoulful

songofbloodlettingiswhatspillsoutofArthur’ssaxophone.

In“ArmyofHealers,”thereisaquickshiftfrombloodthatisforcedfromthe

bodytoanothersubstancethatisforcedfromthebody:

sometimeshevomitsflowerssometimesbarbwireitdependsonwhathishearthadtostomachthenightbefore.203

Arthur’sresponsetoBlackbarelifeisphysicalillness.Thisphysicalreactionto

hieroglyphsofthefleshsignifiestherelationshipbetweenpsycho-socialoppression

andthebody.AccordingtotheCentersforDiseaseControlandPrevention,the

hypertensionratesofAfricanAmericansaresignificantlyhigherthanEuropean-

AmericanratesandBlackmalehypertension-relatedmortalityrates(oftencaused

byheartattacks)areapproximatelydoublethanEuropean-Americanmalemortality

rates.Furthermore,“Severalstudiesfoundanassociationbetweenracismand

higherbloodpressurelevelsinAfricanAmericanmen.Perceivedracismcontributes

tostressandlowself-esteem,whichcanultimatelynegativelyaffectbloodpressure

levels.”204Arthur’sexperienceofpsycho-socialoppressionmakeshimvomit

flowersorbarbwiredepending“onwhathishearthadtostomach.”Throughverse,

160

DaáoodechoestheCDC’sfindingsregardingoppression’simpactontheheart:

racismbreaksBlackhearts—possibly,untodeath.

ItissignificantthatArthur’sbrokenheartmakeshimvomitbarbwire.

Barbwireisaubiquitouspresenceinthecarceralindustries.Jails,prisonsandother

formsofpunitivedetainmentcentersusebarbwiretokeepsubjectsfromescaping

theirbarelife.Also,barbwireisanot-so-distantrelativetoslavechainswhichkept

subjectsfromescapingtheirbarelives.Thisgenerationallinkbetweenslavechains

andbarbwireisasignifierforthegenerationallinkbetweenBlackbarelifeduring

slaveryandBlackbarelifeinthispresenthistoricalmoment.The“chainson[Black]

tonguesarerusty”becausetheyhavebeenpasseddownfrompriorerasandthese

generationalchainscontributetothepresentmomentpropensityforBlackbodies

tobedetainedbehindbarbedwire.Blackbodies(markedwithhieroglyphsofthe

flesh)aretheliteralconnectivetissuebetweenslavechainsandbarbwire.Spillers

aversthatthisgenerationalsubstitutionofslavechainsforbarbwireiswhatkeeps

Blacksubjectscaptive:

Theseundecipherablemarkingsonthecaptivebodyrenderakindofhieroglyphicsofthefleshwhoseseveredisjuncturescometobehiddentotheculturalseeingbyskincolor.Wemightwellaskifthisphenomenonofmarkingandbrandingactually‘transfers’fromonegenerationtoanother,findingitsvarioussymbolicsubstitutionsinanefficacyofmeaningsthatrepeattheinitiatingmoments.205

ThisgenerationaltransferofbarelifecaptivityismadepossiblebecauseBlack

subjectshaveinternalizedchainsandbarbwiretosuchanextentthattracesof

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chainsandbarbwiredwellintheblood.FormanyAfricanAfricans,oppressionhas

setupresidencebeneaththeepidermis.Blackbodiesareoccupiedterritory.The

barbwire-walls,withundecipherablemarkings,maybehiddeninsidebutthe

psycho-socialillnesstheyengenderispowerfulenoughtomakeArthurvomit

barbwire.

ItisimportanttonotethatArthurvomitsflowersfromhissaxophoneaswell.

Thisbareliferepresentativehastheagencytotransforminternalizedoppression

intoflowers,painintobeauty:heisbluesman.Arthurdoeswhatthebluesrequires:

turnhardshipintoart.TheflowersthatemergefromArthur’ssaxophoneare

liberatory.ThismusicalbeautyfreesArthurfrombeingdefinedbyoppression.Asa

bluesman,heismorethanthesumofhishardships;heismorethanavictim.

Arthurisabluescurandero.Intransforminghispainintobeauty,thebluesman

exhaleshisstoryacrossthevibratinghealingreedaspartoftheself-healingprocess.

Arthurvomitsbarbwire,too,soflowersdon’teliminateoppression,beauty

doesn’tmakepaindisappear.Yet,artcanserveasacurativeresponsetotheillness

thatracismproduces.ForDaáood,Arthurisinanarmyofhealersalongwithbare

lifeBlackartistswhohealthemselves.Daaáoodasserts,“ThisisanArmyof

Healers,/physicianhealthyself/andradiate,radiate.”206Daáoodencourageshealers

to“radiate,radiate,”becausesharingmedicinalenergycanhaveacurativeimpact

ontheBlackcommunity.Arthur’sself-healingprocessinvolving,breath,medicinal

arundodonaxandasaxophonethathasthepowertoradiatethroughanaudience

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andplayacurativeroleforthosebarelifelistenerslivingwithrustychainsonthe

tonguesandbarbwireintheirstomachs.

AMERICASCARSITSYOUNG

“ArthurwasborninAmerica”ishowDaáoodstartsthefourthsection’s

penultimatestanza.207“ArmyofHealers”isanAmericanpoem.Thepoem’stitleis

anironicnodtoAmerica’sconsistentlymilitarizedapproachtodisciplining

racializedbodieswithintheStateandoutsidetheState.America’spolicing

apparatushasatroubling,well-documented,historyofdelimitingthefreedomof

racializedsubjects—oftenengaginginthiscircumscriptioninthenameofAmerican

freedom.Daáood’s“ArmyofHealers”functionsasanembodiedreminderaboutthe

falsenarrativeregardingAmericaas“theLandoftheFree.”Thenarrativehistoryof

America’sBlackracializedsubjectsisastoryofchainsandbarbwire.TheBlack

narrativeincludesalitanyofbluessongsinthelanguageofsaxophones.These

minorkeyshrieksandscreamsarenotfoundin“TheStarSpangledBanner.”These

Blackshrieksandscreamsarethehealingresponsetothebarelifeexperienceof

AfricanAmericanslivingundertheAmericanflag.

Inthe“ArmyofHealer’s”fifthandlastsection,Daáoodturnstothefutureby

turningtowardsBlackyouth.Initially,thefourthsectionsituatedArthurathis

grandmother’skneeslearningbarelifesurvivalstrategies.Thefifthsectiondeparts

fromArthur’sspecificembodimentasabareliferepresentativeandbroadenstoa

macrodiscussionofunnamedBlackyouth.Thesechildrenareunnamedbutnot

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unmarked.Daáoodwrites,“urbantribalscars/decoratethecheeksofyoung

scholars/endangeredasthoseintarpits.”208These“urbantribalscars”are

hieroglyphsoftheflesh.Thesegenerationalmarkingsarealreadypresentonyoung

Blackbodies.DaáoodsuggestthatBlackyoutharehauntedbythehand-me-down

painoftheir“impotentparentsbleedingintheshadows.”209Theseparentsare

impotentbecausetheycan’tprotecttheirchildrenfromsovereignrepresentatives

whoseektopushthemdowntheanimacyscaletowardsthesameshadowswhere

somanyBlackparentsdwell:theshadowsofbarelife.

Asmarkedcandidatesfortheshadowsofbarelife,themarginsofthe

AmericanDream,Blackyouthare“endangeredasthoseintarpits.”210Like

dinosaurstrappedinLosAngeles’LaBreaTarPits,Blackchildrenfaceadeath-

dealingfuture.NotonlyareBlackyouthdealingwiththesameexternalandinternal

chainsandbarbwirethattheirparentsarestrugglingagainst,numerousBlack

childrenarefacingadditionalexistentialimpediments.DaáoodarguesthatAfrican

Americansarestuckintarpitsconstitutiveof“savageredstreets,”211poorly

performingschoolsystems,fooddeserts,andanAmericanpolicingapparatusthat

aggressivelyoperatesasifBlacklivesdon’tmatter.

