America in close-up

America

IN CLOSE-UP

America

IN CLOSE-UP

ECKHARD FIEDLER REIMER JANSEN MIL NORMAN-RISCH

Pearson Education LimitedEdinburgh Gate, Harlow,Essex CM20 2]E, Englandand Associated Companies throughout the world.

www.longman-elt.com

© Longman Group UK Limited 1990All rights reserved; no part of this publicationmay be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise,expect in those cases explicity allowed by local law,without the prior written permission of the Publishers.

ISBN 0582 749298 First published 1990 Tenth impression 2001

British Library Cataloging in Publication DataFiedler, Eckhard

America in close-up.1. United States. Social lifeI. Title II. Jansen, Reimer III. Norman-Risch, Mill 973.927

Set in 10/12 pt. PalatinoPrinted in China EPC/10

ContentsIndex of Part В Texts 8Introduction 10

UNIT

1 The Making of a Nation 13UNIT

2 American Beliefs and Values 25UNI 3 Regionalism vs. 43UNIT

4 The U.S. Economy 59UNIT

5 The Urbanization of America 81UNI 6 Law, Crime, and Justice 97UNI 7 Minorities 112UNIT

8 The Changing Role of Women 127UNIT

9 The Political System 142UNI 10 America's Global Role 170UNIT

11 Education 188UNIT

12 Religion 205UNIT The Arts 225

UNIT

14 Sports 245UNI 15 The Media 261

Some Facts about the States 278Presidents and Vice-Presidents

of the United States 279Index 280

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PART в TextsUNIT 1 The Making of a Nation1. "America". Lyrics from the musical West SideStory by Stephen Sondheim and LeonardBernstein

2. New York - A Melting Pot. The text is takenfrom the back cover of MAYOR by EdwardKoch.

3. Immigration Today: A Case Study. FromNewsweek.

4. A Newsweek Poll on Immigration.

UNIT 2 American Beliefs and Values1. The American Idea by Theodore H. White.From The New York Times magazine.

2. American Dreams: Arnold Schwarzeneggerand Florence Scala. From American Dreams:Lost and Found by Studs Terkel.

3. A Discussion of American Beliefs and Values.An interview with four young Americans.

4. Put Out No Flags by Matthew Rothschild.From The Progressive.

UNIT 3 Regionalism vs.Americanization1. The Cooling of the South byRaymondArsenault. From the Wilson Quarterly.

2. Southern Women - Still Ladies?by CoraMcKinney

3. The Nation's Most Strongly Defined Region.From "New England's Regionalism andRecovery" by W. Street and H. Gimlin inAmerican Regionalism edited by HoytGimlin.

4. What is a Middle Westerner? From "TheMiddle West" by John Fraser Hart in Annalsof the Association of American Geographers.

5. "Just Like the Rest of Us, Only More So."From "California: Living Out the GoldenDream" by R. Kipling and W. Thomas inAmerican Regionalism edited by Hoyt

Gimlin.

UNIT 4 The U.S. Economy1. Peter Drucker on

Entrepreneurs. From U.S.News & World Report.

2. Inside Bell Labs by Gene Bylinsky. FromDialogue.

3. A French Fry Diary: From IdahoFurrow toGolden Arches by Meg Cox. From AmericanCharacter: Views of America from the WallStreet journal.

4. The Forgotten Farmer by Danny Collum.From Sojourners.

5. Economics vs. Ecology: Problems with Solutions to Pollution by Robert W. Haseltine. From USA Today.

UNIT 5 The Urbanization of America1. Small Town Life by Berton Roueche. FromSpecial Places, In Search of Small TownAmerica.

2. Revival of a City's Virtues — Why a youngsingle woman moves to the cityby MildredNorman-Risch.

3. Neighborhoods. From A Raisin in theSun byLorraine Hansberry.

4. Children of Poverty - Crisis in New York byAndrew Stein. From The New York Timesmagazine.

5. Pittsburgh - A New City. From Dialogue.

UNIT 6 Law, Crime, and Justice1. A Brother's Murder by Brent Staples. FromThe New York Times magazine.

2. Arming Citizens to Fight Crimeby FrankBorzellieri. From USA Today.

3. The Death Penalty: Legal Cruelty? by DonaldB. Walker. From USA Today.

4. Thoughts on the Supreme Court — excerptsfrom an interview with Tom Clark. FromPerspectives.

5. How a Case Reaches the SupremeCourt.From Perspectives.

UNIT 7 Minorities1. I Am the Redman/My Lodge byDukeRedbird.

2. Brothers by Sylvester Monroe. FromNewsweek

3. Jessie de la Cruz. From American Dreams: Lostand Found by Studs Terkel.

4. Lucky ОГ Sundowners by Peter Black. FromThe Observer.

5. Where There's Smoke. From Time.

UNIT 8 The Changing Role of Women1. Second Thoughts on Having It All by TonySchwartz. From New York.

2. The Choices That Brought Me

Here byAmanda Spake. From Ms.

3. How to Have a Successful Christian Familyby Jerry Falwell. From a MoralMajorityPublication

INDEX OF PART В TEXTS9

4. Families. Statistics from the NationalEducation Association.

5. Husband's Hazard - For Middle-Aged Man,A Wife's New Career Upsets OldBalancesby Mary Bralove. From American Character:Views of America from the Wall Street Journal.

UNIT 9 The Political System1. Perspective of a Public Man - excerpts froman interview with Hubert Humphrey. FromPerspectives.

2. A President's Mission — extracts from GeorgeBush's nomination acceptance speech.

3. The Human Side of Congress -Representative Jim Wright. FromPerspectives.

4. Lobbyists and Their Issues a) American IsraelPublic Affairs Committee by Thomas Dine b)The Wilderness Society by Rebecca Leet.From Perspectives.

5. "If Conservatives Cannot Do itNow ..." —an interview with Irving Kristol. From U.S.News & World Report.

6. Reagan/Bush '84. The text is taken from theReagan/Bush campaign leaflet for the 1984presidential election.

7. Keynote Address by Governor Cuomo to theDemocratic National Convention July 1984(excerpts).

8. Americans Vote for Divided Government.From the Washington Post.

UNIT 10 America's Global Role1. America and the World: Principle andPragmatism by Henry Kissinger. From Time.

2. American Policy in Vietnam; Peace WithoutConquest. From a speech by Lyndon B.Johnson.

3. Top Dogs and Underdogs by J.William

Fulbright. From /. William Fulbright.

4. Exporting American Culture. From PublicOpinion.

UNIT 11 Education1. American Educational

Philosophies by DianeRavitch. From "American Education: Has thePendulum Swung Once Too Often?" inHumanities.

2. What Makes Great Schools Great?From USNews & World Report.

3. An American Senior High School — anAmerican student talks about his highschool.

4. Attendance Policy and Procedures - QuincySenior High Attendance Policy for 1984 to1985.

5. What Students Think About Their Schools.

6. Universities in Transition byDavid Riesman. From the WilsonQuarterly.

UNIT 12 Religion1. Sunday in Hope by Berton

Roueche. FromSpecial Places — In Search of Small TownAmerica.

2. I Have a Dream - an extract from MartinLuther King's speech at the Lincoln Memorialon August 28 1963.

3. Breaking New Ground on War andPeace byPaul Bock. From USA Today.

4. Power, Glory - And Politics. From Time.5. School Prayer - excerpts from

PresidentReagan's remarks to the AnnualConventionof National Religious Broadcasters.

UNIT 13 The Arts1. Toward a National Theater by Howard Stein.From Dialogue.

2. A Dozen Outstanding Plays of the PastQuarter Century. From Dialogue.

3. An Interview with Jack Nicholson by BeverlyWalker, From Film Comment.

4. Literary Hollywood by Stanley Kauffman.From The New Republic.

5. The Chairman and the Boss by Jay Cocks.From Time.

UNIT 14 Sports1. Interview: High School Sports - Steve Peter,an American exchange student who spent ayear in a German school, talksabout highschool sports.

2. Sports in America: Colleges andUniversities.From Sports in America by James A.Michener.

3. Baseball. From The Oxford Companion toSports and Games.

4. Running for Your Life by Matt Clark andKaren Springen. From Newsweek.

5. Lousy at Sports by Mark Goodson. From TheNew York Times magazine.

UNIT 15 The Media1. The Case for Television Journalism by Eric

Sevareid. From Saturday Review.2. The Nature of TV in America by RichardBurke.

3. Television. The text is the television columnfrom The Herald-Telephone.

4. This Is Not Your Life: Television as the ThirdParent by Benjamin Stein. From PublicOpinion.

5. The Likability Sweepstakes by RichardStengel. From Time.

6. Dilemmas. From Public Opinion.

IntroductionAimsAmerica in Close-up is a refreshingly different type ofbook for use by advanced students of English in theupper grades of secondary schools and on the morebasic courses in colleges and universities. Bycombining the two functions of reader and reference book itaims to offer students the most complete possibleintroduction to American life and institutions, andbecause of its design is unusually flexible both inthe classroom and as a self-study aid.

Content and OrganizationEach unit of America in Close-up is divided into three sections:Part A: factual background informationPart B: authentic textsPart C: exercisesThe texts in Part В form the reader and the focus is oncontemporary America.Taken from individual writers with lively and divergent views, the textsexplore a wide range of issues and accumulatively paint an authentic pictureof current trends and debates.It is the factual information in the Part A

sections which provides the historical and culturalcontext necessary for the students to understandthese issues. Taken together, these build into acomprehensive work of reference that covers almostall major areas of American life.The Part С exercises—linked to the texts in Part B —

are designed to provoke discussion and to developlanguage skills such as comprehension and textanalysis. Some exercises reflect explicitly theimportant cross-cultural objective which underlies thisbook. It is our belief that by studying Americanlife, students will become not only more sensitiveto their own environment but also better able tounderstand and accept cultural differences whereverthey meet them.

How to Use the BookAmerica in Close-up can be used in a number of different ways. Some of these are listed below.• Because of the breadth of historical andcontemporary information that it contains, America in

Close-up is the ideal basic coursebook for an AmericanStudies program. It is suitable both for classroomuse and for self-study and individual research.

INTRODUCTION 11

The authentic reading material and the wide varietyof exercises in America in Close-up make it astimulating textbook for use in advanced Englishlanguage classes where the U.S. is the topic underconsideration. Teachers will decide for themselveshow much of the background information in the Part Asections to draw in; indeed, some may prefer toconcentrate on these for a more systematic andfactual approach.America in Close-up can be used equally well as a generalcompanion to the study of other fictional (and non-fictional) texts —for example, to provide thesocio-economic background to a poem, drama, shortstory or complete novel. Again the option is therefor classroom use or individual study. Usedselectively, America in Close-up offers teachers andstudents information and reading material on a givenaspect of America as and when this is appropriate.

The Making of a Nation

PART A Background InformationNATION OF IMMIGRANTS

FIRST IMMIGRANTS

The United States is a society of immigrants. Sinceits early days, the country has admitted more than 50million newcomers, a larger number of immigrants thanany country in history. Most people came, and stillcome today, for wealth, land, and freedom.Stories of the New World's gold attracted the first

Spanish explorers, who in the 1500s establishedoutposts in what is now Florida. Prospects of wealthalso motivated French fur traders, who set up tradingposts from the St. Lawrence River to the Great Lakesand down the Mississippi River. The British, whowere the first to colonize on a large scale, came forprofit and also for religious freedom. The firstsuccessful English colony founded at Jamestown,Virginia, was financed by a London company thatexpected to make money from the settlement. EnglishPuritans, Protestants who disagreed with theteachings of the Church of England, establishedsettlements in the northeastern region. In the NewWorld they could worship as they pleased.Throughout the 1600s and 1700s permanent

settlements were rapidly established all along theeast coast. Most of the early settlers were British.These early immigrants were soon joined by people ofother nationalities. German farmers settled inPennsylvania, Swedes founded the colony of Delaware,and the Dutch settled in New York. Africans,America's unwilling immigrants, provided slave laborin the southern colonies. Immigrants also came fromFrance, Spain, and Switzerland.When they settled in the New World, many

immigrants tried to preserve the traditions,religion, and language of their particular culture.The language and culture of the more numerousEnglish colonists, however, had the overridinginfluence. American society was predominantly English—white Anglo-Saxon Protestant (WASP). Thoseimmigrants who did not want to feel separate from thedominant WASP culture learned English and adoptedEnglish customs.

Puritan: a member of an English sect of Protestants, who, inthe sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, advocated simplification of the creeds and ceremonies of the Church of England and demanded strict religious discipline.WASP: W(hite) A(nglo)-S(axon) P(rotestant); an American of British or northern European ancestry who is a member of the Protestant church. WASPs are frequently considered to form the most privileged and influential group which formerly dominated U.S. society.

14 AMERICA IN CLOSE-UP

AMERICAN INDIANS

OLD IMMIGRATION

SOUTHEASTERN EUROPEANS

European settlement changed the fate of America'sonly non-immigrants, the Native American Indians.Europeans arrived in great numbers and needed landand game for their survival. They seized Indianlands through war, threats, and treaties, and theyhunted game, cut forests, and built big cities. Tothe Indians the white men were unwanted trespassers.They did not want the "white man's civilization."They had their own which had been successful forcenturies. The clash of cultures led to many battles,among them General Custer's famous Last Stand atLittle Bighorn in 1876. By the end of the nineteenthcentury disease and warfare had almost wiped out theIndian population. Those that remained tried toresist the U.S. government's efforts to confine themto reservations. The Plains Indians' final defeat in1890 at the Battle of Wounded Knee symbolized the endof the Indians' traditional way of life. From theIndians' perspective, the story of Europeanimmigration is a story of struggle and displacement.Between 1840 and 1860, the United States received

the greatest influx of immigrants ever. During thisperiod, 10 million people came to America. By themiddle of the century the United States, with over 23million inhabitants, had a larger population than anysingle European country. The proportion of newcomersincreased rapidly so that by 1860 about 13 of every100 persons in the U.S. were recent immigrants.In the mid-1800s, thousands of Chinese emigrated to

California, where most of them worked on therailroad. Up until 1880, the overwhelming majority ofimmigrants, however, came from northern or westernEurope. Many left Europe to escape poor harvests,famines or political unrest. Between 1845 and 1860, aserious blight on the potato crop in Ireland senthundreds of thousands of Irish people to the U.S. toescape starvation. In one year alone—1847— 118,120Irish people settled in the U.S. German immigrationwas especially heavy. During the peak years of Germanimmigration, from 1852 to 1854, over 500,000 Germanscame to live in the U.S. The northern and westernEuropeans who arrived between 1840 and 1880 are oftenreferred to as the "old immigration."A new wave of immigration began in the late 1800s.

Northern and western Europe were no longer providingthe majority of the immigrants. The new immigrantswere Latin, Slavic, and Jewish peoples from southernand eastern Europe. Among these new arrivals wereItalians, Hungarians, Poles, Russians, Rumanians, andGreeks, all people whose languages, customs, andappearance

Custer, George A.: (1839-76), U.S. general who fought the Indians, and was killed in the battle of the Little Bighorn.Little Bighorn: a river flowing northward from Wyoming to join the Bighorn in southern Montana where Custer and his men were massacred by Indians in 1876.

Plains Indian: a member of the mostly nomadic tribes of Indianswho once inhabited the Great Plains of the United States and Canada. They were also called Buffalo Indians.Wounded Knee: the battle at Wounded Knee Creek in South Dakota on December 29, 1890, marked the final act in the tragedy of the Indian wars. Shortly after the famous Indian leader Chief Sitting Bull (1834-90) had been killed, soldiers opened fire upon unarmed Indian men, women, and children leaving more than 200 dead.railroad: the building of railroads played an important role in the opening up of the American West. Private companiessupported by both state and private funds competed in this enterprise and hired vast numbers of laborers, especially during the great wave of railroad building in the 1850s.

THE MAKING OF A NATION 15

NATIVIST SENTIMENT

ASSIMILATIONPROCESS

RECENT IMMIGRATION

set them apart conspicuously from the earlierimmigrants of Celtic or Teutonic origin. This newwave of immigration was so great that in the peakyears of unlimited immigration between 1900 and 1920the number of immigrants sometimes rose to as manyas a million a year.The flood of immigration affected American cities.

Immigrants were crowding into the largest cities,particularly New York and Chicago, often formingethnic neighborhoods—"Little Italys" or "Chinatowns"—where they preserved their language and customs.These ethnic enclaves grew at an astonishing rate. In1890 New York was a city of foreigners: eight out often of its residents were foreign-born. In 1893Chicago had the largest Czech population in theworld and almost as many Poles as Warsaw.The assimilation of these new southern and eastern

peoples was a source of conflict. Many Americanstreated them with prejudice and hostility, claimingracial superiority of the Nordic peoples of the oldimmigration over the Slavic and Latin peoples of thenew immigration. Religious prejudice against Catholicsand Jews was another factor underlying much of theresentment towards immigrants. Many old stockAmericans observed with alarm that the ethniccomposition of the country was changing and fearedthat America was losing its established character andidentity. Growing industrialization in the latenineteenth century led industries to favor an "opendoor" immigration policy to expand the labor force.Many American workers resented new immigrant laborerswho were willing to work for lower wages. Americansfeared the immigrants were taking away their jobs.The government responded to the prejudices of anolder wave of immigrants. In the 1920s Congress passedquota restrictions which favored immigration fromnorthern and western Europe and drastically limitedthe number of immigrants from southern and easternEurope. Chinese immigration to the Pacific coast hadalready been halted in 1882.The descendents of these turn-of-the-century

arrivals were gradually assimilated into Americansociety. The first generation typically facedobstacles to assimilation on both sides: society'sdiscrimination and their own reluctance to give uptheir language and culture. Their children,

however,werebetterable toidentifythemselves asAmericans. By thesecondgeneration, thesefamiliesspokemostlyEnglishand theypracticedfewerethnictraditions.

Members of the third generation, usually no longerable to speak the language of their grandparents,often became nostalgic about family heritage,desiring to regain the ethnic identity before it waslost. By the fourth or fifth generation,intermarriage between ethnic groups usually workedagainst any yearnings towards reestablishing theethnic identity.Although immigration dropped after the 1920s, the

numbers have again risen dramatically, so that recentstatistics indicate an increase to perhaps 600,000 oreven 700,000 per year, when refugees are included.America is again faced with an assimilation problem.The majority of the newest immigrants come fromMexico, Latin America, or Asia. Among thesenewcomers, the Asians seem most willing toassimilate. Many are Cambodian and Vietnam refugeeswho fled the destruction and upheaval of the VietnamWar. Cambodians and Vietnamese have usually shown adrive to succeed as Americans. They encourage theirchildren to speak accentless English and playAmerican games.

Vietnam War: a conflict (1954—75) between South Vietnam, aidedby the United States, and the Vietcong (a Communist-led army and guerrilla force in South Vietnam) and North Vietnam, receiving military aid mainly from Communist China.


REFUGEES

ILLEGAL ALIENS

IMMIGRATION RESTRICTION

Cubans, many of whom were wealthy property ownersbefore Castro's regime, often show a similar drive tofit in and become prosperous. Mexican-Americans, nowcomprising about one-fifth of California's totalpopulation, are not so easily assimilated. Theygenerally have a strong sense of their own cultureand often marry among themselvesUnder the 1980 Refugee Act the United States has

admitted some 50,000 refugees per year who, asdefined by this act, are fleeing their countrybecause of persecution on the basis of race,religion, nationality, membership of a particularsocial group, or political opinion. Some Americans,most notably activists in the church sanctuarymovement, would like to broaden the concept "refugee"to include economic refugees, i.e. persons sufferingfrom severe poverty. American society, they pointout, has always given people the opportunity to helpthemselves. The argument against recognizing andadmitting economic refugees is that the nation'sresources could not accommodate a sudden influx ofthe world's poor and provide them with jobs andassistance.In the years between 1980 and 1985, about 600,000

immigrants were legally admitted each year. Inaddition, hundreds of thousands of persons enteredthe country illegally, most of them fleeing povertyor war in Mexico or Latin America. Many illegalaliens supply cheap labor as farm workers at harvesttime or work at menial tasks which Americans shun.Up to 1986 the law forbade illegal immigrants towork in the United States but did not penalizeemployers for hiring them. These circumstancesencouraged many people to risk illegal employment inthe U.S. However, an immigration law passed onOctober 17, 1986 attempted to stamp out the incentivefor aliens to enter the country illegally byimposing strict penalties on businesses hiringillegal aliens. In addition, this law provided theopportunity for aliens who had lived and worked inthe U.S. since 1981 to apply for status as permanentresidents. As many as half the nation's estimated 3to 5 million illegal immigrants became able to applyfor legal status.In the 1980s immigration, both legal and illegal,

had a substantial impact on U.S. population growth.When both legal and illegal entries were counted,close to one half of all growth was attributable toimmigration. America's future ethnic composition andpopulation growth will clearly be affected by theimmigration and population policies the governmentpursues.Americans continue to debate the issue of

immigration. Somegroups infavour oftighteningimmigrationrestrictions arguethatoverpopulation is athreat.Based oncurrentrates,U.S.populationcoulddouble inonly 40years.Restrictingimmigration wouldcurb therate ofgrowth.Otherargumentsforrestrictingimmigration arerooted inthe samefears thatarousednativistsentimentat theturn ofthecentury.ManyAmericansfear thatimmigrantsmay lowerthequality oflife inAmerica bytakingawayAmericans'jobs andbyimportingthe same

social and economic ills that exist in the countriesthey left. Furthermore, they argue that tighteningrestrictions is a necessary measure to preserveAmerica's national identity. On the other hand, manyAmericans more optimistically emphasize the culturalwealth and diversity which immigrants have beenbringing to the nation since its conception.

Castro, Fidel: born 1927, Cuban revolutionary and prime ministersince 1959.church sanctuary movement: a movement of American churches helping refugees and illegal immigrants by giving them shelter and protection from eviction.nativist: protecting the interests of natives against those ofimmigrants.


\ IDENTITY\CRISIS V—

The debate over immigration comes at a time whenAmericans are wrestling with the problem of identity.In the past, the majority of Americans consideredthemselves WASPs. Many groups, for example blacks,whose ancestors were brought over as slaves, were notregarded by the majority as true Americans. Newcomerswere expected to assimilate and live on themajority's terms. The mass migration at the turn ofthe century brought a new heterogeneity to Americansociety which challenged WASPs to acknowledge thatAmericans could be Catholic or Jewish, almond-eyed orolive-skinned. Still, in the early 1900s, America'spolicy towards Americanizing immigrants stressedassimilation into WASP culture, and, still, thecountry's leaders were old stock AmericanProtestants. Before John F. Kennedy became the firstCatholic to be elected President of the UnitedStates in 1960, all other presidents wereProtestant.Since the 1960s, as the ethnic composition changed

even more, with fewer and fewer people able to claimWASP status, Americans' attitudes towards ethnic andreligious differences have altered. Pressure onimmigrants to Americanize and altogether forget theirbackground has relaxed. High political offices areheld by non-whites and non-Protestants.Americans are aware that the national ethnic,

religious identity—WASP — which once unified thecountry under certain shared assumptions and values,has disappeared. In a country where currently 6percent of the population is foreign-born, where morethan 10 percent speaks a language other than Englishat home, and where newcomers are crossing theborders daily in droves, diversity is a majorcharacteristic. The well-known picture of America asa melting pot where all groups come together,creating a new, distinct American type, is not anadequate metaphor. On the whole, a more accuratepicture of American society today, one that conveysits astonishing variety of cultures, each preservingits own distinctiveness, is vegetable soup.

MILLIONS How Many Came? (Immigration by decade, 1821 -1980)

1821 1831 1841 1851 1861 1871 1881 1891 1901 1911 1921 1931 1941 1951 1961 1971 -1830 -1841 -1850-1860-1870 -1880-1890 -1900-1910-1920-1930-1940 -1950-1960-1970-1980

Who WereThey? (Immigrants by Region, 1821-1980)

100%- 7У1 /y VZ-

1821-60

1861-1900

1901-30 1931-60 1961-70Mill ........I......1971-80

: : ' ' ■ '

AsiaLatin America

II D IISouthern and Northern andCanada Eastern Europe WesternEurope

Other( including Africa)

18

PART в Texts

"AMERICA"In the musical West Side Story — lyrics by Stephen Sondheim and music by Leonard Bernstein — Puerto Ricans express their experiences as a minority in the U.S.A.

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I like to be in America, Okay by me in America. Ev'rything free in America. For a small fee in America.Buying on credit is so nice.

One look at us and they charge twice. I'd have my own washing-machine.

What will you have though to keep clean?Skyscrapers bloom in America. Have a lot soon in America. Industry boomin America. Twelve in a room in America.Lots of new housing with more space.

Lots of doors slamming in our face. I'llget a terraced apartment.

Better get rid of your accent!

Life can be bright in America —

If you can fight in America.Life is all right in America -

If you're white in America.Here you are free and you have pride -Long as you stay on your own side.

Free to be anything you choose -Free to wipe tables and shine shoes.

Everywhere grime in America. Organized crime in America. Terrible time in America. You forget I'm in America./ think I'll go back to San Juan.

I know a boat you can geton.

Everyone there will give big cheer! Everyone there will have moved here.


©New York— A Melting Pot?.

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Хос/г, Edward: born 12.12.1924, mayorof the "City of New York from 1978 to 1989. He was succeeded by David Dinkins, the first black mayor of New York City.


Immigration Today: A CaseStudyFor those fleeing political, religious or racial repression, immigration to America can be a life-and-death matter. The United States formally recognizes this by allowing the persecuted to circumvent the normal system. They can apply either for asylum, if they are already here or at a port of entry, or refugee status, if they are outside the country. At least 120,000 Cambodians were accepted into the United States under this system by the early 1980s. But recently the number of refugees admitted to the United States has dropped sharply. Although each case is theoretically considered on its own merits, federal officials today keep a sharp eye out for those who seem to be "economic migrants" running from poverty, not persecution.

ormer refugee Savuth Sath, 32,of Cambodia, expresses a

somewhat cynical view of what ittakes to succeed in America."It's an acting exercise," hesays. 'You need only to makeyourself look as decent as youcan, get to where you have to beon time, do what you're requiredto do, and you'll be fine." Sothen why do Sath and his wife, MomChhay, 25, hold down one part-time and two full-time jobs evenas they serve as landlords intheir multifamily house inChelsea, Mass.? "Money is anecessary tool for real estate,"says Sath. "I'm still working fora living now." Besides, "nothing'sever completely over. We couldrun out of food here next,"

F

Sath's penchant for security iseasy to understand. One of fivechildren of a poor Cambodiannoodle vendor, he was separatedfrom his family in 1975, when theKhmer Rouge drafted the young,unmarried men and women of hiscountry into forced-labor camps.For the next four years he livedsurrounded by death and on theedge of starvation. "Boys andgirls dried up like air," hesays. "Girls especially wouldjust lie down in the water todie." In 1979 he was reunitedwith one brother and a cousin,and the three made their way to arefugee camp in Thailand; therehe met and married Mom Chhay. Thetwo arrived in America, withoutluggage or money, in 1981. Hisfirst impression: the squirrels."They play so close to the house.In my country we had millions ofrats."

A Cambodian immigrant working in the U.S.

from 3 P.M. till 11 P.M. or laterat $8,05 an hour - and 50 percentmore for overtime, Mom Chhay,meanwhile, works a 45-hour week onthe production line of a medical-diagnostic lab in Newton.That leaves Sath with a few

hours at home, and he is "lookingfor something to do." Sometimeshe carves miniature wooden oxcarts, replicas of the ones foundm Cambodia, while watching gameshows on TV. Often he peruses thereal-estate ads. He bought his 80-year-old house for $107,000 andrents the upstairs apartment toanother Cambodian family for $800a month. He would like to increasehis real-estate holdings, but he

But Sath has little time todayfor reflecting on nature. Hisworkday starts at noon, with atwo-hour stint as a caseworker atthe Jewish Vocational TrainingCenter — one of several jobscounseling Cambodians he's heldsince arriving in the UnitedStates, Then he drives to a food-processing plant in Watertown,Mass., where he works as asupervisor

Khmer Rouge: red, or Communist, Cambodians, a militant force receiving military support from North Vietnam, opposing theright-wing nationalist regime of General Lon Nol.

THE MAKING OFANATION 21

A NEWSWEEK POLL ON IMMIGRATIONAmericans surveyed by NEWSWEEK were divided in their views on immigrants several proposals to stem a rising tide of illegal immigration into this country.

and on

I Do you think the number of immigrants now entering the U.S. from each of the following areas is too many, too few or

about right?

European Countries Latin America African Countries Asian Countries

£. Do you feel that English only should be used in all publicschools, public signs, government forms and official messagesin the United States. Or do you support the use of a secondlanguage in some areas to help immigrants participate ineducation, business, public affairs and daily life?English Only 47% Second Language 49%

О Some people say the government should make it much moredifficult for illegal aliens to get work in the U.S. bypenalizing companies that knowingly hire them. Others opposesuch a penalty because it would restrict U.S. businesses toomuch and limit opportunities for legal immigrants —especially Hispanics. Which view comes close to your own?Penalize Companies 61% Oppose Penalties 28%

4- Some people propose that the federal government issue identity cards to all citizens andlegal immigrants to distinguish them from those who are in the country illegally. Others opposethis plan on the grounds that it would give the federal government too much knowledge andcontrol over all Americans. Which view comes closest to your own?Issue ID Card 42% Oppose ID Card 52%

О Some people say there are too many illegal immigrants living in this country for theauthorities to arrest and deport them; they feel we should have an amnesty to let most of thesealiens live here legally. Others say the government should doeverything it can to arrest thoseliving in this country illegally. Which comes closer to your view?Amnesty for Those Here 34% Arrest and Deport 55%

Too Many 26%53%31%49%

TooFew

11%5%12%

About Right50% 30% 37%

О Do you agree or disagree with the following statements?

Immigrants take jobs from U.S. workers.Many immigrants work hard — often taking jobs thatAmericans don't want.Many immigrants wind up on welfare and raise taxes for AmericansImmigrants help improve our culture with their different cultures and talents.

Agree Disagr61% 36%80% 17%

59% 33%

61% 35%

For this NEWSWEEK Poll. The Gallup Organization interviewed 751 adults bytelephone on June 1, 2 and 3. The margin of error is plus or minus 4 percentagepoints. 'Don't knows' not shown. The NEWSWEEK Poll @ 7984 by NEWSWEEK Inc.

From Newsweek magazine, June 25, 1984

22

PART C Exercises

1. Analyzing a Song"America"1. The song is recited by two groups of PuertoRicans. Generally speaking, what is thedifference in the two groups' views ofAmerica?

2. Looking at each of the eight stanzas of thesong, how is the theme of the ambivalentAmerican experience developed?

3. Now have a closer look at the language whichis used in the song to expressthe contrastingviews of America. Which stylistic andsyntactical means does StephenSondheimuse when he makes the second group take upand react to the points brought up by thefirst group?

4. How are these stylistic devices used toconvey the differing viewpoints of thesingers? How would you describe the generaltone of the song?

5. What do you think Stephen Sondheim'sintention was when writing thelyrics of thissong?

2. Interview PracticeNew York—A Melting Pot?Working in pairs, simulate an interview with Mayor Koch based on the information given on the back cover of his book. You wantto know:• how he felt about being the mayor of New

York• how many inhabitants the mayorof NewYork is responsible for

• what he did to get to know thepeople ofNew York

• how many people are represented at the U.N.• in which respects the people of New Yorkdiffer

• whether he thinks New York is a melting pot• what he thinks about those whotried toforget their heritage in orderto become trueAmericans

• the role ethnic traditions should play• why some immigrant groups changed theirnames

• if he can give examples of the new awarenessof ethnic traditions

3. Writing a ResumeImmigration Today: A Case StudySavuth Sath reads the followingad in theChelsea Gazette.

Major expanding food company is seekingcareer-oriented applicants for the position of

MANAGEMENT ASSISTANTto supervise production of our chickenprocessing plant, plan and coordinate new food section.We offer advancement opportunities and an attractive salary.Send your application with a resume in tabular form including• all personal facts• qualifications and present job• hobbies and other interestsCHICKENHOUSE FREEZEWAY, Inc. Chelsea, MA

Write the tabularized resume and the application for Savuth Sath.

4. Comprehension CheckA Newsweek Poll on ImmigrationDetermine whether the statements are true or false andcorrect the false ones with reference to the information given in the Newsweek poll.1. About half the Americans surveyed believethat too many Asians immigrateinto theU.S.

2. Most Americans believe thatthe fastest wayof being integrated into American life isspeaking only English.


3. A vast majority of Americans believe thatfirms which hire illegal aliens should bepenalized.

4. Most Americans feel that the governmentwould have too much control over them ifidentity cards were introduced.

5. Most Americans would not like to see illegalimmigrants return to their countries.

6. There is almost unanimous agreement thatillegal immigrants are hard-working people.

7. About a third of all Americans agree thatmany immigrants are a social and economicburden for society.

8. The notion that the culture of immigrantsenriches the American culture is not sharedby most people surveyed.

5. Discussion Points1. Are there different ethnic groups in your country? Where do they come from? Where

do they live? How do they differ from the majority of people in your country with respect to customs, religion, clothing, food, music, etc.?

2. How is immigration handledin yourcountry? Are there any major restrictions?What do you know about the immigrants'motives for leaving their mother countriesand what are their expectations about livingin your country?

3. To what extent do you think immigrants ofdifferent ethnic backgrounds should beintegrated into society? How do the ethnicminorities themselves feel about this issue?

6. Picture AnalysisDescribe and compare these pictures featuring immigration to the U.S. 100 years ago and today.

Illegal Mexican immigrants detected by helicopter border control as they try to cross the Rio Grande

German immigrants in the 1890s greeting the Statue of Liberty as they enter New York Harbor


7. Essay Writing"Emigrating to the U.S. Today"Write an essay of about 300 wordson this topic expressing why youcould or could not imagineemigrating to the United States.

8. DebatePrepare and carry out a debate on the motion"The U.S. should strictly prohibit all illegalimmigration."The following diagram and the text are meant toinform you about the structure and the rules of adebate.

Chairperson

proposer

opposer

For

seconder

seconder

: ::

audience

A debate is a formal discussion led by a chairperson who presents thesubject of the debate which is called the motion. The proposer makes a short speech giving arguments for the motion, whereas the opposer speaks against it. Then the proposer and the opposer are supported by their seconders, who take up the arguments already presented. The audience may interrupt the speakers to ask questions on

points of information (but not todiscuss their arguments!). When the main speakers have finished, the chairperson declares the motion open to general discussion by the audience, at the end of which the opposer and then the proposer give summaries of the points which have been made. Finally a vote is taken on the motion.

2 American Beliefs and Values

PART A Background Information

IDEALS AND VALUES What among all of its regional and cultural diversitygives America its national character and enables itscitizens to affirm their common identity as Americans?Clearly, having a particular race or creed or lifestyledoes not identify one as American. However, there arecertain ideals and values, rooted in the country'shistory, which many Americans share.

FREEDOM At the center of all that Americans value is freedom. Americans commonly

regard their society as the freest and best in theworld. They like to think of their country as awelcoming haven for those longing for freedom andopportunity. They are proud to point out that eventoday America's immigration offices are flooded withhopeful applicants who expect the chance for a betterlife. The news of a Soviet ballet dancer's or Polishartist's defection to the United States arouses a rushof national pride, for such events give substance tothe ideal of freedom that America represents to itspeople and to the world. Moreover, such news eventsprovide continuity to Americans' perception of theirhistory as being that of a nation populated byimmigrants who exercised free choice in coming to theNew World for a better life.Americans' understanding of freedom is shaped by the

Founding Fathers' belief that all people are equal andthat the role of government is to protect eachperson's basic "inalienable" rights. The U.S.Constitution's Bill of Rights, ratified in 1791,assures individual rights, including provisions forfreedom of speech, press, and religion.The notion that America offers freedom for all is an

ideal that unifies Americans and links present topast. Yet this ideal has not always corresponded toreality. The inconsistency of black slavery in asociety supposedly dedicated to freedom and equalityplagued the nation from the very beginning and was notresolved until the Civil War. Reality continues todemonstrate that some social groups and individuals

are not as free as others. Because of religious,racial, sex, or age discrimination some Americans havenot enjoyed the same rights and opportunities asothers. In a real sense, American history is the

Founding Father: member of the Constitutional Convention of 1787 which drafted the fundamental law of the U.S.Bill of Rights: the first ten amendments to the Constitution ofthe United States.


INDIVIDUALISM

IDEALIZING WHATIS PRACTICAL

history of groups and individuals struggling toattain the freedoms the Founding Fatherspromised.Americans' notion of freedom focuses on the

individual, and individualism has strongphilosophical roots in America. Thomas Jefferson,philosopher, third president of the nation and authorof the Declaration of Independence, believed that afree individual's identity should be held sacred andthat his or her dignity and integrity should not beviolated. America's nineteenth-centuryTranscendentalist philosophers, including RalphWaldo Emerson, Henry David Thoreau, and MargaretFuller, argued for more individual self-reliance.Transcendentalists encouraged individuals to trustin themselves and their own consciences and torevolt against routine and habitual paths ofconduct. The nineteenth-century poet Walt Whitmancelebrated the individual in his poetry. In By BlueOntario's Shore Whitman writes,I swear nothing is good to me now that ignores individuals,The American compact is altogether with individuals.