InresponsetoanAmericancontextwhereBlacklivesdon’tmatter,Black

childrenmarkedbyhieroglyphsoftheflesh,respondwith“hieroglyphssprayedon

walls.”212Daáood’ssuggeststhat,liketheirparents,theBlackyouthturntoarttotell

theirstories.YoungBlackgraffitiartiststelltheirbarelifestoriesonthestructures

oftheneoliberalState.Thisurbanvisualartscomplementtohiphopnarratives

164

providesmarkedyouthanopportunitytomarkthephysicalembodimentsofthe

capitalistState.InAmericacorporationshavelegalprotectionas“people”(insome

regards);“ArmyofHealers”suggeststhatcorporatepropertiesareprotectedmore

effectivelythanBlackchildren.213Inthiscontext,youngBlackgraffitiartistsdraw

bluesstoriesonAmericanwalls.Daáoodaversthatgraffitiqualiberatoryart

signifiesthatBlackyoutharenotdefinedbytheoppressivewallsaroundthem—

inclusiveofwallswithbarbwire.TheKamauDaáoodends“ArmyofHealers”witha

poeticchargeforBlackchildrentolookbeyondabarbwirefuture—andinside

themselvesforhealing:“Thisisanarmyofhealers/physicianhealthyself/and

radiate,radiate.”214

THEMARKINGOFIDENTITY

WandaColeman,likeDaáood,usesbluesmotifstoexplorehieroglyphsofthe

fleshmarkingBlackfolk.InColeman’sdynamicandincisivepoetrycollectionHeavy

DaughterBlues,theseoppressiveinscriptionsareresultantfromState-affiliated

hegemons,anationalcultureofanti-Blacknessandanationalcultureof

misogyny.215Thecollectionsuggeststhattheseurbantribalscarshaveanespecially

insidiouswayofburrowingbeneathgenderedBlackskin.Thepoem“Identifying

Marks”isaself-inventoryofColeman’sbodilymarkings;itssubtlebutstriking

powerliesinatonethatisreminiscentofcoronerintakenotes.Colemanbeginsher

hieroglyphicinventorywith:

raised/blackmole1/4inchindiameteronnapeofleft

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cocoabreast/birthmark/callusonfirstjointofsecondfinger,righthand/continualrubbingsofpencils&pensheldtoofirmly/assorteddarksplotches/andpatchesonhands,neck,armsandbacksoflegs/stasisdermatitissincebirtheruptingunderacuteandchronicstress.”216

Colemanopensthepoembyidentifyingaraisedmolemarkingherbody.Molesare

createdbyskincellsgrowinginclusters.Thesemelanocytecellsproducemelanin,

thesubstancethatgivesskinitspigmentation.217Colemanstartsthis“identity

poem”withamelanin-richmolebecauseskinhasprofoundlymarkedherlife

course.Likemelanocytecells,Colemansuggestthatmanysignificantexperiences

haveclusteredaroundherracializedbody.

ThenatureofColeman’ssignifyingmoleisseeninits“raised”quality.When

askinlegion(skinthatisunliketheskinaroundit)israiseditisoftenaccompanied

byirritation(i.e.anitchyrash)andextremediscomfort.218Itisnoteworthythat

Colemanuses“raised”asaone-word,stand-alone,openingline.Thewordfunctions

asanintroductoryadjectivetodescribetheirritationanddiscomfortColeman

experiencesresultantfromhavinggenderedBlackskininananti-Blackness

Americancontext.ThroughoutHeavyDaughterBlues,manyofColeman’sputatively

autobiographicalpoemsexplorethediscomfitingimpactofracismandmisogynyon

hergenderedandracializedbodyandthegenderedandracializedbodiesofother

Blackfolk.Also,“raise”isahomonymfor“raze.”TheOxfordEnglishDictionary

defines“raze”inthefollowingway:“Toscrape(awriting)soastoerasesomething;

toalterbyerasure.”219Asaone-word,stand-alone,openinglinehomonym,Coleman

employs“raise”toidentifythewaysinwhichvirulentanti-Blacknessseekstomake

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Blackbodiesillegible—andillegitimate.Anti-Blacknessinscribeshieroglyphicsof

thefleshtoeraseBlacksubjectivity.Anti-Blacknessaltersracializedsubjectssothat

theremainingtracesofBlacksubjectivitycluster,likeraisedmelanocytecells,into

barelyrecognizableBlackbarelife.

Coleman’sdescriptionofthemoleanditspositionarenoteworthy.Using

languagereminiscentofaforensicpathologist,thepoetdescribestheblackmoleas,

“1/4inchindiameteronnapeofleftcocoabreast.”Coleman’snomenclaturemakes

themolesoundlikeabulletentrywound.Thewould-bewoundishiddenonthe

nape,theunderside,of“leftcocoabreast.”Thispositioningalignswiththehuman

heart’sbodilyposition.Colemanconnectstheexternal,markedmammarygland

andtheinternal,markedendocrinegland;bothglandsarecapableofsustaininglife

evenwheninscribedwithhieroglyphsoftheflesh.Theseglandsarebluesglands.In

Coleman’swork,theheavyheartandtheheavybreastcontinuetofunctioninthe

faceofadversity;theracializedBlackbodycontinuestomakeawayoutofnoway.

Thisprocessisthe“birthmark”oftheblues.

Inresponsetoanti-Blackness’attempttorazehersubjectivity,Coleman

raiseswritinginstrumentsinanattemptre-inscribethatwhichisincontinuous

dangeroferasure.Thepoetidentifiesaspecificcallusonherwritinghandas

resistantmarking.Itisaresistantmarkingcausedbythe“continualrubbingsof

pencils&pensheldtoofirmly.”Colemanmeetsthecontinuousdangeroferasure

withcontinuouswriting.Thecalluscreatedbythisliteraryresponsetooppression

signifiesthelaborrequiredtosurvive.Survivalwork,liberatorylabor,isthekindof

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workthatwillmakeasubjectholdpencilsandpenstoofirmly.Coleman’scallus

suggestthatitisthetypeofworkthatwillmakeonefirmlyholdonfordearlife—

especiallywhenasubjectisbeingpushedtowardsbarelife.

READINGTHEBODYUNDERSTRESS

Survivalworkisstressfulwork.Alongwithinternalmanifestations,inthe

formofhighbloodpressureratesandheavy-heartattackrates,survivalstress

manifestsexternallyintheformofskinconditions.Stressisakillerthatforewarns

itsintentionsbymarkingthebody.ThespeakerinColeman’sputatively

autobiographicalpoem“IdentifyingMarks”hashad,“stasisdermatitissincebirth

eruptingunderacuteandchronicstress.”AccordingtoDr.ScottFlugman,stasis

dermatitisisaninflammatoryskindiseaserelatedtovenoushypertensionthat

“typicallyaffectsmiddle-agedandelderlypatients,rarelyoccurringbeforethefifth

decadeoflife.”220It’sstrikingthatthespeakerin“IdentifyingMarks”hassuffered

“sincebirth”fromastress-relatedskinconditionthattypicallymarkstheelderly.

Poeticlicensemaybeprovidingthisearlystasisdermatitisonset,buttheimageand

implicationsarestartling.TheimageofaBlackinfantemergingfromthewomb,

markedbyastress-relatedskincondition,suggestthattheconditionwaspassed

frommothertochild,thatoppression-tetheredstressisintheblood.Stasis

dermatitisatbirthsuggeststhathieroglyphsoftheflesharepasseddownvia

platelets.

168

Thesecondhalfof“IdentifyingMarks”highlightstheimpactofintimate

violenceongenderedBlackbodies.Colemanemploysthesameforensicpathologist

approachasthefirsthalfofthepoem,whichgivesthesecondhalfofthepoeman

evenmoredisturbingtonesincetheadversaryinquestionisnotonlywithinthe

speaker’scommunity,butalsoinherbed.Colemanwrites:

ovalindentiontwocmindiameteronrighteye residualfromblackeyereceivedinfightwithfirsthusband overwhichlatenighttelevisionprogramtowatch slightlypuffyrightlipwithscaroninnertissue bustedfollowingduke-outwithdrunkLouisiananboyfriend whostoletendollarsfrompurse triangularindentiononrightpinky,healedscars fromcutsreceivedwhenjumpingthrua plateglasswindowfollowinglover’squarrel beigescarwhereskinwastornoffdorsumofleftfoot remainderoffistfightwhichensuedafter

discoveringloverinbedwithbestfriendgirl.221

Thecompendiumofscarslistedaboveareinthecontextofintimaterelationships.

Thepoem’spagelayoutincludesaspacebetweeneach“violentepisode”described.

However,removingthespaces(ashasbeendoneabove)allowstheepisodesto

bleedintoeachother,echoingbloodlettingthatthespeakerhasexperienced.

BuildingonColeman’sforensictone,enumeratingindividualviolence-tethered

wordsintheaboveexcerptwillfurtherelucidatetheimpactofintimateviolenceon

themarkedBlackbody.Inthisbrief12-linepassagethereare:threescars,two

bodilyindentions,onebustedlip,onecuthand,oneskintearonafootandoneblack

eye.CouplingtheaboveviolenthieroglyphswiththeaforementionedState-

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sponsoredhieroglyphsofthefleshsuggestthatthepushtowardsbarelifeforBlack

womenisaggressive,comprehensiveandintersectional.

THEINTERSECTIONOFBLUESANDABSTRACTION

LegalscholarandBlackfeministtheoristKimberléCrenshawnotesthat

Americancourtsoftenrefusedtoacknowledgetheoverlappingracialandgender-

basedclaimsthatBlackfemaleplaintiffsraisedduringdiscriminationcases.222In

DeGraffenreidv.GeneralMotors(wherefiveblackwomenclaimedthecarcompany

discriminatedagainstBlackwomeninhiring,promotionandretention),Crenshaw

writes:

ThecourtsrefusalinDeGraffenreidtoacknowledgethat Blackwomenencountercombinedraceandsex discriminationimpliesthattheboundariesofsexand racediscriminationdoctrinearedefinedrespectivelyby whitewomen’sandBlackmen’sexperiences...Wheretheir experiencesaredistinctBlackwomencanexpectlittle protectionaslongasapproachessuchasthatinDeGraffenreid, whichcompletelyobscureproblemsofintersectionality,

prevail.223

Above,Crenshawwritesaboutthe“double-oppression”thatBlackwomenoften

experience.Adouble-oppressionthatcourts’implicitlyand,attimes,explicitly

refusetoredress.ThejuridicalmessagetoBlackwomen:chooseyourgenderedself

oryourracializedselfbecausewewillnotadequatelyaddressthecomplex,

intersecting,discriminatorysocio-politicalforcesthatimpingeuponyourlife

course.However,this“choose-gender-orrace”messageisnotconfinedtothe

sovereign-sanctionedspatialrealm.Attimes,Blackcommunitiesandfeminists

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promoteasimilarmessage,especially(andironically)inthelibertorylabor

contexts.Crenshawavers:

UnabletograsptheimportanceofBlackwomen’s intersectionalexperiences,notonlycourts,but, feministsandcivilrightsthinkersaswellhavetreated Blackwomeninwaysthatdenyboththeunique compoundednessoftheirsituationandthecentrality oftheirexperiencestothelargerclassesofwomenand Blacks...Blackwomen’sBlacknessorfemalenesssometimes hasplacedtheirneedsandperspectivesatthemargin ofthefeministandBlackliberationistagendas.224Existingatthemarginsofamarginalizedcommunity,Blackwomenareaskedto

subverttheirownimmediateconcernsandneedstoprivilegetheconcernsand

needsof“thecommunity”—which,inpracticalterms,oftenmanifestsasthe

concernsandneedsofBlackmen.Specifically,Blackwomenwritershave,attimes,

beenencouragednottoaddressintra-communitydomesticandsexualviolencein

theircreativeworkbecausethiscreativerepresentationmightunderminesthe

“image”ofBlackmen.

Inpost-BlackPowerMovementAmerica,awell-knownexample(andone

thatmovedbeyondtheacademic/activistrealmintoAfricanAmericanhush

harbors)ofBlackwomenbeingaskedtosubverttheirconcernsandneedsinfavor

oftheconcernsandneedsofBlackmencenteredaroundthepublicationofAlice

Walker’sTheColorPeople.Walker’sPulitzerPrize-winningnovelcentersaround

Celie,adomesticandsexualviolencesurvivor(atthehandsofBlackmen,including

herfather),whogoesonapainful,contradiction-filled,but,ultimatelyemancipatory

journeyofself-discoveryandself-healing.225AnumberofBlackmalewritersand

171

criticstookWalkertotaskforthewaysinwhichtheBlackmalecharacterswere

portrayedinthenovel.CulturalcriticEarlOfariHuchinsonwrote,“AliceWalker’s

TheColorPurplefinallydrovesomeblackmentorevolt.Alicenamedherblackman

simply‘Mister.’‘Mister’wasanyman.Hewasamisogynist,tyrant,abuser,child

beater,andwifebeater.”226HutchinsonlumpedWalker(andotherAfrican

AmericanfemalewritersincludingTerryMcMillanandNtozakeShangewhobroke

silencesaboutintra-Blackcommunitydomesticandsexualabuse)withEuropean-

AmericanmenwhoseemedtohaveaninterestindisparagingBlackmenandthe

Blackmaleimage.Hutchinsoncontinues,“Fromslaverytothepresent,blackmen

listenedtowhitemensavage,twist,malign,libel,batter,andmugthemin

conversation,booksandthepress...Butnowblackwomenwerebad-mouthing

themtoo...Thethingstheysaidaboutthemsoundedsuspiciouslylikethesame

thingsmanywhitemensaidaboutthem.”227ForHutchinson,whenBlackwomen

namedintra-communityoppressionsufferedbyBlackwomen,theytooktheformof

oppressors.InHutchinsonianlogic,whenColemanidentifiesthemarksontheBlack

woman’sbody,sheisvictimizingthemarkeroftheBlackwoman’sbody.

FollowingHutchinson’sskewedlogic,whenBlackfemalesubjectWanda

Colemanidentifiesherembodiedintimateviolencemakers,sheisvictimizingBlack

men.InHutchinsonianlogic,Coleman’sarticulationofdomesticviolence-tethered

hieroglyphicsofthefleshisanassassinationattemptontheBlackmaleimage.

However,althoughthespeakerin“IdentifyingMarks”isaBlackwoman,thereare

noracialidentifiersofthemenwhomarkedherbody.Intheputatively

172

autobiographicalpoem,racialandliteraryabstractionmeetintheformofthe

“blackeyereceivedinfightwithfirsthusband.”Coleman’sfirsthusbandCharlie

Swanson’swasaEuropean-American,aSouthernerandacivilrightsorganizer

whose“complexionwassallow,andhisnaturalcurlyhairwasfrizzyontop”—and

heoftenpassedforBlack.228InAbstractionistAesthetics,whicharguesforthe

efficacyofabstract-informedBlackculturalproductionandcriticism,PhillipBrian

HarperaversthatHutchinson’sliteralisttakeonWalker’sdepictionofBlackmale

characters(HutchinsonisalsocriticalofGloriaNaylor’sdepictionsofBlackmen)is

thepropellingforcebehindHutchinson’scritique.Harperwrites:

Hutchinson...clearlymaintainsthatwhatheseesasShange’s Naylor’s,andWalker’sunitarily‘negative’blackmaledepictions implythattherealworlditselfholdsjustone,equallyunsympathetic typeofblackman.Itisinthissensethat,asIhavealreadyintimated, heunderstandstheseauthors’portrayalsofblackmenasnotsimply mimetic,orconvincinglyreflectiveofreal-lifeblackmenintheir variedindividuality,butemblematic—thatisrepresentativeofthe generalcollectivityofblackmenperse.229AlthoughColeman’sworkisrootedintheAfricanAmericanexperience,in

Coleman’sputativelyautobiographicalpoem“IdentifyingMarks,”thespeaker

doesn’tidentifytheracesofthemenwhoappearinthepoem,sothemenwho

appearinthepoemarenot“representativeofthegeneralcollectivityofblackmen

perse.”Instead,Colemanisidentifyingthespecificmen(oneormorewhomay

happentobeBlack)whomarkedherbody:sheisself-witnessingthestoryofa

genderedBlackbodyreinscribedbymalehandswhosoughttochangeherstory

anddiminishhertowardserasure.FollowingForché,thispoemfunctionsasa

173

poemofwitness.“IdentifyingMarks,”asapoemofwitness,isa“poemthatcallsus

fromtheothersideofasituationofextremity[soit]cannotbejudgedbysimplistic

notionsof‘accuracy’or‘truthtolife.’”IncontradistinctiontoaHutchinsonian

reading,thepoemdoesnotrepresentthegeneralcollectivityofBlackmen.

However,whatthespeakerdoesidentifyasBlack(inthepoem’sclosingline)isthe

colorofbattered“shadowscirclingeyes.”230Namingandsurvivingthese

hieroglyphsofthefleshthathauntandshadowgenderedBlacklifeistheprocess

wherebyColemancreatesthepoeticsublime.Colemantransformsbluesscarsinto

beautifulpoetry.LikeDaáood’sepigraphthatbeginsthischapter,WandaColeman

andKamauDaáoodare“unitingthescarstomakesomethingbeautiful.”

174

CODA

OnSaturday,February27,2016,TheWorldStagerelocated.Theannouncementof

LosAngeles’incomingCrenshawRailLineandLeimertParkStationhadengendered

abuyingfrenzyinthearea’sBlackculture-themed,DegnanBoulevard-centered,

merchantdistrict,forcingoutmanylong-timemerchants.Theiconicliteraryand

jazzperformanceandartseducationalcenterwasnotofferedaleasebythenew

propertyowners,soafter27yearsat4344DegnanBoulevard,theydecidedto

move—acrossthestreet.Asopposedtohiringamovingcompany,Executive

DirectorDwightTribledecidedtoorganizeamovingpartyintheprimarilyLatina/o

andAfricanAmericanarea.231Over50peopleshowedup.Dozensofprimarily

BrownandBrownpeoplecarriedcongas,computers,microphones,desks,chairs,

speakers,paintings,amplifiers,snares,basses,kickdrumsandasafeacrossDegnan

Boulevard;thesightcausedcuriousmotoriststoslowandstare.232

TheWorldStagemovingpartyturnoutbespeakstoitsstatusasagrassroots

artisticcounterpublicintheAfricanAmericanandLatina/oarea.Inthecontextof

diminishedcivicandschoolartsfunding,thenonprofitorganization’shigh-quality,

low-pricedmusicandliteraturetrainingbringsthecommunitytogethersevendays-

a-week.Offeringsincludeayouthjazzorchestra,all-woman’sAfricandrumming

workshopandensemble,rigorouswritingworkshop,jazzvocalworkshop,jazzjam

session,poetrysmallpress,livejazzconcertsandachildren’sdrumming

175

workshop.233Themulti-ethnicparticipantsareprimarilyAfricanAmericanand

Latina/o.