Early twentieth-century Pragmatists such as WilliamJames and John Dewey insisted upon the individual'sability to control his or her fate.Individualism, understood not only as self-reliance

but also as economic self-sufficiency, has been acentral theme in American history. In the earlydays, most Americans were farmers whose successdepended not on cooperation with others but on theirability to confront the hardships of land andclimate on their own. Both success and virtue weremeasured by individual resourcefulness. In Americanhistory, the concept of "rugged individualism' iscommonly identified with frontier heroes such asDaniel Boone and Davy Crockett, men who braved thewilderness alone. The idealization of the self-reliant individual translated itself in theindustrial age into the celebration of the smallbusinessman who became a financial success on hisown.Even in today's society, where most Americans work

for large, complex organizations and few people canclaim economic self-sufficiency, individualismpersists. Individual proprietorship in business isstill extolled as the ideal. Government regulationis often resisted in the spirit of individualism."Right to work" laws, which discourage unionactivity, are defended on the grounds that theyprotect the independence of the individual worker.Many historians believe that most of the beliefs and

values which are characteristically American emergedwithin the context of the frontier experience.Survival in the wilderness was best achieved by

robustindividualists. Survival

experiences also explain the American tendency toidealize whatever is practical. In America, whatworks is what counts. Most pioneers who went west

Emerson, Ralph Waldo (1803-82): American philosopher, essayist, япс! poet. Thoreau, Henry David (1817—62): American philosopher, essayist, and poet. Fuller, Margaret(1810—50): American author, critic, and feminist leader. James, William (1842—1910): American philosopher and psychologist. Dewey, John (1859-1952): American philosopher, educator, and author. Boone, Daniel (1734—1820): American pioneer; explored and settled Kentucky.Crockett, David ("Davy") (1786-1836): American frontiersman and politician.frontier: in American history the frontier was the edge ofthe settled country where unlimited cheap land wasavailable attracting pioneers who were willing to livethe hard but independent life in the West.

AMERICAN BELIEFS AND VALUES 27

VOLUNTEERISM

PSYCHOLOGY OF ABUNDANCE

had not trained themselves in prairie fanning or sodhouse construction, but they trusted they would beable to devise workable solutions to the dailyproblems and dangers they faced. Inventiveness wasnecessary for survival.This "can-do" spirit is something Americans are

proud of today. They like to think they are natural-born do-it-yourselfers. In which country does onefind such a variety of "how-to" books and self-service opportunities? There are do-it-yourselfbooks on everything from how to build and repair yourown engine to how to be your own best friend. Self-service arrangements include time-saving clerklessairline ticket counters and do-it-yourself telephoneinstallment kits. These kinds of solutions appeal toAmericans' preference for whatever is quick andpractical.The do-it-yourself spirit is known as volunteerism in

American community and political life. Volunteerismmeans people helping people through privately-initiated, rather than government-sponsored,agencies. Volunteers, usually unpaid, are highlymotivated workers who organize themselves and othersto solve a particular community problem or meet animmediate social need, rather than waiting forsomeone else—usually the government—to do it. Vol-unteerism is pervasive, arising wherever socialservices do not cover community needs. When a highschool football team requires money for uniforms,parents and students form an athletic associationwhich organizes car washes and bake sales to raisemoney for uniforms. Volunteer fund-raising groupsstep in to help the needy in all spheres: there aregroups that hold clothing drives for the poor andhomeless as well as groups that organize expensivemoney-raising dinners to save a symphony orchestra,for example. Where there are gaps in federal socialprograms, volunteers provide services such as adulteducation, psychological counseling, and legal aid.The willingness to participate in such groups is sowidespread that six out of ten Americans are membersof a volunteer organization. Volunteerism reflectsAmericans' optimistic pride in their ability to workout practical solutions themselves.It is easy to be an optimistic do-it-yourselfer in

so many spheres when one takes for granted anabundance of resources. Historically, Americans haveregarded their country as a land of limitless wealth.The first colonists of the New World wrote lettersback home, contrasting the riches of America withthe scarcity of the lands from which they came. Sir

ThomasDale,governor ofVirginia in1611, saidof hiscolony:"Take fourof the bestkingdoms inChristendomand putthem alltogether,they may inno waycomparewith thiscountryeither forcommoditiesor goodnessof soil."Fertileland wascheap andavailableto anyonewho wantedto farm. Acountrywhereeveryonecould takewhat hewanted wasindeedalluring.Yet assettlementon the eastcoastincreased,resourcesweregraduallydepleted.Sometobaccolands beganto beexhaustedandabandonedbefore theend of theeighteenthcentury,and cottonlands werealsoabandoned

when their fertility was used up. Did it matter? No.There were still inexhaustible acres in thelimitless West.The words of a popular pioneer song capture the attitude that prevailed:Come along, come along, make no delay,Come from every nation, come from every way,Our lands are broad enough, don't be alarmed,For Uncle Sam is rich enough to give us all a farm.

The abundance of untapped natural resources on theAmerican frontier attracted not only farmers, butalso game hunters, fur trappers, gold and silverminers, lumberjacks, and cattle ranchers. Those whoexploited the land exercised little


MOBILITY

PATRIOTISM

restraint and opposed government regulation of theiractivities. The buffalo was hunted to nearextinction, millions of acres of forested land werecut and burned, and rivers were polluted frommining.Still America is rich in natural resources. But

attitudes toward wastefulness are changing. Whilesome Americans still believe in the inexhaustibilityof the nation's resources, others reluctantlyrecognize that the era of cheap and plentifulresources is over. They realize that America mustadopt new values to cope with a shrinking world.Today, America's Mountain West, the least populatedregion of the country where resources seem barelytapped, is suffering from a severe water shortage.Westerners are faced with the need to restrictpopulation growth and reconsider uses for water.Limits such as these are difficult to acknowledgebecause they contradict the psychology of abundancewhich has become so much a part of the American wayof life.The pragmatism of Americans and their trust in an

abundance of resources relates to the American habitof mobility. As a nation of immigrants, Americans havefrom the beginning shared the assumption that thepractical solution to a problem is to move elsewhereand make a fresh start. After all, this is theattitude that settled the West. Mobility in Americais not a sign of aimlessness but optimism. Pioneersmade the arduous journey westward because theybelieved they could establish a better life forthemselves and their children. Now, Americans movefrom place to place with the same sense of optimism,hoping to secure a better job or enjoy a warmerclimate.Moving about from place to place is such a common

and accepted practice that most Americans take it forgranted that they may live in four or five citiesduring their lifetime, perhaps buying a house andthen reselling it each time they move. Consequently,when Americans go house-hunting, their foremostconcern is usually how profitably they will be ableto resell the house. A comfortable, well-designedhouse is not necessarily desirable unless it has agood resale value. Americans hate to feel that buying

a housemightimmobilize themforever,therebyinhibitingtheirchancesofbetteringtheirlives.The

Americanhabit ofmobilityhas beenimportant in

contributing a degree of homogeneity to a society ofsuch extreme cultural diversity and spaciousness.Cultural differences still exist from region toregion, but they are becoming increasingly lessdistinct as mutual exchange occurs.A further consequence of Americans' mobility is that

they develop relatively little attachment to place.In this century, national pride has become generallystronger than regional pride. Foreign visitors toAmerica are quick to observe the prevalence ofpatriotic symbols: flags fly in suburbanneighborhoods, bumper stickers announce "I'm proudto be American," the national anthem is played atevery sporting event. National holidays such asThanksgiving and Independence Day intensify the senseof national identity. Yet patriotism in America is insome ways distinct from patriotism in othercountries. In many nations, patriotism isessentially the love of the land. Songs celebratethe scenery of certain rivers, valleys, and forests.In America, however, this specific sense of place,this identification with a particular geographicalregion as the

Thanksgiving Day: a national holiday celebrated on the fourthThursday of November to give thanks to God for the harvest,remembering particularly the first successful harvest ofthe early settlers who had suffered a terrible winterwhen they arrived.Independence Day: July 4, a national holiday celebrating theanniversary of the adoption of the Declaration ofIndependence in 1776.


PROGRESS

AMERICAN DREAM

QUESTIONING OF VALUES

homeland, is generally not developed to this extent.American patriotism is concentrated instead upon theparticular historic event of the nation's creationas a new start and upon the idea of freedom whichinspired the nation's beginnings.Directly associated with the value of freedom is the

ideal of progress. The nation's progress has beenmeasured by the taming of the frontier and industrialexpansion. The desire to progress by making use ofopportunities is important to Americans. In thisimmigrant society, progress is personally measuredas family progress over generations. Many Americanscan boast that with each succeeding generation sincetheir first ancestors arrived, the family's statushas improved. The classic American family saga is allabout progress. The great-grandparents, arriving fromthe Old World with nothing but the clothes on theirbacks, work hard and suffer poverty and alienation sothat they can provide a good education for theirchildren. The second generation, motivated by thesame vision of the future and willingness to workhard and make sacrifices, pass these values to theirchildren. The attainment of the vision of one'sgrandparents is part of the American Dream.The term American Dream, used in widely different

contexts from political speeches to Broadwaymusicals, eludes precise definition. J. T. Adams inThe Epic of America (1931) expressed it as "the dream of aland in which life should be better, richer, andfuller for every man with opportunities for eachaccording to his abilities and achievement." TheAmerican Dream is popularized in countless rags-to-riches stories and in the portrayal of the good lifein advertising and on TV shows. It teaches Americansto believe that contentment can be reached throughthe virtues of thrift, hard work, family loyalty, andfaith in the free enterprise system.However, throughout America's history, reality has

also taught her citizens, particularly minorities,that the American Dream is not open to all.Segregation and discrimination are effective toolswhich have barred minorities from equal opportunitiesin all spheres.Events in the late 1960s and early 1970s, most

obviously the Vietnam War and the Watergate scandal,jolted the country with doubts and insecurities andcreated fundamental divisions among Americans abouttheir country's goals. The mainstream Protestantvalues which had held society together seemed to becollapsing, and no coherent, unifying system ofbelief emerged as an alternative. The 1980s saw areturn to conservative family values and morals, aswell as a renewal of national pride. The ultimatesignificance, however, of this conservative revivalis uncertain. Some critics observe that with thebreakdown of consensus on beliefs and values whichbegan around 1970, there has been increasingdisparity of opinion about Americans' values and

national goals.

Vietnam War: see page 15.Watergate scandal: an illegal break-in at the Democratic Party headquarters in Washington, D.C. in 1972, involving Republican presidential campaign employees. President Nixon's cover-up led to his resignation in 1974.

30

PART в Texts

THE AMERICAN IDEA

By Theodore H. WhiteWhen he died seven weeks ago. Theodore H. White, thePulitzer Prize-winning author and journalist, was working

on an article for this magazine to commemorate the Fourthof July. Below is an excerpt from the unfinished piece.

The Statue of Liberty

HE IDEA WAS THERE AT THEvery beginning, well beforeThomas Jefferson put it

into words — and the idea rangthe call.

TJefferson himself could not

haveimaginedthe reachof his callacross theworld intime tocome whenhe wrote:"We hold

thesetruths tobe self-evident,that allmen arecreatedequal, thatthey areendowed bytheirCreatorwithcertainunalienablerights,that amongthese arelife,liberty andthe pursuitofhappiness."But over

the nexttwocenturiesthe callwould reachthe potatopatches ofIreland,theghettoes ofEurope, thepaddyfieldsof China,stirringfarmers toleavetheirlands andtownsmentheirtrades andthus

unsettling all traditionalcivilizations.It is the call from Thomas

Jefferson, embodied in thegreat statue that looks downthe Narrows of New York Harbor,and in the immigrants whoanswered the call, that we nowcelebrate.

SOME OF THE FIRST EUROPEANAmericans had come to the new continent to worship God in their own way, others to seek


1. continuedtheir fortunes. But, over acentury-and-a-half, the newworld changed those Europeans,above all the Englishmen who hadcome to North America. NeitherKing nor Court nor Church couldstretch over the ocean to thewild continent. To survive, thefirst emigrants had to learn togovern themselves. But thefreedom of the wildernesswhetted their appetites for morefreedoms. By the time Jeffersondrafted his call, men were inthe field fighting for thosenew-learned freedoms, killingand being killed by Englishsoldiers, the best-trainedtroops in the world, suppliedby the world's greatest navy.Only something worth dying forcould unite American volunteersand keep them in the field — astated cause, a flag, a nationthey could call their own.When, on the Fourth of July,

1776, the colonial leaders whohad been meeting as aContinental Congress inPhiladelphia voted to approveJefferson's Declaration ofIndependence, it was not puffed-up rhetoric for them to pledgeto each other "our lives, ourfortunes and our sacredhonor." Unless their new"United States of America" wonthe war, the Congressmen wouldbe judged traitors as relent-lessly as would the irregulars-under-arms in the field. And allknew what English law allowed in

the case of a traitor. Thevictim could be partlystrangled; drawn, ordisemboweled, while still alive,his entrails then burned and hisbody quartered.The new Americans were tough

men fighting for a very toughidea. How they won theirbattles is a story for theschoolbooks, studied byscholars, wrapped in myths byhistorians and poets. But whatis most important is the storyof the idea that made them intoa nation, the idea that had anexplosive power undreamed of in1776.All other nations had come

into being among people whosefamilies had lived for time outof mind on the same land wherethey were born. Englishmen areEnglish, Frenchmen are French,Chinese are Chinese, while theirgovernments come and go; theirnational states can be tornapart and remade without losingtheir nationhood. But Americansare a nation born of an idea;not the place, but the idea,created the United StatesGovernment.The story we celebrate this

weekend is the story of how thisidea worked itself out, how itstretched and changed and howthe call for "life, liberty andthe pursuit of happiness" doesstill, as it did in thebeginning, mean different thingsto different people ...

Statue of Liberty: a large copper statue located on Liberty Islandin New York harbor, given to the U.S. by France in 1886.Declaration of Independence: the document that proclaimed the freedom of the 13 American colonies from British rule. Written primarily by Thomas Jefferson, it was adopted on July 4 1776.War of Independence: the war between Great Britain and her colonies in North America (1775—83) by which the colonies won their independence (also called the RevolutionaryWar).


) JArnold Schwarzenegger

I was born in a little Austriantown, outside Graz. It was a300-year-old house.When I was ten years old, I

had the dream of being the bestin the world in something. WhenI was fifteen, I had a dreamthat I wanted to be the bestbody builder m the world and themost muscular man. It was notonly a dream I dreamed at night.It was also a daydream. It wasso much in my mind that I feltit had to become a reality. Ittook me five years of hardwork. Five years later, Iturned this dream into realityand became Mr. Universe, thebest-built man in the world."Winning" is a very important

word. There is one thatachieves what he wanted toachieve and there are hundredsof thousands that failed. Itsingles you out: the winner.I came out second three times,

but that is not what I calllosing. The bottom line for mewas: Arnold has to be thewinner. I have to win more oftenthe Mr, Universe title thananybody else. I won it fivetimes consecutively. I hold therecord as Mr. Olympia, the topprofessional body-buildingchampionship. I won it sixtimes. That's why I retired.There was nobody even close tome. Everybody gave up competingagainst me. That's what I calla winner.When I was a small boy, my

dream was not to be bigphysically, but big in way thateverybody listens to me when Italk, that I'm a very importantperson, that people recognizeme and see me as somethingspecial. I had a big need forbeing singled out.Also my dream was to end up inAmerica. ...

Arnold Schwarzenegger

It is the country where youcan turn your dream intoreality. Other countries don'thave those things. When I cameover here to America, I felt Iwas in heaven. In America, wedon't have an obstacle.Nobody's holding you back.Number One in America pretty

much takes care of the rest ofthe world. You kind of runthrough the rest of the worldlike nothing. I'm trying tomake people in America awarethat they should appreciatewhat they have here. You havethe best tax advantages hereand the best prices here andthe best products here.One of the things I always had

was a business mind. When I wasin high school, a majority of myclasses were business classes.Economics and accounting andmathematics. When I came overhere to this country, I reallydidn't speak English almost atall. I learned English and thenstarted taking businesscourses, because that's whatAmerica is best known for:business. Turning one dollarinto a million dollars in ashort period of time. Also whenyou make money, how do you keepit?


2. continuedThat's one of the most

important things when you havemoney in your hand, how can youkeep it? Or make more out ofit? Real estate is one of thebest ways of doing that. I ownapartment buildings, officebuildings, and raw land. That'smy love, real estate.I have emotions. But what you

do, you keep them cold or youstore them away for a time. Youmust control your emotions, youmust have command overyourself. ...Sport is one of those

activities where you reallyhave to concentrate. You mustpay attention a hundred percentto the particular thing you'redoing. There must be nothingelse on your mind. Emotionsmust not interfere. Otherwise,you're thinking about yourgirlfriend. You're in love,your positive energies getchanneled into anotherdirection rather than goinginto your weight room or makingmoney,You have to choose at a very

early date what you want: anormal life or to achievethings you want to achieve. Inever wanted to win a popularitycontest in doing things the waypeople want me to do it. I wentthe road I thought was best forme. A few people thought I wascold, selfish. Later they foundout that's not the case. After Iachieve my goal, I can be Mr.Nice Guy. You know what I mean?California is to me a

dreamland. It is the absolutecombination of everything I wasalways looking for. It has allthe money in the world there,show business there, wonderfulweather there, beautifulcountry, ocean is there. Snowskiing in the winter, you can goin the desert the same day. Youhave beautiful-looking peoplethere. They all have a tan.I believe very strongly in the

philosophy of staying hungry.If you have a dream and itbecomes a reality, don't staysatisfied with it too long. Makeup a new dream and hunt after

that one and turn it intoreality. When you have thatdream achieved, make up a newdream.I am a strong believer in

Western philosophy, thephilosophy of success, ofprogress, of getting rich. TheEastern philosophy is passive,which I believe in maybe threepercent of the times, and theninety-seven percent isWestern, conquering and goingon. It's a beautiful philosophy,and America should keep it up.

Florence ScalaIn the late fifties, Florence Scala led the fightagainst City Hall to save her oldneighborhood on Chicago's near WestSide. It was a multiethnic, multiracialcommunity. It was one of the city's mostalive areas. It is now a complex ofinstitutions, expressways, of public-housingprojects, and a few islands of old-timers,hanging on. ...

I had a feeling that thingswould happen in my life thatwould be magical. I thinkeverybody has that feeling, Ithought I would grow up to bewhatever it was I wanted to be.I was a dreamer. When I was inhigh school, I wanted to be awriter, a journalist. My dreamshave not been fulfilledpersonally,I was born in 1918. My first

memory, as a small girl, wasgoing to school and not beingable to speak English, feelingpanicky and running all theway home. I became ashamed ofmy mother. She was veryemotional and used to makescenes. I didn't want her totake me to school any more.I remember a crowded city

street, and my father on thepressing iron and my mothersewing in the store, and all ofus playing out on the street. Idon't remember those days withloving nostalgia. The street wasmiserable. But I always felt wayup in the summertime and lateafternoon, and the sun shiningand people coming home. It wasalways a magic time for me.My parents worked very hard.

You had to when you're runninga small business like that, atailor shop. They worked withtheir hands all the time. He didthe pressing and the tailoring.My mother did the more simplethings of repairing. Getting upvery early in the morning,working late at night. He woulddo the pressing during the day,the sewing in the evening. He'dclose the store about nineo'clock at night. We lived in

back of the store, until myteens. Then we moved upstairs.My mother decided I should havea room for myself.Oh, our neighborhood was a

mess. At the same time, it wasa wonder. There was a lot ofanxiety because of thehooliganism. Our parents

34 AMERICA IN CLOSE UP

2. continuedwere worried because the kidsmight get involved and that itwould touch their lives. Myfather was frightened duringthe trade union wars in thecleaning industry, which wasdominated by hoodlums. Forweeks, his business was closeddown because they struck theplant and he had no place tosend the clothes. Then he was ascab and took the clothes toanother cleaning establishment.There were killings on thestreets. We were used to seeingthat. Among Italians, therewere padrones who went tomediate the fights within theneighborhoods.My father never participated

in any of this. He was aloof, aloner. He was really aneducated man by the standards ofthe time. He did a lot ofreading. He loved opera. Hewould buy all the librettos. Westill have our old Carusorecords. The other thing heloved was astronomy. He knewhow far the moon was from theearth, how far Venus was. Hethought the trip to the moon wasa waste of time, a waste ofmoney, because, he said, thereis nothing they discovered thathe hadn't already known.He had this one dream that he

wanted to see Grand Canyon. Henever saw it. He was so tired bythe time he had time that hewas afraid to take the trip. Inever really got to talk to him.He was very shy and lonely.Black people came to our

store, left clothes. They werepeople who painted and did car-pentry. They were craftsmen.Our parents had no animositytoward blacks. They — the immi-grants — saw themselves asbeing in the same predicament,trying to make it in the city.I never remember any racialconflict when I was little.Later I saw it.Today the community is very

small, five or six squareblocks. There's public housing,largely black. The medicalcenter students and youngpeople from advertising and TV

see it as part of chicdowntown. Some old Italianfamilies are hanging on. Itbegan to change as my generationwas growing up. People my agewanted

to be more like the people fromother communities ... Friendsof mine would prefer to meettheir friends elsewhere thaninvite them into theneighborhood. That didn't happenin my case because I wasgrowing up in a whole differentatmosphere of pride.I don't have regrets. I

believe strongly — and I seesigns of it today — that whatwe were trying to do and didn'tsucceed in doing had left itsmark on the people there. Theydon't take things sitting downany more. They remember thestruggle to save theneighborhood with a certainamount of sadness and a certainamount of respect.I don't dream any more like I

used to. I believed that in thiscountry, we would have all weneeded for the decent life. Idon't see that any more. Theself-interest of the individual— "I'm number one" — iscontaminating much of ourthinking today. It's happeningwith our institutions as well.They seem to be acting in theirown self-interest.The world doesn't seem

definable any more. Even thiscity. I see it becoming moreand more disoriented. I'magainst bigness for its ownsake. We walk down the streetand don't even look at oneanother. We're strangers. It'sa time that's hard to figureout.It's a world I don't know. The

world of the computer and themicrowave oven. I'll never haveone. [Laughs.] There are thingsalien to my understanding.Younger people growing up willfind it easier to contend with,but I doubt it. They'll conformbecause it's the only way to go.Big Brother is there. I thinkthey will become digits. I don'tsee myself as a digit, but I knowI'm becoming one. It's necessaryfor me to have my SocialSecurity number available or mydriver's license, because Idon't have credit cards. It'sun-American. Anywhere I gottapay cash. You see, I'm not adigit yet. [Laughs.]I don't even know what the

American Dream is any more.Maybe it's picking up somepieces I've left behind.

padrone: a man who exploitatively employs or finds work for Italian immigrants.


A Discussion of American Beliefs and ValuesIn the following interview four young Americans are asked what they think about their own country, how they feel about being Americans, and what their values are. As seniors at Casa Grande High School in Petaluma, California, they all take English literature as one of their college prep classes. The participants are Shannon Alexander (18), Mark and Andrew Ferguson (17), and Mike McKay (18).

Section 1Interviewer: The traditionalAmerican value system hasincluded preaching hard workand worshipping the dollar. Ithas been part of the AmericanDream that if you only work hardenough, you can make it. Do youthink these values are stillimportant? Andrew. Andrew: Ithink they really are. I thinkthey are really valid in Americaof nowadays because it's reallycoming back in on the media, TV,newspapers about people who aresuccesses from hard work. Andreally that's all we aretreated with all our life. And Ithink anyone, anyone at all,could make it really big, ifthey just tried really hard, nomatter what. I don't think itreally

matters about their background.And I think that being asuccess is really what'simportant in America — thatsociety really frowns uponpeople who don't make it. So, ifyou're not a success, if you'rejust a medium success, you feel— like you're failing. That's myfeeling. Interviewer: Mark, youagree with your brother?Mark: No, not really. I feel thathard work still has its value inAmerica but success, I think,has a different definition andmoney isn't really as valuable.I think that success has becomemore a measure of a person tohimself rather than a person tosociety and that people don't


3. continuedlook down on you if you're happywhat you're doing. And actualmoney isn't really as importantas it used to be. And peoplehave found that less money canmake you as happy as more money.Interviewer: Do you agree, Andrew? Andrew: No, I don't agree because how you feel about yourself is influenced by your society and society does encourage success and does look down on its people who are not successful as far as money goes,and whether or not they are happy with themselves doesn't matter. Interviewer: Mark.Mark: Although that what you aresaying is true, I feel thatsociety's importance to theindividual has lessened, evenwith our generation, society'scriticism isn't as important topeople any more. It is moreimportant to people to be happy.Interviewer: Mike, you want to joinin? Mike: I kind of feel that thesociety ideal of success hasreally been kind of driftingout. It reached its height withthe American yuppie. The yuppie,you know, is trying to achieve.Everybody is trying to be alike,and everybody wants to own a BMWand things like that.

Section 2Interviewer: It is sometimes saidthat winning is an Americanpassion. But in order to succeedyou've got to compete. In otherwords, rivalry and notcooperation is the spur toachievement. Then, if thissociety is a society whichencourages individualism, how domore social values fit in? Mike.Mike: I definitely think thatwinning is an Americanobsession. You can just kind oflook at what the Vietnam War didto us in the past 20 years. Itreally ripped apart Americansociety. It divided some people.It divided American society. Manypeople felt we shouldn't havebeen in there first place,

others felt that while we werethere, we might as well win,others felt we really should bethere trying to save Vietnamfrom itself or something tothat effect. And it really

ripped us apart, and it isbecause of the fact, you know,it was one of the first wars wereally didn't win. And it wasreally tough on America. Shannon:I wanted to say that winning isdifferent things to differentpeople. And while some peoplethink winning would be becoming apresident of a major corporationand running a whole bunch offinancial situations, otherpeople think winning is helpingpeople around them. To thesocial workers it's the feelingthat they want to help the poorand they want to help theelderly, and to them that'swinning. And it's sort ofeveryone has their own ideals,and some like to help others andsome people don't care aboutanyone but themselves.Interviewer: What would be winningto you? Shannon: Winning to me?Well, if I won, which would bebecoming a famous actress,world-famous, that would be myideal because I love to act andI always wanted to be famous, Iguess. But I wouldn't forget thepeople around me and I wouldnever do any dirty tricks to get

ahead. I'd still be conscious ofthe society around me.Interviewer: Andrew.Andrew: I think most people arelike that. And, they want towin without really hurtinganyone else. However, I thinkthat the bottom line is thatthere are winners and there arelosers, and everybody wouldrather really be a winner andthat somebody else be theloser. And, I guess that is thesort of attitude I have. But I'dnever want to tread over anyoneelse, of course.

Section 3Interviewer: One feature that hasoften been associated with theAmerican dream is the desire tobe well-liked. Do you stillsubscribe to this idea? Mark.Mark: No, not very much, though,on a social level there arestill many people who have to bewell-liked. It's part of theirpersonalities. And they like toform into different groupswhere they all dress the sameand talk the same. But a lot ofpeople like ourselves don'tconform to this

yuppie: (young urban professional), a young person in a professional job with a high income, especially one who enjoys spending money and having a fashionable way of life.


value at all. So we have muchfewer friends but a much morehonest relationship. And beingwell-liked is very importantbecause it can be very hard tohave people not like you orjust think you're very strangeor something. But it's moreimportant to be more honest withyourself. Interviewer: Andrew.Andrew: There are a lot of peopleat this school who are, I think,really fairly phoney. They dothings they do not really wantto. They dress in a way they donot really want to just becausetheir group is doing it and theywant to fit in. And none of usfour really were ever like that.So we can't really get into thatkind of mind. Shannon: Um, I hadtwo things to say, one aboutwhat they were speaking of. Idid go through a phase, I guess,from 8th to 10th grade, where itwas important for me to be well-liked and I did dress like myfriends and talk like myfriends. But then I just felt soout of place because I have myown ideas and I've been raisedall my life to think the way Iwanted to think. And now I livea different sort of life. I havepeople I act with and peoplethat I talk with and I reallyenjoy my A.P. class because thepeople there really think. Andthat's the life I like to live.Not just, you know, haveeveryone like you for stupidreasons but because you respecteach other. I think it's a goalthat a lot of people have, tohave a respect of other people,and that's the kind of likingthat people want. They wantpeople to respect them and tolisten to what they have to say.Interviewer: Mike.Mike: Whether someone agrees with you or not isn't really necessarily the most important matter. The most important matter is respect. Interviewer: Andrew.Andrew: Respect is so important.

I think I'd much rather berespected for my opinion tobeing myself than just beingliked.

Section 4Interviewer: The famous quote fromthe Declaration of Independencethat this country grants equalopportunities for all — is thatstill valid? To what extent doesa certain ethnic background or acertain family background helpto predetermine future chancesin life? Mark. Mark: I feel thatrich people have much more ofan opportunity than the poorpeople. The poor people cansucceed but they need luck andthere is no guarantee that goeswith it. The rich people, theyhave a lot more leeway in whatgoes in their lives. They startout a step up. Shannon: A lotdepends on the type of familybackground you have and the typeof parents you have and if theypromote thinking and if theybring different views to you. AndI've known many friends that ...these views they have are sorigid and they refuse to thinkand they refuse to understandwhat other people have to say

because their parents said wellthis is how it is, and this isthe way we think. I feel luckymy parents have always told methe way many people thought andI was given opportunity tochoose. And that's importanttoo. Interviewer: Mike.Mike: Under the law there is equal opportunity in the United States, more than thereever was before. Interviewer: Andrew.Andrew: Yes, but in reality youalso got to be aware ofschooling. Many poor people,generally blacks in slum areas,go to schools and they have towork and drop out of school by10th grade and they will neverfinish high school and without ahigh school diploma you cannotmake it in America, at leastit's almost impossible.Interviewer: Mike.Mike: It takes a lot more driveto succeed if you're black or ifyou're shall we say just kind ofless advantaged.

A. P. class: advanced placement class, open to outstanding Seniors at an American high school, bringing students to a first year of college (Freshman) level of proficiency.


Patriotism is likereligion; those whobelieve in it view therest of us as sinners,condemned to purgatory —or at least to an uncozypredicament in trie Viereand now. . . .Rejoice, ye sinners!

Fear not! This patriotismthing is a hoax.. . . Patriotism and

nationalism are identicaltwins. They infect peoplewith a feeling ofsuperiority, of bellicosepride, that translatesinto war slogans easy as

apple pie.Trying to extricate the

virtues of patriotismfrom the vice ofnationalism is liketrying to pluck thequills from a porcupine.It can't be done. Or ifit can, you won't be leftwith a porcupine.Still, we are implored

to embrace patriotism.Many good-hearted soulssurvey the politicalhorizon and despair. Theysee a rollingconservative tide, withRonald Reagan riding itscrest. The only way tosurvive, they say, is toget on that wave. And so,we are told, we must bemore patriotic than ourright-wing neighbors. No

matter the duplicityinvolved, if we want toeffect political changeand gain the support ofour unenlightened fellowcitizens, we should wrapourselves in trie flag.Unfortunately, we'd

succeed only insuffocating ourselves.When the Left, theradicals, thesuperliberals join thepatriotic chorus, itreinforces the messagethat America is on theside of virtue. . . .Our more philosophical

friends tug us from theopposite direction. Theytell us that the conceptof patriotism — asdistinct fromnationalism — transportsus from pettyindividualistic concernsto an awareness of agreater, more nobleidentity that iscommunal. They utterstarchy, upright phrasesabout individuals notexisting in a vacuum butin a social framework offamily, community, andcountry. From this, theyconclude that ouridentities are entwinedwith these institutionsand, to some extent atleast, owe them anobligation.

This is sheer folly. . ..Free will and individual

liberty are forsaken inthis repressive philos-ophy, which denies theindividual the right tocreate and develop his orher own identity. . . .The notion that one

owes an obligation toone's country is absurd.Like the defenders offamily, church, andcommunity, the championsof the modern nationstate want us to believethat inanimate objects —mere social sandboxes —deserve to command ourrespect, love, andloyalty. This isreification of the highestorder.Our obligations should

be to ourselves and ourfellow living beings, notto some bloodlessconcoction of bygonerulers. Our identitiesshould be of our ownmaking, not imposed by anancient cartographer.And our loyalties shouldnot stop at the border.Once we recognize this,

we won't fall into thegood old American trap ofcaring solely for U.S.citizens and not a whitfor inhabitants of othercountries. The UnitedStates can kill twomillion Indochinese, butAmericans concernthemselves only with theless than 60,000 U.S.soldiers who fell in thefetid conflict ofVietnam. Something's notright about that, andthat something ispatriotism.Yet it's not ûst a

Uome-grown affliction.Always a dutiful andwilling servant,patriotism has carriedthe body bags for everymodern ruler fromNapoleon to Hitler,Stalin to Pol Pot."Patriotism is the most

primitive of passions,"Jorge Luis Borges hasobserved. It's been

° Put Out No Flagsby Matthew

Rothschild

Patriotic Americans celebrating their country's

around for thousands ofyears, and these days thesentiment is transmittedin the home, theclassroom, the assemblyhall, the athletic field,as well as on the radiowaves and televisionscreens. No day passeswithout our beingbombarded by somepatriotic message orsymbol.It's a tough bug to

shake, but that doesn'tmean we should celebratethe disease. Nothingjustifies a salute topatriotism. It is toodangerous a concept to betoyed with. And byplaying the silly game ofcapture the flag, we onlycapture ourselves.

39

PART C Exercises

1. Previewing and AnticipationThe American IdeaTry to get a global idea of whatthe text is about by first looking at the headline, introduction and source. Then quickly read the beginning (first three paragraphs) of the article.1. Where, when, and on what occasion was thearticle published?

2. Why could the information given about theauthor be of interest to the reader?

3. What is meant by "The American Idea" andwho was the first to formulateit?

2. ScanningNow go quickly through the text to extract information to answerthe following questions:1. Which basic motives of the first Europeansettlers for coming to Americaare mentionedin the text?

2. According to Т. Н. White, what was it thatmade the American volunteers persevere intheir revolutionary war against thebetter-equipped English soldiers?

3. What would have happened to the colonialleaders if the war had been lost?

4. Which decisive difference between theAmerican nation and other nations does theauthor point out?

5. What does the author want

to convey to thereader by writing this article?

3. ComprehensionArnold SchwarzeneggerWhich way of completing each ofthe following sentences agreeswith the text? Some sentencesmay be completed in more thanone way.1. Arnold Schwarzenegger dreamedof being the best body builderin the worlda)when he was a little boy.b)when he was fifteen.c) when he was twenty.

2.He stopped taking part in body-buildingcompetitions becausea)he believed he had won

thechampionship too oftenalready.

b)he was afraid that he might lose the title ifhe tried again.

c)he had no serious competition.

3.According to Arnold Schwarzenegger,America is the country wherea)nothing can prevent people

from fulfillingtheir dreams

b)everybody is Number One.c)the chances to be

economically successfulare better than in any other country.

4.Arnold Schwarzenegger became asuccessfulbusinessman because hea)was business-minded.b)took courses in English and business.c)became a real estate agent.

5.Schwarzenegger maintains that emotions

a) provide the energy that leads to success.b) have to be suppressed if

you want to besuccessful.

c)prevent you from concentrating on yourprimary goal of making money.

6.Schwarzenegger thinks that popularitya)is the key to success.b) has to be subordinated to success.c)is as important as being successful.

7.Schwarzenegger believesa)that poverty and hunger

make peopledream of success.

b)that people should never be content withwhat they have achieved.

c)that hungry people are dreamers unable toachieve anything.

Florence Scala

Which of the following statements are true and which are false according to the information given in the text? Correct the false statements.1. When Florence Scala was young she did not'believe in the American Dream.

2. As a small girl she was afraid of schoolbecause she could not speakEnglish.


3. When Florence Scala thinks of her childhood,nostalgic memories come to her mind.

4. Her parents worked for a tailor who lived onthe same street.

5. They were afraid that their children mightturn into hooligans.

6. During the trade union wars in the cleaningindustry her father went on strike.

7. Her father avoided gettinginvolved in thefights that took place in theneighborhood.

8. Her father was unusually well-educated.9. He never really had the time to fulfill hisdream of going to the Grand Canyon.

10. Her parents were somewhat prejudicedagainst black people.

11. Today the community she grew up in haschanged a lot.

12. Looking back on her efforts to save theneighborhood, Florence Scala now thinksshe wasted her energy.

13. Florence Scala thinks that the AmericanDream promotes selfish attitudes.

14. She believes that technicalprogress has ledto a less humane world.

4. EvaluationUse the following scale to determine to what extent Arnold Schwarzenegger, Florence Scala and her parents would agree or disagree with the following statements. How do you feel about these statements?strong agreement agreement undecided disagreement

strong disagreement

1. All people are given equalopportunity inlife.

2. Everybody has a chance to succeed if he orshe only works hard enough.

3. Money and material wealth are what mattersmost in life.

4. Winning in competitions isone of the mostimportant things in life.

5. Self-reliance is more important than concernfor others.

6. Being popular is as important as materialsuccess.

5. Comment on a CartoonComment on the following cartoonand show how it relates to the American Dream. Give the cartoona title.

THE JOV NINTHS a AflN6

WHAT HAPPEN5 IF fOU PRACTICE FOR TUI£NT'CYEAR5,ANP THEN ENP UP NOT 0EIN6 RICH ANP FAMOUS

Reproduced by permission of United Feature Syndicate, Inc.


6. Comprehension SurveyA Discussion of American Beliefs and Values —Section 1Let us find out how the value systems of Andrew, Mark, and Mike differ. Have a look at the statements below and decide whoholds which view.

Andrew Mark Mike1. By spreading

the gospel of success, the media greatly influence the American value system.

)

2. People who fail are not accepted by society.

/ у3. Society

considers happiness to be as important as

14. Happiness is

not a questionof money.