TheWorldStageisagatheringspacetoaddressthesocio-politicaland

economicchallengesfacingBlackandBrowncommunities.Althoughthe

organizationhashostedformalcommunitydiscussionsaroundpolicebrutality

gentrification,thefrequentintra-communitydiscussionsoccurinformallyduring

workshops.234Theseinformaldiscussionsaremostfrequentduringthevenue’s

weeklyAnansiWriter’sWorkshop.Participantsbringworks-in-progresstothe

poetry-centricworkshop,whichoftenaddressesissuesconfrontingtheBlackand

Browncommunities,likeracism,theprisonindustrialcomplex,mentalhealthand

violence.Theissuesembeddedinthepoetryoftenariseduringthefeedback

process,leadingtointensecommunitydiscussions.

Thestructureoftheworkshopcontributestothefrequencyandintensityof

theseart-initiated,broad-rangingdiscussions.Participantswhowanttoworkshop

anewpoem,passoutcopiestothe30-40peoplepresentthenapproachthestageto

readtheirpoemaloudatthestage’smicrophone.Followingthereading,audience

membersengageinalivelydiscussionaboutthepoem’smeritsand—withvery

toughloveastheguidingprinciple—itsdemerits.Audiencemembersare

encouragedtodisagreewithfeedbackcomingfromotheraudiencememberswith

whomtheydisagree(givingtheauthormoreoptionstochoosefrom,intermsof

makingherpoemstronger).235Thisprivilegingoffrank,assertive,democratic

discussion,leadstointra-groupinterrogationwherenewideasarewelcomed—and

176

challenged—whichleadsnotonlytopoeticbestpractices,butoftenlaysthe

foundationforbestpracticesforresistinghegemonicforces(giventhepoems

frequentliberatorysubjectmatter).TheWorldStageAnansiWriter’sWorkshop

membersengageintheankhingprocessastheycollectivelythinkthroughthemost

effectivemeanstoresisthegemonicforces—andthroughthisidea-exchange,

inspire,motivateandmoveeachothertowardsbestpracticestoresisthegemonic

forcesseekingtodelimittheirsubjectivity,social,politicalandeconomicagency,

anddelimittheirpowertodeterminetheirownlifecourses.

Asawritingworkshopfrequentedbylabororganizers,publishedauthors

communityactivists,educatorsandneighbors,itsimportanttonotetherole

literatureplaysinTheWorldStage’semancipatorylabor.Activistsandorganizers

whoattendtheworkshoparewritingandpresentingpoemsabouttheirlivesas

activistsandorganizers.Theseliberatorylaborers’participationintheworkshop

signalstheirunderstandingoftheemancipatorypossibilitiesinherentinliterature.

Viaademocraticworkshopprocess,theyhopetostrengthentheirculturallabor

thatitmaypossiblyinspirecommunitymemberstoengageinmoreemancipatory

labor.Bywritingtheirownalternativeliteratureinthefaceofhegemonicforces,

theselabororganizers,publishedauthorscommunityactivists,educatorsand

neighborscoherewithEdwardstoremindusthat“Literatureisarepositoryfor

counterstoriesandalternativevisions...narrativeisadialogicsiteforreimagining

possibilities.”

177

NOTES

1GloriaAnzaldúa,Borderlands/LaFrontera:TheNewMestiza(SanFrancisco:

2CedricJ.Robinson,BlackMarxisim:TheMakingoftheBlackRadical

Tradition(ChapelHill:UniversityofNorthCarolinePress,2000)310.Print.3Ernesto“Che”Guevara,SocialismandManinCuba(Atlanta:Pathfinder

Press,2009)24.Print.4“School-to-prison”pipelineisaphraseusedtodescribethephenomena

wherebypoorlyresourcedschoolsinurbancommunitiesincreasinglyrelyoncriminalizingmethods,suchaslockerchecks,bodyfrisking,handcuffingandotherdiscipliningactionsatthehandsofon-campuslawenforcementofficials.Studentsattheseeducationalinstitutionsoftenhavenegativeinteractionswiththestatesecurityapparatusatagesthatareextremelyproblematic.Thesetypesofinteractionscanhavetheimpactofnormalizingthecriminalizationofchildren.

5ToviewvideooftherallyandMcSpadden’sreponsecanbesee:

http://gawker.com/mike-browns-moms-painful-address-to-rally-they-still-1663101735.AccessedNov.28,2014.

6Foracompletelistseethereportbythinkprogress.org:

http://thinkprogress.org/justice/2014/12/12/3601771/people-police-killed-in-2014/.AccessedJan.3,2015.

7EwaPlonowskaZiarek,“BareLife."ImpassesofthePost-Global:Theoryin

theEraofClimateChange,Vol.2.HenrySussman,ed.(London:OpenHumanitiesPress,2012)194-5.Print.

8SeeGordonK.Mantler,PowertothePoor:Black-BrownCoalition&theFight

forEconomicJustice,1960-1974(ChapelHill:UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress,2013).Print.

178

9EricaR.Edwards,CharismaandtheFictionsofBlackLeadership

(Minneapolis:UniversityofMinnesota,2012)xvii.Print.

10ToniCadeBambara,TheSaltEaters(Vintage:NewYork,1980)3.Print.

11SeeMelY.Chen,Animacies:Biopolitics,RacialMatteringandQueerAffect(Durham:DukeUniversityPress,2012).Print;andJaneBennett,Vibrant:APoliticalEcologyofThings(Durham:DukeUniversityPress,2010).Print.

12Foranengagingdiscussionoftheseimpacts,tetheredtocreativenarrative,

seeSharonPatriciaHolland,RaisingtheDead:ReadingsofDeathand(Black)Subjectivity(Durham:DukeUniversityPress,2000).Print.

13Theauthoracknowledgestheverysubjectivenatureofgoodasconcept

andtelos.Forthisstudy,todogoodcanbeunderstoodasengaginginbehaviorthathelpshistoricallydisposedpeoplesaccessheightenedagency,moreexpansivesubjectivityandanimprovementintheirmaterialconditionswherebytheycanmoreeffectivelyengageinliberatoryaction.

14EricaR.Edwards,CharismaandtheFictionsofBlackLeadership

(Minneapolis:UniversityofMinnesota,2012)136.Print.

15AihwaOng,NeoliberalismasException:MutationsinCitizenshipandSovereignty(Durham:DukeUniversityPress,2006)3.Print.

16Ong,9.17TimothyBrennan,“Fromdevelopmenttoglobalization:postcolonial

studiesandglobalization.”PostcolonialLiteraryStudies.NeilLazarus.Ed.(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,2004)131.Print.

18DavidHarvey,ABriefHistoryofNeoliberalism(Oxford:OxfordUniversity

Press,2005)2.Print.19Ankhingistheauthor’scoinage.20NurAnkhAmen,TheAnkh:AfricanOriginofElectromagnetism(NewYork:

LushenaBooks,1993)2.Print.21MolefiKeteAsante,TheEgyptianPhilosophers:AncientAfricanvoicesfrom

ImhoteptoAkhenaten(Chicago:AfricanAmericanImages,2000)113.Print.Asante

179

asserts,“[T]oliveinMaatistoliveinthelivingWord,theankhmdw.Itbecomestheonlypathtoankhnehen,thatislifeeternal.”

22Asante,TheAfrocentricIdea:RevisedEdition(Philadelphia:Temple

UniversityPress,1998)17.Similarly,JanheinzJahnarguesthat“Nommo, the life force, is . . . a unity of spiritual-physical fluidity, giving life to everything, penetrating everything, causing everything. . . . And since man has power over the word, it is he who directs the life force. Through the word he receives it, shares it with other beings, and so fulfills the meaning of life.” Janheinz Jahn, Muntu: African Culture and the Western World (New York: Grove Press, 1990) 124.

23“spirit.”Oxforddictionaries.com.OxfordDictionaries,2013.Web.28

October2013.24FrantzFanon,BlackSkin,WhiteMasks:RevisedEdition(GrovePress,2008)

191-192.25JamesH.Cone,TheSpirituals&theBlues(NewYork:TheSeaburyPress,

1972).Print.26AnkhingstagesinAfricanAmericanandLatina/ocommunitiesoftentake

placeinBlackandBrownemancipatorysitesthat,inmanycases,wouldfallwithinrhetoricianVorrisL.Nunley’sdefinitionofhushharbors:“Blackpublics[andthisstudyargues,Brownpublics]whereBlack[andBrown]commonsense,‘ideologylivedandarticulatedineverydayunderstandingoftheworldandone’splaceinit,’isassumedtobehegemonicandnormative.”See:VorrisL.Nunley,Keepin’ItHushed:TheBarbershopandAfricanAmericanHushHarborRhetoric(Detroit:WayneStateUniversityPress,2011)36.

27MichelFoucault,“SocietyMustBeDefended,”LecturesattheCollegede

France,1975-76,Eds.MauroBertaniandAlessandroFontana(NewYork:Picador,2003)247.Print.MichelFoucaultdefinesbiopower.Asunderstoodinoppositiontosovereignpower,thepowerto“takelife”,Foucaultdescribesbiopoweras“thistechnologyofthepowerover“the”populationassuch,overmeninsofarastheyarelivingbeings.Itiscontinuous,scientific,andisthepowertomakelive.AndnowwehavetheemergenceofapowerIwouldcallthepowerofregularization,andit,incontrast,consistsofmakingliveandlettingdie.”

28OrlandoPatterson,SlaveryandSocialDeath:AComparativeStudy.(Cambridge:HarvardUniversityPress,1982)5.Print.Inwritingaboutslave’smaterialand,concomitant,socialcondition,Pattersonasserts,“Hewastrulyagenealogicalisolate.Formallyisolatedinhissocialrelationswiththosewholived,he

180

alsowasculturallyisolatedfromthesocialheritageofhisancestors.”ConesuggeststhattheSpirithasthepowertorejectthissocialdeath,andusethisrejectiontocreateamorevibrantmodeofliving.

29FredMoten,IntheBreak:TheAestheticsoftheBlackRadicalTradition

(Minneapolis:TheUniversityofMinnesotaPress,2003)22.Print.30G.W.F.Hegel,ThePhilosophyofArt.Trans.WilliamHastie(NewYork:

Barnes&Noble,2006)4.Print.31AudreLorde,SisterOutsider:EssaysandSpeeches(NewYork:TenSpeed

Press,2007)53-56.

32HansChristianVonBaeyer,WarmthDispersesandTimePasses:TheHistoryofHeat(NewYork:TheModernLibrary,1999)14-18.Print.

33InEdwards’devastatingcritiqueofAfricanAmericanhistoricand

contemporarydeificationofthecharismaticmaleleaderasasalvificinstrumentofblackcommunities,shetheorizesthat,“asastructuringfictionforliberatorypolitics,charismaisfoundedinthreeformsofviolence:thehistoricalorhistoriographicalviolenceofreducingaheterogeneousblackfreedomstruggletoatop-downnarrativeofGreatManleadership;thesocialviolenceofperformingsocialchangeintheformofafundamentallyantidemocraticformofauthority;andtheepistemologicalviolenceofstructuringknowledgeofblackpoliticalsubjectivityandmovementwithinagenderedhierarchyofpoliticalvaluethatgrantsuninterrogatedpowertonormativemasculinity.”

34SeeBarbaraSmith’s“Where’stheRevolution”inTheTruthThatNever

Hurts:writingsonrace,genderandfreedom(NewBrunswick:RutgersUniversityPress,1998).Print.

35ToniCade(Bambara).Ed.TheBlackWoman(NewYork:NewAmerican

Library,1970)102-103.Print.36Smith,179-180.37SharonPatriciaHolland,RaisingtheDead:ReadingsofDeathand(Black)

Subjectivity(Durham:DukeUniversityPress,2000)108.Print38Formorereadingonthetopicsee:Hull,GloriaT.,PatriciaBellScott,and

BarbaraSmith,Eds.AlltheWomenAreWhite,AlltheBlacksAreMen,ButSomeofUsAreBrave:BlackWomen’sStudies(NewYork:TheFeministPressatCityUniversity

181

ofNewYork,1982).KevinJ.Mumford,“HomoSexChanges:Race,CulturalGeography,andtheEmergenceoftheGay,”AmericanQuarterly48,no.3(1996):395-414;Print;SuzannePharr,Homophobia:AWeaponofSexism(Berkeley:ChardonPress,1997).Print;DianaFuss,EssentiallySpeaking:Feminism,Nature,andDifference(NewYork:Routledge,1989).Print;AliceEchols,DaringtoBeBad:RadicalFeminisminAmerica1967-1975(Minneapolis:UniversityofMinnesotaPress,1989.Print;MabSegrest,MemoirofaRaceTraitor(Boston:SouthEndPress,1993).Print;MichaelAwkward,NegotiatingDifference:Race,GenderandthePoliticsofPositionality(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1995).Print;AudreLorde,SisterOutsider:EssaysandSpeeches(Freedom:CrossingsPress,1984).Print;RobertMcRuer,“AVisitationofDifference:RandallKenanandBlackQueerTheory,”JournalofHomosexuality26,nos.2and3(1993):221-232.Print.

39ForfurtherreadingontheancientEgyptianspiritualsystemsee:RaUn

NeferAmenI,MetuNeterVol.1:TheGreatOracleofTehutiandtheEgyptianSystemofSpiritualCultivation(Brooklyn:KamitPublications,1990).Print;FracoisR.Herbin,BooksofBreathingandRelatedTexts,Vol.4(London:BritishMuseumPress,2008).Print;E.A.WallisBudge,TheEgyptianBookoftheDead(Mineola:DoverPublications,1967).Print;AdolphErman,LifeinAncientEgypt(Mineloa:DoverPublications,1971).Print.

40Moraga,100.41SeeEdwards,3-33.42JürgenHabermas,TheStructuralTransformationofthePublicSphere:An

InquiryintoaCategoryofBourgeoisSociety.Trans.ThomasBurger.(Cambridge:M.I.T.Press,1991).Print.

43NancyFraser,“RethinkingthePublicSphere:AContributionoftheCritique

ofActuallyExistingDemocracy,”SocialText25/26(1990):67.Print.44CatherineR.Squires,“RethinkingtheBlackPublicSphere:AnAlternative

VocabularyforMultiplePublicSpheres,”CommunicationTheory12:4(2002):458.Print.

45MargaretKohn,RadicalSpace:BuildingtheHouseofthePeople(Ithaca:

CornellUniversityPress,2003)91.Print.46SeeMichelFoucault,“DifferentSpaces”MichelFoucault:Aesthetics,Method

andEpistemology.Ed.JamesFaubion.(NewYork:TheNewPress,1998)175-185.Print.

182

47AccordingtoKohn,inherresearchinvestigatingEuropeanheterotopiasof

resistancededicatedtosupportingworkers,socialistsandcommunistsinthe18thandearly19thcentury,housesofthepeoplewere“simultaneouslypragmaticsolutionstopoliceharassmentandsurveillance,attemptstoembodysolidarity,andinterventioninthesymbolicspaceofthecity.Theychallengedpoliticalandeconomicstructuresbecausetheyfunctionedasmaterialandsymbolicnodalpointsforaggregatingdispersedpeopleandideas”(88).

48ToniCadeBambara,TheSaltEaters(NewYork:VintageBooks,1980).

Print.49LawrenceP.Jackson,TheIndignantGeneration:ANarrativeHistoryof

AfricanAmericanWritersandsCritics,1934-1960(Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress,2011)29-30.Print.

50DuchessHarris,“FromtheKennedyCommissiontotheCombahee

Collective:BlackFeministOrganizing,1960-1980,”SistersintheStruggle:AfricanAmericanWomenintheCivilRights-BlackPowerMovement.Eds.BettyeCollier-ThomasandV.P.Franklin(NewYork:NYUPress,2001)282-288.Print.HarrisarguesthatthereisathroughlinefromFourthConsultationofPresidentJohnF.Kennedy’sCommissionontheStatusofWomen(PCSW)tothoseofthewomenintheNationalBlackFeministOrganization(NBFO)andtheCombaheeRiverCollective(CRC).Shetheorisesthat“Thefirstgroupwascomposedoffinanciallyandeducationallyprivilegedblackwomenchosenbyofficialsofthefederalgovernmenttoserveonanationalcommissiononwomen,whiletheothertwoincludedmiddleandworking-classblackwomenwhohadbeenactiveincivilrightsandgrassrootsblackorganizations.

Thisstudyexaminesthepoliticalactivitiesoftheseblackwomenandtheirorganizations,andrevealsthatdespitedifferencesineducationandsocialclassbackground,theywereawareofthreeoverlappingrealities:(1)therewereinextricablelinksbetweengenderandracialidentify;(2)theirsocioeconomicstatuswasoverdeterminedbygenderandracialidentity;and(3)therewasaneedtoorganizecollectivelyonthebasisoftheserealizations. Thisresearchrevealsthateachgroup’sideologicalperspectivesweremoreinclusivethanthoseoftheirpredecessors.TheblackwomenontheKennedyCommissionarticulatedmoreconservativenotionsaboutgenderthanthewomenoftheNationalBlackFeministOrganization(NBFO)who,inturn,articulatedmoreconservativenotionsaboutfemalesexualityandthedisadvantagesofthecapitalistsystemthanthewomenoftheCombaheeRiverCollective.UnlikethewomenoftheKennedyCommissionandtheNBFO,thosemembersoftheCombaheeRiver

183

Collectiverecognizedthatone’ssexualorientationwasdistinctiveandseparatefromgenderandracialidentityandtheyorganizedaroundthatrealization. TheblackfeministmovementcanbeseenasmovingfromrelativelyliberalandunivocalfocusongenderofthePresidentialCommissiontothemoreradicalandpolyvocalfocusongender,race,class,andsexualorientationoftheCombaheeRiverCollective.Thisstudymakesitclearthatthelatergroupsexistedasaresultoftheeffortsoftheearlierones,andthattherewassignificantoverlapinmembership.Moreover,theideologicaldevelopmentamongblackfeministscoincidedwiththegrowthoftheCivilRights-BlackPowerandWomen’sLiberationmovements,towhichtheymadeimportantcontributions.”