/

5. The yuppie'sphilosophy revives the traditional value of success.

/ )

8.Cloze SummaryA Discussion of American Beliefs and Values—Section 3This paragraph summarizes part 3 of the discussion. Find the missing words.The participants agree that the notion of being "& is a ik that a great number of their fellow students "& to. They consider this value so important that they give up their "& and adopt the habits of "& and "& prescribed by their peers. A minority of students "& this peer pressure and prefer more "&relationships which they "& higher than a large circle of so-called friends. To those young people who have developed their own "& it is more important to be W for their independent TwT than to be well-liked as a reward for their ■& They unanimously "£r that respect is the most important "& in human relationships.

9.SummaryA Discussion of American Beliefs and Values—Section 4Summarize how the following aspects are related to the idealof "equal opportunity":money familysocialbackground

10. Discussion

ethnicitylaweducat

7. Comprehension questionsA Discussion of American Beliefs and Values —Section 21.How does Mike think the Vietnam Waraffected America as a "nation of winners"?

2.Shannon thinks that, "winningis differentthings to different people." What examplesdoes she give to support her opinion? Whatdoes "winning" mean to her?

3.How does Andrew view the concept ofcooperation and rivalry in society?

To what extent can the values discussed by these four young Americans also be found in your country? What is your personal attitude towards them?


11. Structural AnalysisPut Out No FlagsLet us examine how the author structures his argument in this article.1. Matthew Rothschild makes two comparisonsto defend the thesis that patriotism isharmful. He then develops his argument bydrawing consequences from thesecomparisons. Find the comparisons in thetext and show how they are used as a basis ofhis further argumentation.

2. He then raises two objections to his thesisbut immediately refutes each of them. Whatare the objections he mentionsand how doeshe refute them?

3. Why does he mention the names of four"modern rulers"?

4. The author supports his argument with aquotation which he further illustrates byexamples of patriotism in contemporaryAmerica. To what extent is theaverageAmerican exposed to sentimentsandsymbols of patriotism?

5. What is the conclusion the author finallydraws?

12. StyleLet us now have a closer look atthe stylistic means the author employs to convey his opinon to the reader.1. The text is full of comparisons, especially similes and metaphors. A simile is a figure of speech in whichtwo things or actions are compared because they have something in common, although

they are unlike in many other respects. A metaphor is a similecondensed. Whereas in

a simile the imaginative comparison is expressed by thewords like and as, in a metaphor the comparison takes the formof an identification of the two things compared. So when the author says that "patriotism is like religion" he uses a simile. When he saysthat "patriotism and nationalism are identical twins" which "infect people" he uses metaphors. The authoruses the first metaphor in this sentence to illustrate the identical nature of patriotism and nationalism. The second metaphor suggests patriotism's harmful effects through the use of the word "infect," meaning to spread disease.

Look for more similes and metaphors in the text and explain their function. 2. This text has many satirical featuresbecause the author often uses irony and sarcasm to expose the"folly" of patriotism. Irony is afigure of speech in which the author stresses his point by saying the opposite of what he means. Sarcasm is aggressive and intended to injure. When the author ironically refers to the community as an institution providing a "noble identity," heactually regards this as a nonsensical idea. He is also being sarcastic when he comparespatriotism with a disease. What other examples of irony and sarcasm can you find in this text?

13. Comment and Discussion1. Do you think that the author's viewpoint islogically consistent?

2. What role does patriotism play in yourcountry?

3. How do you feel about patriotism?

з Regimalism vs. Americanization


A LARGE COUNTRY WITH MANY DIFFERENCES

THE NORTHEAST

The United States is a spacious country of varyingterrains and climates. To get from New York to SanFrancisco one must travel almost 5,000 kilometersacross regions of geographical extremes. Between thecoasts there are forested mountains, fertile plains,arid deserts, canyonlands, and wide plateaus. Muchof the land is uninhabited. The population isconcentrated in the Northeast, the South, around theGreat Lakes, on the Pacific coast, and inmetropolitan areas dotted over the remaining expanseof land in the agricultural Midwest and Westernmountain and desert regions. Each of the country'sfour main regions —the Northeast, the South, theWest, and the Midwest—maintains a degree of culturalidentity. People within a region generally sharecommon values, economic concerns, and a certainrelationship to the land, and they usually identifyto some extent with the history and traditions oftheir region. Today, regional identities are not asclear as they once were. As with most modernizingnations, the United States has seen its regionsconverge gradually. While important regionaldifferences are discernible, the mobility of peopleand the diffusion of culture through television andother mass media have greatly advanced the processof Americanization.The Northeast, comprising the New England and Mid-

Atlantic states, has traditionally been at the helmof the nation's economic and social progress.Compared with other regions, the Northeast is moreurban, more industrial, and more culturallysophisticated. New Englanders often describethemselves as thrifty, reserved, and dedicated tohard work, qualities they inherited from theirPuritan forefathers. A sense of cultural superioritysets Northeasterners apart from others. During thenineteenth century and well into this century, theNortheast produced most of the country's writers,artists, and scholars. New England's colleges and

universitiesare known allover thecountry fortheir highacademicstandards.Harvard iswidelyconsideredthe bestbusinessschool in thenation. TheMassachusettsInstitute ofTechnologysurpasses allothers ineconomics andthe practicalsciences.The economic

and culturaldominance ofNew Englandhas graduallyreceded sincethe SecondWorld War. Inthe pastdecades,businessesandindustrieshave beenmoving towarmerclimates inthe South andWest. Manyfactories andmills haveclosed, andthepopulationhasstabilized orevendeclined.While areasof agingindustrycontinue tosuffer, someparts of NewEngland


America on the» move»:

but which \v;i\:

THE SOUTH are experiencing economic recovery. New high-techindustries are boosting foreign investment andemployment.Regional identity has been most pronounced in the

South, where the peculiarities of Southern historyhave played an important role in shaping theregion's character. The South was originally settledby English Protestants who came not for religiousfreedom but for profitable farming opportunities.Most farming was carried out on single family farms,but some farmers, capitalizing on tobacco and cottoncrops, became quite prosperous. Many of themestablished large plantations. African slaves,shipped by the Spanish, Portuguese, and English,supplied labor for these plantations. These slaveswere bought and sold as property. Even though thesystem of slavery was regarded by many Americans asunjust, Southern slaveowners defended it as aneconomic necessity.Even after the North began to industrialize after

1800, the South remained agricultural. As the centuryprogressed, the economic interests of the manu-facturing North became evermore divergent from thoseof the agrarian South. Economic and politicaltensions began to divide the nation and eventuallyled to the Civil War (1861—65). Most Northernersopposed slavery. The unresolved dispute over slaverywas one of the issues which led to a nationalcrisis in 1860. Eleven Southern states left thefederal union and proclaimed themselves anindependent nation. The war that broke out as adirect result was the most bloody war in Americanhistory.With the South's surrender in 1865, Southerners were

forced to accept many changes, which stirred upbitterness and resentment towards Northerners andthe Republican Party of the national government.During the post-war period of reconstruction whichlasted until 1877, slavery was not only abolished,but blacks were given a voice in Southerngovernment. Southerners opposed theCivil War (1861-65): the war between the Union (the North) and the Confederacy (the South).

REGIONALISM VS. AMERICANIZATION 45

intervention of Northern Republican politicians. Forthe next century white Southerners consistently votedfor Democrats. The Civil War experience helps explainwhy Southerners have developed a reverence for thepast and a resistance to change, and why the Southis different from the rest of the country. Otherregions have little in common with the South'sbitterness over the Civil War, its one-partypolitics, agrarian traditions and racial tensions.Recent statistics show that the South differs from

other regions in a number of ways. Southerners aremore conservative, more religious, and more violentthan the rest of the country. Because fewerimmigrants were attracted to the less industrializedSouthern states, Southerners are the most "native" ofany region. Most black and white Southerners cantrace their ancestry in this country back to before1800. Southerners tend to be more mindful of socialrank and have strong ties to hometown and family.Even today, Southerners tend to have less schoolingand higher illiteracy rates than people from otherregions, and pockets of poverty are scatteredthroughout the Southern states.Americans of other regions are quick to recognize a

Southerner by his/her dialect. Southern speech tendsto be much slower and more musical. The Southerndialect characteristically uses more diphthongs: aone-syllable word such as yes is spoken in the Southas two syllables, ya-es. In addition, Southerners say"you all" instead of "you" as the second personplural.The South is also known for its music. In the time of

slavery, black Americans created a new folk music, thenegro spiritual. Later forms of black music whichbegan in the South are blues and jazz. WhiteSoutherners created bluegrass mountain music, and mostAmerican country music has a Southern background.The South has been one of the most outstanding

literary regions in the twentieth century. Novelistssuch as William Faulkner, Robert Penn Warren, ThomasWolfe, and Carson McCullers have addressed themes ofthe Southern experience such as nostalgia for therural Southern past.

THE WEST Wide regional diversity makes the West hard to typify. While most of the

Mountain West is arid wilderness interrupted by a fewurban oases, California has some of the richestfarmland in the country, and, along with Oregon andWashington in the rainy Northwest, does not sharethe rest of the West's concern over the scarcity ofwater. California is different in other ways. Thenarrow band along its southern Pacific coast isdensely populated and highly industrial. By combiningthe nation's highest concentration of high-techindustries with the greatest percentage of serviceindustries, California's progressive economy is atrend-setter for the rest of the nation as it enters anew post-industrial age.

Even if one disregards the Pacific coast states, therest of the West is marked by cultural diversity andcompeting interests. Mormon-settled Utah has little

Faulkner, William (1897—1962): American author of novels, shortstories and poems. He received the Nobel Prize forliterature in 1949. Among his novels are The Sound and the Fury,As 1 Lay Dying, Sanctuary, Light in August, and Absalom, Absalom\ all of whichare set in Yoknapatawpha, an imaginary Southern provincialcommunity.

Warren, Robert Penn: born 1905, American author, won the Pulitzer Prize for hisnovel

All the King's Men.Wolfe, Thomas (1900-38): American novelist, author of Look Homeward, Angel.McCullers, Carson (1917—67): American author of novels, short stories, and plays; among her works are Reflections in a Golden Eye, The Ballad of the Sad Cafe, and Clock Without Hands.


THE MIDWEST

AMERICANIZATION

in common with Mexican-influenced Arizona and NewMexico. The aims of Western commercial developersanxious for quick profits clash with environ-mentalists' campaigns for preservation of theregion's natural beauty. Montana ranchers havedifferent needs and different outlooks from thesenior citizens clustered in a retirement communitynear Phoenix.While generalizations about the West are difficult

to make, the region does share concerns that aredistinct from the rest of the country. Westernersare united in their long-standing hostility towardWashington and Eastern federal bureaucrats.Westerners feel alienated by government policieswhich fail to address the vital concerns unique totheir region. Western states' troubles with waterscarcity and government-owned land seem to matterlittle to the rest of the country. Particularlydistressing to Westerners is their lack of controlover Western land and resources. The federalgovernment owns and administers vast portions ofland in many Western states—86.6 percent of Nevada,66.1 percent of Utah, 47.8 percent of Wyoming, 42.8percent of Arizona, and 36.1 percent of Colorado.Westerners like to think of themselves asindependent, self-sufficient, and close to the land,but they feel they cannot control their own destinywhile Washington controls their land.Western life is dominated by resources. Although

water is scarce in the Mountain West, the region isrich in uranium, coal, crude oil, oil shale, andother mineral deposits. As the population of the West

rapidlyincreases,debateintensifiesover how itsresourcesshould beused. Tryingto supportgrowingpopulationswith limitedsupplies ofwater whileat the sametimepreservingthe land is,according tosomeWesterners,impossible,and they feelthe West isalreadyexperiencingphysicallimits togrowth.Despite thedifferencesthat mayexist withinthe region,the Westernstates facetheseproblemstogether.While the

South andWest havefeltalienated,the Midwest,by contrast,has long beenregarded astypicallyAmerican. Thefertilefarmland andabundantresourceshave allowedagricultureand industryto thriveand tostrengthentheMidwesterner

s' conviction that people can make something ofthemselves if they seize opportunities. Classdivisions are felt less strongly here than in otherregions; the middle class rules. Midwesterners areseen as commercially-minded, self-sufficient,unsophisticated, and pragmatic.The Midwest's position in the middle of the

continent, far removed from the east and westcoasts, has encouraged Midwesterners to directtheir concerns to their own domestic affairs,avoiding matters of wider interest. The plainsstates which make up America's "Farmbelt" havetraditionally favored a policy of isolationism inworld affairs. However, now that American agriculturehas become dependent on unstable foreign markets,farmers have changed their stance. Farmers are nolonger isolationist or opposed to "big government."It is often this very government which providessubsidies and price controls that preserve theirincomes.The Midwest is known as a region of small towns and

huge tracts of farmland where more than half thenation's wheat and oats are raised. Dominating theregion's commerce and industry is Chicago, thenation's second largest city. Located on the GreatLakes, Chicago has long been a connecting point forrail lines and air traffic crossing the continent.The distinctiveness of these regions is

disappearing. The Northeast, the South, the West,and the Midwest are becoming evermore alike due tothe homogenizing influence of mass media andregional convergence towards national sodoeconomicnorms. Since the Second World War, interstate high-


MOBILITY

MIGRATION TO THESUNBELT

ways and communication lines have connected isolatedrural areas to urban centers, fostering a high level ofcultural interchange. Television has conveyedmainstream American culture to everyone, givingAmericans a shared national experience and identity.Americans' mobility has also played an important part

in leveling off regional differences. Americans havealways been on the move in pursuit of opportunity.Steady movements from farm to city, east to west, andsouth to north brought about an intermixing ofcultures. This process of Americanization has beenaccelerated by new migration trends. Poorer, lesspopulous areas in the South and West are experiencingtremendous growth as people and businesses move out ofthe historically dominant Northeast and Midwest insearch of new opportunities in wanner climates. Thenew migration has brought economic prosperity to thewarm "Sunbelt" while economic stagnation has occurredin the "Frostbelt."The attractions of the Sunbelt are numerous. Many

older couples.have moved to the South in order toenjoy retirement in a less harsh environment. Othershave moved to escape problems of urban crime,overcrowding, high taxes, and expensive housing. Mostpeople move for better employment opportunities. Manycorporations are relocating to the Sunbelt because ofthe more favorable business conditions. Wage scalesare lower, unions are weak, and local governmentsoffer a wide variety of incentives, including taxreliefs, to attract new industries.

U.S. REGIONAL MIGRATION: 1970-1980

NORTHEAST -2,828,000

NORTH CENTRAL -2,368,000

Figures indicate netpopulation gains or losses due toregional migration between 1970 and 1980

Changes in Proportion of National Population

Percent increase Percent oftotal1970-1980 population

1970 1980Total T1.4 WOO WOONortheast 0.2 24.1 21.7North Central 4.0 27.8 26.0South 20.0 30.9 33.3West 23.9 17.1 19.1

Due largely to interregional migration, the proportion of national population in the South and West increased from 48 percent to 52 percent-a majority-in the decade between 1970 and 1980. During the same period, the imaginary "centre of U. S. population " (defined as the geographical point where the country would balance if it were flat and every American weighed the samel crossed the Mississippi River, continuing the westward drift evident since the first census in 1790.


These recent migration patterns have had a dramaticeffect on population growth. During the past fewdecades the populations of the South and West havebeen growing rapidly while those of the Midwest orNortheast have grown slowly or not at all.The increase in numbers moving to the Sunbelt has

brought an increase in power. The political andsocial status of the South and West is on the rise.After both the 1970 and 1980 censuses, the South andWest gained seats in the House of Representatives atthe expense of the North and Midwest. Historically, thewinners of presidential elections have beenEasterners or Midwesterners, but Southerners andWesterners have won the past five presidentialelections. A clear rise in per capita income in theSouth and West is an indication that socioeconomicgaps between regions are narrowing. In 1940 theNortheast claimed more than 120 percent of thenational income average, but the core of the South hadless than 70 percent, and the Rocky Mountain stateshad just over 90 percent. By 1970 the Northeast hadfallen to about 110 percent, the South had risen to 86percent, and the Rockies had held steady at 90percent. Further narrowing had occurred by 1980. Thecultural dominance of the Northeast and Midwest isdiminishing as cities in the South and West, such asAtlanta, Santa Fe, and Los Angeles, are gainingreputations as important cultural centers. The greatuniversities of the Northeast are rivaled by Stanfordin California and the Universities of Texas and NorthCarolina.The shift in economic strength and status to the

Sunbelt does not mean that the Northeast and Midwestare drained of power and promise. Parts of theNortheast are recovering from economic decline.Adapting to the needs of a post-industrial age, manycommunities are redirecting their economies toaccommodate new service-related and high-techindustries. The downtown areas of Baltimore, Boston,and Pittsburgh—cities that once specialized in heavyindustry—have been rebuilt as cultural and conventioncenters. Some cities in the Frostbelt are registeringa resurgence in population growth as people move backto take advantage of new opportunities.

REGIONAL The most significant trend is not the decline ofthe Frostbelt, but rather a

CONVERGENCE steady converging of the regions' economic statusas the formerly lagging

Sunbelt states catch up. In this process, regional differences havenot altogether

disappeared, but they are significantly less striking today thanthey were 40

years ago.

49

PART В Texts

• THE COOLING OF THE SOUTHby Raymond Arsenault

In the following text the historian Raymond Arsenault chooses a very interesting approach for his analysis ofthe "Americanization of Dixie" when he looks at

the air conditioner as one of the important factors involved.

A Southern family circa 1914

ied to the land, with fewbig cities, Southerners treasured life on the family

homestead or in the small town where, in the words of Faulkner, "beneath the porticoes of the courthouse and on benches about the green, the city fathers sat and talked and drowsed..." Family ties and local folklore ruled life in a region

T that preferred, as John CroweRansom said, "to look backwardsrather than forwards". Long afterthe Civil War, the inhabitants ofthe old Confederacy remainedculturally distinct, a peopleapart from the rest of the Unionand its ever-changing ethnic"melting pot". Air conditioninghas helped to change all that.


1. continuedMany Southerners who are oldenough to remember life before theair conditioner give thanks forthe artificial chill that nowpervades cars, restaurants,offices, and family rooms, andwonder out loud how they eversurvived without it. Others echothe sentiments of one Floridawoman who recently told me: "Ihate air conditioning; it's adamnfool invention of theYankees. If they don't like ithot, they can move on back upnorth where they belong."...The northern migration of the

last two decades has infused theSouth with new ideas and newmanners, ending the region's long-standing cultural isolation. Andwith this increasing diversity,the legacy of the old Confederacyhas begun to fade.The changes wrought in the South

by the air conditioner helped, ofcourse, to speed the demographictransformation. By making life inthe factory more bearable,climate control nurtured theexpansion of industry in the NewSouth. The number of Southernersemployed in manufacturingexceeded those employed inagriculture for the first time in1958. By 1980, factory workersoutnumbered farm laborers by amargin of 3 to 1....Since 1940 the South has also

been the most rapidly urbanizingsection of the country. The pro-

portion of the Southernersliving in urban areas has nearlydoubled, from 36.7 percent toalmost 70 percent today. Althoughits population still remains themost "rural" in the UnitedStates, the South and the restof the nation are no longer thatfar apart....A more noticeable effect of air-

conditioned architecture has beenits assault on the South's strong"sense of place". Epitomized bythe fictional inhabitants ofFaulkner's Yoknapatawpha County,Southerners have been rooted tolocal geography — to a county,town, neighborhood, or homestead.As look-alike chain stores, tracthouses, glass-sided skyscrapers,and shopping malls overwhelm thelandscape in and around citiesand towns, this sense of localidentity is bound to fade.Perhaps, as it has done so

often in the past, theSoutherner's special devotion toregional and local traditionswill ensure the survival ofSouthern folk culture. But thistime it won't be easy: GeneralElectric has proved a moredevastating invader than GeneralWilliam Tecumseh Sherman. As longas air conditioning, abetted byimmigration, urbanization, andbroad technological change,continues to make inroads, theSouth's distinctive characterwill continue to diminish, neverto rise again.

Dixie: The southern states of the U.S., especially those eleven that formed the Confederacy and seceded from theUnited States in 1860—61.

Faulkner, William: see page 45. Civil War: see page 44.Yankee: a native or inhabitant of a northern U.S. state, especially a Union soldier during the Civil War.Yoknapatawpha County: the fictional setting of many of Faulkner's novels and short stories.General Electric: a large American corporation.Sherman, William Tecumseh (1820-91): American Union General in the Civil War.


Southern Women-Stiff Ladies?

by CORA MCKINNEYThe following interview seeks to discover whether the "moon-light-and-magnolia" stereotype of the "Gone-with-the-Wind"

Southern lady still holds today.

Southern belles

Question: When I think of thestereotypical Southern woman,what immediately comes to my mindis the image of the genteelSouthern belle — the lady of theplantation — portrayed in so manybooks and films. Is this Southernlady a bygone figure of the past,or does the Southern woman of the1980s have something in commonwith her? Answer: Oh yes, I thinkthere are still Southern bellesin the South today. It hasn'tchanged so much. I think youcould say that the Southern womanis a breed that hasn't totallydied out. She may not live on aplantation any more, but thereare still Southern belles, andSouthern girls are still taughtto be Southern ladies. Question:What characterizes a woman as a"lady" nowadays?Answer: A lady is gracious andcharming and above all she's well-bred. I think that says it all. A

lady is a woman who is well-bredand who feels well-bred and who isproud to come from a good family.I think the family background isactually the most importantdistinguishing feature of a lady.What's really important is thatthese qualities, these idealqualities of charm and grace, arelearned. They are passed on frommother to daughter in eachgeneration. That's why theSouthern lady today isn't thatdifferent from the Southern ladyback in the antebellum South. Themothers pass on to theirdaughters the ideals of being alady. And, in fact, the degree towhich a Southern girlapproximates her mother, or islike her mother, is a measure ofthe degree to which she is alady. You can see in the Souththat Southern girls are willingto identify with their mothers,because there are lots of socialfunctions and mother-daughterbanquets sponsored by the


2. continuedcheerleading club, and there areeven look-alike mother-daughterdresses that you can buy infashion shops. So, Southerngirls do well to be like mother.Question: What about you? In whatways were you brought up to be a"lady"? Answer: For my twelfthbirthday, my mother gave me a bookcalled Party Manners and White KidGloves. This is a book that probablya lot of mothers give to theirlittle girls when they reach theage of twelve. Party Manners and WhiteKid Gloves explains to little girls,or to young ladies, how they areto act to be considered a younglady. For example, I rememberreading that when I go to asocial function, I'm supposed toshake the hand of the hostess andsay something nice to her and,well, it tells you all the littleniceties concerning how you'resupposed to act at a party andwhen you're supposed to wear whitegloves and when not, and whenit's right to light a candle. Iremember reading that you'renever supposed to light a candleat the coffee-table when you'reserving guests unless it'sevening. Otherwise it's badtaste. Well, okay, that's oneexample: we learn how to beladies by reading books like that.And in my family, my sister and Itook dancing lessons. There aremany semi-elite dancing societieswhich are especially popular inthe South. When you're fourteenor fifteen and fortunate enoughto be invited to join the club,you can participate in thesedances. At the final balls, thefinal big function — (and wereally do wear white kid gloves) —we really get to test our manners.This is one kind of training forbecoming a lady. Question: Is itpossible to distinguish aSouthern girl from, let's say, aNorthern girl, simply by virtueof appearance? Answer: Yes, veryoften. You see, a Southern girlis rather vain about herappearances, or at least that'sthe way I see it. You see, aNorthern girl might wear ruggedoutdoor sportswear, for example,a skirt, long knee-socks, andcomfortable shoes. But when aSouthern girl wears a skirt, she

usually wears nylon stockings andsome

dainty little pumps. That's onedifference: that the Southerngirl cares so much about herappearance she would rather bepretty than comfortable.Sometimes the Southern girl tiesher hair back in little coloredribbons. She just looks morefeminine on the whole. But Imean, there are also other waysto distinguish a Southern girlfrom a Northern girl besides justher clothing. Question: Do youthink that a Southern girl isdifferent in other ways as well?What about a politicalinvolvement and issues likeWomen's Liberation?Answer: When you ask me that, Ithink of women on collegecampuses because I've just beento a university and I can bestrelate to the women there.There's really a big differencein the women on Southern collegecampuses compared with the collegewomen in the North. What comes tomy mind is that in the South thewomen aren't particularlyinterested in politics. Theyprefer to join social clubs.What's really popular in theSouth are sororities. They aresort of semi-elite societies. They

are primarily social, and thewomen meet together and arrangesocial activities. They arrangeparties and dances, and sometimesdo things for charity. Thesesororities are really popular inthe South. But in the North, theyare not that popular. When Ithink about politics it seems tome that women in the South preferbeing involved in things likesororities and partying and havinga nice social life to beinginvolved in politics. Politicsis something controversial, andvery often the Southern girl justavoids controversy. She prefers tobe charming and gracious and neverstep on anyone's toes. But in theNorth, politics are important, andthe ERA issue — the Equal RightsAmendment issue — was a verystrong and controversial topic.But I think the Northern girlsdon't mind getting into contro-versies as much as the Southerngirls do. You have to realize,for the Southern girl the highestvirtue is to be gracious and warmand friendly and hospitable andalways proud. And somehow thatdoesn't mix so well withpolitics.

Gone with the Wind: a novel by Margaret Mitchell (1900-49) featuring the American South before and during the Civil War, also a film classic.antebellum: before the Civil War.Women's Liberation: a movement striving for full educational, social and economic opportunities for women.ERA: Equal Rights Amendment; suggested change to American law, intended to give women the same legal rights as men.


The Nation's Most Strongly Defined Region

ew England,alone amongthe nation's

regions,Nhas a precisely definedidentity. While peoplemay argue about whatthe Mid-west or even theSouth includes today,New England consists of

Connecticut, Maine,

Massachusetts,NewHampshire, Rhode Islandand Vermont — nothingmore and nothing less.The inhabitants of thisregion call coffee withcream "regular"and carbonatedbeverages"tonic."They pronounce Bingo"BeanO," and whenthey bowl theyuse candlepinsrather thantenpins. Thosewho live in Bos-ton, whichmost NewEnglanders recognize as their regional capital, eathot dogs, beans and black bread on Saturday evening,and on Halloween they drink apple cider. Above allelse New Englanders arc Yankees, people whom allAmericans think of — however accurately orinaccurately — as conscientious, hard-working,terse, frugal, and (like the climate) cold andinhospitable to outsiders.Outside the United States people think of all

Americans as Yankees, reflecting New England'stendency to project its own traditions, practicesand beliefs onto the nation as a whole. ThePuritans, who came to New England in 1620, were thefirst to articulate what was to become ProtestantAmerica's characteristic image of its place in theworld. "For wee must consider that wee shall be asa Citty uppon a Hill, the ties of all people areuppon us," said John Winthrop, one of the BayColony's first and most influential leaders.

candlepin: a slender bowling pin used in a variation of the game of tenpins.

CANADAU'SA


What is a Middle Westerner?

A congeries of traits seems to be more or less characteristic ofthe breed, although nosingle trait is unique, and none is distinctive. None of them is mandatory for residence in the area, and one need not be a native to hold any or all of them. Some, at least, might be considered standard American traits, which is not especially surprising, because the Middle West, afterall, is the American heartland. These caveats and provisos notwithstanding, the identification of this congeries of traits helps one to understand the people of the region and why they do the things theydo. Most of the following adjectives are applicable in varying degree to most genuine Middle Westerners, as I perceive them:Pecuniaristic: - A deep faith that all values can eventually be measured in terms of money: "the worth of a man is indicated by hisincome."Materialistic: — Blatant worship of the almightydollar, or even

ostentation of income, is generally consideredbad taste, but con-spicuous consumption can serve the same purpose: an expensive house in the "right" neighborhood, wearing the latest fashions, status-oriented travel to places others cannot afford to visit, the most powerful and expensive speedboat or snowmobile. Self-assured: — A value system based on money is unlikely tobe questioned by a prosperous

Farming in the Midwest

people, and the MiddleWest has been enormously successful in terms of its own system of values; "somebody must be doing something right."Critical re-evaluation of the value system has never really been necessary, and many Middle Westerners haveseldom, if ever, been afflicted with self-doubts of their own righteousness. Functionalist: - "If it works, I'll buy it, and not ask any questions; if it doesn't work, let's get rid of it and get something that does work."Technologic: — Almost

unbroken prosperity (especially in com-parison with other parts of the nation) can easily be attributed to a predilection for the latest and most modernmachines and tech-niques. New and bettermachines always have been invented in the

past: why should the future be different?Competent: — An almost childlike faith in perpetual progress through technology is coupled with enormous technological sophistication and competence, and a profound respect for hard work. Simplistic: - "If I ask a guy why hedoes something, and if he gives me an answer that makes sense, I don't see any need to probe any deeper."Xenophobic: — A suspicion of anyone different is reflected in an isolationist stance in international affairs, in a deep distrust of all governmental activity on the domestic scene, and bystrong social pressureson all nonconformists, whether Catholic, Slav, black, long-haired, or bearded.


°'Just like the rest of us, only more so"

For more than a century, Americans have looked at California as something different, a "new" New World at the end of the continent, the ultimate expression of manifest destiny. It is a place as distinct from the rest of the country as America was from the Old World it rejected some 200 years ago. ...It is difficult to

characterize in a phrase a state that takes in over a thousand miles of coastline, a variety of landscapes and more than 22 million people. Nevertheless, it is often said that California is not just a state but a state of mind. For some, it representsthe final embodiment of America's frontier spirit; forothers, it is a version of El Dorado, a place to find fortunes or spend fortunes made elsewhere. California isthe nation's leader in fads, fashion and self-indulgence. New religions, new living arrangements, new forms of entertainment from Disneylandto sexclubs, new attitudes towards work, family and education, all have been nurtured by California's tolerant social climate.It may well be true that

Californians are quintessential Americans. In a wealthy nation, they are wealthier than most; in a suburban society, they are more suburbanized; in a culture devoted to immediate satisfaction, they are satisfied faster; in a country where optimism reignssupreme, they are the most optimistic; and in a time of doubt and uncertainty, they have the most to be uncertainabout.

The wealthy lifestyle of California

Californians, the saying goes, are just like the rest of us, only more so.California stands for

"absolute freedom, mobility and privacy," wrote author Joan Didion, a native of the state. It represents "the instinct which drove America to the Pacific .. . the desire... to live by one's own rules." This sense of freedomextends beyond what has come to be known as lifestyle. It pervades the political atmosphere as well.While California voters do

not easily fit into hard and fast ideological categories, they have consistently been in the forefront of politicaltrend-setting. . . .

manifest destiny: the nineteenth-century belief that the U.S. had the right and duty to expand across the North Americancontinent.frontier: see page 26.

56

PART C Exercises1. Text AnalysisThe Cooling of the SouthRefer to the chart below and explain how air conditioning hasaffected the process of Americanization in the South.

ECONOMY

A"SENSE OF PLACE I

AIRCONDITIONING

RURAL & URBAN POPULATION

V-SOUTHERN WAY

OF LIFE

2. Discussion"Americanization"In what areas do you find strong Americaninfluences in your country?How do you feel about these influences?

3.ComprehensionSouthern Women —Still Ladies?1.After reading the interview

for the first time,answer the following questions:a)Is the Southern lady a

bygone figure ofthe past?

b)Describe the mother-daughterrelationship.

c)How is a girl taught to be a lady?d)What visible differences are

therebetween a Southern girl and a Northerngirl?

e)What is said about the political attitude ofSouthern girls?

2.Read the interview again and answer thefollowing questions:a)What does Cora McKinney mean

whenshe says "the Southern woman is a kindof breed that hasn't died out"?

b)Name important preconditions forbecoming a lady.

c)Why is it that a Southern lady today is notthat different from a lady in theantebellum South?

d)Why is the book Party Manners and WhiteKid Gloves still popular in theSouth?

e)What is the significance of the balls at theend of the dancing lessons?

f)What does a Southern girl doto makeherself look more feminine?

g)How do Northern girls differfromSouthern girls in their

ARCHITECTURE

attitudes towardscontroversies?

h) Why is it important for aSouthern lady to join asorority?

4.DiscussionImagine you have applied for a student's exchange with oneof the exchange organizations like American Field Service or Youth forUnderstanding.When asked which region of the United States you would prefer to go to, how would you decide on the basis of the information about the different regions given in this unit?


5. ComprehensionThe Nation's Most Strongly Defined RegionDecide whether the following statements are true or false andcorrect the false statements:1. New England, the Midwest and the Southare all clearly defined regions of the UnitedStates.

2. Opinions differ as to the number of statesthat make up New England.

3. The people who live in New England usesome special words which are not used inthe rest of the country.

4. To a New Englander, "regular" meanscoffee, with cream.

5. Boston is the official capital of NewEngland.

6. New Englanders have a reputation for beingwarm and friendly to visitors.

7. New England is known forits goodweather.

8. Foreigners often expect allAmericans to belike New Englanders because of the highprofile of New England throughout theages.

9. The immigrants who arrived in 1620 wereknown as Yankees.

10. John Winthrop was anxiousthat the New Englandsettlers should set anexample to the world.

6. ComprehensionWhat Is a Middle Westerner?Do you remember the traits ofa Middle Westerner? Match

numbers and letters.Characteristicsa) hardly

ever doubtingthe Tightness ofhis/heractions or words

b) having theskill to dowhat is necessary andworking hard toachieve it

c)valuing everything interms of money

d)distrusting foreignersand outsiders

e)believing strongly inmodern machines andtechniques

f)valuing money andpossessions highly andspending money inorder to attractattentionand prove one'shighsocial position

g)concerned withpractical use, i.e. "Doesit work?"

h) easily satisfied by answers that make sense

Traits1. competent2. self-assured3.materialistic4.technologic5.simplist


7.Comprehension"Just Like the Rest of Us, Only More So"After reading the text, try to find the missing words first without looking at the list below. Then complete the task bychoosing the right phrase from the list.For many Americans, California is the ultimate expression of l^T It is not just a state but a "& and embodies America's "& For some people it is the place to find or spend "Й" New religions, living arrangements and forms of entertainment can be attributed to California's ■$" Being wealthier, more easily satisfied and more optimistic than the ordinary American, Californians arc ■& Americans. Being more self-indulgent, enjoying more privacyand being more mobile, Californians have developed a greater -fr Californians have always been in the forefront of political "& , because they do not fit into hard and fast ideological categories.sense of freedomstate of mindquintessentialtolerant social climatefortunes frontier spiritmanifest destinytrend-setting

8.Discussion1. Compare the characterizations of MiddleWesterners, New Englanders andCalifornians. In order to findout for yourselfwhether they are merely stereotypes or ifthere is some truth in them, ask Americansyou know to comment on the authors'descriptions.

2. Show how each of the authors relatesregional traits to national

characteristics.3. Can you trace any definable traits in theregions of your own country?

4 The U.S. Есотюту


FREE ENTERPRISE:THEORETICAL ANDHISTORICAL BACKGROUND

ROLE OF GOVERNMENT

U.S. ECONOMIC PROFILE

HIGH LIVING STANDARD

The American economy is described as a freeenterprise system, which allows private business thefreedom to operate for profit with minimum governmentinterference and regulation. The theoretical foundationof the American economic system was provided by AdamSmith, the eighteenth-century Scottish philosopherwhose economic ideas of "laissez faire" (leave italone) had a strong influence on the development ofcapitalism. Smith argued that when individuals,motivated by self-interest, are allowed to pursueprofit freely, the result is good for all of society.The more people manufacture and trade, the greaterthe competition. Competition benefits society byallowing the consumer to seek the best product at thelowest price. Thus, market forces, which Smith termed"the invisible hand," control the efficientallocation of goods while each participant in themarket is seeking his or her own self-interest.These ideas were compatible with the high value

America's Founding Fathers placed on individualliberty. Freedom from economic control seemed anextension of freedom from control of religion,speech, and the press.Throughout the nineteenth century, market forces in

America operated with a minimum of governmentintervention. Since the 1930s, American capitalismhas undergone substantial change. Although privateenterprise still flourishes, government regulationnow exists in many areas of business ranging fromproduct safety to labor conditions.Political conservatives frequently complain of too

much government regulation. Liberals, on the otherhand, are generally more willing to acceptgovernment's role in business and the economy.Americans on both sides of the political spectrum

generally support "free" private enterprise, andthere is no serious political debate focusing onalternate economic systems.The country's reliance on private initiative and

enterprise has produced impressive growth. TheUnited States today is a leading economic power,

with a highstandard ofliving andenormousproductivityin industryandagriculture.The United

States is

one of the most affluent nations in the world. Theaverage annual income for American families in 1985was $27,700, and 60 percent of all families andindividuals are in the middle-income or high-incomeranks. Although the generalization can be made thatAmerica is an affluent society, in 1985 about 14percent of the population (11.4 percent White, 31.3percent Black, and 29 percent Hispanic) lived belowthe official poverty level, which was then $10,989for a family of four.

Smith, Adam (1723-90): author of The Wealth of Nations


WORLD'S LEADINGPRODUCER

The U.S. remains the world's leading producer ofgoods and services, although its margin ofsuperiority is diminishing as other countries becomemore competitive in the world market.

The U.S.A. - The World's Leading Economic Power Share(%) of World Gross National Product (GNP)

FED. REP. GERMANY8 JAPAN

3

1960 1982

Industrial and technological production is high.The United States is the world's leading producer ofelectrical energy, aluminum, copper, sulphur, andpaper, and one of the top producers of natural gasand automobiles. No other nation exports as muchhigh technology as the United States.Technological advancement has accelerated changes in

American agriculture. Farming is highly mechanizedand commercialized. In productive terms, theachievements of this sector of the economy areextraordinary. U.S. farmers produce enough food fordomestic consumption and still supply 15 percent ofthe world's food needs.