51ConversationwithTiffanyA.López.17December2013.

52ArthurF.Redding,Haints:AmericanGhosts,MillennialPassions,andContemporaryGothicFictions(Tuscaloosa:UniversityofAlabamaPress).Print.

53FrederickDouglass,NarrativeoftheLifeofFrederickDouglass,AnAmerican

Slave(Hollywood:SimonandBrown,2013)29.54Ibid.55VorrisL.Nunley,Keepin’ItHushed:TheBarbershopandAfricanAmerican

HushHarborRhetoric(Detroit:WayneStateUniversityPress,2011)36.Print.AlthoughtheAfricanAmericanHushHarborcaninformourunderstandingofhushharbor-likespatialconstructionsandtheirassociatedmoresandfolkwaysinLatina/ocommunities,IacknowledgethattheimbricationinthisrelationshipcreatesslippageasIattempttoapplyanAfricanAmericanculturally-centricepistemictooltoaLatina/ocommunities.

56ForacomprehensiveexaminationofthisrelationshipseeGordonK.

Mantler,PowertothePoor:Black-BrownCoalition&theFightforEconomicJustice,1960-1974(ChapelHill:UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress,2013).Print.

57SalvadorPlascencia,ThePeopleofPaper(NewYork:HarvestBooks,2006)

219.Print.

58IshmaelReed,MumboJumbo(NewYork:Scribner,1972)183.Print.

59“Cut.”Def.1.TheCompactEditionoftheOxfordEnglishDictionary.1997.Print.

60Ibid.

184

61FredMoten,IntheBreak:TheAestheticsoftheBlackRadicalTradition

(Minneapolis:UniversityofMinnesotaPress,2003)70.Print.

62Plascencia84.

63Moten239.

KarlMarx,“EstrangedLabor,”TheMarx-EngelsReader,2ndEdition.Robert

C.Tucker,Ed.(NewYork:Norton&Company,1978)74.Print.

65Moten256.

66BrunoLatour,Pandora’sHope:EssaysontheRealityofScienceStudies(Cambridge:HarvardUniversityPress,1999)281.

67HenryLouisGates,Jr.,TheSignifyingMonkey:ATheoryofAfro-AmericanLiteraryCriticism(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1988)235.

68KamauDaáood,TheLanguageofSaxophones:SelectedPoemsofKamauDaáood(SanFrancisco:CityLights,2005)35.

69Bennett63-65.

70Bennett63

71Bennett77.

72Bennett66.

73ForinterestingexaminationsoftheroleofsocializedengagedartistsinsocialmovementsseeGayTheresaJohnson,SpacesofConflict,SoundsofSolidarity:Music,RaceandSpatialEntitlementinLosAngeles(Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2013).Print;RobinD.G.Kelley,RaceRebels:Culture,PoliticsandtheBlackWorkingClass(NewYork:TheFreePress,1994).Print;and,HarryJ.Elam,Jr.,TakingIttotheStreets:TheSocialProtestTheaterofLuisValdezandAmiriBaraka.

74TworepresentativeexamplesofthisphenomenaareGhanaianindependenceleaderKwameNkrumah,whowaseducatedattheUniversityofPennsylvaniaandLincolnUniversityandNigerianactivist-playwrightWoleSoyinkawhodidgraduatestudyattheUniversityofLeedsinBritain.

75Forthesakeofargument,thisstudyreferstoAfricaandAfrican,however,itacknowledgesthefolkways,moresandspecificculturesofindividualAfricancountries,tribesandthepeopletherein.

185

76ForaninterestinglookattheroleofdominoesinLatino/aculturesee

FrancisoLomelí,Ed.,HandbookofHispanicCulturesintheUnitedStates:LiteratureandArt(Houston:ArtePúblicoPress,1993)241-242.

77Plascencia55.

78DanTracy.“DominoesALinktoHeritageforManyHispanicsinU.s.”TheOrlandoSentinel.28Jun.2000.SunSentinelWeb.18May2015.

79Ibid.

80Dominologistsarenotonlyskilledintheartofplayingthegame,theyarealsoskilledintheartfulword-playexchangedamongplayersduringgames.SeeNathanHolsey,TheDominologist:LearntoBecometheBestatDominoes(Bloomington:iUniverse,2008).Print.

81HortenseJ.Spillers,“Mama’sBaby,Papa’sMaybe:AnAmericanGrammarBook.”Diacritics(Summer,1987):67.

82Ibid.

83Spillers68.

84Spillersusesthistermtodescribethewaysinwhichblackfleshisseared,dividedandrippedapart.

85Spillers67.

86AlexanderG.Weheliye,HabeousViscous:RacializingAssemblages,BiopoliticsandBlackFeministTheoriesoftheHuman(Durham:DukeUniversityPress,2014)39-40.Print.

87Fraser67.

88Squires460

89Kohn129.

90Moraga89.

91Moraga133.

92Moraga110.

93Moraga129.

186

94JacquesDerrida,Rogues:TwoEssaysonReason,trans.Pascale-AnneBrault

andMichaelNaas(PaloAlto:StanfordUniversityPress,2005)100.Print.

95AudreLorde,SisterOutsider:EssaysandSpeeches(NewYork:TenSpeedPress,2007)41.Print.

96MichelFoucault,TheHistoryofSexuality,Volume1:anintroduction(NewYork:Knopf,1990)27.Print.

97Moraga111-112.

98Moraga96.

99Moraga92.

100Moraga130.

101Ibid.

102Foucault,TheHistoryofSexuality.27.

103Kohn129.

104Moraga92-94.

105Moraga148.

106TheespeciallyardentembracebyMexicanmigrantsofLaVirgendeGuadalupeseemstotetheredtotheanxietiesinherentinprocessofleavingthehomelandtopursueeconomicsurvival.ForanintriguingtreatmentofhowlaVirgendeGuadalupefunctionsascentralreligiousfigureofworshipforMexicanmigrants,includingtheintensityoftheembrace,seeElaineA.Pena,PerformingPiety:MakingSpaceSacredwiththeVirginofGuadalupe(Berkeley:UniversityofCalifornia,2011).Print.

107Moraga148.

108Moraga149.

109Ibid.

110Ibid.

111Ibid.

112Foranincisivecriticalhistoryofcommunityorganizing,includingcasestudieswhichillustratetheimportofengagingcommunitymembersastheexperts

187

onchangingtheirowncommunitiesseeDavidWalls,CommunityOrganizing(Cambridge:PolityPress,2015).Print.

113Lorde56.

114Moraga102.

115Ibid.

116Moraga102-103.

117Moraga124.

118ForthefoundationaltextinthestudyandapplicationofliberationtheologyseeGustavoGutiérrez,ATheologyofLiberation:HistoryPoliticsandSalvation.Trans.CaridadInda(Ossining:OrbisBooks,1988).Print.

119Moraga115.

120Moraga130.

121Foranauthoritativecriticalstudyofthehistoryandmyth-makingaroundthePassionseeJohnDominicCrossan,TheCrossthatSpoke:TheOriginsofthePassionNarrative(NewYork:HarperCollins,1992).Print.

122Moraga135.

123Moraga149.

124Moraga144.

125Moraga149.

126ToniCadeBarbara,ThisBridgeCalledMyBack:WritingsbyRadicalWomenofColor.CherríeL.MoragaandGloriaE.Anzaldua.eds.(Berkeley:ThirdWomanPress,2002)xlii.Print.

127BrentHayesEdwards,ThePracticeofDiaspora:Literature,Translation,andtheRiseofBlackInternationalism(Cambridge:HarvardUniversityPress,2003)45.Print.

128CherríeMoraga,ThisBridgeCalledMyBack:WritingsbyRadicalWomenofColor.CherríeL.MoragaandGloriaE.Anzaldua.eds.(Berkeley:ThirdWomanPress,2002).xlv.Print.

129“shock.”Def.4.TheCompactEditionoftheOxfordEnglishDictionary.vol.2.

1971.Print.

188

130SeeShelbySteele,TheContentofOurCharacter:ANewVisionofRacein

America(NewYork:HarperPerennial,1998).Print.Thecolor-blinddiscourseignitedbySteelehasbeeneffectivelynurturedbyconservativethinkerslikeWilliamKristolandexplodedintopublicdiscoursebyconservativemediacommentatorslikeBillO’Reilly.

131MargaretKohn,RadicalSpace:BuildingtheHouseofthePeople(Ithaca:CornellUniversityPress,2003)91.Print.