U.S. Agricultural Production as aProportion of World Production in

1982/83 (in %)

О" Э" 3" (5 О"Э" Productio

n

Wheat Corn Soy Beans Cotton Tobacco Vegetable Fats

Э64

Exports

Wheat Corn Soy Beans Cotton Tobacco Vegetable Fats

FOREIGN TRADE

DECLINING GROWTH RATES

Besides agricultural products, principal goods inAmerica's export trade are machinery, automotiveproducts, aircraft, and chemicals. The leading U.S.imports are petroleum products, foods andbeverages, machinery, and iron and steel products.The United States is the world's largest importerand exporter. Despite its huge domestic production,the U.S. economy depends heavily on foreign imports.Until recently, the United States consistentlyexported more goods than it imported. However,since 1971, the U.S. has been operating under atrade imbalance, importing more goods than itexports.While the profile of the modern U.S. economy shows

the U.S. to be a formidable economic power, thestrength of the U.S. economy in the last 15 to 20years has waned. Within the past two decades, theU.S. has slipped from a better than 3 percent peryear increase in productivity to an annual increaseof below 1 percent. Declining growth rates are amajor concern.

THE U.S. ECONOMY 61

U.S. Productivity: The Lead DiminishesComparison of some branches of industry with Japan

AUTOMOBILESELECTRIC APPLIANCES

MACHINE BUILDINGCHEMICAL PRODUCTS/PETROCHEMICALS

200STEEL/IRON

Japan in each case= 100

1967 1973 1982

FOREIGN MARKETS Confidence has also been shaken by the decliningcompetitiveness of U.S. goods abroad, indicated bythe increasing trade deficit. Foreign manufacturersare now selling roughly 50 percent more in thiscountry than Americans are exporting abroad. Most ofAmerica's television sets, cameras and typewritersare made by foreign companies.High productivity of Japanese industries has

increased the appeal of lower-priced Japanese goods.In 1980, for the first year ever, the Japanese manu-factured more automobiles than the United States.Steel production in Japan is now higher as well.Stiff foreign competition challenges U.S.manufacturers to step-up productivity levels,modernize their factories, and provide betterworker training.

"Yes, sir, it's made right here in this country with Jafanese know-how."

Despite high productivity in farming, agriculturalexports began to decline in the early 1980s.American farmers had difficulty exporting theirgoods because of import restrictions imposed byforeign countries and because of the high value ofthe American dollar in the early 1980s.Current international trade developments in areas

such as foreign competitiveness, import/exportpolicies, and currency exchange rates have posed


CHANGES OF A MATURE ECONOMY

tough problems for the United States' economy.Economic developments on the domestic front such asthe shift in production from manufacturing toservice industries and the federal budget deficitalso create challenges for U.S. business andindustry.In recent decades, the rapid maturity of the United

States' capitalist economy has prompted someeconomists to contend that the country's industrialpolicy is not prepared for the future in what isbeing termed the "post-industrial age." One of themost significant structural changes has been ashift in production of goods to the delivery ofservices as the dominant feature of the Americaneconomy. Service industries include banking, hotelsand restaurants, and communications, as well as manyother areas. This sector of the economy nowcontributes the greatest share of the nation'sgross national product.

U.S.A. Service Industries — the Decisive Sector of the U.S. Economy Percentage of Gross National Product

U.S.S.R.

FEDERAL REPUBLICOF GERMANY

Primary Sector agricul

tureforestryfishing

mining energy industry Secondary Sector construction

Tertiary Sector

transportation service industries

BUDGET DEFICIT

Businesses that manufacture high-technologycomputer, aerospace, and biochemical products andservices are also on the rise.Many economists feel that the U.S. has the potential

to increase its overall economic productivity bymaking heavier investment in the new service andhigh-tech industries instead of subsidizingcompetitive manufacturing industries. These observersbelieve that the U.S. economy, still organized forbasic production, is unprepared for the future. Theybelieve the government should play a more active rolein developing a long-term industrial policy thatdirects capital investment and training in the newservice and high-tech industries. Leaders of laborand industry, however, resist these proposals.One serious problem that hampers economic growth

domestically and affects the United States' abilityto sell products overseas is the enormous federalbudget deficit. Almost every year since 1930, thegovernment has been spending more money than it hastaken in. Deficit spending in the Reagan adminis-tration exceeded $200 billion a year—nearly threetimes greater than that of any previousadministration. Such huge deficits can cripple theeconomy because they lead to inflation, highinterest rates, and unemployment. One of the reasonsfor the high value of the American dollar abroadwhich hurt the sale of U.S. products was thesedeficits. Pressures to decrease the budget arestrong. One important measure to control the budgetdeficit was the Gramm-Rudman deficit reduction plan,adopted in December 1985. This act calls for yearlyspending cuts of $36 billion until a balanced budgetis reached in 1991. Most Americans are doubtfulthese targets will be met. Whether the deficit willbe reduced depends on the ability of the presidentand Congress to agree on areas for spending cutsand/or tax increases.Many experts blame the budget deficit for the sudden

stock market crash in October, 1987, which caused adrop in markets all over the world. The dramaticdownturn of the U.S. stock market has intensifiedAmericans' fears of an

THE U.S. ECONOMY 63

AGRICULTURE imminent recession. A falling market can contributeto a decline in spending which could severely weakenthe U.S. economy and create economic distress allover the world.American agriculture is a highly productive sector

of the U.S. economy facing tough challenges. Farmingnowadays has become an extremely efficient, highlymechanized industry requiring huge investments. Inthe past thirty years, agricultural land has beenconcentrated into fewer and fewer hands as large-scale specialized farms replace small family farms.

Revolution in AgricultureUS$ per farm 3000 -

1950 60 701981/82 ...increasedmechanization

by hectare

1950 60 70 1981/82...fewer workers

bushels30-

RESULT:

1950 60 70 1981/82...fewer farms

bushels 100-

50 -

1950 60 70 1981/82 ...increased agriculturalacreage per farm

kg

15

0

10

1950 60 70 1981/82...more fertilizers

1950 60 70 1981/82 ...higher performance

Example: coin bushel per labor hour 1 bushel = 35.3 litres

1950 60 70 1982/82...and higher yields

Example: corn bushel per hectare

CRISIS OF THE SMALL FARM

The high efficiency and productivity of Americanagriculture has its negative side. Farming has becometoo productive to be profitable to many Americanfarmers. Low crop prices, which have resulted fromoverproduction, often do not bring farmers enoughincome to live on. Another difficulty the Americanfarmer faces is the decline of agricultural exports.Farmers depend heavily on exports; one third of thecrop land in the United States is planted in cropsdestined for export. But the market for these exportcrops is shrinking as the markets of the Europeancommunity expand.Increased mechanization of American farming is

threatening the existence of the small farmer.Farmers have had to increase their debts to affordexpensive farm equipment, and high interest ratesmake it difficult for many farmers to keep uppayments on loans and mortgages. Small farmers areunable to compete with large agribusiness firms thatusually have the capital needed to sustainthemselves through periods marked by low cropprices and high interest rates. With as many as 200farmers having to declare bankruptcy every day, manyfarmers insist on emergency aid from the government.A variety of

agribusiness: farming engaged in as big business, including theproduction, processing and distribution of farm products.


CORPORATIONS governmental and private programs, including cropinsurance, loan guarantees, and price supports, havebeen set up to assist farmers. The problems of theAmerican farm economy are not unique. Farmers in theEuropean Economic Community are facing many of thesame problems.The trend in modern agriculture towards large-scale

enterprise conforms to the overall pattern inAmerican business. Giant corporations dominate. Smallcorporations are being consumed by larger ones andlarge corporations become even larger throughmergers.The Dominance ofthe Large CorporationsPercentage o' corporations with more than 250 employees around 1980

NUMBER OF рЯCORPORATIONS E______________________1 4

NUMBER OF EMPLOYEES

USA. | |56JAPAN | J30

INDUSTRY RETURNS U.S.A. 1 : 164

JAPAN |

ENTREPRENEURS

SUCCESS

YUPPIES

Large corporations were once run by individuals withhigh public profiles. Henry Ford of the automobileindustry and Andrew Carnegie of the steel industryare well-known magnates of the early part of thiscentury. Modern corporations, on the other hand, areoften run by nearly anonymous career executives whorarely own more than a fraction of one percent of thecorporation's stock.While giant corporations determine much of the

nation's economic behavior, entrepreneurs also havea significant impact on the American economy. In1984, 700,000 small businesses were started in theUnited States. Since the 1970s such businessesstarted by entrepreneurs have provided more newemployment than larger corporations.The high-tech era has produced a new generation of

entrepreneurs. One example from the 1970s is that oftwo young men who worked together to design a newand better computer. They gathered money needed topay for large-scale production, and in 1977 AppleComputer Corporation was started. By the end of1984, that company, started by two business-mindedentrepreneurs, was one of the largest computermakers in the United States.This success story is similar to others in American

history. The Coca-Cola company began when an Americanpharmacist mixed together the first Coca-Cola drinkand began selling it in Atlanta, Georgia, in the1890s. The famous Heinz food company, whichspecializes in mustard, pickles, and ketchup, beganwhen a teenager started to sell various food items onthe street. While most people who start businesses donot become millionaires, Americans do believe in thepotential for individual success that exists withintheir free enterprise system.Americans are known for being highly success-

oriented and dedicated to hard work. Today's babyboom generation has acquired a reputation for its

baby boom generation: people born in the 1950s and 1960s when birthrates were extremely high.

THE U.S. ECONOMY 65

LABOR UNIONS

AFL-CIO

DECLINING MEMBERSHIP

relentless drive for material success. The term"yuppie," meaning young upwardly-mobile professional,has been coined to describe those people between theages of 25 and 45 who, according to the stereotype,devote themselves to careers and status.Whereas the drive for success is firmly entrenched

in American ideology, what is curiously absent isfocused ideological support for America's laborunions. Although a legal framework for workerrepresentation and collective bargaining wasestablished by legislation in the 1930s, laborunions in America do not have the power or politicaldirection of their counterparts in Europe.Achievements of European labor, such as worker

participation in corporate strategy in West Germanyand nationalization of industries in Great Britainseem radical compared with the achievements ofAmerican workers. Some significant gains American laborunions have won for their members include benefits suchas increases in overtime pay, paid vacations, premiumpay for night work, and employer subsidized healthinsurance plans. Although American workers are nowbeginning to focus their demands more on job securitythan benefits, few employees can aspire to the jobsecurity won by unions in continental Europe. InAmerica, lay-offs of blue-collar workers in industriessuch as automobiles, aerospace, and shipbuilding areroutine. In Europe, corporations are deterred fromlaying off workers. Laws require companies to makecostly redundancy payment to workers who aredismissed.One explanation for this difference between labor

unions in Europe and America is that American workershave traditionally valued self-reliance andindividualism. Furthermore, the lack of rigid classdistinctions has given many workers the feeling thatthey are not permanently destined to a working-classexistence. The lack of class consciousness and thebelief that one can rise to a higher station in lifethrough individual effort help explain why socialismhas not gained mass appeal as a unifying ideologyamong American workers.Today the largest American labor union is the joint

AFL-CIO, the American Federation of Labor and Congressof Industrial Organizations. The AFL-CIO is active inthe world labor movement. It is an affiliate of theInternational confederation of Free Trade Unions (ICFTU)which has members in 95 countries and territories.American labor unions today are losing members and

influence. In 1950, as many as 1 in 3 wage earnerswere union members. Now that percentage has dropped to18 percent and shows signs of shrinking further. TheAFL-CIO has also been troubled by a sharp decline in

membership. Between1975 and1985,membershipdroppedfrom 14million to11 millionworkers.The

decline inlabormembershipis relatedto thechangingtrends intheeconomy asa whole.Foreigncompetition hasdepressedmany U.S.industriesand leftmanyworkersunemployed. Thedecline inmanufacturingindustries, once astrongholdofunionism,and therise inserviceand high-techindustries, whichemployfewerblue-collarworkers,hascontributed to thedecline ofAmerica'slaborunions.Anotherexplanation for the

unions' loss of membership is the movement of manyindustries to the South, where right-to-work lawshinder union organizers.Automation and other technological innovations in

industrial production have displaced many blue-collarworkers. The transition to a post-industrial economypresents challenges not only to labor unions, but toall sectors of the U.S. economy.

66

PART в TextsThe New Entrepreneurs

Peter Drucker on Entrepreneur

From U.S. NEWS & WORLD REPORT

Peter Drucker is probably the most widely respected corporate management expert in the United States. Beginning in 1939 with The End of EconomicMan, he has written more than 20 books on economics, corporations and management, including most recently The Changing World of the Executive. In this interview with the editors «/U.S. News & World Report, Drucker, a professor of social science at Claremont Graduate School in California, discusses America's new wave of entrepreneurs.

Is it still possible to start new companies today andsucceed?It's more than just possible. We have

on our hands an entrepreneurial boomthe like of which we have not seen in acentury. The most important economicevent of the last few years, in fact,is the emergence of thisentrepreneurial trend.In the past decade, the United States

has created 20 million new jobs—thelargest number ever created anywhere insuch a short period. At the same time,large, established companies have lostseveral million jobs. Government hasnot grown, either. Most of these 20million additional jobs are in small,new enterprises. They absorbed all thepost-World War II babies, and theyabsorbed the millions of women whoentered the job market.

Would you characterize these as high-tech businesses?No. The high-tech people are

traditional entrepreneurs, which meansnine of every 10 of them will losetheir business within two years. Theytalk profit, and in a new business it'snot profit that matters but cash flow,and they don't know how to make a cash-flow forecast. Too many high-techpeople can't build teams or trainpeople, either. Their enterprises tendto resemble entrepreneurships of yearsago—a game in which all the cards aremarked and you don't know what anyonehas up his sleeve.// not in high technology, where are these

millions of jobs being created?I'll give you an example. The fastest

growing and most profitable newbusiness I know is a chain ofbarbershops founded by two young men,neither of whom had ever had a pair ofscissors in his hand. Rather than ekeout an existence like most barbershops,theirs are earning 30 to 40 percentreturns on investment.

Reprinted from U.S. News if World Report, March 26, 1984, published at Washington, D.C. © 1984 US News Sc World Report, Inc.

They did nothing more than applyelementary management. They asked,"What are the key factors?" The answersare location, traffic and the number ofpeople you can cut in a day withoutanyone's having to wait. They knew howto build their team and how to traintheir people.These barbershop fellows understand

cash flow, too. One of them told me: "Istarted another business once, andafter nine months I was in a cash bindand had to give away 40 percent of thebusiness to the next batch ofinvestors. With these barbershops, Imake sure of the money six monthsbefore I need it." That's the wholesecret of financial management: knowwhen you'll need money and make sure ofit before you need it.The new entrepreneurs, then, don't

go near glamour, and they don't bet onnew technology but on something farmore predictable: demographics,population trends and things of thatsort.

How do they get started?Most come out of big companies or

institutions. Typically, after eight or10 years of being trainees and youngmanagers, they realize their nextpromotion is a ways off. So they get anidea and start off on their own. By thattime, they know a lot about what we callupper management and organization.These are a stable group of people who

look systematically for opportunities,and the casualty rate of theirbusinesses is quite low. Few of themhave any illusion that they're going tobuild thousand million-dollarcompanies. A good many, once theirbusinesses get to 10 or 15 milliondollars in sales, set out to startsomething new again.

Aren't these small businesses vulnerable tocompetition from giant companies?There is no longer a premium on big

size in many industries. Companies pay aprice for size; they are not very agile.Elephants can't turn on a dime, andneither can huge organizations withall their layers of management.Politically, they are too visible in a

world in which business is damned if itdoes and damned if it doesn't. Thesmart business executive knows theadvantages of anonymity. But if you runone of the world's great banks, don'texpect to have it.

Are you implying that the day of the big company is over?I'm not saying we won't have large

companies but that weno longer need them in many instances.For 30 years thetrend was toward the large unit becauseit was the one weknew how to manage—or thought we did.That is over. Weare deinstitutionalizing. You see it inhospitals, where clinicsnow perform outpatient surgery. You seeit in education,where the huge consolidated secondaryschool is beingjudged a failure. And you see it inbusiness, where the spotlight is shifting toward the smallerunit.

♦

THE U.S. ECONOMY 67

By Gene BylinskyScientific advances at America's top research laboratory run the gamut from building an efficient phone system to discovering evidence of the Big Bang.

Research laboratories within large companies have been one ofthe great incubators of scientific discovery in the United States. Charles Steinmetz, whose 30years of research at General Electric helped usher in the age of electricity at the beginning of this century, established the model of an alliance between creative genius and big business.In more recent times IBM scientists have designed fundamental computer languages and software; in 1987 two of their colleagues were awarded a Nobel Prize for their pioneering work on

superconductors. Similarly, researchers at Du Pont have used chemical compounds discovered in their labs to develop plastics and other materials put to everyday use.

America's largest and most famous research facility is Bell Laboratories, a division of American Telephone & Telegraph (AT&T). Scientists atBell Labs have won more Nobel Prizes than any other industrial institution in the world. Yet since 1984, when a federal judge ruled that AT&Tmust be split up because its control of U.S. telephone serviceviolated

antitrust law, the American scientific community has been concerned about the scaled-downcompany's support for its distinguished research arm. As the author of this article reports, however, Bell Labs has survived the breakup and its research remains as innovative as ever.

Gene Bylinsky is on the boardof editors of Fortune magazine, where he has been a science writer since 1966. He is the author of several books including Mood Control and Life in Darwin's Universe.


2. continuedell Laboratories,the premier

corporate researchfacility in the UnitedStates for most of its62-year history, hasproduced thetransistor, the laser,the solar cell and thefirst communicationssatellite, as well assound motion pictures,the science of radioastronomy and crucialevidence for the theorythat a Big Bang createdthe universe. Today thevital signs are stillstrong at the Bell Labheadquarters innorthern New Jersey,putting to rest fearsthat without the vastrevenue base providedby ЛТ&Т, the parentoperating company, BellLabs might wither intojust another run-of-the-mill industrialresearch and develop-ment (R&D) operation.

B

Not only has basicresearch come throughthe court-orderedbreak-up of AT&Tlargely unscathed, butBell Labs is alsobranching into newcommercial areas — inpart by launching newR&D companies —andlooking into licensingof companies as farafield fromtelecommunications asairlines and shippingfirms.Historically, basic

research absorbed onlyabout 10 percent ofmanpower and spendingat Bell Labs, and thatproportion remainsunchanged. Most of theemployees areengineers, who haveworked on applications,not basic research.But basic research at

the Labs has alwaysbeen a huge attention-getter because of itsunmatched results and

epochal discoveries.The 1947 invention ofthe transistor set offthe world microelec-tronics and computerrevolution. Seven BellLab scientists have wonNobel Prizes. In 1985President Reaganawarded Bell Labs theNational Medal ofTechnology — the onlyU.S. laboratory eversingled out for it.What happens at Bell

Labs is of vitalinterest to Americanindustry because of thelabs' high quality ofresearch and because ithas been strong wherethe United States

now finds itself weak:in the transfer ofresearch results intoproducts. Says RobertM. White, president ofthe National Academyof Engineering:"America's problem isnot lack of basic re-search but inadequateconversion ofscientific discovery tocommercialization.Bell Labs does thatvery well indeed."Bell Labs is striving

to help AT&T'sbusinesses by tailoringbasic research moreclosely to the needs ofthe parent companywithout sacrificing thescope and sweep ofinvestigations. Theeconomics andpsychology departmentshave been cutdrastically whilerobotics and computerscience have grown, butthat shift in emphasisinvolved only about 40of the 200 or soscientists who pursuethe purest kind of pureresearch."To an outside

observer it may seemthat we've gone productoriented, but theintellectual content ofthe work is the same,"says Arno A Penzias,vice-president incharge of research atBell Labs. Penzias, anebullient astrophys-icist, made his marksoon after he arrivedat the labs in 1961. Hewas asked to join acommittee of olderscientists who weretrying to devise thebest way to calculatethe precise positionsof communicationssatellites. Thescientists were talkingabout setting up tall,expensive radio mastswhen Penzias piped upwith the suggestion

that nature's own radiomasts — radio stars,which emit charac-teristic frequenciesfrom fixed positions inthe sky—would serveequally well at no costwhatever. Penzias'sidea was accepted andthe committee disbandedon the spot.Later, Penzias and

his colleague RobertWilson built measuringdevices for Bell Labs'radiotele-scope aspart of their effortto track down thesource of static thatoften interfered withtheir studies of radiowaves from the

Milky Way. The noisethey studied turned outto be the residualradiation from the BigBang; for theirdiscovery, the twomen shared a NobelPrize in 1978.The scope of research

at Bell remains widerthan at most otherindustrial labs andeven some universities.The staff includes 3430Ph.D.s — more than thetotal research staff ofthe closest rival cor-porate lab, at IBM.The scientists at Bellare spread amongphysics, chemistry,computer science,mathematics,electronics and sundryother fields. BellLabs' method hasalways been toassemble a huge massof diverse specialistswho interact closely.The sprawlingheadquarters buildingis an immense beehive.It houses more than3000 researchers,product developers andsupport staff alonglengthy corridorslined with hundreds ofsmall labs crammedwith the latestinstruments.The physics-research

division alone employs250; it's larger andmore diverse than mostuniversity physicsdepartments. Investiga-tions range from basicstudies of the natureof matter, includingsuch current topics intheoretical physics asinstabilities andchaos, to buildingceramic superconductorsand creating so-calledneural networks insilicon chips thatmimic rudimentaryanimal brain pathways.Electronics and opticsare two other largeareas of emphasis.Recently AT&T began to

install the world'smost advanced fiber-optic transmissionsystem, developed atBell Labs, which canspeed 24,000 telephonecalls simultaneouslythrough a pair offibers, each twice thethickness of a humanhair. It has 40 percentmore capacity than anyother commercialsystem.The most basic work

at Bell Labs has a wayof merging intodevelopment, thoughthat's not immediatelyapparent from theactivities of someof the basic

THE U.S. ECONOMY 69

scientists. Onerecently reported onthe activities of antsin the jungles ofBrazil; anotherobserves faint galaxiesat the edge of theuniverse fromobservatories in Chileand Hawaii. The studentof ants, Thomas Gradel,reports that a majorcause of acid rain inthe Amazon is formicacid, a pungent,colorless substancereleased by thedecomposing bodies ofanls. However, Gradel'sinterest in theAmazonian ants ishighly practical: heis a corrosionchemist, and part ofhis job is to find outwhy telephone equipmentcan fail in variousenvironments.The stargazer,

astrophysicist J.Anthony Tyson, has hisfeet on the ground aswell. He is trying toimprove another BellLab invention, thecharge coupled device —in effect a siliconchip that can see. Ithas revolutionizedastronomy because itcollects light up to1000 times moreefficiently than film,but it also haspotential uses as theeyes of robots and inthe precisionmanufacture of semi-conductors. Tyson isone of a handful ofBell's basic scientistswho "couple us to theuniverse of science,"as Penzias says. "It'sa small but vital partof our businessstrategy to have a fewscientists do work thatgives Bell Labs a con-nection to theuniversities and therest of the scientific

community that itcouldn't getotherwise."Among other things,

such connections helpattract young scien-tists. Bell Labs payscompetitive orsomewhat highersalaries than othermajor corporate labs,such as those at IBMand Du Pont. Andalthough Penzias saysthat some scientistsearn more at Bell

Labs, money is not themain draw for most ofthem. The freedom, thefacilities and first-class colleagues comebefore that.Harvesting the fruits

of research happensfaster than it did inthe good old days. BellLab President Ian M.Ross is a subduedBritish-born Ph.D. inelectrical engineeringwith several advancesin semiconductors tohis credit. He citesthe emergence and therapid adoption of aremarkable mathematicalshortcut to thecelebrated traveling-salesman problem, whichrequires devising theshortest possibleroute connecting agiven number ofdestinations. Indian-born mathematicianNarendra Karmarkardescribed this new in-sight in 1984. Whereprogrammers andmathematicians oncetook days to solve aproblem with thousandsof variables, the Kar-markar algorithm allowsthem to do so inminutes. AT&T isalready using thealgorithm to design avast and complex phonenetwork among the 20nations of the PacificRim. The algorithm isuseful in other fieldsas well; Bell Labs isgetting ready to applyit to airline andshipping businesses.Competing against the

rest of the world isteaching Bell Labs'product developers tocouple R&D even moreclosely to bothmanufacturing andmarket needs. In thepast, technology droveBell Labs' development;now the customer does.

A classic example of atechnology-drivenproduct: thePicturephone of themid-1950s. It workedwell, but marketstudies of thepotential demand for itfailed to makeclearjust who couldafford to use it.Nowadays Bell Labs

would let the marketdetermine whether itwould develop a Pic-turephone.Into the competitive

world today Bell Labs'developers are bringingsuch impressiveproducts as a giganticcomputerized electronicswitching system,which can cost severalmillion dollars andhandles up to 300,000telephone calls anhour. Bell Labs is alsohelping install asystem that willconnect McDonald's 7500hamburger outlets andthe company'sadministrativeoffices. In all theseactivities Bell Labs'people think they havea competitive advantagebecause research hasbeen integrated intothe work of the parentcompany better than atany other industriallab.Just as it opened the

new world ofmicroelectronics byinventing thetransistor, Bell Labs

is now far along inharnessing theelectron's ephemeralcousin, the photon, forthe task of informationmovement andmanagement. In BellLabs' bag of surprisesthere even could be anoptical computersuperior to itselectronic counterpart.Progress in that fieldin recent months hasbeen exceptionallyrapid. The opticalcomputer, using laserbeams instead ofelectrical connections,would work 1000 timesfaster than today'selectronic variety—analmost unimaginableboon to everyone fromtheoretical physiciststo weather forecasters.Bell Labs' basic

scientists insist thatcompetition is nothingnew for them, that theyhave always competedagainst the world atlarge. As Arno Penziasputs it, Bell Labstraditionally has beena place that "made itsown future happen."

IBM: international Business Machines: large American corporation.


A French-FryDiary: FromIdaho FurrowTo GoldenArches

For the Potato That Qualifies, McDonald's Has a Slicer, Sprayer, Drier—and RulerBY MEG COX

OAK BROOK, ILL.

2/8/82

eep within the high-rise confines of McDonald's Corp. headquarters, inside his "war room," Chairman Fred Turner ponders a weighty business issue: the

fate of five Idaho potatoes. The potatoes have been transplanted from their American homeland to a field in far-off Holland. Delicate negotiations with the government of the Netherlands preceded the move; eight months in Dutch quarantine followed before the potatoes could be planted. "God, I hopethey didn't die," Mr. Turner exclaims.

DLower-level McDonald's operatives are asked

to check. Alas, the news is bad. The fivepotatoes, estranged from their native land,have fallen victim to a virulent foreignpotato virus. Once again, McDonald's Corp.'scostly, 10-year struggle to take itsfavorite source of French-fried potatoes toEurope has been thwarted.Thwarted but not defeated. This company

didn't get to be king of fast food by takingFrench fries lightly. The attention McDonald'slavishes on the spindly side order suggestssomething approaching a corporate obsession.And why not? French fries currently pour

more than $1 billion a year into McDonald'scash registers, nearly 20% of annual revenue.They are the most profitable food served under

the Golden Arches. Seven of every 10customers arriving after the breakfast hourorder fries.

To keep them that way, McDonald's hasspelled out no fewer than 60 specifications astrip of potato has to meet to make it intothe frying basket. To frustrate imitators, ithas a patent on the precise combination ofsteps in making its fries. The restaurantseven use a special blend of frying oil. Itsname: Interstate 47.

THE U.S. ECONOMY 71

3. continuedNow, frying is important, but what good is

it if you don't have a sturdy potato to beginwith? At McDonald's the tuber of choice isthe russet Burbank. "People think allpotatoes are alike, but they aren't," saysBill Atchley, the chief of McDonald's crewof spud scouts. He explains: "A russetBurbank potato has a distinctive taste and ahigher ratio of solids to water, which makesfor crispier fries."There are plenty of russet Burbanks in the

U.S., but overseas is another matter. Mr.Atchley recently returned from thePhilippines, where he spent much of his timeon his hands and knees in the dirt trying toteach farmers to plant the right kind ofpotatoes. "If we can grow these potatoes inthe Philippines, we'll learn a lot about howto do it in other tropical countries," hesays.But the big target is Europe. No russet

Burbanks are grown there, and the CommonMarket doesn't allow potato imports. Nevermind that the Continent offers several hundredother varieties; Mr. Turner says they aresmall and yellow and low in solids, producing,he adds with distaste, "small and soggy"French fries.The state of the art in French-fry making

today can be seen at the J. R. Simplot potatofactory in Caldwell, Idaho, which processes agood portion of the billion potatoesMcDonald's uses each year. "Mac fries," likethe ones Simplot prepares for othercompanies, begin their journey on an assemblyline, where women in aprons pluck out the badpotatoes. Like the others, those going toMcDonald's are chopped, prefried and frozen.But there are subtle differences. Other

fries are blanched, or quick-scalded, inwater; McDonald's has its steamed, figuringthat water carries off flavor and nutrients.All the fries in the assembly line areprefried, then dried; but those going toMcDonald's are dried at higher heat, to makethem chewy. The time and the heat are coveredby the patent.Nor is McDonald's indifferent to the amount

of moisture that slips away between the frying

and the drying. Company food scientistsmonitor this. They call it "drier-frierweight loss."Else.where on the Simplot production line,

other people's fries are dipped in sugar tomake them brown better. Mac fries get dousedin sugar too, but they are sprayed rather thandipped. Spraying the sugar on makes the friesbrown unevenly, the company believes, and thatmakes them look more natural.In looks, though, color isn't everything.

Fries have to be the right length, too. Whathungry diner wants to look into his bag andfind a bunch of little stubby fries?McDonald's is ruthless about length: 40% ofall fries must be between two inches andthree inches long;


3. continuedanother 40% must be over three inches; the other 20%—well, it doesn't hurt to have a few stubby ones.McDonald's is convinced all this trouble

pays off. It says a 1975 telephone surveyshowed that Mac fries were the favorite of 70%of those called.

Even some gourmets like them. "I thinkMcDonald's fries are remarkably good," saystelevision chef Julia Child. "They're cookedin extremely fresh fat." Nutritionists tendto be less enthusiastic. Isobel Contento, anutrition professor at Columbia University inNew York, says, "About half the calories inFrench fries come from fat, there are veryfew vitamins, and you'd feel a whole lotfuller eating a comparable amount of greenvegetables."

WAYNE STAYSKAL Courtesy Chicago Tribune

eei тне ммвек op THAT вияеек кт vewew ткиск. 1"

THE U.S. ECONOMY 73

9 The ForgottenFarmer

THE C R IS I S IN AMERICAN AGRICULTURE fcyD A N N Y COLLUM

ast year rural SacCounty, Iowa,cxperiend three bank

failures. In the countyseat of Odenbolt(population 1,300), 12businesses closed, churchattendance andcollections were down, aswere school enrollmentswhich have now declined 7percent since 1982. Alsoin 1985 more than 40 SacCounty farms were lost toforeclosure, with another120 in immediate danger.

L

Across the state inHills, Iowa, near IowaCity, last December afarmer killed his wife, aman he had bought landfrom, his banker, andfinally himself. At thetime of the tragedy, thefarmer was almost amillion dollars in debt.The local sheriff saidthe man left a note"indicating he couldn'tstand the problemsanymore."There is a crisis in

American agriculture inthe 1980s, a crisis inmany ways worse than theone accompanying the GreatDepression of the 1930s.There are about 600,000full-time, family-runfarms left in the UnitedStates, and they aredisappearing at the rateof about 30,000 a year.At least a third of thenation's family farmersare carrying levels ofdebt that place them inimminent danger ofbankruptcy. After 40 yearsof slow shrinkage, thefamily farm as an insti-tution, a culture, and avocation is facingextinction.The current farm crisis

is creating a nearlyunbearable economic, emo-tional, and spiritualdislocation for

hundreds of thousands ofAmericans with long-standing ties to the landand no other means oflivelihood. And as theexperience of Odenbolt,Iowa, indicates, theripple effects of farmforeclosures are takingdown banks, businesses,farm-related industries,and entire communities.While the farm crisis is

creating an ever-wideningcircle of losers, from'rural America to theindustrial cities, therearesome winners. One bigwinner is the farm-management industry, madeup of companies thatoperate farms forinstitutional owners.According to theA'ero YorkTimes, the number of farmsoperated by thosecompanies has risen bymore than 40 percentdaring the farm crisis.Their acreage nowcomprises an area roughlythe size of Colorado.

Originally the farmmanagement industrymostly served retiredpeople who didn't want tosell their land. But

today its customersinclude some of America'sbiggest banks andinsurance companies whohave "inherited" the landthrough foreclosure andother institutionalinvestors taking advan-tage of crisis-induced lowland prices. Foodprocessing anddistribution in theUnited States has longbeen an oligopolycontrolled by a handfulof-corporations. Now thefood-growing industry istaking the same route.Further evidence ofcorporate centralizationof agriculture wasrecently provided when theMetropolitan LifeInsurance Company,already the proud ownerof 300 farms, bought outthe nation's largest farm-management company, whichruns 3,900 farms(including 200 ofMetropolitan's) comprisingmore than a million acresin nine states.

THE CURRENT CRISIS inAmerican agriculture isnot the result of badweather, bad luck, or badmanagement. It is insteadthe result of bad choicesin U.S. agriculturepolicy, especially in thelast 15 years.In the early 1970s, a

fundamental shiftoccurred in the directionof federal agriculturepolicy. The U.S. economywas weakened by VietnamWar-induced inflation andnew international tradecompetition from itsEuropean and Japaneseallies. Then came the1973 Arab oil embargo andthe consequent doubling ofoil prices, whichfurther exacerbatedboth

Great Depression: the economic crisis and worldwide decline in business activity, beginning with the stockmarket crash in October, 1929 and continuing through the 1930s.New York Times: established 1851, one of the most important national daily newspapers, renowned for its excellent news service.Vietnam War: see page 15.


4. continuedinflation and theexport-import imbalance.At this time the

decision was made tocrank up U.S. grainproduciton to the highestpossible level. The oldfarm-policy emphasis onprice maintenance wastraded in for a policythat emphasized higherproduction, lower prices,and massive export sales.This had the advantage ofredressing theinternational tradeproblem whilesimultaneously holdingdown domestic food pricesin a time of inflation.Government policies

encouraged farmers toplant their land fromfence row to fence row.Banks were flooded withMiddle Easternpetrodollars in search ofinvestment opportunities.Interest rates were low,and the banks activelyencouraged farmers totake out loans to buymore land and equipment toenlarge their operationsand produce still more.Demand for farm land

increased as a result ofthese changes, and the newlevels of landproductivity drove theprice of farm land sky-high. In turn theincreased value of theirlandhold-ings (a farmer'sprimary loan collateral)allowed farmers toborrow even more, expandmore, and produce more.Farmers' totalindebtedness grew byleaps and bounds. No oneworried about it, though,because America was thebread-basket of the worldand there was nothing butclear skies ahead.But the clouds soon

appeared. In 1981 theReagan administrationcame into power andinduced a cripplingrecession as the finalsolution to the domesticinflation problem. TheU.S. recession inevitablybecame a global recession.The market for U.S. grainexports, already reducedby President Carter'sgrain embargo, nowdeclined further becauseother countries, par-

ticularly those in theThird World, simply couldnot afford to buy them atany price. Also othercountries, especially inEurope and LatinAmerica, had increasedtheir food production tothe point that they nolonger needed U.S. grain.Some of them, in fact,had begun to compete

with the United States onthe world market..The Reagan

administration's policiesof high military spendingdeficits and a tight moneysupply also combined todrive up the interestrates on farm loans, asdid bank deregulation. Atthe same time, the farmrecession drove down thevalue of the land, makingit more difficult forfarmers to get the loansthey needed for seedsand supplies from year toyear. Suddenly manyfarmers found themselveswith an enormous debtload, taken on at theencouragement a few yearsbefore, and no way to payit. Before long thecurrent tidal wave offoreclosures began.Ultimately, the crisis

that is destroying familyfarms raises serious ques-tions about the socialand economic directionAmerica will take in therest of this century. Theeconomics of the

marketplace areincreasingly replacing allnotions of the commongood in areas rangingfrom banking and tele-phore service tonewspapers and other massmedia. The farm crisis issymptomatic of thattrend. Little room existsin U^S. political debatefor the idea thatdecentralized ownership

and control of land andthe institution of familyfarming might have anintrinsic social and moralvalue that outweighs thedemands of the market.Such a narrow approach

to public life willinevitably leave behindstaggering human damage.Right now the damage ismost visible in black andHispanic inner-city

communities without jobsor hope, in the abandonedindustrial towns of theNortheast and upperMidwest, and in the farmbelt. But it won't stopthere. If farm familiescan be declared dis-pensable, so can we all.

■ .

petrodollars: surplus profits accumulated by petroleum-exporting countries. Hispanic: an American citizen orresident of Latin American descent.farm belt: region in the midwestern U.S. of deep fertile soils which are especially adapted to the production ofcorn, wheat, oats and soybeans.

THE U.S. ECONOMY 75

ф Economics vs. Ecology:Problems withSolutions to Pollution"... Our short-run look at income and profit keeps us from the long-run look at the future of life."by Robert W. Haseltine

Industrial pollution — no easy solution

HE EFFECTS OF BOTHAIR and water

pollution on the en-vironment have beenobserved for years. Oneof the best examples ofthe debilitating effectsof air pollution isSudbury, Ont., Canada.International Nickel and"the world's tallestsmokestack" put enoughsulfur dioxide andnitric oxide into theatmosphere to havecaused the death of allvegetation, with theconcomitant erosion andloss of all soil down tobedrock, for about 20miles east of Sudbury.For anyone familiarwith the New York Cityarea, the East River andHudson River both give agood example of waterpollution carried to itsextreme. A major lack offoresightedness hasoccurred not only in thebusiness community, butin the consumercommunity as well.

T

Prof. Haseltine, Economics Editor of USA Today, /s associate professor of economics, State University of New York at Geneseo.

Both sides refuse toaccept pollution in itsvarious aspects ashaving any form ofeconomic consequences. ...The average citizen,

you and me, is part andparcel of the problem.Unfortunately, as withmost complex problems,there are more thingsinvolved than meet thesuperficial glance thatmost of us give to prob-lems of this nature.Most Americans are afterthe "quick fix." If weare hungry, we go tothe nearest fast foodplace and quickly fillthe vacuum. Similarly,in the area of fixingenvironmental problemswhich have beendeveloping for well over100 years, we ask "them"(whoever we may think"them" to be) toquickly make the problemgo away, much as a childasks mommy to kiss thebruise and take awaythe hurt. The solutionsare not that easilyfound.. .. When it comes

down to which is goingto suffer, theenvironment or myfamily, my family has totake precedence. Thepollution spewed

into the atmosphere bythe smokestack is along-range problem,while my support of myfamily must be viewed asa short-range problem.If there is no foodcoming into the housein the short run, westarve to death — andthere is no long run.

The short-run problemEver since businessbegan to operate in thebeginnings of theIndustrial Revolution,it has generally done sowith a total disregardfor the environment.Business, any business,has to be very cost-conscious if it is goingto exist long in a free-market society. At leastthat is what we are toldby American business asit fights any of thelaws which would placerestrictions on themanner in which it dumpsits wastes into theatmosphere, or theecosphere in general.Business, according toeconomic theory, at-tempts to operate all ofits production in aleast-cost manner. Thatis, in puttingtogether theresources


5. continuedwhich it uses to producea final good, it usescapital and labor in amanner which willproduce the most outputfor the least possiblecost per unit ofproduction.Business, therefore,

will use capital,especially, in such away that labor, as itworks with that capital,will be most productive.For this reason, moreand more businesses areturning to robots to dothe painting, welding,and countless other te-dious jobs that up tonow have been done bywage labor. This meansthat more and more jobshave disappeared fromthe industrial sector ofthe economy, with nocorresponding positionsopening up in theservice sector. Fromthis stems an over-allloss of jobs, especiallyamong tho; e who havepoorer levels ofeducation and a need toprotect their familiesand livelihoods. Ifbusiness puts into theproduction line thetypes of equipment whichwill clean up theresidue so that whatcomes out of thesmokestack is nothingbut steam, theyrecognize that a numberof things will have tooccur.In the short

run ,iftheydothisandother competingbusinesses do not dothis, their costs ofproduction will risewhile that of theircompetition will not.This means that unitcost is more than it waspreviously and, if thelevels of profits areto remain high enoughto satisfy the stock-

holders, then the marketprice of the good willhave to be increased....

Polluting the airThe major reason for airpollution, especially asone looks at the prob-lems of hydrocarbonsand lead, is theprivate consumer. Inorder to save four to 10cents per gallon, wefind people doing awaywith pollution controldevices, or buying adevice which allows themto add regular gas totheir tank instead ofbeing forced topurchase unleaded. Thishas caused a problemwith the amounts ofhydrocarbons and lead inthe atmosphere close tothe surface, just as thehigh smokestack hasadded to the problem oflong-distance pollution.The problem which iscaused is endemicthroughout the world,. . . and the basiccause is that which isoutlined above - theeconomics of self-interest (greed) whichcauses me, as aconsumer, to save as muchof my income aspossible, just as thebusiness managerattempts to save thecompany as much money aspossible. I can notpoint a finger of blame,because, if I do, I findthree other fingerspointing back at me. . ..

Polluting the waterThe waterways areanother . . . area thatwe find it easier topollute than to spendthe money necessaryto

clean wastes properly.Wisconsin has a law thatall houseboats must havea self-contained head(toilet) which must bepumped out properly anddumped properly if youhave it done in thestate of Wisconsin. Thecost is not exorbitant,about $5.00. If, how-ever, you go across theriver to Iowa, and haveit pumped out in thatstate, it is only about$1.00. What is thedifference? InWisconsin, it is pumpedinto a storage tank,then into a seweragedisposal system. InIowa, it is pumpeddirectly into theMississippi River tobecome part of theproblem of downstreamurban areas which maytake their drinkingwater from that river.For the individual, itbecomes a dilemma:Should I save money bypumping in Iowa, andharming the river, orshould I waste my moneyby pumping in Wisconsin?For some reason, Iowadoes a thriving businessin pumping!Where does it lead?

While the first impactis on wildlife, we areall a part of this"marble in space," andwhat affects other lifewill eventually affectme. The effect might beemphysema, heartproblems, or general illhealth, if not death,and it is definitely aneconomic problemaffecting incomes ofboth business andworkers. So far,however, our short-runlook at income andprofit keeps us from thelong-run look at thefuture of life. Yes, weare all a part of the"economics of greed,"like it or not.

77

PART C Exercises1. ComprehensionPeter Drucker on EntrepreneursWhich way of completing each of the following sentences agrees with the original text? Some sentences may be completed in more than oneway.1.An entrepreneurial booma)will possibly emerge in thiscentury.b)has not been seen in this century.c)is the extraordinary

economic event ofthis century.

2.An enormous number of new jobsa)have been created by large

establishedcompanies.

b)have been taken by the millions of womenwho have entered the labor force.

c)have been taken up by thequicklygrowing population after the SecondWorld War.

3.The large majority of high-techentrepreneursfail becausea)they only talk about profit

but do notwork hard enough.

b)they do not have enough cashto start abusiness.

c)they know too little about financialplanning.

4.The two men who started a barbershop chainwere successful becausea)they were real experts in haircutring.b)they applied all the

elementarymanagement techniques.

c)they only accepted cash from theircustomers.

5.The new entrepreneurs rely heavily ona)glamor.b)predictable technology.c)demographical data.

6.Most new entrepreneurs worked for bigcompanies until they realized thata)there was no chance of being

promoted inthe near future.

b)they had a good idea which they thoughtthey could sell themselves.

c)they could build a thousand million dollarcompany themselves.

7.Compared with giant companies smallbusinessesa)are more flexible.b)do not lay so much

stress on theorganization of management.

c)enjoy a higher degree of anonymity.

8.Peter Drucker believes that big companiesa)will die out soon.b)are not as efficient as theyused to be.c)like other big

institutions, are oftenregarded as failures.

2. AnticipationInside Bell LabsBefore you read the text, look at the layout.1. What can you anticipate

about the article byjust looking at the title photo and thesubtitle?

2. The italicized introductionor lead is meant toprovide as much information asnecessary toarouse the reader's curiosity about the text.What aspects are mentioned in thisintroduction? Which ones wouldyou beinterested in following up?

3. Who is the author andwhat are hiscredentials?

3. Organization of the TextNow have a closer look at the organization of the text as a whole and the function of each paragraph.1. First read through the textand underline thekey words or phrases of each paragraph.

2. Then number the eighteen paragraphs of thearticle and match them with the descriptionsbelow using the following

sentence:The function of paragraph. . .(number) is to point outa) the growing expansion and

diversity ofBell Labs in spite of the court-enforcedbreak-up of AT&T.

b) the enormous attention basicresearchgets through epochal discoveries.

c) the new emphasis on robotics andcomputer science.


d) that competition has always been aconstant driving force inresearch.

e) impressive technological products whichsupport the view that Bell Labs have anadvantage over their competitors.

f) the use of the Karmarkar algorithm.g) a Bell Lab invention that

revolutionizedastronomy.

h) the latest invention of the physics

research division, i) a discovery for which Penzias and his

colleague Wilson won the Nobel Prize in1978.

j) the development of an optical computer, k) an example of the practical use of basic

research on ants. 1) the motives of scientists for joining Bell

Labs, m) the idea of market-oriented research and

development, n) Bell Labs as the most important corporate

research facility in the United States, o) the percentage of staff doing basic

research, p) the size and diversity of the Bell research

staff.q) an ingenious idea of ArnoPenzias. r) the importance of the transfer of basic

scientific discovery to the world ofcommerce.

4.StyleA French-Fry Diary: From Idaho Furrow to Golden Arches1.Especially at the beginning of

this article theauthor aims at a comic effect when

transferring words that originate in the fieldsof warfare or medicine to the potato andFrench-fry business. Find examples in thetext.

2.Look at the questions asked inthis article.What do you think their function is?

5.Producing a FilmscriptImagine you work for an AmericanTV station. You have enjoyed reading this article so much that you have decided to use it as the basis for a loosely-connected documentary film showing

• the business policies of McDonald's• potato processing from Idahofurrows toMcDonald's restaurants

• different people (young people, a gourmet, anutritionist) expressing different opinionsabout McDonald's French fries.

The film is to be made on location, with comments alternating with interviews. Estimated length: 15-20 minutes.Draw up a plan for such a

film and decide how to presentthe basic points you want tomake. Think about• the kind of interviewees you will have to pickin order to present these points.

• the role of the commentator• the settings required• the total number of scenes.After forming small groups or pairs, concentrate on the individual scenes and write a filmscript to includethe settingthe camera movementsthe dialogues of the interviewsthe remarks of the commentatorthe kind of music you would like to use.

Here is a list of vocabularyconnected with filmmaking:

shot a unit in film-production, i.e. a single part of a film made by one camera without interruption

exterior shot shot of an outdoor scene indoor shot shot of an indoor scene

types of camera shotsclose-up a large-scale photograph taken from very near: the slightest nuance of expression in an actor's face is magnified by the close-up and can become significant

long shot shot taken from a distancemedium shot normal camera angle

and distance

special effectslow angle in a low angle a figure is seen as if from below: the effect is often oneof a towering presence, overriding power—otten associated with a sense of threat. "The camera shoots froma low angle."

high angle high angle looks down on the

THE U.S. ECONOMY 79

subject, reversing the psychological effect of low angle

to fade out gradually dissolve one picture in another

camera movementscamera pans it moves from side to side, up anddown, following the action. "The camera pansacross the picture."

6. Structuring an ArticleThe Forgotten Farmer

camera tracks it moves along. "The cameratracks the movement of an

actor." camera is tilted "It is tilted to make a low angleshot." camera zooms it moves

quickly between adistant and a close-up view. "The camerazooms in on Mr. W.'s face."

СU.S. agricultural policy decides to increase grain production to the highest level

farmers' indebtedness grows| by leaps and bounds

FARM FORECLOSURES FARMS FOR SALE

The diagram presents the logical organization of the article. It shows how various factors contribute to the present farm crisis in the U.S.A. Decide on thelogical position in the diagram of the following factors. Match numbers with letters.

banks encouragefarmers to lake outloans at lowinterest rates

1 high military spending deficits and a tight money supply drive up interest rates on farm loans

increasing international trade competition

countries in the Third World are no longer able to buy U.S. grain at any price

8 Carter's grainembargo reduces U.S. grainexports

government policies encourage farmersto plant their land from fence row to fence row

the high level ofproductivity drives the price of farms sky-high

increased value ofland-holdingsallows farmers toborrow more, expandmore and producemore

farmers buy more land and equipment to enlarge their operations and produce more


7.DiscussionDanny Collum's article points out why in the 1980s a great number of family farms in the U.S.A. closed down. What about the situation of farmers in yourcountry? Do you think that the "economics of the marketplace" should also be applied to farming? Should big agriculturalfirms, which are more competitive, replace small farms?Should governments guarantee family farming through subsidiesand protective measures? How would you advise your governmentabout its agriculture policy?

8.ComprehensionEconomics vs. Ecology: Problems withSolutions to Pollution1. What are the effects of the air pollutioncaused by International Nickel?

2. Americans have a special liking for the"quick fix." What examples does the authoruse to explain the meaning of this way ofsolving problems?

3. Name the principles of American businessthat get in the way of any substantialprogress in environmental improvements.

4. The average citizen acknowledges thenecessity of an effective protection of theenvironment. Why, then, does he/she notalways advocate reasonable solutions toecological problems?

5. What can the private consumer do to reducethe air pollution caused by his/her car?

6. How do the different methods of cleaningwastes applied by Wisconsin andIowa revealthe conflict between economics

and ecology?

9. Text ProductionThe following group work activity consists of three successive steps. A business manager, a newspaper reporter, and an environmentalist are involved in the controversy of economics versus ecology. Chooseone of the roles.Step 1 (statement): You are a representative of Chemicals International. Write a statement which you are going to deliver at a press conference. The purpose of the statement is to announce the company's decision not to take immediate steps to reduce pollution of the environment. Try to convince theaudience.Step 2 (newspaper article): You are one ofthe reporters attending the newsconference of Chemicals Internationa!. Take notes on thebusiness manager's statement and write an article for your newspaper. Step 3 (letter to the editor): You have read the article about the commercial views of ChemicalsInternational on ecological problems. As an active environmentalist you do not agree. Write a letter to the editor.

5 The Urbanizationof America

PART A Background InformationNEW YORK The first glimpse of American city life for the 12million foreigners who

arrived in New York harbor during the wave of Europeanimmigration between 1892 and 1924 was New York City.The first destination of many tourists to the UnitedStates today is the "gateway to America." What onesees in New York City is in many ways the best andworst of American cities. Many would agree withcontemporary American novelist Saul Bellow, whoobserved that "what is barely hinted at in otherAmerican cities is condensed and enlarged in NewYork." All large cities, not only in the UnitedStates but all over the world share many of NewYork's desirable and undesirable qualities.On the one hand, New York is a focus of culture and

power. New York's attractions include spectacular sky-scrapers, Broadway theaters, outstanding museums, andposh department stores. The city houses the nationalcenters of finance, insurance, advertising, andcommunications. On the other hand, New York is a cityof poverty and deterioration. Acres of neglectedtenements and failing business establishments betraythe city's social and economic troubles.As America's largest city, with a population of 7

million people of various ethnic groups, New York isplagued by interracial conflicts, slums, and financialdifficulties.New York is sometimes called "the melting pot that

didn't melt." New York's ethnic groups generally donot intermix. It is easy to point out black, Italian,Jewish, Chinese, Puerto Rican, Polish, and other ethnicneighborhoods. Even the city's Swedes and Norwegianslive in separate neighborhoods. Tensions surface whenmembers of one ethnic group begin to challengeanother group for housing, jobs, and power. Somefriction has arisen between • blacks and other cityethnic groups that have tended to be concentrated incertain occupations. Historically, New York Citypolicemen have been predominantly Irish and garbage

collectors have been mostly Italian. Each of thesegroups has resisted attempts by blacks to move intothese occupations.

A well-known problem in New York City is its slums.In many sections of Brooklyn and the Bronx, one cansee demolished buildings, littered lots, and abandonedstructures. Problems such as high crime rates,deteriorating schools

Bellow, Saul: born 1915, American novelist, author of Herzog, MrSammler's Planet and Humboldt's Gift.


GROWTH OF CITIES

SUBURBANIZATION

and public services, and poverty require costly solutions.New York City has suffered serious financial

problems. In the mid-1970s the city came nearbankruptcy and was forced to appeal to the federalgovernment for loan assistance. Financial problemshave recently been worsened by the flight of manybusinesses and industries from the city to thesuburbs.Many of New York City's problems are not unique, but

are shared by most large cities at this stage in theurbanization process. A look at present-day New Yorkgives the reader an orientation point for a wider viewof American urbanization.Today most Americans live in urban areas. This high

concentration of the population in cities was notalways the case in America. In the 1780s mostAmericans lived in rural areas; only 10 percent livedin cities. Throughout the period of industrializationand immigration in the nineteenth century, citiesgrew rapidly so that by 1920, 50 percent of thepopulation were city dwellers. Urbanization hascontinued in the twentieth century. By 1980, America'smetropolitan areas claimed 80 percent of thepopulation.America's transition from a rural to an urban

nation brought on new problems for cities. At thebeginning of the 1800s, American cities did notexperience the social problems resulting fromovercrowding which were characteristic of Europeancities at that time. Within a few decades, however,rapid urban population growth gave American cities thesame unpleasant qualities associated with the world'solder cities. Social services such as sanitation,housing, and public education were inadequate, andfacilities for sewage treatment and garbagecollection were archaic or nonexistent. One temporarysolution for clearing the garbage-filled streets oflarge cities was to let pigs roam the streets asscavengers. Gradually, conditions in large citiesimproved. By 1920 most cities had public healthfacilities, housing quality laws, and more adequatepublic schools.Even as the United States has become increasingly

urbanized, counter-currents of hostility have runstrong. The corrupting influence of cities contrastedwith the wholesomeness of rural life has been acommon theme in American literature and philosophy.Yet urbanization is an inescapable fact of modern

life. Peopleare drawn bythe promiseof economicgain orculturaladvantagesthat citiesoffer. At thesame time,however,Americanshavetraditionallyyearned for aseparatepiece ofland,closeness tonature, andfreedom fromrestrictionsimposed byliving tooclose toothers.One rather

recent trendwhichreconcilestheambivalenceAmericanshave felttowards theircities issuburbanization. In thesuburbs, theless heavilypopulatedareas at theedge of thecity, boththespaciousnessof rural lifeand thebustlingactivity ofurban lifeareavailable.Since the

mid-1960smany centralcities haveexperienced adecrease inpopulation,while thesuburbs have

continued to expand as a result of America'sincreasing prosperity and desire for cleaner air,more space, and a private house and yard. Of the 80percent of Americans who live in urban andmetropolitan areas, about two-thirds now live insuburbs. Suburbs are regarded as part of a city'sstructure. As suburban rings spread farther andfarther out, metropolitan areas, in the past ten ortwenty years, have become enormous. The metropolitanareas of each of the country's six largest cities, NewYork, Chicago, Los Angeles, Philadelphia, Houston,and Detroit, have populations of over a million. Manymetropolitan areas have become so large that they havebegun to merge into other metropolitan areas, forminga megalopolis, which

THE URBANIZATION OF AMERICA 83

THE TRANSPORT FACTOR

DETERIORATIONANDABANDONMENT

SLUM CLEARANCE

GENTRIFICATION

is the term used to describe the urban network thatresults from such expansion. One megalopolis extendsalong the Atlantic coast from Boston through New Yorkto Washington, D.C. It is estimated that by the year2000, 80 percent of Americans will live in 28 or so ofthese megalopolises.The first outward spread of cities away from the

center, a movement antecedent to suburbanization, wasmade possible in the 1890s with the development ofbetter public transportation. Electric trolley linesand trains allowed wealthy and middle-class citydwellers to move out from the city at a commut-abledistance from work. As the middle class moved awayfrom the working class, the wealthier moved evenfarther into the countryside. Thus, the possibilityof commuting allowed urban areas to spread outwardsand provided for a rough stratification along classlines.The change which directly precipitated the emergence

of suburbs was the popularization of the private car.In the baby boom of the 1950s, when cities werescarcely able to cope with the demand for familyhousing, the wealthy and middle class, now car ownersindependent of public transportation, were able tomove still farther out of crowded cities to find asuitable home with a private yard. In the 1950s andearly 1960s, the building industry responded to thedemand by developing residential areas whichcharacteristically were comprised of neat, quicklyconstructed, look-alike houses set on unfenced lots.Today, the typical suburban home, the symbol ofmiddle-class security, is comfortably equipped withat least two bathrooms, a den, and a separate bedroomfor every child.Not only have families been attracted to the

suburbs, but businesses have also discovered theadvantages of a suburban location. Lower taxes and thegrowing labor pool there have prompted many retailstores, corporate centers, and other firms to movefrom downtown to the suburbs.A direct consequence of the suburbanization of

American cities has been the depletion of the centralcities' financial resources, a condition which hasled to a new problem: deterioration and abandonment ofcity centers. With suburbanization, city centers wereregarded as the least desirable areas in which tolive. Houses and apartments were poorly maintainedand allowed to deteriorate to such a state that manyresidential areas have been abandoned. The inner cityslums, where rent for shabby buildings was cheaper,were then populated by those who could not afford tomove out: the uneducated and unskilled. In addition,there was an influx after 1945 of many newcomers to

the city,mostlyblacks andHispanics,whoselivelihoodhad beenlost throughmechanization of farms.With theincrease ofrelativelyunskilledpoor people,for whomemploymentwas notreadilyavailable,socialproblemssuch ascrime andslums wereexacerbated.In the past

two decades,nevertheless, attemptshave beenmade toimprovecities. Oneapproach,which waspracticed inthe 1960s,was thesystematicclearance ofslums andtheconstructionof modernhigh-risesocialhousingunits intheir place.Between 1949and 1968,425,000housingunits forpoor peoplewere torndown in thebelief thatsocialproblemscould be

erased by starting from scratch. This response failedto take into account the human element—the feelings ofdisplacement and alienation which these underprivi-leged families suffered at having to abandon theirneighborhoods.Another more recent response to the problems of

cities has been preservationist in nature. Rather thanrazing whole neighborhoods, many people are restoringand renovating. Washington's Georgetown, Boston'sBeacon Hill,


THE NEW DOWNTOWN

and Philadelphia's Society Hill are areas which,protected from demolition, have recently beenrestored as charming townhouse residences for thewell-to-do. The interest in restoration has extendedeven to old warehouses where studio lofts arebecoming trendy residences for artists and youngprofessional singles. This private-sector restorationof dilapidated housing is known as gentrification.For many people, gentrification, and thus the

return of the middle class to the cities, representsreal progress in the urban center's struggle tobolster its impoverished rax base. Some cities haveexperienced not only cosmetic renewal but overalleconomic and social rejuvenation. However, viewinggentrification from the perspective of the poor, whoare displaced by the transformation of low-renthousing into luxury apartments, leaves some of urbanrenewal's more difficult questions unanswered.Another recent strategy for renewal has been

targeted at the downtown the term which has come torefer to the central business district where banksand stores are located, as opposed to the inner citywhich connotes troubled, crime-ridden residentialareas. Private sector groups, including architects,bankers, and retailers, have been active inredeveloping downtown areas. Many of the newdowntowns are modeled after Atlanta's PeachtreeCenter, a spacious, elaborately decorated plazacomplex containing retail stores, res-

Modern office building in central San Francisco


taurants, and cultural attractions such as artexhibits. Other downtown programs feature main-streetmalls, skywalks, and dial-a-bus systems, all designedto give office workers a reason to stay downtown.During the past two decades, cities such as New

York, Boston, Washington, D.C., and San Francisco havesucceeded in rebuilding and renovating large tractsof the central city area, thus once again attractingbusinesses and more affluent groups.In recent years, downtown areas undoubtedly have

become more livable, more people-oriented, and moreaesthetically interesting. Where ten years ago it wasvirtually impossible in many cities to get aroundwithout a car, today many cities offer pedestrianzones and improved mass transit systems, making carownership optional rather than mandatory.Although the inner cities' social problems of

poverty, unemployment, inadequate housing, and crimeare not adequately addressed by this focus onbusiness districts, the new interest in preservingthe nation's downtowns provides hope for many citiesas they compete with the suburbs for tax bases andfederal assistance.

GROWTH OF SMALL The recent urban renewal programs have been successful in stimulatingTOWNS population growth in at least some major cities. Yet since the 1960s and 70s,

many cities have been experiencing a continual declinein population. Detroit, Pittsburgh, and Cleveland wereamong those cities with the greatest population lossesbetween 1970 and 1980. Not all of those who areleaving the city are settling in the suburbs.According to the 1980 census, small towns have beenexperiencing heavy population growth. Rural populationgrowth in the 1970s was the greatest since the 1870s.Between 1970 and 1980, it grew by over 11 percent.Public opinion polls consistently show that most

Americans would rather live in small towns or ruralareas if they could. What accounts for the fact thatso many Americans are now fulfilling this dream? Newemployment opportunities have opened up, especially insmall southern towns, as light industries move tothese less expensive, warmer locations. In addition,the improved network of highways gives smallercommunities better access to supplies and markets.What many of these city people hope to find by

escaping to small communities is the fulfillment oftheir wistful longings for friendly neighbors and aslower pace of life. While most newcomers find thatsmall towns do provide the more congenial atmospherethey sought, small town life is far from idyllic. Theyare discovering that America's small towns are besetby the same problems that affect cities, except on asmaller scale. Like cities, many small towns sufferfrom high unemployment rates, tight budgets, housingshortages, and even "downtown decay." Poverty existsin most small towns.Many of these conditions occur because rural America

is no longer economically or culturally isolated fromthe rest of America. Although the movement to smallcommunities may at first seem like the beginning of adeurban-ization of America, what is actuallyhappening is that the countryside is becoming moreurbanized. Since the Second World War, when roads andcommunication lines permanently linked country tocity, rural America has been modernizing at such arate that the gap between rural and urban isclosing. The present attraction to small townsrepresents not a ruralization trend, but thecontinued suburbanization of an already quitesuburbanized America.

86

PART в Texts

• SMALL-TOWN LIFE

We were sitting around a fireplacefilled with greenery - EdwardRunden and his wife, Linda, and I- drinking sherry and smelling thegood smell of something roasting inthe kitchen. Runden is forty yearsold, with an eager, boyish look andan inconspicuous mustache, and heteaches history at Cory-don CentralHigh School. Mrs. Runden, a vividyoung woman with a fall of thick,dark hair, is also a teacher. Sheteaches behavioral science twice aweek in a family-practice residencyprogram at the University ofLouisville Medical School. "Oh,sure," Runden was saying. "RandyWest and I have a lot of things incommon. For one thing, we bothmarried local girls. Linda was aKeller. Her Cousin Bill runs thefurniture factory."Mrs. Runden smiled across the lip

of her glass. "I'm also related toArt Funk," she said. "And to FredGriffin's wife. And Bob O'Bannon.And Rosamond Sample.""She's probably even some kin to

Marydee West," Runden said."Another thing about Randy and me -his first job when he came toCorydon was teaching at the highschool." He took a sip of sherry."And I used to be a newspapermanmyself. That's how Linda and I met.That was in Chicago, at one ofthose demonstrations. Linda wasdemonstrating, and I was coveringit for the Associated Press. Istarted out on a paper in Elgin,Illinois, and then I went withU.P.I, in Chicago, and then I triedthe Foreign Service, in Iran, inTeheran, until our deadly foreignpolicy made me sick. I was glad tocome back to Chicago. That's when Istarted working for the A.P. But bythe time Linda and I got married wewere both getting tired of city life— the ugliness, the squalor, themisery. So we got to thinking aboutCorydon. We subscribed to theDemocrat — a terrific paper, by theway — to try to get the feel ofthe

place. And, one way and another, weliked the feel we got.""I liked the idea of

connectedness," Mrs. Runden said."And, I guess, the roots. My great-grandfather came here from Germanyin eighteen forty-six. He arrivedin New York, and the first personhe met who spoke German was a blackfreedman, who was on his way west -on foot. My great-grandfatherwalked along with him and ended upin Harrison County. I think I missbig-city life more than Ed does. Iseem to need people more. And thenthere's the conservatism here.Corydon must be one of the lastplaces on earth where people inreal need are too proud, tooashamed, to go on welfare. And youcan imagine their position onsomething like abortion. Still,when I remember Chicago ...""Small-town life has its

drawbacks," Runden said. "There isa certain lack of privacy, althoughpeople are aware of that and makean effort to keep their distance,to not be nosy. But lack of privacydoesn't bother me. It might if Ihad a Swiss bank account, or if Iwas into some kind of kinky sex. ButI just don't have that much tohide. I think the good side ofsmall-town life far outweighs thebad. If you have trouble with yourdry cleaner in Chicago, he couldn'tcare less what you think or do.It's different here. You can't beripped off. A person's reputationmatters. And so does the individual.He can still influence the courseof events. Corydon's still on ahuman scale. There's a sense ofthe seasons. There's a closenessto the basics. It's something to beable to hear a rooster crow thesedays. I think more and more peopleare coming to realize that. I thinkLinda and I are part of somethinginteresting. We're in the firstwave of people of our age andposition who are moving away fromthe city — and not to the suburbs.Moving to the small town. ToCorydon."

Associated Press: the oldest of the American press agencies, started in 1848. Associated Press (A. P.) and United Press International are the two largest American press agencies.U.P.I.: United Press International, American press agency, formed in 1958. freedman: man who has been freed from slavery, an emancipated slave.


REVIVAL OF A CITY'S VIRTUES

Why a young single woman moves to the city by Mildred Norman-Risch

Last fall I spent aweekend visiting myfriend Susan m Richmond,Virginia. One purposeof my visit was to getaway from the small townwhere I had been livingand enjoy the motionand activity of a biggercity. Furthermore, I waslooking forward toseeing Susan's newapartment, which I hadalready heard so muchabout. Four monthsearlier, Susan andanother girl had movedinto the second floor ofa two-story brick housein a part of the cityknown as "the Fan." Thissection gets its namebecause the streetshere radiate from acentral point in thecity forming a fanshape. The main businessdistrict, the tall, 25-story buildings, thegrand, old southernhotels, and hundreds ofstores and parkinggarages, all of whichdesignate "downtown,"are only a few blocksaway from Susan'sapartment.

From the outside,Susan's house was what Ican only describe asneat and yellow. Yellowshutters at the windows,a solid yellow frontporch, brightened withgeranium blooms, and aheavy colonial styledoor with a brass eagleknocker. I was somewhatsurprised. Perhaps Ihad expected to seesome chipped paint, asagging front porch, orsome feature of thepicture I had had ofinner-city houses.Susan met me at the

door and proudly asked,"Well, how do you likeit? I'm dying to showyou the inside!" We wentup the stairs to herplace. What caught myattention were the

beautiful wooden floors.

and we've learned totake off our woodenclogs as soon as wecome in," Susan laughed,"Besides, it's a lotcheaper than buyingcarpeting. We really

Renovated houses in "the Fan'[, Richmond, Virginia

How long had itbeen since Iwas in a housethat had nocarpeting? Howmany modernhouses andapartments areeven built withhardwoodfloors? "Annand I reallylike thefloors. We'vegotten used towalking softly,

AMERICA IN CLOSE-UP

2. continuedThe large room was in

fact sparsely furnished— a big oak table, a redleather chair, a smalltable and somebookshelves. A largefireplace, alreadystacked with wood, andready for use, dominatedthe living room.Next I was shown the

bathroom, which includedan antique bathtubcomplete with fourlittle feet, twobedrooms, both of whichhad large windows, andthe kitchen, which waslarge enough for abreakfast table.We talked about how

she and Ann had made thedecision to move here tothe Fan. I was curiousabout the neighborhood.Many mner-city resi-dential areas arepredominantly black,and very often thereare tensions betweenwhites and blacks."We haven't had any

bad experiences, if youmean trouble betweenblacks and whites.Before we moved here,our parents and some ofour friends tried topersuade us into movinginto a modern apartmentcomplex, which theyconsidered "safer";they warned us againstmoving to the Fan, wherecrime is supposedly aproblem."I think many people

have a totally falseimpression of citylife, and what it'slike to live here in theFan. We don't take anymore precautions againsttheft or rape than ourgirlfriends who livefarther away from thecity. Sure, every dayyou can pick up thenewspaper and readabout a robbery or amugging; it happens. Andthere are a few streets

in the Fan that Iabsolutely avoid. But Ithink many peopleexaggerate the dangersand carry in theirminds the delusion thatlife in the city is aconstant fight forsurvival and self-defense. It's certainlynot my experience. Somepeople think that if youlive in the city, allyou have to do is

look out your window andyou can see live scenesfrom Kojak and othercrime shows passingbefore your very eyes;risk, danger, violence."I find another kind

of challenge living herein the Fan: thechallenge of restoringthe neighborhood, forexample. And there'sadventure in discoveringthe little cafes andshops that only realcity people know about.The people here in thecity are so interestingto watch and to talk to.This is why I moved tothe Fan."Susan told me about her

neighborhood. The Fan isone of the many cityneighborhoods whichfollows the recenttrends in urbancommunity renewal. AsSusan put it, the Fan isone of those placesthat's "on its way upand in." The neighborhoodhas in recent yearstaken on a new identityand has become a populararea for students. Forone thing, the universityis located right in theFan, and so the rowhouses have attractedstudents because oftheir convenience. Manylandlords invested moneyrenovating the houses sothat they could ac-commodate the students'demand for housing andalso meet the student'sexpectations. With theinflux of students, theFan is experiencing achanging identity.What was the

neighborhood like manyyears ago? Quitedifferent, Susan toldme. This area near down-town had followed thepattern of manyneighborhoods in cities,typical not only ofRichmond, but other

cities as well. In the1880s, when many housesin the Fan were built,the property wasexpensive, and most ofthe people living inthe area were peoplewith money. At thattime, this residentialarea was not so near thecity. Richmond was muchsmaller then. But asthe businesses ex-panded, the city spreadout until it

met the Fan. Many of theresidents joined themiddle-class exodus fromthe city to the suburbs,where distance from thecity was seen as moredesirable. The propertyin the Fan, beingtherefore lessdesirable, went down inprice. Throughout theyears the population ofthe Fan communityshifted to a greaterpercentage of blackresidents, most of whomrented the houses fromformer or other owners.The houses by this timehad become run-down.Paint was peeling,porches were sagging,windows were broken.Generally, these lower-income families couldn'tafford to make repairs,and the landlords didn'ttake the responsibilityto keep up the qualityof the houses. Theinvestment wouldn't havepaid off, in theirshort-sighted point ofview. The neighborhoodacquired anotherreputation by this time.Crime, segregation, and

dilapidation were someof the new features.However, in the last

twenty years, thecomposition andcharacter of theneighborhood has startedto change again.Besides the Fan'sstudents, who come andgo, lots of people aremoving to the Fan tostay. These newcomersare often young pro-fessionals who takeadvantage of governmentprograms that give taxbreaks to anyone whobuys and renovates anold house in this area.It's becoming trendyamong young pro-fessionals not just tolive in the city but tolive in city townhousesthey've renovated tosuit their personalstyle. This fad hasbrought new life andcharm to the Fan.Susan remarked that

what she liked about theneighborhood was that itseemed "both old andnew at the same time."That phrase captured myimpression of Susan andAnn's renovatedapartment, too.

Kojak: name of detective and police drama TV series.


Beneatha goes to the door and opens it as Walterand Ruth go on with the clowning. Beneatha issomewhat surprised to see a quiet-looking middle-aged white man in a business suit holding his hatand a briefcase in his hand and consulting asmall piece of paper.

LINDNER Uh — how do you do, miss. I amlooking for a Mrs. (he looks at theslip of paper) Mrs. Lena Younger?BENEATHA (Smoothing her hair withslight embarrassment) Oh — yes,that's my mother. Excuse me (Shecloses the door and turns to quietthe other two) Ruth! Brother!Somebody's here. (Then she opens thedoor.) (The man casts a curiousquick glance at all of them.) Uh —come in please. LINDNER (Coming in)Thank you. BENEATHA My mother isn'there just now. Is it business? LINDNERYes . .. well, of a sort.WALTER (Freely, the Man of the House)Have a seat. I'm Mrs. Younger's son.I look after most of her businessmatters. (Ruth and Beneatha exchangeamused glances)LINDNER (Regarding Walter, andsitting) Well — my name is KarlLindner . ..WALTER (Stretching out his hand)Walter Younger. This is my wife —(Ruth nods politely) — and my sister.LINDNER HOW do yOU do.WALTER (Amiably, as he sits himselfeasily on a chair, leaning withinterest forward on his knees andlooking expectantly into thenewcomer's face) What can we do foryou, Mr. Lindner?LINDNER (Some minor shuffling of the hat and briefcase on his knees) Well — I am a representative of the Clybourne Park Improvement Association — WALTER (Pointing) Whydon't you set your things on the floor?LINDNER Oh — yes. Thank you. (He slidesthe briefcase and hat under thechair) And as I was saying - I amfrom the Clybourne Park ImprovementAssociation and we have had itbrought to our attention at the last

meeting that you people - or atleast your mother — has bought apiece of residential property at -(he digs for the slip of paperagain) — four о six Clybournestreet ...WALTER That's right. Care forsomething to drink? Ruth, get Mr.Lindner a beer.LINDNER (Upset for some reason) Oh -no, really. I mean thank you verymuch, but no thank you.

RUTH (Innocently) Some coffee?LINDNER Thank you, nothing at all.(Beneatha is watching the man carefully)LINDNER Well, I don't know how much you folks knowabout our organization. (He is a gentle man; thoughtfuland somewhat labored in his manner) It is one of thesecommunity organizations set up to look after - oh,you know, things like block upkeep and special projectsand we also have what we call our New Neighbors'Orientation Committee . ..BENEATHA (Drily) Yes — and what do they do?LINDNER (Turning a little to her andthen returning themain force to Walter) Well — it's what you might call asort of welcoming committee, I guess. I mean they,we, I'm the chairman of the committee, go around andsee the new people who move into the neighborhoodand sort of give them the lowdown on the way we dothings out in Clybourne Park.BENEATHA (With appreciation of the two meanings,which escape Ruth and Walter) Uh-huh.LINDNER And we also have the category of what theassociation calls - (He looks elsewhere) - uh - specialcommunity problems .. .BENEATHA Yes — and what are some of those?WALTER Girl, let the man talk.LINDNER (With understated relief) Thank you. I wouldsort of like to explain this thing inmy own way. I meanI want to explain to you in a certain way.WALTER Go ahead.LINDNER Yes. Well. I'm going to try to get right to thepoint. I'm sure we'll all appreciatethat in the long run.BENEATHA YeS.WALTER Be still now!LINDNER Well —RUTH (Still innocently) Would you likeanother chair -you don't lookcomfortable.LINDNER (More frustrated thanannoyed) No, thank you very much.Please. Well - to get right to thepoint I — (A great breath, and he isoff at last) I am sure you peoplemust be aware of some of the

incidents which have happened invarious parts of the city whencolored people have moved intocertain areas — (Beneatha exhalesheavily and starts tossing a pieceof fruit up and down in the air)Well - because we have what I thinkis going to be a unique type oforganization in American communitylife — not only do we deplore thatkind of thing - but we are trying todo something about it.