132Kohn129.Print.

133AngelaY.Davis,ThisBridgeCalledMyBack:WritingsbyRadicalWomenofColor.CherríeL.MoragaandGloriaE.Anzaldua.eds.(Berkeley:ThirdWomanPress,2002)backcover.Print.

134JaneBennett,Vibrant:APoliticalEcologyofThings(Durham:DukeUniversityPress,2010)vii.

135Kohn129.Kohn’suseofthetermispartofalargerclassanalysis,whicharguesthatworkersneedsafehavenstoprovidecoverfromanatomizing,capitalistsovereign’sgaze,whichseekstodelimittheiridentitytocogsinprofit-maximizationmachinery.The,generally,imbricatednatureofAmericanclassandracemakesKohn’ssafehavennotionproductivewhendiscussingBlackandBrownfolk’sneedforcoverfromtheatomizinggazeofAmericanneoliberalsovereignswhoareprimarilyEuropean-American.

136ThisBridgeCalledMyBack,lii.

137Ibid.

138Ibid.

139NancyFraser,“RethinkingthePublicSphere:AContributionoftheCritiqueofActuallyExistingDemocracy,”SocialText25/26(1990):67.Print.

140JuneJordan,JuneJordan’sPoetryforthePeople:ARevolutionaryBlueprint.LaurenMullerandtheBlueprintCollective.eds.(NewYork:Routledge,1995).4.Print.

141Jordan,69.Jordanwritesaboutrescuingthecanonintermsofreinventingitandmakingitrelevantforthelivingbyhonoringthediverseworkofthelivingaswellasthedead.Thetexthasachapterentitled“RescuingtheCanon.”

189

142CatherineR.Squires,“RethinkingtheBlackPublicSphere:AnAlternative

VocabularyforMultiplePublicSpheres,”CommunicationTheory12:4(2002):460.Print.

143LaurenMuller,JuneJordan’sPoetryforthePeople,228.

144AdrienneRich,“WritingwiththeSun,”JuneJordan’sPoetryforthePeople,80.

145MarilynChin,JuneJordan’sPoetryforthePeople,83.

146Chin’scritically-acclaimedpoetryandoutspokenadvocacyforthe“survival”ofherworkhasbegantomakeinroads.Chin’spoem’sarenowincludedinthecanon-influencinganthologies:TheNortonAnthologyofLiteraturebyWomen,TheNortonIntroductiontoPoetryandTheOxfordAnthologyofModernAmerican.Poetry.

147Chin,JuneJordan’sPoetryforthePeople,83.

148Jordan,JuneJordan’sPoetryforthePeople,5.

149PauloFreire,PedagogyoftheOppressed(NewYork:Continuum,1996)17.Print.ThisMyraBergmanRamos’stranslationoftheterm.

150JuneJordan’sPoetryforthePeople,36.Also,thisdefinitionincludes:“Theachievementofmaximumimpartwithminimalnumberofwords”and“Theutmostprecisionintheuseoflanguage,hence,densityandintensityofexpression.”

151Freire68.

152JuneJordan’sPoetryforthePeople,17.

153Freire69.

154MelY.Chen,Animacies:Biopolitics,RacialMatteringandQueerAffect(Durham:DukeUniversityPress,2012)30.Print.

155Freire69.

156Freire53.

157Thisistheauthorofthisstudy’scoinagewhichreferstotheprocessinvolvingtherelativelypowerfulhailingtherelativelylesspowerfulwithpejorativesmeanttodenigrateanddelimitsubjectivity.

158Chen31.

190

159Ibid.Sidarth’svideoofAllen’scommentwasuploadedtoYouTubeand

soonwentviral.Alinkfollows:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r90z0PMnKwI

160Chen32.

161Chen34-5.ChenarguesthatthemediacoverageoftheAllen/Sidarthencounterdoesn’tsufficientlychallengetheunderlyingassumptionsthatthereisnotahorizontalrelationshipbetweensimians.Thefollowingquote,andthepresentandplacementofquotationsmarks,offersaglimpseintoChen’sposition:[A]simianimputationforahumanbeingreadilyinvokestheoriesofevolutionthatplacemonkeysandapesaearlier,“primitive,”stagesofevolutionordevelopmentthanthe,“higher,”humansbeingcomparetothem.”

162LisaLowe,ImmigrantActs:OnAsianAmericanCulturalPolitics(Durham:DukeUniversityPress,1996)5-6.Print.

163Lowe27.Lowearguesthatnaturalizationinvolvesafalsepromiseofsocio-politicalemancipationandequality:“Whilethenationproposesimmigrant‘naturalization’asanarrativeofpoliticalemancipationthatismeanttoresolveinAmericanliberaldemocracyasaterraintowhichallcitizenshaveequalaccessandinwhichallareequallyrepresented,itisanarrativethatdeniestheestablishmentofcitizenshipoutofunequalrelationshipsbetweendominantwhitecitizensandsubordinatedracializednoncitizensandwomen.”

164Lowe26-27.165Chen35.

166TheWashingtonPostStaff.“DonaldTrumpAnnouncesaPresidentialBid:FullText.TheWashingtonPost.June16,2015.Web.AccessedFebruary12,2016.

167Furtherentrenchingtheconflictanddocumentinirony,theTreatyofGuadalupeHidalgowasofficiallyentitledthe“TreatyofPeace,Friendship,LimitsandSettlementbetweentheUnitedStatesofAmericaandtheMexicanRepublic.”RichardGriswolddelCastilloarguesthatassoonas1849theambiguous,interpretativeandfluidnatureofracebegantoplayaroleinhowthetreatywasenforced,especiallyastheframersofCalifornia’sconstitutionbegantowrestlewiththeintersectionofrace,rightsofcitizenshipandtheTreatyofGuadalupeHidalgo.FormoreonthisdiscussionseeRichardGriswolddelCastillo,TheTreatyofGuadalupeHidalgo(Norman:UniversityofOklahomaPress,1990)62-86.

168GriswolddelCastillo66.

169Ibid.

191

170GwendaBlair,TheTrumps:ThreeGenerationsofBuilders(NewYork:

Simon&Schuster,2001)94.

171Moragaxxiv.

172MaxWolfValerio,“It’sinMyBlood,MyFace—MyMother’sVoice,theWayISweat.”ThisBridgeCalledMyBack:WritingsbyRadicalWomenofColor.CherríeL.MoragaandGloriaE.Anzaldua.eds.(Berkeley:ThirdWomanPress,2002)41.

173Moragaxxxxx.

174KamauDaáood,“TheLipDrummer”TheLanguageofSaxophones:SelectedPoemsofKamauDaáood(SanFrancisco:CityLightsBooks,2005)25.Print.

175NewInternationalVersion,Mark4:16-17.

176ThistraditionalBlackbenedictionisdrawnfromthebiblicalnarrativewhichdetailsatrucebetweenLabanandJacob.“MaytheLordkeepwatchbetweenyouandmewhenweareawayfromeachother.NewInternationalVersion,Genesis31:49.

177ElizabethChuck.“CharlestonChurchShooterDylanRoof‘CaughtUsWithOurEyesClosed’”includinginterviewtranscript.NBCNews.com.NBCNews,10September2015.Web.2March2016.

178Ibid.

179Ibid.

180Ibid.

181Ibid.ThesevenothervictimswereSouthCarolinastatesenatorandEmanuelAfricanMethodistEpiscopalianChurchseniorpastorRev.ClementaPinckney,Rev.SharondaSingleton,Rev.DanielSimmons,Rev.DePayneMiddlton-Doctor,MyraThompson,EthelLanceandCynthiaHurd.

182FrancesRobles.“DylanRoofPhotosandaManifestoArePostedonaWebsite.”Newyorktimes.com.NewYorkTimes.20June2015.Web.3March2016.

183JerodSexton,“UnbearableBlackness.”CulturalCritique90(Spring2015):159.

184CNNNewsroom.“Transcript:PrayerVigilPlanned;DylannRoofHearing.”CNN.com.CNN.19June2015.Web.3March2016.

192

185JamesH.Cone,TheSpirituals&theBlues(NewYork:TheSeaburyPress,

1972)5.

186Asafoundingmemberofthesurrealistmovement,AndréBreton’sarguedthatoneofthemovement’sdefiningidealswasthat“twodistantrealities”canunitetoformanewreality.JesúsBenitoSánchez,AnaM.ManzanasandBegoñaSimalaverthatthisdefiningelementofsurrealismalignswiththeexperienceaverstheexperienceofcolonizedLatina/osandAfricanAmericans.Asaresult,theysuggestthatBlackandBrownlives,themselves,canbesurreal:“AndréBreton’snarrativejuxtapositionof‘twomoreorlessdistantrealities’intheParisofthe1020saptlyepitomizestheunwantedbyinevitablestateofmindofpostcolonialcommunitiesinAfricaandAsiaafterthedemiseofcolonialempires.Thestraddlingoftworemotecultures,withtheirconcomitantcross-pollination,isgenerallyrecognizedasadistinctivemarkofmanypostcolonialsocieites.Themestizonatureofmostpostcolonialculturesresultsinthefrequentpresentationofdualitiesandjuxtapositions,the‘doubleconsciousness’thatDuBoisexploredintheAfricanAmericanexperience.”See:JesúsBenitoSánchez,AnaM.ManzanasandBegoñaSimal.UncertainMirrors:MagicalRealismsinUSEthnicLiteratures(Amsterdam:EditionsRodopi,2009)110.Inthiscontext,Daáood’spoetry,whichfeaturesoddjuxtapositionsofimagesandrealities,placeshimsquarelyinthesurrealisttradition.