3. continued(Beneatha stops tossing and turnswith a new and quuizzical interestto the man) We feel — (gainingconfidence in his mission because ofthe interest in the faces of thepeople he is talking to) — we feelthat most of the trouble in thisworld, when you come right down toit — (He hits his knee for emphasis)- most of the trouble exists becausepeople just don't sit down and talkto each other.RUTH (Nodding as she might in church,pleased with the remark) You can saythat again, mister. LINDNER (Moreencouraged by such affirmation) Thatwe don't try hard enough in thisworld to understand the otherfellow's problem. The other guy'spoint of view.RUTH Now that's right.(Beneatha and Walter merely watchand listen with genuine interest)LINDNER Yes — that's the way we feelout in Clybourne Park. And that's whyI was elected to come here thisafternoon and talk to you people.Friendly like, you know, the waypeople should talk to each otherand see if we couldn't find someway to work this thing out. As Isay, the whole business is a matterof caring about the other fellow.Anybody can see that you are a nicefamily of folks, hard working andhonest I'm sure. (Beneatha frownsslightly, quizzically, her headtilted regarding him) Todayeverybody knows what it means to beon the outside of something. And ofcourse, there is always somebodywho is out to take the advantage ofpeople who don't always understand.WALTER What do you mean?LINDNER Well — you see our community ismade up of people who've worked hardas the dickens for years to build upthat little community. They're notrich and fancy people; justhardworking, honest people who don'treally have much but those littlehomes and a dream of the kind ofcommunity they want to raise theirchildren in. Now, I don't say we areperfect and there is a lot wrong insome of the things they want. Butyou've got to admit that a man,right or wrong, has the right to wantto have the neighborhood he lives ina certain kind of way. And at themoment the overwhelming majority ofour people out there feel that

people get along better, take more ofa common interest in the life of thecommunity, when they share a commonbackground. I want you to believe mewhen I tell you that race prejudicesimply doesn't enter into it. It is amatter of the people of ClybournePark believing, rightly or wrongly,as I say, that for the happiness ofall concerned our Negro familiesare happier when

they live in their own communities. BENEATHA (With a grand and bitter gesture) This, friends, is the Welcoming Committee! WALTER (Dumbfounded, looking at Lindner) Is this what you came marching all the way over here to tell us?LINDNER Well, now we've been having a fine conversation. I hope you'll hear me all the way through. WALTER (Tightly) Go ahead, man. LINDNER Yousee — in the face of all the things Ihave said, we are prepared to makeyour family a very generous offer...BENEATHA Thirty pieces and not a coin less! WALTER Yeah?LINDNER (Putting on his glasses anddrawing a form out of the briefcase) Our association is prepared, through the collective effort of our people, to buy the house from you at a financial gain to your family. RUTH Lord have mercy, ain't this the living gall? WALTER All right, you through? LINDNERWell, I want to give you the exact terms of the financial arrangement —WALTER We don't want to hear no exactterms of no arrangements, I want toknow if you got more to tell us'bout getting together?LINDNER (Taking off his glasses) Well —

I don't suppose that you feel ...WALTER Never mind how I feel — you got any more to say 'bout how peopleought to sit down and talk to eachother? ... Get out of my house, man. (He turns his back and walks tothe door) LINDNER (Looking around at the hostile faces and reaching and assembling his hat and briefcase) Well — I don't understandwhy you people are reacting this way. What do you think you are going to gain by moving into a neighborhood where you just aren'twanted and where some elements — well - people can get awful worked up when they feel that their whole way of life and everything they've ever worked for is threatened. WALTERGet out.LINDNER (At the door, holding a smallcard) Well — I'm sorry it went likethis.WALTER Get OUt.LINDNER (Almost sadly regarding Walter)You just can't force people tochange their hearts, son. (He turnsand puts his card on a table andexits. Walter pushes the door to dowith stinging hatred, and standslooking at it. Ruth just sits andBeneatha just stands. They saynothing. Mama and Travis enter)

From A Raism in the Sun by Lorraine Hansberry

Hansberry, Lorraine: 1930—65, black American playwright.


CHILDREN OFPOVERTYCRISIS IN NEW YORKBy Andrew Stein

Harlem, New York. The landlord has still not mended the window a year after it fell out. The stove is kept on all day to provide heat for the house.

Imagine the Mayor of NewYork calling an urgentnews conference toannounce that the crisisof the city's poorchildren had reachedsuch proportions that hewas mobilizing thecity's talents for amassive rescue effortnot unlike the one thatsaved us from bankruptcy10 years ago. I believesome such drastic actionis warranted, evenessential, because ourcity is threatened bythe spreading blight ofa poverty even cruelerin some ways than thatof the Great Depressionhalf a century ago.Almost 40 percent of ourchildren — 700,000 boysand girls — now live infamilies with incomesbelow the poverty line.Senator Daniel PatrickMoynihan has estimatedthat half of the babies

born in the city in 1980 can be expected to be onour welfare rolls before they reach the age of 18.Social critics, including Mr. Moynihan, have

been telling a tale of two cities to describe thekind of community New York has become: while thecity enjoys prosperity, the "new" poverty goesunchecked. The richest Congressional district inthe nation shares a boundary with one of thepoorest. And it was precisely during the last twobanner years of economic growth and enhanced citybudgets that the child poverty rate accelerateddramatically.Today's children of poverty are suffering in ways

that would have dumbfounded those who knew theGreat Depression: an estimated


4. continued3,000 babies bornaddicted to drugs everyyear, 10,000 childrenliving in shelters andhotels for the homeless,12,000 children who wereabused or neglected soseverely last year thatthey had to be removedfrom their homes andplaced in foster care.All too many poor

children in New York aredenied dignity even indeath, according to arecent report by theCoalition for theHomeless. The reportrevealed that almosthalf of the infantsunder the age of 1 whodied in the city between1981 and 1984 wereburied in potter's fieldin unmarked graves thattheir families thuscould not visit.All this poses a

practical as well as amoral issue for thecity, for the way wedeal with the problemwill determine thequality of life for allof us in the future.There is no questionthat the problem isenormously difficult,but it is not yethopeless. Many sensiblesteps can be taken toattack the situation,including theappointment of oneperson — a "czar" ifyou will — to overseeall agencies that servechildren, efforts toengage the privatesector, revamping of theworkloads of caseworkersand the increasinginvolvement of theschool system. There areothers as well. . . .To understand what is happening

in the city we mustreturn to poverty andits related disorders —family disintegrationand teenage pregnancy.The likelihood of achild's growing up pooris four times as greatif he is born into ahousehold headed by awoman rather than atraditional two-parenthome. And it is evenmore likely if themother is a teenager.New York City has been

massively afflicted bythis "feminization ofpoverty." Though thecity's populationdeclined 11 percentbetween 1970 and 1980,the number of peopleliving in female-headedfamilies rose by almost30 percent. The city'swelfare rolls nowconsist mainly ofminority-group women andchildren. Demographicprojections suggestthat this mostvulnerable group willcontinue to grow as apercentage of thepopulation at leastthrough the next decade.The most potentially

destructive of thesetrends is the epidemicof teenage pregnancy.Although the totalnumber of teenpregnancies in the cityhas decreased in thelast decade (as a resultof a decline in theteenage population)pregnancies among 15-to 19-year-old femaleswent up from 12.3percent to 13.1 percentbetween 1975 and 1984.The

city's AdolescentPregnancy Inter-agencyCouncil has projectedthat if the presentrates remain constant, 1out of 4 girls 14 yearsold today will bepregnant at least oncebefore her 18thbirthday; 1 out of 8will have had at least 1abortion before reaching18; and nearly 1 out of11 will be a motherbefore she is 18... . What we are

experiencing throughoutthe country, but mostparticularly in majorurban areas such as NewYork, is the result ofan unprecedentedreversal of fortunesamong our age groups.Historically, povertyhad always struckhardest at the elderly,because they were mostlikely to be infirm,without work or withoutincome. That held trueuntil the mid-1970s.Then a disproportionatenumber of children beganto be poor, a phenomenonexclusive to the UnitedStates among theindustrialized nations... .Alone, the city can't

eliminate poverty amongchildren; it can't putback together familiesthat fall apart, or arenever formed, because ofthat poverty. But if wemove the problems ofpoor children to the topof our agenda, we canfind the means tointervene and save manyfrom utterly shatteredlives. In saving them,we would be savingourselves.

Great Depression: See page 73.Moynihan, Patrick: born 1927, U.S. senator.Congressional District: a district within a state electing one member to the national House of Representatives.potter's field: a place for the burial of poor and unknown persons, cf. Matthew 27:7.


A NEW CITYtill synonymous in manyminds with steel, Pittsburghis not waiting for the

resurrection of SmokestackAmerica. The metropolis ofblast furnaces and belchingsmokestacks is dead. In itsplace has risen a new city,smaller (estimated population:410,000, down from 677,000 m1950), cleaner, more modern inits architecture and confidentm its future — m effect aprototype of the postmdustrialmetropolis. The transition froma manufacturing to a serviceeconomy began way back duringWorld War II, when 100prominent citizens joined tospearhead an office buildingboom in the 1950s and 1960sthat transformed the city'sdowntown — near the spot wherethe Allegheny and Monon-gahelarivers meet to form the Ohio -into what they named the GoldenTriangle. That renaissancegave rise five years ago to asecond one. While the steelindustry was losing a greatdeal of money, seven majorbuildings went up downtown,including a $35-millionconvention center and notedarchitect Philip Johnson'sspectacular headquarters forPPG Industries (formerlyPittsburgh Plate Glass).Universities and hospitalsattracted companies in computerscience, robotics and otheradvanced technologies. Since

S 1978 an estimated 15,000 high-tech and 30,000 service jobshave been created, more thanmaking up for the decline insteel-workers from 79,000 in1980 to 42,000 in 1983. Thirdonly to New York and Chicago asa headquarters city for majorcompanies, Pittsburgh iscompleting a new subway systemand boasts a symphony that

Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. A city with a new image

plays to packed houses. Eventhe city's footballand baseball teams have thespirit: they havewon more championships in thelast six yearsthan their counterparts in anyother Americancity. from FortuneMagazine

94

PART C Exercises

1. ComprehensionSmall-Town LifeWhich way of completing each of the following sentences agrees with the original text?Some sentences may be

completed in more than one way.1.The Rundens moved to Corydon becausea)Linda was born there.a)Ed had been offered a job at

the localnewspaper.

b)they had been attracted by the reports inthe local newspaper.

2.Professionally, Edward Rundena)had always wanted to become a teacher.a)used to work as a

correspondent fordifferent press agencies.

b)failed to make a career in the ForeignService.

3.Ed Runden met Linda in Chicagowhena)he reported on a

demonstration for a newsagency.

a)he protected her from demonstrators.b)she took part in a demonstration.

4.Ed Runden left the Foreign Service becausea)they sent all

newspapermen back toChicago.

a)he tried in vain to get to Teheran.b)he did not agree with the

U.S. foreignpolicy.

5.When comparing small-town lifeand life inthe big citiesa) both Ed and Linda were equally glad tohave left big city life.

b) Ed is happier about small-town life than

Linda.c) Linda is happier about

small-town lifethan Ed.

6.Linda Runden likes living in Corydonbecausea)everybody knows and is

involved witheverybody else.

b)the people there are very conservative.c)she hates the crowds in big cities.

7.According to Ed Runden, oneof thedisadvantages of small-townlife is, forexample, thata)private life is rather restricted.b)people look at each other from a distance.a)he does not want other

people to knowabout his Swiss bank account.

8.In Ed's opinion, however, the advantages ofsmall-town life outweigh the disadvantagesbecausea) there is not so much

theft in smallcommunities.

b)people take less interest in theirneighbors' affairs.

c)the individual plays a more important rolethan in the big cities.

2. Text ReproductionRevival of a City's VirtuesThe diagram below renders the structure and organization of the article, which falls into three parts:The visitLife in the cityThe development of inner city

neighborhoods On the basis of the diagram, use your own wordsto reconstruct the argument andorganization of this text.

purpose of the visit

the outside of the house

the inside of the house


racial problems in inner city neighborhoods

first experience of living in an inner city neighborhood

frequent misconceptions of city life

attractiveness of city life

the original neighborhood 60 or 70 years ago

change of the social structure of the community

deterioration of the neighborhood

recent renewal of neighborhoods

the diversity of neighborhoods

3. Discussion1. List and discuss the arguments for andagainst small town or city

life mentioned inthe texts "Small-Town Life" and "Revival ofa City's Virtues."

2. Is there a similar difference between smalltown life and city life in your country?

3.Where would you prefer to live, in a smalltown or in a big city a) in America? b) inyour own country? Give reasons.

4.Text AnalysisNeighborhoods1. Summarize the contents of this scene in nomore than three sentences.

2. What is the purpose of Karl Lindner's visit?3. How does he try to achievehis aim? Pointout the elements of the plan he has obviouslyworked out before.

4. What are the Youngers' reactions toLindner's remarks in the different stages ofthe conversation? Why does theconversationinevitably lead to a crisis?

5. Show how Karl Lindner and the Youngersare characterized through conversation andgestures.

6. What central issue about life in an urbancommunity in the United States does theauthor want to illustrate in this scene?

5. Comprehension CheckChildren of PovertyDetermine whether thestatements are true or falseaccording to the informationgiven in the text. Correct thefalse statements.1. The crisis of New York's poor children is asurgent as the financial crisis of the city tenyears ago.

2. The poverty crisis equals that of the GreatDepression in the 1930s.

3. According to Senator Moynihan 50 percentof the babies born in 1980 will depend on

welfare before they reach theage of 18.

4. In spite of the recent economic growth, citybudgets have decreased.

5. Increasing prosperity has led to less childpoverty.

6. 12,000 children were abusedand neglectedin foster care.

7. Many of the infants who die before theirfirst birthday are not even properly buried.


8. Neither through more jointefforts northrough improved coordinationof both thepublic and the private sectorcan theproblem be tackled.

9. There are four times as many childrengrowing up in female-headed households asin traditional two-parent families.

10. There were 30 percent more female-headedfamilies in 1980 than in 1970.

11. Between 1975 and 1985 the number ofteenage pregnancies has decreased.

12. Of all age groups in urbanareas in theUnited States, the elderly are struck hardestnowadays.

6. Cloze Comprehension TestPittsburgh—A New CityTest your memory. First read thetext thoroughly. Then try to remember those words which describe the old and the new city. Still synonymous in many minds with ■&■ , Pittsburgh is not waiting for the resurrectionof Smokestack America. The metropolis of blast

•ft and belching ■& is dead. In its place has risen a new city, -£r , "& , tV in itsarchitecture and confident in its future—in effect a prototypeof the *fc metropolis. The transition from a manufacturing to a "& "ьГ began way back during World War II, when 100 prominent citizens joined to spearhead an w"fr boom in the 1950s and 1960sthat

transformed the city's downtown. While the steel industry was losing a great dealof money, seven major buildings were constructed downtown, including a $35-million "fr tVand noted architect Philip Johnson's spectacular ■& for PPG Industries. Universities and hospitals attracted companies in^ "fc , ~fe and other advanced technologies.

7. Guided Letter WritingWrite a letter to the editor of Fortune magazine in which you:• give a positive evaluation of the renaissanceof Pittsburgh as described in the article

• ask whether the text and the photo show thewhole truth about Pittsburgh

• state that the gap between therich and thepoor has widened in recent years

• demand that the mayor and the city counciltake stern measures against the growth ofpoverty among children

• warn them not to underestimate the problem,which could lead to serious social unrest andirreparable harm to the whole community.

8. Interpretation of PhotosDescribe and interpret thepictures on this page and page91 under the heading "A Tale ofTwo Cities."

б Law, Crime, andJustice


CRIME AND JUSTICE

CONSTITUTIONAL RIGHTS

JUDICIAL BRANCH

STATE COURTS

Issues of crime and justice have always heldAmericans' attention. Americans are accustomed tobringing their claims for justice to the courts.There are few countries where so many people treatthe law as part of their everyday lives. Local,state, and federal courts handle approximately 12million cases a year. The sheer number of Americansemployed in the legal profession is overwhelming;there is one lawyer for every 440 Americans,whereas in Japan there is one lawyer for every10,000 people. The number of lawyers practicing inthe Washington, D.C. area alone almost equals the40,000 lawyers in all of West Germany.Americans' claims for justice rest on the provisions

of the United States Constitution. Most of therights and freedoms that Americans enjoy areguaranteed in the first ten amendments or "Bill ofRights" of the Constitution. Among the guaranteesare freedom of religion, freedom of the press, andfreedom to assemble in public. Citizens have theright to be judged in a speedy and public trial byan impartial jury. If someone feels that these orother legal rights have been violated, he or shemay bring the case to court.The Constitution, written in 1787, established a

separate judicial branch of government which operatesindependently alongside the executive and legislativebranches. Within the judicial branch, authority isdivided between state and federal (national) courts.At the head of the judicial branch is the SupremeCourt, the final interpreter of the Constitution.The Constitution recognizes that the states have

certain rights and authorities beyond the power ofthe federal government. States have the power toestablish their own systems of criminal and civillaws, with the result that each state has its ownlaws, prisons, police force, and state court. Withineach state, there are also county and city courts.Generally, state laws are quite similar, but in someareas there is great diversity. The minimum age formarriage and the sentences for murder vary from stateto state. The minimum legal age for the purchase ofalcohol is 21 in most states.

Constitution of the United States: fundamental law of the U.S., framedin 1787 by the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia and put into effect in 1789.Supreme Court: the highest federal court in the United Statesconsisting of nine justices and having jurisdiction overall other courts in the nation.


1987 License Laws for Passenger CarsAMERICAN AUTOMOBILE ASSOCIATION

State Age for driver'slicense2

Regular Learner's Restrictive

Alabama 16 15d 14'Alaska 16 14 14'Arizona 18 15 & 7 mos.bd 16"Arkansas 16 d 14"California 18 15ce 16е

Colorado 21 151/2d 16е

Connecticut 18 16е

Delaware 18 15 yrs. & 10 mo.c 16bc

Dist. of Col. 18 d 16"clorida 16 15d 15"Georgia 18 15 16b

Hawaii 18 d 15"Idaho 16 d 14е

Illinois 18 d 16"°Indiana 18 159 16 & 1 mo.c

Iowa 18 14 16е

Kansas 16 d 14Kentucky 18 d 16"Louisiana 17 15Maine 17 d 15е

Maryland 18 d 16"c

Massachusetts 18 d 16Уг"с

Michigan 18 16Ьс

Minnesota 19 15"9 16е

Mississippi 15 dMissouri 16 15е

Montana 18 d 15"°Mebraska 16 15d 14Nevada 16 151/2

d 14ЬMew Hampshire 16C 16d

Mew Jersey 17 16Mew Mexico 16 15 149Mew York 17е 16"Morth Carolina 18 15" 16"°North Dakota 16 d 14ьсOhio 18 16bd 14'Oklahoma 16 15Угс

Oregon 16 15d 14Pennsylvania 18 16"e 16"Rhode Island 18 d 16е

South Carolina 16 15h 15South Dakota 16 d 14Tennessee 16 15d 15Texas 16е 15 15е

Utah 16е dVemont 18 15d 16Virginia 18 15 & 8 mosM 16"С

Washington 18 15s 16е

West Virginia 18 d 16"Wisconsin 18 d 16й

Wyoming 16 15"e 14а"

a. Full driving privileges at age set forth in "Regular"column. A license restricted or qualified in somemanner may be obtained at age set forth in"Restricted" column.

b. Guardian or parental consent required.с Must have completed approved DriverEd

Training course, d. Learner's Permit required.

e. Driver with Learner's Permit mustbeaccompanied by locally licensed operator 18years or older.

f. Restricted to mopeds.g. Must be enrolled in Driver Ed.h. Driver with Learner's Permit must be

accompanied by locally licensed operator 21 years or older.

LAW, CRIME, AND JUSTICE 99

FEDERAL COURTS

SUPREME COURT

EXTENT OF CRIME

The separate system of federal courts, whichoperates alongside the state courts, handles caseswhich arise under the U.S. Constitution or underany law or treaty, as well as any controversy towhich the federal government is itself a party.Federal courts also hear disputes involvinggovernments or citizens of different states.All federal judges are appointed for life. A case

which falls within federal jurisdiction is heardfirst before a federal district judge. An appeal maybe made to the Circuit Court of Appeals, and,possibly, in the last resort, to the highest courtin the land: the U.S. Supreme Court.The Supreme Court hears cases in which someone

claims that a lower court ruling is unjust or inwhich someone claims that Constitutional law has beenviolated. Its decisions are final and become legallybinding. Although the Supreme Court does not havethe power to make laws, it does have the power toexamine actions of the legislative, executive, andadministrative institutions of the government anddecide whether they are constitutional. It is inthis function that the Supreme Court has thepotential to influence decisively the political,social, and economic life of the country.In the past, Supreme Court rulings have given new

protection and freedom to blacks and otherminorities. The Supreme Court has nullified certainlaws of Congress and has even declared actions ofAmerican presidents unconstitutional.The U.S. government is so designed that, ideally,

the authority of the judicial branch is independentfrom the other branches of government. Each of thenine Supreme Court justices (judges) is appointed bythe president and examined by the Senate to determinewhether he or she is qualified. Once approved, ajustice remains on the Supreme Court for life. TheSupreme Court justices have no obligation to followthe political policies of the president or Congress.Their sole obligation is to uphold the laws of theConstitution.Nevertheless, politics play a role in a

president's selection of a Supreme Court justice. Onaverage, a president can expect to appoint two newSupreme Court justices during one term of office.Presidents are likely to appoint justices whoseviews are similar to their own, with the hope thatthey can extend some of their power through thejudicial branch.President Reagan's appointments to the Supreme

Court were judges with a decidedly conservative viewof constitutional law. Conservatives in America hopethat the present Supreme Court, headed by ChiefJustice William Rehnquist, will override precedentssuch as the Burger Court's 1973 decision legalizingabortion, or that it will vote for limiting therights of criminal suspects and defendants.

The UnitedStates isnotoriousfor its highcrime rates.After threeyears ofdecline,the crime

rate rose 5 percent in 1985. In that year, over 12million crimes were committed. In urban ghettos,violence is so widespread that homicide is theleading cause of death among black males between theages of 25 and 45. Auto theft, muggings, robberies,and burglaries occur so frequently, especially incities, that many people live in constant.fear ofcrime. In 1983, 45 percent of Americans surveyedadmitted they were afraid to go out alone at

Rehnquist, William: born 1925, American jurist, chief justice since1986.Burger, Warren Earl: born 1907, American jurist, chief justice of the Supreme Court 1969-86.


RIGHTS OF CRIMINAL SUSPECTS

THE DEATH PENALTY

PROBLEMS FOR LAW ENFORCERS

night in their own neighborhoods. Statistics indicatethat only 20 percent of the people involved in illegalactivity are apprehended. Many of these criminalsbelong to organized crime networks, among them, theMafia, drug smuggling rings, and street gangs.Courts have the difficult task of striking a

balance between the needs of society on the one handand the rights of the individual on the other. TheConstitution's guarantee of equal justice under thelaw for all citizens not only guarantees theindividual's right to freedom and security, but alsoincludes the protection of the rights of criminalsuspects. Among these guarantees are the protectionfrom unreasonable search and seizure, the suspect'sright to decline to testify against himself/herself,the right to counsel, as well as protection fromexcessive bail and from cruel and unusual punishment.The Supreme Court has devised several rules toensure the protection of these rights, whichsometimes result in a guilty suspect being releasedfrom charges. One of these rules is the controversialexclusionary rule, which excludes from the trial anyevidence gained by unlawful search and seizure.Sometimes the exclusion of evidence from a trialmeans that some persons who are clearly guilty go freebecause of a technicality. The Miranda rule is anothercontroversial Supreme Court decision which extends therights of criminal suspects. In the 1966 case, theCourt ruled that suspects must be read their legalrights before being questioned by police. They mustbe told of their right to remain silent and to havean attorney present during questioning. If thepolice do not inform the criminal suspect of his orher rights, any evidence gained from questioningcannot be used in court.Looking for ways to secure community safety amidst

rampant crime, many people hope that a moreconservative court will weaken these protections,many of which derive from precedents created by theliberal Supreme Court of the 1960s. Conservativesview these protections as serious obstacles toeffective law enforcement. Others, however, hold thatthe weakening of the rights of criminal suspectsendangers the rights of all innocent people andgives too much power to the police.Responding to public pressure to get tough with

criminals, many states have been applying the deathpenalty as a deterrent to murder. Although fewcriminals were sentenced to death between 1965 and1983, there has been a surge in recent years in thenumber of executions. Between 1970 and 1980, threeprisoners were executed under the death penalty, andbetween 1980 and 1985, 47 prisoners were executed. In1972, the Supreme Court ruled that the death penalty,

as carriedout in moststates, wasunconstitutional becauseit wasapplieddisproportionately toblacks andotherminorities.States havesince revisedtheir deathpenalty laws,establishingnew Court-approved pro-cedures.Supporters ofthe deathpenalty arguethat it is theonlyappropriatepunishmentfor sadisticmurderers.Opponents ofcapitalpunishmenthope to seeit declaredunconstitutional. Theyclaim thatthere is notenoughevidence toprove thatmurderers aredeterred bythe threat ofexecution.Crime-

stopping andcrimeprevention areformidabletasks for lawenforcementofficials,since thesocialproblems whichaggravateviolence—poverty,unemployment,and unstablefamilies—are

likely to persist. In addition to the overcrowding inprisons, the accessibility of handguns is a majorproblem which further complicates the task ofsecuring public safety.


Methods of Execution1

State Method State Method

Alabama2 Electrocution Nevada2 Lethal injectionAlaska No death penalty New Hampshire2 HangingArizona2 Lethal gas New Jersey Lethal injectionArkansas2 Lethal injection New Mexico* Lethal injectionCalifornia* Lethal gas New York No death penaltyColorado2 Lethal gas North Carolina2 Lethal gas or Connecticut2 Electrocution North Dakota No death penaltyDelaware Hanging Ohio2 ElectrocutionD.C. No death penalty Oklahoma Lethal injectionFlorida Electrocution Oregon5 Lethal injectionGeorgia2 Electrocution Pennsylvania2 ElectrocutionHawaii No death penalty Rhode Island No death penalty(3)Idaho2 Firing squad or South Carolina2 Electrocution

lethal injection South Dakota Lethal injectionIllinois Lethal injection Tennessee2 ElectrocutionIndiana2 Electrocution Texas2 Lethal injectionIowa No death penalty Utah2 Firing squad or Kansas No death penalty injectionKentucky2 Electrocution Vermont ElectrocutionLouisiana2 Electrocution Virginia ElectrocutionMaine No death penalty Washington2 Hanging or lethal Maryland2 Lethal gas West Virginia No death penaltyMassachusetts5 No death penalty Wisconsin No death penaltyMichigan No death penalty Wyoming Lethal injectionMinnesota No death penalty U.S. (Fed. (4)Mississippi2 Lethal injection American Samoa No death penaltyMissouri Lethal gas Guam No death penaltyMontana2 hanging or lethal Puerto Rico No death penaltyNebraska2 Electrocution Virgin Islands No death penalty1. On July 1. 1976, by a 7-2 decision, the U.S. Supreme Court upheld the death penalty as notbeing "cruel or unusual." However, in another ruling the same day, the Court, by a 5-4 vote,stated that states may not impose "mandatory" capital punishment on every person convicted ofmurder. These decisions left uncertain the fate of condemned persons throughout the U.S. On Oct.4, the Court refused to reconsider its July ruling, which allows some states to proceed withexecutions of condemned prisoners. The first execution in this country since 1967 was in Utah onJan. 17, 1977. Gary Mark Gilmore was executed by shooting. 2. Voted to restore death penaltyafter June 29, 1972, Supreme Court decision ruling capital punishment unconstitutional. 3. Personshall be executed by gas if he commits murder while serving a prison term. 4. Method shall bethat used by state in which sentence is imposed. If state does not have death penalty, federaljudge shall prescribe method for carrying out sentence. 5. Death penalty has been passed, but notbeen used. 6. Defendant may choose between hanging and a lethal injection. Source: Information Pleasequestionnaires to the states. NOTE: An asterisk after the name of the state indicates non-reply.

OVERCROWDED PRISONS

The nation's prisons, many of which are old andrundown, must operate above capacity to accommodatethe number of inmates. One way to relieve overcrowdingis parole, the conditional release of a prisoner beforethe term of his or her sentence has expired.Nevertheless, many states, responding to publicpressure to get tough with criminals, have changedtheir laws. For example, some states have imposedlonger sentences for serious crimes and haverestricted parole. The result of heavier prisonsentences is that prisons are filling up before stateand federal authorities can find the money to buildnew facilities.


GUN CONTROL

SELF-DEFENSE

Many lawmakers favor stricter gun control laws as amethod of curbing crime. Americans now own 65 millionpistols and revolvers, two handguns for every threehouseholds. Even sophisticated rapid-fire combatweapons are available. An FBI report revealed thatfirearms were involved in more than half of the murdersin the United States in 1984. Proponents of guncontrol are pressing the government to at leastrequire registration of all handguns and to requirebackground checks on all potential handgun buyers toensure that they do not have a criminal record. Someopponents of handguns favor a complete ban on theirsale and possession. While 70 percent of all Americanssurveyed in 1985 favored registration of handguns,only 4 percent favored having a law to ban sale andpossession. All the same, the lobbies against guncontrol are very influential. Congress passed a bill in1985 to loosen restrictions on firearms, despiteprotest from law enforcers. Many Americans fear thatgun control laws will prevent law-abiding citizens frombeing able to protect their homes.Lacking confidence in the ability of the courts, the

police, and legislators to deal swiftly with theproblem of crime, many Americans look for ways toprotect themselves from attacks and burglaries.Refusing to be victimized, some people are willing tobreak the law in order to defend themselves. When NewYork subway passenger Bernhard Goetz took the law intohis own hands to avoid being the victim of anothercrime, he was hailed as a hero by most New Yorkers.The incident occurred in 1984 on a subway train whenfour youths demanded five dollars from him. Goetz, aman with no criminal record who had already beenmugged and severely beaten several months earlier,reacted by pulling out a gun and shooting the fouryouths, all of whom had criminal records, includingconvictions for armed robbery and burglary. In a three-month trial in 1987 Goetz was finally acquitted of allbut the relatively minor charge of illegally

possessinga gun. Thepublic'ssupportfor GoetzindicatesAmericans'frustration with thecriminaljusticesystem'sinadequacyinprotectingindividualrights.Untilmeasuresare takento addressthe soda]factorswhichcauseviolence,crime wi\\continueto aftecta \axgesegment dthepopulation.

103

PART в TextsО About Men

BY BRENT STAPLES

A BROTHER'S MURDER

T HAS BEENMORE than two years since my telephone rang with the news that

my younger brother Blake - just 22 years old — had been mur-dered. The young man who killed him was only 24. Wearing a ski mask, heemerged from a car, firedsix times at close range with a massive .44 Magnum, then fled. The two had once been insepar-able friends. A senseless rivalry — beginning, I think, with an argument over a girlfriend — escalated from posturing, to threats, to violence, to murder. The way the two were living, death could have come to either of them from anywhere. In fact, the assailant had already survived multiple gunshotwounds from an incident much like the one in which my brother lost hislife.

I

As I wept for Blake Ifelt wrenched backwardinto events and circum-stances that had seemedlight-years gone. Thougha decade apart, we bothwere raised in Chester,Pa., an angry, heavilyblack, heavily poor,industrial city southwestof Philadelphia. There, inthe 1960's, I wasintroduced to mortality,not by the old andfailing, but by beautifulyoung men who lay wreckedafter sudden explosions ofviolence. The first, Iremember from my 14thyear — Johnny, brashlover of fast cars,stabbed to death two doorsfrom my. house in a fightover a pool game. The nextyear, my teenage cousin,Wesley, whom I loved verymuch, was shot dead. Thesummers blur.

Milton, an angry youngneighbor, shot acrosstown rival, woundinghim badly. William,another teenage neighbor,took a shotgun blast tothe shoulder in someurban drama and displayedhis bandages proudly. Hisbrother, Leonard,severely beaten, lost aneye and donned a blackpatch. It went on.I recall not long before

I left for college, twolocal Vietnam veterans —one from the Marines, 6nefrom the Army — arguingfiercely, nearly at blowsabout which outfit haddone the most in the war.The most killing, theymeant. Not much later, Iread a

magazine article that setthat dispute in acontext. In the story, anoncommissioned officer —a sergeant, I believe —said he would pass up anynumber of affluent,suburban-born recruits toget hard-core soldiersfrom the inner city. Theyjumped into the ricepaddies with "theirmanhood on their sleeves,"I believe he said. Thesetwo items — the veteransarguing and thesergeant's words — stillcharacterize for me thecircumstances under whichblack men in their teensand 20's kill one anotherwith such frequency. Witha touchy paranoia born ofliving battered lives,they are


1. continueddesperate to be real men.Killing is only machismotaken to the extreme.Incursions to be punishedby death were many andminor, and they remainso: they include steppingon the wrong toe,literally; cheating in adrug deal; simply saying"I dare you" to someoneholding a gun; crossingterritorial lines in agang dispute. My brothergrew up to wear hismanhood on his sleeve.And when he died, he wasin that group — black,male and in its teens andearly 2()'s — that is farand away the most likelyto murder or bemurdered.I left the East Coast

after college, spent themid- and late-1970s inChicago as a graduatestudent, taught for atime, then became ajournalist. Within 10years of leaving my home-town, I was overeducatedand "upwardly mobile,"ensconced on a quiet,tree-lined street wherevoices raised in angerwere scarcely ever heard.The telephone, like somegrim umbilical, kept meconnected to the oldworld with news ofdeaths, imprisoning andmisfortune. I feltemotionally beaten up.Perhaps to protectmyself, I added a psycho-logical dimension to thephysical distance I hadalready achieved. I rarelyvisited my hometown. Ishut it out.As I fled the past, so

Blake embraced it. OnChristmas of 1983, I

traveled from Chicago toa black section ofRoanoke. Va., where hethen lived. The desolatepublic housing projects,the hopeless, idle youngmen crashing against oneanother — these remindedme of the embittered townwe'd grown up in. It wasa place where once Iwould have beencomfortable, or at leastsure of myself. Now,hearing of my brother'sforays into crime, hisscrapes with police andstreet thugs, I wasscared, unsteady onforeign terrain.I saw that Blake's

romance with the streetlife and the hustlerimage had flowereddangerously. One eveningthat late December,standing in some Roanokedive among drug dealersand grim, hair-triggerlosers, I told him Ifeared for his life. Hehad affected the image ofthe tough he wanted tobe. But behind the darkglasses and the swagger,I glimpsed the baby-faced toddler I'd oncewatched over. I nearlywept. I wanteddesperately for him tolive. The young thinkthemselves immortal, anda dangerous light shonein his eyes as he spokelaughingly of making foolsof the policemen who hadraided his apartmentlooking for drugs. Hecried out as I took hisright hand. A line ofstitches lay between thethumb and index fmger.Kickback from ashotgun, heexplained, nothing

serious. Gunplay hadbecome part of his life.I lacked the language

simply to say: Thousandshave lived this for youand died. I fought theurge to lift him bodilyand shake him. This placeand the way you are livingsmells of death to me, Isaid. Take some timeaway, I said. Let's godowntown tomorrow and buya plane ticket anywhere,take a bus trip, anythingto get away and-coolthings off. He took myalarm casually. Wearranged to meet thefollowing night — anappointment he would notkeep. We embraced asthough through glass. Idrove away.As I stood in my

apartment in Chicagoholding the receiver thatevening in February 1984,I felt as though part ofmy soul had been cutaway. I questioned myselfthen, and I still do. DidI not reach back soon orearnestly enough for him?For weeks I awoke cryingfrom a recurrent dreamin which I chased him,urgently trying to gethim to read a document Ihad, as though reading itwould protect him fromwhat had happened inwaking life. His eyesshining like blackdiamonds, he smiled anddanced just beyond mygrasp. When I reachedfor him, I caught onlythe space where he hadbeen.


О LAW & JUSTICEr

by Frank Borzellieri

NE of the basic issuesthe case of Bernhard

Goetz - New York's"subway vigilante" - hasbrought to light is aperson's right to defendhimself, once againfocusing the publicopinion spotlight on guncontrol.