187KamauDaáood,“ArmyofHealers.”TheLanguageofSaxophones:SelectedPoemsofKamauDaáood(SanFrancisco:CityLightsBooks,2005)57.Print.

188JamesBaldwin,“TheStruggle.”BuddhaRecords,1969.Vinyl.Therecordingisofa1963speechBaldwingaveinNewYorkCity.

189Daáood,“ArmyofHealers.”57.

190MatthewArnold,“TheStudyofPoetry.”ClassicWritingsonPoetry.WilliamHarmon.ed.(NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress,2005)464.

191KamauDaáood,“ArmyofHealers.”57.

192AccordingtobusinessresearchfirmIBISWorld,in2015theUnitedStates’floralindustrycreatedsixbilliondollarsinrevenue.Therewere35,343floralbusinesses,employing83,208workers.See:“FloristsintheUS:MarketResearchReport.”IBISWorld.com.December2015.web.9March2016.

193CarolynForchéarguesthat“Bysituatingpoetryinthissocialspace,wecanavoidsomeofourresidualprejudices.Apoemthatcallsusfromtheothersideofasituationofextremitycannotbejudgedbysimplisticnotionsof‘accuracy’or‘truthtolife.’Itwillhavetobejudged,asLudwigWittgensteinsaidofconfession,byitsconsequences,notbyourabilitytoverifyitstruth.Infact,thepoemmightbeour

193

onlyevidencethataneventhasoccurred:itexistsforusasthesoletraceofanoccurrence.Assuch,thereisnothingforustobasethepoemon,noindependentaccountthatwilltelluswhetherornotwecanseeagiventextasbeing"objectively"true.Poemastrace,poemasevidence.”CarolynForché,“TwentiethCenturyPoetryofWitness.”AmericanPoetryReview22:2(March-April1993)17.

194Daáood58.195Daáood59.

196WalterJohnson,RiverofDarkDreams:SlaveryandEmpireintheCotton

Kingdom(Cambridge:HarvardUniversityPress,2013)244.197Johnson279.

198Daáood59.

199See:G.M.WasselandN.M.Ammar,“IsolationoftheAlkaloidsandEvaluationoftheDiureticActivityofArundoDonax.”Fitoterapia15:6(1984):357-358andGiuseppeTagarelli,AntonioTagarelliandAnnaPiro,“FolkMedicinetoHealMalariainCalabria.”JournalofEthnobiologyandEthnomedicine6(2010):27.

200RobertE.Perdue,“ArundoDonax—SourceofMusicalReedsandIndustrialCellulose.EconomicBotany12:4(Oct.-Dec.1958)377-379.AsSalihGücelargues,followingPerdue,themoderntechnologicaladvancementshavenotbeenabletofindamoreeffectivematerialtouseforreedsthantheseplantsthatwereonceusedinthereligiouswrappingofmummiesin4thCenturyA.D.Egypt.See:SalihGücel,“ArundoDonaxL.GiantReedsUseByTurkishCypriots.”Ethnobotany8(2010)245-248.

201FredMoten,IntheBreak:TheAestheticsoftheBlackRadicalTradition(Minneapolis:TheUniversityofMinnesotaPress,2003)22.

202Daáood59.

203Ibid.

204CentersforDiseaseControlandPrevention.“ACloserLookatAfricanAmericanMenandHighBloodPressureControl:AReviewofPsychosocialFactorsandSystems-LevelInterventions.”U.S.DepartmentofHealthandHumanServices(Atlanta,2010)7-9.

205HortenseJ.Spillers,“Mama’sBaby,Papa’sMaybe:AnAmericanGrammar

Book.”Diacritics(Summer,1987):67.

194

206Daáood59.

207Ibid.

208Daáood60.

209Ibid.

210Ibid.

211Ibid.

212Ibid.

213Althoughtheinterpretationthatthe14thAmendment’suseof“person”includescorporations(insomeregards)isgenerallyacceptedwithinthelegalcommunity,thereisstillresistancetotheideaamongsomelegalscholars.Foracompellingargumentagainstthe“corporationsaspersons”interpretationsee:CarlMeyer,“PersonalizingtheImpersonal:CorporationsandtheBillofRights.”HastingsLawJournal41:3(March1990).

214Daáood60.

215WandaColeman,HeavyDaughterBlues:Poems&Stories1968-1986

(SantaRose:BlackSparrowPress,1987)Print.216Coleman198.

217TheMayoClinicStaff“Diseases-Conditions-Moles-Basics-Causes.”Mayoclinic.org.www.mayoclinic.org.6December2014.web.26March2016.

218Ibid.

219“Raze.”Entry4a.TheCompactEditionoftheOxfordEnglishDictionary.(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1979).Print.

220ScottFlugman,“StasisDermatitis.”Medscape.Medscape.com.7March2016.Web.27March2016.

221Coleman198.

222KimberléCrenshaw,“DemarginalizingtheIntersectionofRaceandSex:ABlackFeministCritiqueofAntidiscriminationDoctrine,FeministTheoryandAnt-RacistPolitics.”TheUniversityofChicagoLegalForum(1989):139-168.

223Crenshaw143.

195

224Crenshaw150.

225AliceWalker,TheColorPurple(NewYork:MarinerBooks,2003).Print.Thecontroversyaroundthenovel’spublicationplayedoutamidstanationaldiscourseinthe1980saroundtheideaofBlackmenasan“endangeredspecies,”giventheirincarcerationratesandconsistentlydisturbingsocio-economicandhealthindicatornumbers.

226EarlOfariHutchinson,TheAssassinationoftheBlackMaleImage(NewYork:SimonSchuster,1996)104.Print.

227Hutchinson103.

228WandaColeman,TheRiotInsideMe:MoreTrials&Tremors(Jaffrey:BlackSparrowBooks,2005)30—39.Print.Amixofmemoirandnewjournalism,theColeman’snonfictioncollectionincludesarecountingofhereintriguinglifewithEuropeanAmericanSouthernerCharlesColeman.TherelationshipoffersaglimpseintohowdifficultitistoplaceColeman,herworkandherrelationships,especiallywithEuropeanAmericans,intoneatcategoriesdefinedbyrace.Acomplicatedman,self-identifiedasa“redneck”and“peckerwood”butwasacommittedcivilrightsactivistwhohadbeenjailedandbeatenforhisactivism.TheymarriedwhenWandaandCharliewere18and22respectively.WandaColemanwritesaboutherfirsthusband,whopassedforBlack—andputativelygaveheraBlackeyein“IdentifyingMarks:“[Charlie]enjoyedbeingablackman.Whathadbegunasasimpleploysoonbegananelaboratedeception.OntheBlack-hand-sideoflife,wefrequentedtheparanoiacgatheringsofpoliticalandculturalactivists,andevendonneddressclothestoattendthemosques—OrthodoxandBlackMuslim.Wheneverhisauthenticitywasquestioned,CharliereveledinprovinghehadforgottenmoreaboutbeingBlackthanhischallengershadeverknown.Duringonenastyshowdown,hemollifiedthemajorityoftheskeptics,buttheatmosphereremainedthreatening.SomeoneputJamesBrownonthestereoastheultimatetest.Charliecouldnotbop,camelwalkandMadison,hecoulddothedog,thefunkybutt,andthealligatorcrawl.Hisdanceperformancedispelledallremainingdoubts.Wheneverchallengedtounziphisfly,hedidsowithpride.Oncethreehardcorebruthasescortedhimtothejohn.Theyreturnedinconsternation,embarrassed.Quicktodrophisdrawers,Charliewouldneverremovehisshirt,mindfultokeepcuffedsleevesjustabouttheelbow,hidingthatJohnnyRebtattoo.Ineverbetrayedhim.NooneeverdemandedIdoso”(38).

229PhillipBrianHarper,AbstractionistAesthetics:ArtisticFormandSocialCritiqueinAfricanAmericanCulture(NewYork:NewYorkUniversityPress,2015)127.Print.

230Coleman199.

196

226Withina5-mileradiusofTheWorldStage,thepopulationis33.1%and

Latina/o,32.8%Black.See:TheUrbanLandInstitute:LeimertParkVillage.Ridley-ThomasLACounty.gov.Web.15April2016.

232InterviewwithDwightTrible2March2016.

233Seeprogramsattheworldstage.org.

234InterviewwithDwightTrible.2March2016.

235Ibid.

197

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