O

The knee-jerk reactionof many dealing with thegun control question issimple: guns are evil andtherefore must be banned.This train of thought hasdominated the New Yorkarea and similar crime-plagued areas throughoutthe country. It has alsoshown itself to be notonly ineffective, butnaive and dangerous. NewYork, despite thetightest gun control lawin the nation, has noteven remotely providedadequate protection forits citizens.In 1980, New Yorkers

viewed their mayor on atelevision commercialproudly proclaiming thepassage of what washailed рч "the toughestgun law in America." As EdKoch strode through a cityprison, he informed the

Mr. Borzellieri is a free-lance journalist from Glendale, N. Y.

public of theconsequences of beingcaught possessing anillegal handgun. "Ifyou've got the gun, we'vegot the space," Koch saidas he opened a cell door.Koch's intentions were

noble, but wouldn't thesubway riders prefer the"space" be reserved forthe armed mugger, ratherthan the decent, thoughillegally armed, janitorwho works the midnightshift to support hisfamily and feels itnecessary to carry aweapon to ensure that hecan arrive at hisdestination safely? Morerecently, the mayorrekindled memories of his1980 proclamation withanother profoundstatement immediatelyfollowing the Goetzshooting of four allegedmuggers. "We will nottolerate vigilantism inNew York," Koch warnedthe potential copycatshooters. Again, wouldn'this constituents feelmore secure if Kochassured, "We will nottolerate crime."? The sadtruth is that New Yorkdoes tolerate crime, andits gun law insures thistoleration."They don't protect you

in New York, but thenthey tell you, 'Don't youdare have a gun.'" Thosewords,

Roy Innis: "With the armed criminal and therestrictive laws disarming the citizen, wehave, in fact, aided and abetted- the criminalby making his work less difficult."

spoken by BernhardGoetz, hit the nailprecisely on the head andreveal certaininconsistencies in thegun control question.When an astute politicianlike Koch, normally atough, anti-crime mayor,fails to see thesemisconceptions, it istime to reveal to thepublic the truth behindthe entire gun issue.Civil rights leader Roy

Innis, chairman of theCongress of RacialEquality (CORE), hasstudied the gun questionfor many years. Innis,who offered to defendBernhard Goetz fornothing even before hesurrendered, is the onlyprominent black leader toback Goetz. Innis blaststhose who offer what heterms "liberal knee-jerk"arguments:The conventional wisdom aroundthe gun question in the society welive in is that guns are dangerous,guns should be restricted, guns shouldbe kept out of the hands of people.But when you look at thisconventional wisdom, it doesn't standup, really, to reason because thefault of the question of keeping gunsout of the hands of people, is themistaken assumption that you can,in fact, keep guns out of the handsof people.

ARMING CITIZENSto Fight Crime


2. continuedInnis speaks wisely of

the pragmatic effects, thetangible effects, thatrestrictive gun laws havedemonstrated: New York, withthe toughest gun law in the country,has not done very much to disarmthe criminal. It has effectivelydisarmed the citizen. It haseffectively made the citizen prey tothe armed criminal. Carrying a gun,to a lifelong criminal, is just anotherfelony in a series of felonies that thatperson has dedicated

his life to. So the fact that criminalsare armed should not be strange tous. What is the problem is that, withthe armed criminal and therestrictive laws disarming thecitizens, we have, in fact, aided andabetted the criminal by making hiswork less difficult. A well-thinkingcriminal will have to be a strongadvocate of tight gun control.Roy Innis has done

more than reveal thetragic results of thisgun law situation. He hasproposed a plan

that will loosen the gunlaws, allowing decentcitizens to carryweapons. The Innis planis a manifold, high-result program. What heis trying to do is givethe public back what isrightfully theirsaccording to theConstitution and to do soin the perspective of whatis pragmatically best forsociety, not what simplyseems the best. . ..

USATODAY/JULY 1985

Koch, Edward I . : see page 19.Congress of Racial Equality: (CORE), a black nationalist organization founded in 1942. ".. .what is rightfully theirs according to the Constitution...": 2nd Amendment: A well-regulated militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people tokeep and bear arms, shall not be infringed.

О Parting Thoughts

The Death Penalty: Legal Cruelty?

by Donald B. Walker

HE execution of Gary MarkGilmore by a Utah firing

squad on Jan. 17, 1977, markedthe end of a 10-year moratoriumon the use of capital punishmentin the U.S. Since that time,seven more executions have takenplace — one each in Alabama,Florida, Illinois, Mississippi,Nevada, Virginia, and Texas. Thelatest innovation in the mannerof killing was revealed in Texason Dec. 14, 1982, when CharlieBrooks, Jr., was put to death bylethal injection. This newmethod of execution raisesadditional ethical issues in thedebate over the death penalty.As a consequence of these eightexecutions and the impendingdeath of numerous other deathrow inmates; the issue ofcapital punishment is once againin the public forum.

T In 1972, at the time of theFurman v. Georgia decision, 629persons were housed on deathrows throughout the U.S. Today,just over 10 years later, thedeath row population exceeds1,100 - 500 condemned personsmore than at the time of Furman!While the debate over capitalpunishment has continuedsporadically, and for the mostpart academically, over thepast 20 years, the issue todaytakes on a greater sense ofurgency. The sheer size of thedeath row population creates asignificant moral dilemma forour society. In addition, sincethe appeals process for many ofthese condemned persons has beenvirtually exhausted, the debatetakes on a heightened sense ofimmediacy. In short, under thepresent conditions, the debate


is far less an academic exerciseover the significant levels ofdeterrence data than it is asignificant public issuerelated to the concept ofjustice in our society.The fundamental question which

must be addressed with respectto the death penalty is underwhat circumstance does the statehave the right to take the lifeof one of its citizens? Thatquestion, with respect to theuse of capital punishment forfirst-degree murder convictions,was answered by the SupremeCourt in the Furman and Greggdecisions. In those cases, theCourt held that the deathpenalty itself does notcontravene the EighthAmendment's prohibition againstcruel and unusual punishment aslong as it is applied in a fairand impartial manner. The Greggdecision further clarified theprocedure which the sentencingcourt must use in determiningthe fate of the guiltydefendant.What has been overlooked in

these decisions is that theSupreme Court has answered thequestion only in a legal and notin any moral or ethical sense.One hard lesson which the worldshould have learned as aconsequence of the Holocaust isthat law and justice areindependent concepts. Law is thederivation of a society'sinterpretation of justice whichis relative both to time andplace. Furthermore, thecreation of law is morefrequently the result of theinterpretation of justice by thepowerful in the society which isthen applied at the expense ofthe powerless. A moral andhumane society constantly seeksto bring the law into closerharmony with the widestinterpretation of justice inthat society at any given time.The civil rights movement in theU.S. is an excellent example of

this process.The contention here is that

the continued use of the deathpenalty in the U.S. constitutesa flagrant example of thecontinuing gap between law andjustice in our society. Whilethe Su-

preme Court has upheld thelegality of capital punishmentunder the Eighth Amendment, ithas ignored the moral andethical implications of the"cruel and unusual" clause.If one considers the

deliberate infliction of painand suffering on others to be"cruel," then capitalpunishment, regardless of itslegal interpretation, must fitthat definition. Both theactual manner of execution andthe long period of confinementin death row preceding itsapplication cause acute pain andmental suffering to thecondemned person. The uneasinesswhich we, in the U.S., feeltowards the infliction of painon the condemned prisoner hasled to a continuous search formore refined and "humane" meansof carrying out the executionorder.Charlie Brooks, Jr., the first

person killed by lethalinjection, has now taken hisplace in history along withother objects of experimentation

in this quest to kill peoplepainlessly. However, the use ofotherwise life-saving medicaltechniques and drugs to carryout executions raises seriousethical questions for thesociety as a whole and themedical profession inparticular. Even though TexasDistrict Judge Doug Shaver feelsthat death by lethal injection"will make it more palatable,"it surely can not make it moreethical. On the other hand, ifwe remain convinced thatcapital punishment is both anecessary and just means ofensuring social defense, why isit necessary to make it"palatable"? Despite the legalinterpretation of the concept"cruel," the moralinterpretation of that conceptand its relationship to justicein our society remainsunsettling.

Dr. Walker is assistant professor of criminal justice studies, Kent (Ohio) State University

USATODAY/NOVEMBER 1983

Furman v. Georgia decision: In Furman v. Georgia the Supreme Court ruled that the death penalty in Georgia was unconstitutionalbecause it was applied inconsistently as far more blacks than whites were executed for similar crimes. The court, however, did not rule that the death penalty violated the 8th Amendment.Gregg v. Georgia decision: the Court ruled that the death penalty was not unconstitutional as such under the8th and 14th Amendments.8th Amendment: "Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted."


Thoughts on the Supreme CourtAn Interview with Tom Clark (excerpts)This interview was conducted on August 23, 1976, in Justice Clark's chambers in the Supreme Court.The late Justice Clark spent more than 50 years as a lawyer and judge. He served as attorney general ofthe United States from 1945 to 1949, when President Truman appointed him an associate justice ofthe Supreme Court. He then served on the Court until 1967, when he resigned because of a potentialconflict of interest that arose when his son, Ramsey Clark, was named attorney general.

QUESTION: Woodrow Wilson oncecalled the Supreme Court "thebalance wheel" in our system.Justice Robert H. Jackson said thatthe Court's function was nothingless than to be an arbiter amongrival forces in our society. Afteryour many years of service on theCourt, how do you see its role inour political system?Justice Clark: Well, I think that

Chief Justice (Warren) Burger putit pretty well when he said, "Ifyou want to play a baseball game,what do you have? You have anumpire, otherwise the game isgoing to end up in a riot beforethe nine innings are played." Irather think that the Court issomewhat of an umpire. It considerswhat the Congress proposes, or whatthe executive proposes, or what someindividual claims, and rules uponthese laws, proposals, and claimsby comparing them with the law aslaid down by the Constitution...andthen calls the strikes and theballs.The Watergate case was a good

example of the Supreme Court'sresponsibility to decide whether ornot the Congress or the presidenthad exercised authority in aconstitutional way.You also should remember that we

on the Court serve another role. Ifthe decisions of the other twobranches are in keeping withconstitutional doctrine, we use ourauthority to uphold thesedecisions. And if a citizen doesn'tvoluntarily follow the rules laiddown by the Congress or by thepresident or by other courts, whythen it's our job to enforce thoserules so that that individual willbe punished or reprimanded.QUESTION: Justice William H. Taftonce said that courts are composedof people, and one would be foolishto deny that courts are notaffected by the timein which the justices live. How muchdo you think the needs of the timesaffect the decisions of the Court?How is public opinion brought intothe process of taking cases andmaking decisions?Justice Clark: Well, I served 18

years on the bench and frankly, Imyself doubt if any public clamoror any political manipulation onthe Court can be effective. I didget quite a few letters from allover the country about variousthings, but I don't think any ofthose things influenced my thinking

on the legal matters which wereinvolved.Yet we are influenced by the necessities of the time.

Every year there are new cases, newpeople who come "knockin' on ourdoor" with constitutional questionswhich need to be resolved. Takefor example the

criminal field. We started out withthe case of Griffin v. Illinois* in whichGriffin said, "I'm being chargedwith murder, which is a felony, andI ought to be entitled to read thetranscript of what went on in thecourtroom. I'm just a layman andcouldn't remember everything.Without a transcript, I wouldn'tbe able to appeal to a highercourt." So when this came to us(the Supreme Court) on appeal, weruled that defendants are entitledto a transcript.But once they got the transcript

they couldn't tell much about itwithout a lawyer and they commencedagain to "knockin' on our door." Inan old case before I became ajustice, the Court had ruled thatonly in felony cases should a lawyerbe appointed. Exceptions were madeto this case over the years asadditional cases came before theCourt, until we had the Gideoncase.** In this one we ruled thateveryone accused of a crime wasentitled to a lawyer. What happenedwas, they kept "knockin' on ourdoor," and finally we extended theruling to misdemeanors as well.So you had it going full sway.

That's because of the necessitiesthat were brought to our attention.Now you say, well, weren't thosebrought before? Possibly they were,but not with the impact that theywere brought to us.The same was true in segregation.

We had one case which had to dowith segregation in the field ofgraduate education. We ruled thatthis was unconstitutional and laterthere came the case of Brown v. Board ofEducation,*** which was on the gradeschool level. Then other questionscame up. What about public ac-commodations? What about swimmingpools and things like that? And thefirst thing you know they're"knockin' on the door." I don'tknow whether you'd say that theindividual citizen who felt thepinch knocked on the door, orwhether the lawyer looking out sawthe pinch and tried to minimize it.I rather think that the pinch waswhat caused it.

•Editor's Note: In the case of Griffin v. Illinois(1956) the Supreme Court ruled that adefendant who is appealing a court decisionshould not be denied a copy of thetranscript of his trial because ofinability to pay for it.••Editor's Note: In Gideon v. Wainwrighl (1963)the Court ruled that all defendants areentitled to a lawyer appointed by the courtif they are unable to pay for onethemselves. See the "How a Case Reaches the

Supreme Court" diagram for more details onthe Gideon case.•••Editor's Note: In Brown v. Board of Education(1954) the Court ruled segregation in publicschools to be unconstitutional.


How a Case Reaches the Supreme CourtWhile there are certain cases that can be brought directly to the Supreme Court, the majority of cases are brought on appeal.If either party in a case is unhappy with the decision of a lower court, it has the right to appeal that decision to a higher court. An appeal is not a new trial, but rather a reexamination of the evidence, procedures and legal or constitutional principles on which the decision was based in the previous trial. Only a very small percentage of cases appealed are considered by the Supreme Court. During its 1976—77 term, the Court received petitions for 4,731 cases, yet agreed to hear oral arguments for only 176. Generally speaking, the Court will be inclined to hear a case if it involves a basic constitutional principle, an important question of federal law or a conflict between state and federal law. Appeals are brought to the U.S. Supreme Court from the highest courts in each state or from lower federal courts.

"My Rights Have Been Violated"September 1950 - An eight-year-old black student named Linda Brown was denied admission to an all-white elementary school in Topeka, Kansas. 4>Trial in Federal District CourtFebruary 1951 — Her father, Oliver Brown, and 12 other black parents sued the city's Board of Education in the United States District Court. Thecase was officially titled Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas.

Appeal to the United States Supreme CourtWhile many cases must be appealed from district court to the court of appeals, this case was appealed directly to the Supreme Court. June 1952 — The Supreme Court agreed to hear the Brown case. December 1952 - Arguments were heard from lawyers for both sides. However, the Court was divided and unable to arrive at a decision. December 1953 — A year later, arguments were again heard for both sides. Duringthat time, a significant change had occurred onthe Court. Chief Justice Fred Vinson had died in 4>The Supreme Court DecidesMay 1954 - By a 9 to 0 vote the Supreme Court overruled the district court's decision. It stated that segregated schools were uncon-stitutional because segregation "deprives children of the minority group of equal educational opportunities." It nullified the

110

PART C Exercises

1. Text AnalysisA Brother's Murder1. This text comes from a special section of theNew York Times Magazine. How does its stylediffer from the style you normally find inmagazine reports?

2. What may have been Brent Staple's motivesfor writing this article?

3. Show how the author's biography is woveninto the account of his brother's life and death.

4. Describe how the author conveys to thereader that his brother's tragic end wasalmost inevitable.

5. The author compares Blake Staple's world ofviolence, crime and aggressionwith his ownmuch more secure and peaceful way ofliving. Find the words and expressions heuses to indicate this contrast.

2. Global ComprehensionArming Citizens to Fight CrimeWhich of the following statements about the text is correct? In some cases more thanone answer is possible. Give reasons for your decisions.1.In this text the authora)presents an objective

discussion of thequestion of gun control.

b)argues in favor of gun control.c)opposes the idea of gun control.

2.According to Frank Borzellieri,New York'sgun laws

a)have improved the protection of citizens.b)have at least made the

janitors feel safer atwork.

c)have made criminal activities lessdifficult.

3. The author quotes BernhardGoetz

a)in order to reveal the inconsistency ofGoetz's defense.

b)to point out the inconsistencies in MayorKoch's statements.

c)to back his own viewpoint.

4. Roy Innis, chairman of CORE,a)is one of the many black

leaders whooppose stronger gun control laws.

b)favors less strict gun laws.c)believes that stricter gun

laws helpcriminals more than ordinarycitizens.

3. Discussion1.List the arguments Frank Borzellieri uses forand against gun control. Show how he triesto put greater emphasis on hisargument by• choosing examples that support hisviewpoint

• quoting people who share hisview• using rhetorical devices to depreciateopposing views.

Discuss whether you think the author succeeds in getting hismessage across to the reader.

2.Analyze the following opinion poll andcompare the figures with the point FrankBorzellieri wants to make in his article.

HANDGUN CONTROLShould laws covering the sale of handgunsbe made more strict, less strict or keptas they are now? (Gallup)

1975 1980 1981 1983 1986

More strict 69% 59% 65%

59% 60%Less strict 3 6 3 4Kept same 24 29 30 31

Some communities have passed laws banningthe sale and possession of handguns. Would you favor or oppose having such a law in your community? (Gallup)

I------------------------4/86-1All Men Women Whites Blacks

Favor 47% 39% 55% 45% 59%Oppose 47 57 38 49 34

3. How strict are the gun

control laws in yourcountry?

4. Do you think guns should be banned in theU.S.? When discussing this question, takeinto consideration:

83


• the situation of young urbanblacks asdescribed by Brent Staples in the text ABrother's Murder.

• the 2nd Amendment to the U.S.Constitution: "A well-regulated militia,being necessary to the security of a freeState, the right of the people to keep andbear arms shall not be infringed."

• a statement by Neal Knox of the NationalRifle Association: "The rightofself-defense is a fundamental one, and if Iknow how to use a gun and feel I need onefor self-defense, whose business is it to saythat I shouldn't own one?"

• the statement of a police sergeant inHouston, a city with a high crime rate:"It's getting to the point where it's up tothe citizens to protect themselves. And theway to do that is with guns."

4. ComprehensionThe Death Penalty: Legal Cruelty?1. Why was the discussion about the deathpenalty more urgent at the time the articleappeared than ten years before?

2. In its Furman and Gregg decisions how didthe Supreme Court rule on the question ofthe circumstances under which the state hasthe right to take the life of one of its citizens?

3. According to Donald B. Walker, which aspect

of the issue did the Supreme Court deal withand which aspect did it ignore?

4. How do the concepts of law and justice relateto each other?

5. What is the author's view on capitalpunishment?

6. How does he support his view?7. What is the author's opinion on carrying outexecutions by lethal injection?

5. DebateHave a debate on the motion:"Capital punishment is unethicaland should bebanned."

6.Modified Cloze TestThoughts on the Supreme CourtThe Supreme Court considers lawspassed by the fa, proposals oractions made by the and claims made by fa. It decides whetherthey are in keeping with the fa . In the Watergate fa the Supreme Court had to decide whether the president had exercised authority in a fa way. If decisions of legislativeand executive powers are constitutional, they are fa by the Supreme Court. A citizen who does not obey such rules will be fa . Justice Clark doesnot believe that political manipulation can influence the justices' thinking on fa matters. He admits, however, that the justices have to consider the necessities of the time when dealing with constitutional questions which have not arisen before. In the case of Griffin v. Illinois, Griffin was fa with murder, which is a fa .He believed thathe ought to be entitled to read the fa of what was said in the courtroom in order to be able to fa to a higher court. The Supreme Court fa that afa is entitled to a transcript.Reading the transcript without afa advice was too difficult for alayman. In the Gideon case thecourt ruled that every citizenfa of a crime was entitled to alawyer provided by the court ifhe was unable to pay for onehimself.

7.Preparing an InterviewHow a Case Reaches the Supreme CourtThirty-five years after the Supreme Court decided on the case of Brown v. Board of Education, aneducational radio station is preparing a documentry series onthe history of desegregation. Asa reporter whose job it is to cover the Brown case you would like to interview Linda Brown, now 47, to recall the different stages of the case, her personalexperiences in the years 1950-54

and the effects the Court's final decision has had on her life. Prepare the questions for the interview.

7 MinoritiesPART A Background Information

DISCRIMINATIONAGAINSTMINORITIES

THE BLACKS

Americans cherish the picture of their country as aland of wealth and opportunity. Yet many groupswanting to share in the nation's overall prosperityhave experienced how scarce opportunities can be inthe competition for income and status.Discrimination because of color, culture, and age,for example, has kept many Americans from sharingequal protections and prospects in American society.The 1960s was a decade of turbulence and social

change. Blacks and other minorities becamepolitically active, bringing their protests to thestreets and courts all over the country. In responseto minority demands, many new laws were passed tooutlaw and compensate for inequalities. However, lawsalone cannot eliminate discrimination. Attitudeschange slowly. For example, despite the existence oflaws that prohibit housing discrimination, manypeople still refuse to rent to blacks and Hispanics.Minority demands are sure to continue, and newsolutions will be essential as the composition ofAmerican society continues to change rapidly.Hispanics and the elderly will account for anincreasingly larger share of the population, andsociety will have to make adjustments to thesechanging demographics.For America's blacks, the struggle for equal rights

has been long and often bitterly opposed. When theFounding Fathers asserted in the Declaration ofIndependence that "all men are created equal" andpossess inalienable rights to life, liberty and thepursuit of happiness, women and blacks were excluded.Not until after the Civil War ended in 1865 didblacks begin to share in the most basic rights ofcitizenship. Three Constitutional amendments werepassed and ratified between 1865 and 1870. TheThirteenth Amendment abolished slavery, theFourteenth Amendment gave blacks the rights ofcitizenship, andFounding Father: see page 25.Declaration of Independence: see page 31.Civil War: see page 44.Constitution of the United States: see page 97.Thirteenth Amendment: "Neither slavery nor involuntary

servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction."Fourteenth Amendment: "All personsborn or naturalized in the United States and subject to the jurisdictionthereof, arecitizens of the United States and of the Statewherein theyreside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdictionthe equal protection of the laws."

MINORITIES 113

CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT

CIVIL RIGHTS LEGISLATION

AFFIRMATIVEACTION

the Fifteenth Amendment gave them the right to vote.Despite these Constitutional provisions, Southern

whites found ways to circumvent the intention of theamendments. Racial prejudice was rationalized andinstitutionalized in the South. Until the moderncivil rights movement, which began in the 1950s,blacks were denied access to public places such asrestaurants, hotels, theaters, and schools. Therewere separate facilities marked "colored only" forblacks, and this practice of racial segregation wassanctioned by the courts. In 1896 the Supreme Courthad ruled that racial segregation was legal as longas "separate but equal" facilities were provided.The landmark case Brown v. the Board of Education in 1954was the first successful challenge to legalizedsegregation of blacks and whites. The Supreme Courtunanimously ruled that maintaining separate but equalschools for blacks and whites was unconstitutionalbecause separate schools can never provide the sameeducational opportunities.With goals which included desegregation, fair

housing, equal employment opportunities, and fairvoting laws, the civil rights movement of the 1950sand 60s had the momentum of a social revolution.Until his assassination in 1968, Dr Martin LutherKing, Jr, provided leadership and strategy for themass movement. He supported nonviolent tactics suchas "sit-ins" at restaurants which segregated theraces. Some radical black leaders later advocatedviolent revolution as the way blacks could finallytake control of the economic and political aspects oftheir lives.The civil rights movement was a success in the

areas of voting rights and public accommodations andfacilities. In 1957 Congress passed the first civilrights legislation in eighty years. The legislationfocused on protecting the voting rights of blacks,but additional legislation was found to be necessary.In 1963, Congress passed a constitutional amendmentprohibiting the use of a poll tax in federalelections. Civil rights legislation was again passedin 1964, making it illegal to administer voting laws

in adiscriminatorymanner.This actwassignificant inotherways. Itprohibiteddiscriminationinpublicaccommodationssuch asrestaurants andhotelsand alsooutlawedjob dis-crimination byemployers andunions.The 1965VotingRightsActabolishedliteracytests,whichhad beenused todenyblackstheright tovote. Inaccordance withthislegislation,federalexaminers arestillappointed inmanycommunities toensurethat

proper voter registration and election proceduresare followed. As a result of these new laws, voterregistration among blacks has increased, althoughthe percentage is still well below the comparablefigure for whites. Black political power has alsogrown: more and more blacks are being elected topublic office.In areas such as housing and employment, new

legislation was passed in the 1960s to prohibitdiscrimination. Many of these laws werecontroversial and have been difficult to enforce.Despite fair housing laws, blacks and other

Fifteenth Amendment: "The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude."Supreme Court: see page 97.Brown v. the Board of Education decision: Supreme Court decision of 1954 ruling that public schools could not be separated by race.King, Martin Luther Jr.: (1929-68) American Baptist minister and civil rights leader, awarded Nobel Peace Prize in 1964, assassinated.


PROBLEMS OF URBAN BLACKS

HISPANICS

THE NATIVE AMERICANS

minorities are often refused leases and contracts.In the area of employment, one way the governmenthas tried to correct job discrimination is throughaffirmative action laws that require most employersto take positive steps to remedy the effect of pastdiscrimination against minorities. The goal of affirm-ative action is to match the racial and sexualcomposition of the working place with the compositionof society. Employers are encouraged to hire andpromote blacks, women, and others who had been deniedopportunities. Supporters of the policy insist thatsome form of preferential treatment must be used tobreak down the long-standing patterns ofdiscrimination against minorities and women in thejob market. Critics charge that it results in reversediscrimination against qualified white males.The inequality gap between blacks and whites has

been closing, but 1985 Census Bureau statistics showthat wide disparities remain in income andemployment. The poverty rate for blacks is alarminglyhigh —31 percent compared with 11 percent for whites.The unemployment rate for black teens is more than40 percent. Related to the problem of poverty is thebreakdown of the urban black family. According toCensus Bureau statistics, two-thirds of all blackchildren are born to unmarried mothers. Violence isanother part of the poverty cycle. A 1980 PublicHealth Reports study reveals that the leading causeof death among young black men is murder. While blackmen make up only 6 percent of the population, theyaccount for half of the male prison population. Thepoverty and unemployment among America's urbanblacks are reminders that inequalities have not beeneliminated.While black Americans, numbering about 28 million,

make up the largest ethnic minority, the estimated14 to 20 million Hispanics represent not only thesecond largest but also the fastest growing ethnicminority in the nation. Among the legal Hispanicresidents, 60 percent are of Mexican origin, andmost of the rest are from Cuba or Puerto Rico.Mexican Americans now make up one-fifth ofCalifornia's population and the same proportion ofthe population of Texas. In 25 major cities,Hispanics number more than 50,000. The increase ofHispanic immigration has had a dramatic impact onAmerican society, particularly in the South and

Southwestwhere thegreatestsettlementhasoccurred.Spanishhas becomea majorlanguagein manyareas, andsomecities areofficiallybilingual.BecausemanyHispanicshold ontotheirlanguageandcustoms,questionsare raisedabout howsuccessfully theywillassimilateintoAmericanculture.Theculturalinfusionisresentedby someAmericanswho fearthat thecountry'sethnicidentityis atstake.Manypeoplewish torestrictimmigration quotasin ordertopreservetheculturaldominanceof non-Hispanic

whites, but the stream of illegal immigration acrossthe Mexican border continues.Hispanics have faced a tradition of job

discrimination and poverty in the United States. Inthe 1960s, Hispanic groups, inspired by the blackcivil rights movement, organized themselves toimprove wages and working conditions, to institutebilingual education in schools, and to improvepublic services in Hispanic neighborhoods. Changeshave occurred, but much remains to be done. Theissues are of increasing importance as the Hispanicpopulation may soon become the nation's largestethnic minority if present birth rates continue.Toward the end of the 1960s, Native Americans also

adopted the techniques of protest. Besides theproblems of discrimination which they have sharedwith other minorities, the Native Americans wereembittered by the United States government's longhistory of confusing policies. After the Native

MINORITIES 115

THE ELDERLY

THE DISABLED

HOMOSEXUALS

Americans were subdued by the U.S. army, thegovernment policy toward them wavered inconsistentlybetween encouraging assimilation and promoting tribalautonomy. In the 1960s the federal governmentencouraged the retention of tribal governments andcultural identity. By this time the Native Americanpopulation was becoming increasingly urban. City lifeweakened tribal customs and bonds. Many urban NativeAmericans reacted against these conditions and began totake pride in their heritage, making Native Americanrights their prime political focus. The AmericanIndian Movement (AIM) demanded reforms that wouldgive political autonomy to Native American groups andrecognize their special cultural needs. These effortshave brought a greater degree of sovereignty andincreasingly favorable interpretation of NativeAmerican rights by the federal courts.Besides ethnic minorities, other fringe groups have

voiced demands for recognition and equal rights. Theelderly, the handicapped, and homosexuals areminorities that suffer from discrimination. Between1960 and 1982, the number of people over age 65 grewtwice as fast as the rest of the population. With thenumber of older Americans on the rise, the demands ofthe elderly are becoming harder to ignore. Activistshave addressed the issues of job discrimination,retirement, and health care, and have sought to dispeldistorted perceptions of the elderly as weak, senile,and helpless. In 1967, the Age Discrimination Act waspassed to prohibit discrimination against peoplebetween the ages of 40 and 65.America's disabled are determined to cast off

their image as second-class citizens. For years,disabled people were institutionalized or segregatedand considered incapable of working and living asproductive members of society. The courts andlegislators responded to their demands by outlawingbarriers to equal education and employment. TheRehabilitation Act of 1973 required employers whoreceive federal aid or work on government contracts tohire qualified disabled persons. In addition, the actrequired that public schools admit disabled childrenand that colleges make their buildings accessible tothe blind and those confined to wheelchairs.Equal rights for homosexuals has been a more

controversial issue.Althoughmanystateshavepassedlawsbanningdiscriminationagainsthomosexuals, 24stateshave lawsprohibiting certainkinds ofsexualactivity.Conservatives,fearingthaft,toleranceofhomosexualityunderminesthenation'smorality,applaudedthe 1986SupremeCourtdecisionthatupheld thestates'authorityto makelawsagainsthomosexualacts.The

politicalsettingfor thecivilrightsmovementsofminoritieswas one ofliberalism. Duringthe 1960sand early1970s, the

Supreme Court frequently made decisions which favoredminorities. Many of the Court's decisions wereconsidered controversial because they disruptedtraditional social patterns. The Court, liberalreformers, and student activists became targets of manymiddle-class Americans who resented what they regardedas the federal government's excessive protection of the"undeserving." This so-called "Silent Majority" of themiddle class demonstrated its presence at the polls,voting against homosexual rights and many federalprograms that benefited minorities.Conservatives have been gaining influence in the

1980s. President Reagan was elected to two terms by aconservative majority. The various groups which makeup the conservative movement are united in theirdesire to conserve traditional values and socialpatterns. Consequently, minorities are experiencing aless favorable political climate.

116

PART в Texts

I Am The Redman/ am The RedmanSon of the forest, mountain and 1акеWhat use have I of the asphaltWhat use have I of the brick and concreteWhat use have I of the automobileThink you these gifts divineThat I should be humbly grateful.

I am the RedmanSon of the tree, hill and streamWhat use have I of china and crystalWhat use have I of diamonds and goldWhat use have I of moneyThink you these from heaven sentThat I should be eager to accept.

I am the Redman Son of the earth, water and sky What use have I of silk and velvet What use have I of nylon and plastic What use have I of your religion Think you these be holy and sacred ThatI should kneel in awe.

I am the RedmanI look at you White BrotherAnd I ask youSave not me from sin and evilSave yourself.

Duke Redbird

Hopi elder at work in his fields

My LodgeSimple was my lodge of birch Pure was the water that I drank Swift was the canoe thatcarried me Straight was the arrow that protected me. Wild was the meat that fed me Sweet was the sugar maple. Strong werethe herbs that sustained me Great was my mother, the Earth.

Duke Redbird.

Redbird, Duke: American Indian poet.

MINORITIES 117SPECIAL REPORT

By Sylvester Monroe

hey say you can't gohome again. So when Ireturned to the Chicago

housing projects where Igrew up, it was withambivalence. I wasjourneying back to my past,and I didn't know what Iwould find.

TIt wasn't that I was

afraid. I'd been back to theRobert Taylor Homes andPrairie Courts many timesin the 20 years since I leftin 1966. But this time I wasreturning as a reporter, toretrace my life and thoseof my friends. What hadhappened to us, to Half Manand Honk, Pee Wee and Billy,and what did it say aboutgrowing up black? Black menare six times as likely aswhite men to be murdervictims. We are two and ahalf times as likely to beunemployed. We finish lastin practically everysocioeconomic measure frominfant mortality to lifeexpectancy. Throughportraits of our livestogether and apart, Ithought, we might find someanswers as to why black menin America seem almost anendangered species.

No middle name: WhenI left Chicago for St.George's School in thefall of 1966, throughan outreach programcalled A Better Chance,all 11 of us were stillin school. And at thewide-eyed age of 14 and15, we still haddreams. I wanted to bea writer. I read F.Scott Fitzgerald anddreamed of authoring myown novel. I evenstarted signing my nameS. Vest Monroe, a bitmiffed that my motherhad not given me amiddle name. The dreamgave me hope. And mymother convinced methat without aneducation the dreamwas impossible.Having to leave the

safety and familiarityof home to get it wasas difficult a decisionas I've ever made. Ifit had been entirely upto me, I might neverhave gone to St.George's at all. I washappy at WendellPhillips High, makingstraight A's, runningon the track team,hanging out with agang called Satan'sSaints and discoveringthe wonders of women.Now I was being toldthat I could dobetter, much better,but it meant leavinghome to attend an all-boys boarding school inNewport, R.I. It mightas well have been theother side of theuniverse. Not onlywould I be away frommy family and friends,there wouldn't be anygirls and barely anyother blacks. Infact, when I arrivedat the front steps ofSt. George's on a dampSeptember night in1966, I was one ofonly five blacksenrolled at the 200-student Episcopalschool. It


Sylvester Monroe

2. continuedwas culture shock on amammoth scale.The first person I

met was Gil Burnett, myfirst faculty adviser.He was nice enough,but something seemed tobother him. "Do youhave other clothes?" heasked, scanning mywide-brimmed Dun-lophat, dark glasses,Italian knit shirt,reversible-pleatedbaggy pants and brownand white Stacy-Adamswing tips."Yeah," I said. "Justlike this." The nextday he took me in hisLand-Rover to theAnderson-Littleknitting mills in FallRiver, Mass., bought mea blue blazer, twopairs of gray flannelslacks and a plain pairof black tie shoes. Iwas thankful for thenew duds. They gave methe look of a preppy. But

I still found myselfwondering why I agreedto leave 39 th Street. The main reason I was

there, I remindedmyself, was to pleasemy mother and LeroyLovelace, theschoolteacher largelyresponsible for gettingme the scholarship.And my mother hadgiven me an out, or soI thought. She said tome at the outset thatI would never forgivemyself if I didn't atleast go and see whatit was like; I couldalways come home.Secretly, I resolved tostay at St. George'sexactly two weeks, longenough to make a showof it, then head forChicago.Sick call: After

roughly two weeks, Ihad what I thought wasa stroke of luck: I gotsick — so sick, infact, that I wasadmitted to the schoolinfirmary. It wasperfect. I'd call mymother, tell her what agodawful place

boarding school was,and catch the firstride home. To make mypitch even stronger, Idecided to find outexactly what was wrongwith me.

"Hey, Doc, what've Igot, anyway?" I asked."Oh, I think you're

suffering from a reallybad case of nostalgia,"she said.I hadn't the

foggiest notion whatthat meant, but itsounded pretty seriousto me. Wonderful, Ithought. There's noway Mom won't let mecome home now. I wentto the phone, alreadyplanning my return."Hey, Ma," I began."Hey, how you doin'?""Not so good. I'm

sick as a dog, Ma. Thisplace is always cold,the food is terrible,and now I'm in theinfirmary.""What's the matter with you?""I can't keep

anything down," Isaid. "The doctor saysI've got a bad case ofnostalgia. I think Iought to come home,OK?""Sure, you can come

home -but under onecondition," she said.

MINORITIES 119

"What's that?" I asked."The only way you're

coming home beforeyou're supposed to isin a box."It was one of the

hardest things she'dever done, she confidedyears later. But shealso knew she had to.It was three monthsbefore I got homeagain, for Christmasvacation, and somehowI managed to survive.I even found myselfactually beginning tolike the place and itsteachers, who temperedno-nonsense classeswith a touch ofcompassion.My own capacity for

learning hadn't beenstunted by life in theTaylor Homes. In someways, in fact, I wason an equal footingwith my wealthierclassmates. I had thatlove and support, thatsense of self-worth,that can only come fromthe family. And as mymother proved, itcould happen whetherthere was one parentor two, a few kids ora houseful.Faint disquiet:

Looking back on it, Iwas pleased to showwhat black boys werecapable of. Yet, therewas a faint disquiet.What bothered me wasthatseai£_p£cjple ГпппНjf pasier tn prefenr] Jц/я^ something_else."We're colorblindhere,"~~a well-meaningfaculty member oncetold me. "We don't seeblack students or whitestudents, we just seestudents." But blackwas what I was; Iwasn't sure he saw meat all.Another St. George's

teacher was surprisedat my reaction when heimplied that I shouldbe grateful for the

opportunity to attend St. George's, far awayfrom a place like theRobert Taylors. Howcould I be, I snappedback, when my friends,my family, everyonethat I cared mostabout, were stillthere? But you'redifferent, hecontinued. That's whyyou got out.I'm not different, I

insisted. I'm justlucky enough to havebeen in the rightplace at the righttime.What the teacher

failed to understandwas that my back-ground was notsomething to beashamed of. As in theold James Brown songof the '60s, I wantedto "say it loud: I'mblack and I'm proud!"One of the greatest

frustrations of mythree years at St.George's , was thatpeople were alwaystrying I to separate mefrom other black[people in a mannerstrangely reminiscentof a time when slaveowners divided blacksinto "good Negroes" and"bad Negroes." Somehow,attending St. George'smade me a good Negro,in their eyes, whilethose left in RobertTaylor were badNegroes or, at thevery least, inferiorones.

Ever since — throughHarvard, through my14-year career as ajournalist — I havefound myself lookingover my shoulder onoccasion. My motherhad been right: havingworked hard, I'dcaught the break Ineeded to get out ofthe ghetto. But themen of my family wereright, too: race is aninescapable burden forevery black man.

Though economic-class divi-

sions are rapidlyproducing a nation ofhaves and have-nots, forblacks, race still tendsto overshadow all else.It doesn't matterwhether you are richman, poor man, beggar orthief, if you are black,there's an artificialceiling on yourambition. Many peoplestill perceive blacks,especially black men, asless intelligent, lessproductive and generallymore violent than therest of society.I didn't have to go

back to the RobertTaylor Homes to under-stand that. Recently, Iwaited 45 minutes oneevening on Sixth Avenuein midtown Manhattanbefore a cab finallystopped for me. Morethan a dozen cabbieshad passed me by for a"safer" white fare.It's the same in othercities, and it's not

just cabdrivers. Morethan a few times,I've stepped into anelevator and noticed awoman clutch her pursea little tighter underher arm, or I've beenwalking on a desertedsidewalk with a black,male companion, when awhite couple spots usand suddenly decides tocross the street.To be sized up,

categorized anddismissed all withinthe space of a nervousglance solely on thebasis of race is morethan annoying; it'sdemeaning and damagingto the psyche of anentire people.Even among people of

good will, racerelations is old news,it seems — unlesssomebody gets killed.Sometimes I get thefeeling people arethinking, "Why arethere still Negroes?". . .

Robert Taylor Homes, Prairie Courts: public housing projects in Chicago.outreach program "A Better Chance": a program providing disadvantaged students with better educational chances.Fitzgerald, F. Scott (1896-1940): American author of novels (e.g.The Great Gatsby, Tender Is the Night, This Side of Paradise) and short stories.to make straight A's: always get the best marks (A's) at school.Episcopal school: school run by the Protestant Episcopal Church, an American church, which before 1789 was associated with the Church of England.Stacy-Adams wing tips: shoes with perforated parts covering the toes and sides.Harvard: prestigious private university in Cambridge, Massachusetts, founded in 1636 by John Harvard (1607-38), an English Puritan clergyman in America.


Jessie de laCruz

Л one-family dwelling in Fresno. A small, well-kept garden is out front."When I was a child growing up as a migrant worker, we would move from place toplace. In between, I'd see homes with beautiful gardens, flowers. I always looked atthose flowers and said: 'If I could only have my own house and have a garden.' Wecouldn't as migrant workers. Now, as you walk onto my porch, everything yousee isgreen. (Laughs) I have a garden now."She has six grown children; the youngest is twenty-one. She is active in NationalLand for People. .. .She is fifty-nine.

I and my mother, we were living with mygrandparents. My father went back to Mexico.. . .My happiest memories was when my grandfather had

Sunday off. He would pick us up, wrap us inblankets, and put us around this big wood-burningstove, while he went out to the store. He'd comeup with oranges and apples and good things tocat, something we did not very often have.All the teachers were Anglos. They would have

us say our name and where we lived, who we were.I-said: 'Jessie Lopez, American." She said: "No,you're Mexican." Throughout the years, teacherstold me the same thing. Now all of a sudden theywant me to say I'm an American. (Laughs.) Ilearned how to speak English and how to fightback.I think the longest time I went to school was two

months in one place. I attended, I think, aboutforty-five schools. When my parents or my brothersdidn't find any work, we wouldn't attend schoolbecause we weren't sure of staying there. So Imissed a lot of school. . . .My children were picking crops, but we saw to

it that they went to school. Maybe one or two ofthe oldest would stay away from school duringcotton-picking time around December, so we couldearn a little more money to buy food or buy them apair of shoes or a coat that they needed. But wealways wanted them to get an education.

I musta been almost eight when I startedfollowing the crops. Every winter, up north. Iwas on the end of the row of prunes, taking careof my younger brother and sister. They would helpme fill up the cans and put 'em in a box whilethe rest of the family was picking the whole row.In labor camps, the houses were just clapboard.

There were just nails with two-by-fours aroundit. The houses had two little windows and afront door. One room, about twelve by fifteen,was a living room, dining room, everything. Thatwas home to us.Eight or nine of us. We had blankets that we

rolled up during the day to give us a little placeto walk around doing the housework. There was onlyone bed, which was my grandmother's. A cot. Therest of us slept on the floor. Before that, weused to live in tents, patched tents. Before wehad a tent, we used to live under a tree. Thatwas very hard. This is one thing I

MINORITIES 121

hope nobody has to live through. During thewinter, the water was just seeping under theground. Your clothes were never dry.My husband was born in Mexico. He came with his

parents when he was two and a half years old. Hewas irrigating when he was twelve years old, doinga man's work. Twelve hours for a dollar twenty. Tencents an hour. 1 met him in 1933. Our first year westayed in the labor camps.All farm workers I know, they're always talking:

"If I had my own place, I'd know how to run it. I'dbe there all the time. My kids would help me." Thisis one thing that all Chicano families talked about.We worked the land all our lives, so if we everowned a piece of land, we knew that we could makeit.Mexicans have this thing about a close family, so

they wanted to buy some land where they couldraise a family. That's what my grandfather kepttalkin' about, but his dream was never realized.We followed the crops till around 1966. We went up

north around the Sacramento area to pick prunes. Wehad a big truck, and we were able to take ourrefrigerator and my washing machine and beds andkitchen pots and pans and our clothing. It wasn'ta hardship any more. We wanted our children to pickin the shade, under a tree, instead of picking out inthe vines, where it's very hot. When I pickedgrapes, I could hardly stand it. I felt sorry fortwelve-, thirteen-year-old kids. My husband said:"Let's go up north and pick prunes."We stopped migrating when Cesar Chavez formed a

union. We became members, and I was the first womanorganizer. I organized people everywhere I went.When my husband and I started working under asigned contract, there was no need to migrateafter that. .. .We're in very marginal land. We survive by hard

work and sacrifices. We're out of the Wcstlanddistrict, where the government supplies the water.There's acres and acres of land that if you go outthere you can see green from one end to the other,like a green ocean. No houses, nothing. Trees orjust cotton and alfalfa. It's land that isirrigated with taxpayers' money.These growers that have been using this water

signed a contract that they would sell, within tenyears, in small parcels. It's not happening. If thelaw had been enforced, we could be out there rightnow.It's the very, very best land. I worked it there.

You could grow anything: tomatoes, corn,cantaloupes, vegetables, bell peppers. . ..I'm making it. It's hard work. But I'm not

satisfied, not until I see a lot of farm workerssettle on their own farms. Then I'll say it's

happening.Is America progressing toward the better? No, the

country will never do anything for us. We're theones that are gonna do it. We have to keep onstruggling. I feel there's going to be a change.With us, there's a saying: La esperanza muere al ultimo.Hope dies last. You can't lose hope. If you losehope, that's losing everything. ...

Anglo: Anglo-American descended from an English family.Chavez, Cesar, born 1927, prominent Mexican-American, who organized the migrant farm workers in California into a union and led them- in a long, successful strike against vineyard owners.


ONE of the irritating

things about growing oldis that numerous pleasantphysical activities,such as sunbathing,wearing bright clothesand sexual collisions,are deemed unsuitable,even for the vigorous.It is felt that the oldcut unseemly figures atsuch pastimes. But thisis only when the youngare around, doing thesame things and showingup the old by lookingbeautiful.There is something to

be said for being ableto take off your clotheson the beach withoutbeing obliged to makepainful comparisonsbetween yourself and thebrown-skinned, flat-stomached younginsolently kicking beachballs about with theirhard bare feet.Thinking less crudely

along these lines, theingenious hotel tycoonDel Webb created thefirst retirement resorttown in the world out of9,000 acres of cottonland 12 miles outsidePhoenix, Arizona. ...From a helicopter one

would look down on avast expanse of streetsand houses formingconcentric circles,

crescents, whorls, as

regular as thumbprints,interspersed by bigsplashes of green (golfcourses) and little onesof turquoise (pools).Cars move along thestreets, overtaking

what look like coveredwagons without horses.At ground level thestreets run betweenbungalows of varyingsize, and grandeur, andthe covered wagons becomegolf buggies, luxurioustoy versions of the hardnecessity of less than acentury ago.These things make up a

lot of the traffic. Oneof them could contain aposse of the volunteersheriff force — onroutine patrol, unarmedbut uniformed, reportingto the county sheriff'soffice any unusual sightsuch as a loose dog, agorilla on a bicycle, achildren's nursewheeling a pram, analien from space, or agroup of young people.Any of those would beequally improbable inthis place. They wouldnot fit Del Webb'scentral idea, thatretired folk who wishedto enjoy themselvesactively would be morecontented especially asthey grew older, ifcompetitive andpotentially irritatingage groups were kept wayfrom them. Hence therules against the young.One spouse in each

couple must be at least50. Residents undertakenot to have children ofschool age living athome. These tworegulations are enoughto produce the uni-formity of age.I asked my guide, tanned and bust-

• LUCKY OL'

SUN DOWNERSIn Sun City, Arizona, they do notgrow old as we who are here growold. Young people can't live there, the hospital has no maternity ward and nobody laughsat a real tryer. PETER BLACK

ling Mildred Toldrin:'Suppose a 50-year-oldman brought a 20-year-old wife here?' 'Hewouldn't. She'd feeltoo much out of it.''What if she cameanyway, and had a baby?''She'd think twiceabout that too, becausethey'd have to leave.If she wanted a family,she wouldn't want tolive in Sun City. Itisn't a suitable placefor children to livein. They should be withtheir own age groups,it's not good for themto be always with olderpeople. We've had fivebirths in 18 years, allto visitors passingthrough.'As a clincher, she

added that there wereno schools in the cityand no maternity wardsin the Walter O.Boswell MemorialHospital. (The Boswellfamily owned the land.)Mrs Toldrin was an old

hand, a resident since1960, widowed fiveyears ago andenergetically involvedin promoting the place.She drove me round inone of those comfort-able American cars, ...to the Bell RecreationCentre, where you beginto see the point of SunCity. Ten buildingscovered 27 acres.Inside them, well-matured men and womenwere at play on 19pool tables, 16 lanesof ten-pin bowling,eight shuffleboards; orexchanging books(40,000 on the shelves)in the library; or upto their armpits in thetherapeutic pool; orpainting still life,carving wood, firingpottery, turning metal,weaving rugs andbaskets, fashioningsilver ornaments andsculptures. Outside,the sun beat down onthe sun court, with itshuge swimming pool,

tennis courts andbowling greens. ...When phase one of the

even larger Sun CityWest is complete, some80,000 elderly peoplewill have chosen thisway of life. Similardevel-. opments exist,are being built orplanned right across thewinter sunshine belt ofthe US, all of themconfidently predicted toearn high profits fortheir developers. Wemust assume that eithermany comfortably offAmericans over 50 gobarmy, or that thesecities offer somethingolder people need andenjoy.

MINORITIES 123

Sun City, Arizona

If it seemed sad andbizarre to me at first,and I think these mustbe part of the firstimpressions of everyvisiting European, asthough they were beingconducted round a kindof Forest Lawn cemeteryfor the living, it wasbecause the realism ofthe policy of separationcontradicts so bluntlythe sentimental pictureof ideal old age most ofus carry about.In this the old live

as part of the familyunit, respected fortheir wisdom andexperience, fussed andpetted by theirgrandchildren in whomthey see reminders oftheir own golden time,their presence amongthe family emphasisinghow life is a continuingprocession.But of course this is

all rot, belonging to TVserials like 'TheWaltons.' In the realworld the old folks wholive with theirchildren's families geton everybody's nervesbecause they keepfalling about,stepping on their teethand glasses, handing outopinions nobody wants tohear; there is argumentabout which TV channelto watch, who gets thenewspaper

first, why don't they gofor a walk, and must thechildren play that in-fernal gramophone. Theonly way to avoid thisfate is to be richenough to live in a hugehouse where there is onelavatory for every tworesidents. Even then theold will irritate theyoung.'We enjoy having them

as visitors,' said MrsToldrin. 'Mygrandchildren come tosee me four times ayear. I'm delightedwhen they come, and I'mdelighted when they go.Anyway, there's nothingto stop me going tostay with them if Iwant to. They don'tlock us in here, youknow.' . ..There must be a lot to

be said for a communitywhere people are sym-pathetic because theyface the same problemsof coping with theseparations and ailmentsof age and have a goodmany interests andchallenges in common.It must be a bit likeliving on campus,except that a thenuncertain future hasbeen accomplished. Andnobody laughs atanybody. It is one ofthe pleasant Americanvirtues to admireanyone

who has a go. ...A loner would have a

bad time, but a lonerwouldn't consider goingthere. Some over-50s whogo to look the placeover recoil from thetightly structured life.(The metal-working shop,filled with burly oldfellows in blueoveralls, reminded me somuch of a prison moviethat I had to con-centrate on asking: 'Howlong have you beenhere?' and not: 'Howlong are you in for?')There is no corner

shop or local bar. Akeen gardener who wantsto raise vegetablesrents a plot in theagricultural section.It is slightly againstthe social ethos of theplace to have a privateswimming pool. Deedrestrictions barputting up tackyoutbuildings. Theobjective is to keep outuntidiness and the un-expected, to combat atall times those lurkingenemies of age, boredomand solitude. . ..Yet, as Americans

joke about New York,Sun City is a greatplace to visit but I'dsure hate to livethere. . ..


United States

Where There's Smoke

There's fire these days, as the crusade against public puffing heats up

AT THE DEPARTMENT OF JUSTICE,which has a keen sense of law-and-order. smokers nowretreat to the photocopy ingrooms in order to relax with asoothing cigarette. And howdoes that affect workingconditions? "We don't do anywork here anyway," cracks onebureaucrat. At the Departmentof Transportation, wherethings are supposed to move,smokers can puff away in halfthe rest rooms and corridors,but at the State Department,which has never been known for-hasty decision making, nobodyis quite sure where you cando it. "The air hasn'tcirculated in here in 20years," sighs an inhabitant ofFoggy Bottom who has notstopped lighting up. And atthe Internal Revenue Servicethey are still trying to figureout what to do about both W-4forms and cigarettes. Says anIRS watcher: "They alwayssmoked compulsively overthere."Thus the entire U.S.

Government last week lurchedinto the era of the no-smokingsign. Although each agency headis authorized to designatecertain areas for smoking —hence the confusion — new rulesfrom the General ServicesAdministration now restrictall smoking by the 890,000federal employees in 6,800federal buildings. The GSAjoined what has become anationwide crusade againstsmoking, particularly smokingin public. Indeed, not sinceProhibition has the U.S. seensuch a widespread attempt tochange people's personalhabits by regulation. .. .What accounts for such a fast-

rising crusade against anactivity that was onceconsidered sophisticated anduntil recently had at leastbeen politely tolerated? Onething that happened was thatBetty Carnes, an ornithologist,returned home from a 1969expedition and found that herbest friend, a 29-year-oldmother of two, was dying oflung cancer. Her last requestto Carnes was to "try to makepeople aware of the dangersof smoking."

Carnes helped persuade thecommercial air carriers tobegin segregating smokers inthe early '70s. In 1973 shespear-headed a movement thatprodded the Arizona legislatureto pass the first state lawlimiting smoking in publicplaces. "The time was right,"she says now. "People w.erebecoming health conscious. Onlything was the majority of thenonsmokers were afraid to speakout: they thought they were inthe minority."Today the leading

antismoking crusader is Dr.C. Everett Koop, the beardedU.S. Surgeon General, who in1984 called for a smoke-freesociety. Last December he pro-claimed that smokers werehurting not just themselves buttheir nonsmoking neighbors, andcited studies indicating that"sidestream" smoke can beharmful to others. The evidence"clearly documents thatnonsmokers are placed atincreased risk for developingdisease as the result ofexposure to environmentaltobacco smoke," he said. "TheKoop report added enormousimpact because it establishesthe rationale for corporateliability,' says John Pinney,director of the Institute forthe Study of Smoking Behaviorand Policy at Harvard's KennedySchool of Government. "Tobaccois a dangerous substance, andan employer who doesn't doanything is likely to be sued."Says Koop: "We're sort of on aroll. When we first startedtalking about a smoke-freesociety, half the countrysmoked. Today only 29.9% smoke,and of those, 87% want toquit."Leaders of the crusade argue

that government involvement islegitimate because the healthof nonsmokers is at stake."It's misguided to think thatthis is about rights at all,"says Mark Pertschuk, thelegislative director ofAmericans for Nonsmokers'Rights, and adds, "I evenregret the name of my ownorganization."Still, smokers are beginning

to feel that they are apersecuted minority. . . .

Courtesyof theAmericanLungAssociation

Prohibition: the period (1920-33) during which a law was enforced in the U.S., which forbade the manufacture, transportation, sale, and possession of alcoholic beverages.Chicano: used of a Mexican American person.

L25

PART C Exercises

1. Interpreting Poems"I Am The Redman"/"My Lodge"1. Whom does the Indian poet address in hispoem "I Am The Redman" and what is themessage he wants to convey?

2. How does the structure of the poem "I AmThe Redman" contribute to the poet's aim?

3. Which characteristics of Indian culture can befound in the poems?

4. What tense is the poem "My Lodge" writtenin and how do you account for the choice ofthis tense?

5. What do you think the American Indian canteach the white man?

2. PreviewingBrothers1. According to the introduction to the "SpecialReport" of Newsweek, March 23, 1987, whataim did Sylvester Monroe have in mindwhen writing the report?

2. What do you think is the difference betweenthis report and other reports SylvesterMonroe has written during his career as ajournalist?

3. Why did Sylvester Monroe return to theChicago housing projects with a feeling ofambivalence?

4. What is the exact socioeconomic data whichhe quotes about the situation of blackstoday? He obviously would not have citedthose statistics in the introduction if they hadnot been relevant. What kind of problems doyou expect him to talk about in the followingreport?

5. What other problems do you

know that blackAmericans have to deal with?

3. Text Analysis1. Characterize this sort of text. How do the lastfour paragraphs differ from the rest?

2. Subdivide the text into different sections andfind a headline for each section.

3. Sylvester Monroe is one of the relatively fewblacks who managed to get out of the blackurban ghetto. Explain how thiswasfacilitated by certain conditions and persons.

4. Why do you think he recalls the fact that hegot new clothes at St. George's School? Whatimportance was attached to those new clothesby his former faculty advisor and the otherstudents?

5. Can you account for Mrs Monroe's reactionwhen her son wanted to leave St. George'sSchool? How must Vest Monroe have feltafter his mother's remark?

6. What did he find disquieting and frustratingabout the way the whites treated him at St.George's School? What were hisobjections?

7. What kind of racial discrimination doesSylvester Monroe mention?

8. Have you heard of any examples of racialdiscrimination in the U.S. that confirmSylvester Monroe's views?

4. ComprehensionJessie de la Cruz1. It is one of the characteristics of oral history that events are not always reported in chronological order. Scan through the text to find the basic autobiographical data concerning Jessie'sfamily name, maiden namepresent place of residenceageeducationperiod of time spent as a migrant workeryear of marriagechildrenaffiliation to a union.

Jessie de la Cruz describes

different stages in the livingconditions of migrant workers.What stages does she mention and how does she characterize each of them? Describe Jessie de la Cruz's attitude towards America and the American government.


5.DiscussionLucky 01' Sundowners1. Which arguments for and against separatecities does Peter Black mentionin his article?

2. Point out where Peter Blackleaves theposition of objective reporting and expresseshis personal view.

3. What do you think about the concept ofbuilding separate cities for the elderly?

6.Dialogue PracticeMildred Toldrin, who works for Sun City Information Agency, frequently has to answer phone calls from people who have heardof Sun City and are looking for a place to settle down when theyhave retired.Simulate such a phone call in

which Brian Johnson, a Chicago businessman, aged 60, and his wife Jill, aged 55, are asking for information. They have made some notes beforehand in order not to forget the following important points:• climate• houses for sale• sites available for a fairly luxurious bungalowplus swimming pool

• medical and therapeutical care• opportunities to take part in social life• Brian's hobbies: golf, woodwork andmetalwork, gardening

• Jill's hobbies: swimming, tennis, pottery• school for granddaughter Julia (her parentsare planning to go to East Asia on businessfor half a year and have askedthegrandparents to look after Julia during thattime).

7.ComprehensionWhere There's SmokeWhich of the following statements are true and which are false? Correct the false ones.1. Employees at the Department of Justicehardly do any work at all.

2. Fifty percent of all restrooms and corridorsat the Department of Transportation are freefrom smoke.

3. Employees at the State Department are notallowed to smoke at work.

4. New restrictive regulationsby the GeneralService Administration drastically reducesmoking in federal buildings.

5. Not even during prohibitiondid regulationstry to interfere so much withpeople'spersonal habits.

6. The campaign against smoking was startedin the 1970s by Betty Carnes,anornithologist, who later diedof lung cancer.

7. Betty Carnes was one of the first tosuccessfully persuade the airlines to restrictsmoking to special sections of the aircraft.

8. The present crusade, led by the U.S.Surgeon General, places special emphasis onthe effect that smoking has onnon-smokers.

9. According to the Koop report, employeescan be sued if they do not follow theregulations.

10. Only 13 percent of all Americans who smoke do not think of giving it up.

8.Discussion• The American campaign against smokingmakes smokers feel like a "persecutedminority." Compare the use of the term"minority" here with that of the other texts ofthis unit.

• Do you think smoking should be restricted inyour country?

9.Interpreting a CartoonInterpret the following cartoon.^_

THANKYOU FOR NOT SMOKING

"This weekend, I thought I'd pop over to Vegasand grab a smoke.

8 The Changing Bole of Women


STATISTICS REVEAL Comparable statistics over the past years indicate important changes that haveCHANGES FOR occurred in the employment rates, education levels, and family roles andWOMEN expectations of American women.

• More women are entering the labor force. In 1940 only 27.4 percent of allAmerican women worked outside the home. By 1970 the figure had risen to42.6 and by 1986, 54.7 percent. Projections indicate that by 1990 women willconstitute more than half of the American labor force.

• More women have been attaining higher education levels. In 1960, of allpersons aged 25 and older who had been in college four or more years, 39percent were women. By 1975, the proportion had grownto 41 percent, andit reached 45 percent by 1980.

• Women are having fewer children. In the 1950s, the average mother had 3or 4 children. In the 1980s, the average mother has 1 or 2 children.

• More young women are single. In 1970, the proportion of women from 25 to29 who had never married was 10.5 percent. By 1985, the proportion ofsingle (never-married) women between those ages was 26.4 percent.

• Women are marrying at a later age. The median age of females at firstmarriage rose from 20.6 in 1970 to 22.5 in 1983.Opinion polls reveal that women's attitudes toward

family roles and child rearing are changing:• The majority of women no longer favor traditional marriages. In 1974, 49percent of American women said they favored

traditional marriages inwhich the husband is the money-earner and the wife the homemaker andchild rearer; however, in 1985, 57 percent of women were convinced that abetter marriage is one in which the husband and wifeshare responsibilitiesof careers, housekeeping, and child rearing.

• Couples want to have fewer children. In 1941, when men and women wereasked what they considered the ideal number of children to have in afamily, the median ideal number was 3.7. That number dropped to 2.8 in1986.

These statistics on demographics and attitudesindicate that the role of women in American society

is changing. Marriage and motherhood are no


SEXDISCRIMINATION

THE MODERNFEMINISTMOVEMENT

LEGISLATION FOR EQUALITY

PROFESSIONALWOMEN

longer perceived as a woman's only areas ofresponsibility. Women now compete with men forprofessional training, employment, leadershippositions, and political power.For many years, discriminatory laws and practices

barred women from entering male-dominated spheres.Feminists have drawn attention to inequalitiesbetween the sexes and have succeeded in breakingdown many of the barriers that kept women fromprofessional and economic advancement.Although inequalities still exist, American women

have many more rights than they did a hundred yearsago. During the nineteenth century, women did nothave many of the legal rights they take for grantedtoday. They were not allowed to vote, buy liquor,hold certain jobs, file lawsuits on their ownbehalf, or retain custody of their children after adivorce. These laws were seen as necessary on thebasis of "romantic paternalism," a concept held bymen in power that it was their duty to protectwomen. This attitude persisted despite the womensuffragists' campaign for the vote and otherfreedoms. Although the women's suffrage movementbegan in the 1830s, it was not until 1920 that aconstitutional amendment was ratified, giving womenthe right to vote.In more recent decades, women have secured many

rights as a result of the modern feminist movement,which gained momentum in the 1960s. When BettyFriedan (born 1921) wrote The Feminine Mystique in 1963,declaring that motherhood and housekeeping do notprovide the fulfillment women want, she articulateda discontent that many women of her generation werefeeling. With this book, Friedan became the standardbearer of the modern feminist movement. In 1966 shefounded the National Organization for Women (NOW).Feminists demanded greater access to jobs andpolitical power, equal pay for equal work, and an endto the condescending way in which men often treatedwomen.The women's movement has helped bring about

legislation that ensures greater equality of thesexes. The Equal Pay Act of 1963 guarantees that menand women filling the same jobs will receive the samepay. Job discrimination on the basis of sex wasprohibited by the Equal Rights Act of 1964. In 1972,Congress barred gender-based discrimination in allfederally supported education programs. The sameCongress passed a law making it easier for women toqualify for loans and mortgages. A 1978 amendment tothe Civil Rights Act protects pregnant women fromjob discrimination.Legislation prohibiting sex discrimination has

benefited many women, especially those inprofessional or technical fields. Women have entered

many male-dominatedprofessions.In 1980 over8 percent ofthegraduates ofmilitaryacademiesfor theArmy, Navy,Air Force,and CoastGuard werewomen. Moreand morewomen aretraining tobecomeaccountants,doctors, orlawyers andare fillingother high-salariedpositions.In 1960women madeup only 16.4percent ofthe nation'saccountants,3.3 percentof thelawyers andjudges, and6.8 percentof thedoctors. By1980 theproportionof women inthese high-paidprofessionshad risenconsiderably: 36.2percent oftheaccountants,12.8 per-cent of thelawyers andjudges,and 13.4percent ofthephysicianswerewomen.

Women are securing more leadership positions in business and industry.

THE CHANGING ROLE OF WOMEN 129

Women in Institutional Leadership Positions, 1970 and 1980TOTAL NUMBER NUMBER PERCENTAGEOF POSITIONS3 OF WOMEN OF WOMEN1970 1980 1970 1980 1970 1980

Industry 1,543 1,499 3 36 0.2 2.4Banking 1,189 1,095 2 25 0.2 2.3Utilities 476 668 0 29 0 4.3Insurance 362 783 3 9 0.8 1.1Law 1,076 1,259 12 23 1.1 1.8Investments 417 550 3 5 0.7 0.9Mass media 213 235 9 16 4.2 6.8Foundations 121 402 9 59 7.4 14.7Universities 656 481 11 51 2.1 10.6Civic and 438 536 70 45 16.0 9.0Government 227 258 10 20 2.5 7.7Military 24 17 0 0 0 0Total 6,733 7,783 132 318 1.9 4.1

WOMEN IN POLITICS

a Presidents, all corporate directors including officer-directors; senior partners in law and investment firms;governing trustees of foundations, universities, and civicand cultural organizations; secretaries, undersecretaries andassistant secretaries of federal executive branch, seniorWhite House advisors, congressional leaders, and Supreme Courtjustices; four-star generals and admirals on active duty.

Although woman's share of political representationis still small, the election or appointment of awoman to political office is becoming more common.Sandra Day O'Connor (born 1930) became the firstfemale Supreme Court justice in 1981, and in 1984,Geraldine Ferraro (born 1935) made history when sheran on the Democratic ticket as the vice-presidential candidate.

25 т Recent Increases in Women Elected Officials: Congress and State Legislatures

1971 1973 1975 1977 1979 1981 1983 Ш Women in the U.S. CongressВ Percentage of women

state legislators


PROGRESS FORWOMEN

PERSISTENT DISPARITIES

EARNINGS GAP

In addition to these professional and politicalgains, the heightened awareness of women's rights hasbrought progress in other areas. Corporations haveredressed past sex discrimination by providingcompensatory back pay to female employees. Federalagencies and other institutions have officiallyadopted non-sexist language. For example, the word"chairperson" replaces "chairman," and "mail carrier"is used instead of "mailman." In the area ofeducation and scholarship, women's history hasemerged as a new field of study. Within thisdiscipline, scholars are reexamining the events ofAmerica's political and social history from afeminist perspective.Despite the progress the women's movement has

achieved in many areas, many goals have not beenreached, and new conflicts have surfaced. Dis-crimination and inequalities still persist. Evenafter the adoption of legislation such as the EqualPay Act, the difference in earnings between menand women has not changed in more than fortyyears. On average, working women still earn onlytwo thirds of the average male salary.

Median Annual Earnings

of Full-Time Women Workers asPercenta of Men's

(selected

years 1955-1985)Annual

1955 63.91960 60.81965 60.01970 59.41975 58.81976 60.21977 58.91978 59.71979 60.01980 60.21981 59.21982 61.71983 63.61984 63.71985 64.7

EQUAL RIGHTSAMENDMENT

Even when men and women are doing similar work, thegap in earnings is wide. For example, although 81percent of all elementary school teachers are women,the median teacher's salary is higher for males thanfor females. On average, female college graduatescontinue to earn less than male high school dropouts.While professional women have benefited from the newlegislation regarding hiring and promotionpractices, they represent a minority: most women arestill paid less for equal work.The women's movement suffered a major setback when

the states failed to ratify a constitutionalamendment to guarantee equal rights to all,regardless of sex. Feminists argued that the EqualRights Amendment (ERA) would simplify the legalenforcement of equal rights and would provide moreuniform legal protection for women. This amendment,however, encountered strong opposition from both menand women who vehemently disagreed with the goalsand


ANTI-FEMINISTS

PREDICAMENT OF WORKING WOMEN

assumptions of the women's movement. Well-known anti-feminists Phyllis Schlafly (born 1924) and MidgeDecter (born 1927) argued that the ERA would disruptfamily life, encourage homosexual marriages, and takeaway women's exemption from the draft. These anti-feminists defended traditional role divisions andasserted that taking care of children, husband, andhousehold was rewarding. According to anti-feminists,the insistence on fulfillment through work and onequality with men in all spheres has placed a strainon the family. Furthermore, it has left women withthe double burden of family and career.Some feminists, including Betty Friedan, have

acknowledged the predicament of working women. It isdifficult for a professional woman to become highlysuccessful if she must divide her energies betweenduties at home and those at work. Women who choose asuccessful career instead of a family sometimes wishthey could have both. Many women who do manage bothcareers and families complain they are overworked. Insome families, working husbands and wives share thehousekeeping and child-rearing duties. Butstatistics continue to show that most working womenstill do a greater share of the housework than theirhusbands.Arranging and affording child care is another

burden on working parents. Day care centers for pre-school-age children are often expensive. Some cor-porations are responding to women's needs byadapting the workplace to meet the demands ofworking mothers. Some factories and companies nowrun child-care nurseries on their premises. Inaddition, many companies and federal agencies haveestablished a new system of working hours called "flextime," which allows workers to arrange starting,quitting, and lunch hours according to individual andfamily needs. Many people feel that solutions suchas these need to be more broadly instituted torelieve pressure on women and families.

132

PART в Texts

SECOND THOUGHTS ON HAVING IT ALL

by TONY SCHWARTZ

WICE during the past month, colleagues approached 38-year-old Rebecca Murray and volunteered identicalassessments of her life: "You are the woman who haseverything," they told her. The notion staggeredRebecca. "I have never, ever thought of myself that way,"she says. But it's not hard to see what her co-workershad in mind.For the past eighteen years, Rebecca has been married to

the same man -Robert, now 42 - and their marriageremains strong. Their five-year-old daughter is prettyand bright. Rebecca works as a records manager for a largefinancial institution and earns $40,000 a year - withplenty of potential to move up. Robert makes $43,000 ayear as the business manager for a publishing house.Freelance writing brings in another $5,000 a year. He isa novelist, and although his advances have been smallso far, that could change with a single success. TheMurrays' combined income of nearly $90,000 is more thanfour times the salary earned last year by Robert's father,a construction supervisor in Florida, and a lot ofmoney by nearly any standard. What's more, they pay just$450 a month for a rent-stabilized apartment on a prettystreet on the Upper West Side. Among other things, theycan afford the $8,500 a year it costs to send theirdaughter to a private day-care center where the ratio ofchildren to teachers is four to one.But none of this compensates for what Rebecca feels is

missing in her life. "Time," she says. "I don't haveenough time for my child. I don't have enough time formyself, and I never have enough time for my husband. Hegets whatever I have left at the end of each day, andusually that's nothing. I don't want to leave my childin the mornings - and she doesn't want me to go. I'mfine once I get to work, but once the day starts windingdown, I get very anxious to rush to my kid. I can'twait, I want to be there in a second, and sometimes thesubway is interminable. At the same time, I'm aware thatI'm looking at an evening that's not going to berelaxing. Realistically, I'm facing three more hours ofwork — the child care — and I've already put in a fullday at the office."Rebecca reached her breaking point on a subway during

rush hour last summer. "I was standing on thismiserable, crowded, hot train," she remembers, "coming

from a job that doesn't give me all that much pleasure,to pick up my child, who'd been away from me the wholeday, to go home to an apartment so small that my husbandand I sleep in the living room on a futon mattress." Thatnight, Rebecca made a decision. "There's such a thing asquality of life," she told her husband, "and this isn'tit." . ..


©The Choices That Brought MeHereby Amanda Spake

SPECIAL ISSUE: SMART MONEYMOPRAH, INC.Mogul with A MissionA MONEYTO SECURYOUR FU

How Much Do You Make Other Nosy

PLUS Our Guide

Recently, I went to an all-femaledinner party in Washington on theoccasion of a visit to town by Frances Farley, a woman with the important but unenviable task of running for Congress in the State of Utah. As Frances impressed thecrowd with her tales of fighting a pro-ERA campaign in a Mormon state, my ear tuned in to a conversation about a different sort of modern female dilemma."But do you really want to get

married?" one woman asked a friend of mine. "I wouldn't mind," my friend responded sarcastically. "But I'm about to give up. I don't think there's a man left out there for me." This woman is a successful television reporter

for a primetime news show. She isattractive, well educated, andhighly paid, respected in herfield, 35 years old, and she hasthat same bitter tinge in hervoice I've heard so often among acertain group of women. My group,to be specific. ...They are successful,

achievement-oriented women, bom in the 1940s and early 1950s. Mostof us came to adulthood in the 1960s and discovered the key to a"meaningful life" was not necessarily marriage. As one woman put it, "When I was growingup, having a husband and family was absolutely irrefutable, assumed for all women. The 'extra' that we would try for, was to havea career."We baby boomers were unique in

that we were the first generationof American women to accept, on amass scale, the awful truth that the traditional female roles we had been raised to emulate, wife and mother, would not be enough to sustain our lives - emotionally or economically. So we have developed a new set of nontraditional female values — ambition, competitiveness, assertiveness, and the will to win— values that fit neatly into our struggle for "meaningful work". I call it feminist determinism. . ..As it turns out, women's new

marketplace values are antithetical to building the solid, interpersonal relationships between women and men we took for granted. Men, society, and often women themselves, still expect women toembody primarily "feminine" values - cooperation, nurturance,and impulse to yield. These are the same values traditionally usedby women to attract, create, and sustain long-term relationships with men our own age. Men, that is, whose own interpersonal values — and their resulting expectations about women - changed very little. ...

Mormon state: here: Utah, where the Mormon Church is predominant. It was founded by Joseph Smith in 1830 and called itself the "Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-DaySaints."


°How to have a successful Christian Familyby Jerry FalwellThe greatest heritage Christian parents leave their children is the love and training they receive in a Christian home.

Apart from our devotion to Christ,my wife, Macel, and I love and livefor our children. Everything wetalk about and plan around is fortheir benefit and welfare. Thelonger we live, the more we want toinvest in them. They mean everythingto us. Our first obligation is torear godly children, for it is Godwho gave them to us. The greatestdesire of our hearts for ourchildren is that they each findGod's will and live in it all theirdays.Families in search of religious

freedom, determined to work andenjoy the fruits of their labor,tamed this wild continent and builtthe highest living standard in theworld. Families educating theirchildren in moral principles havecarried on the traditions of thisfree republic. Historically thegreatness of America can be measuredin the greatness of her families.But in the past 20 years a

tremendous change has taken place.There has been and continues to bea vicious assault upon the Americanfamily. More television programsdepict homes of divorced or singleparents than depict the traditionalfamily. Nearly every major family-

theme TV program openly justifiesdivorce, homosexuality, andadultery. Increased divorce hasbroken family loyalty, unity, andcommunications, with increasedinsecurity in children who arethe victims. Many such childrenharden themselves to thepossibility of real love, forfear they will be hurt again....A commentator from a major

network once asked me, "Whatright do you Baptists have topromote your ideas about thefamily being the acceptable stylefor all of humanity?" I repliedthat it was not Baptists whostarted the family; it was GodAlmighty, and He is not aBaptist. The family is that basicunit that God

established, not only to populate butalso .to control and contain the earth.The happiest people on earth are

those who are part of homes andfamilies where they are loved andshielded. When I have had a long, hardday, often in a hostile environment,it is great to walk into my home andknow that there I will find my wife andchildren, who love me. Home is a havento which I run from the troubles ofthis world.I am for the family. I am committed

to helping families win the undeclaredwar that is ravaging American homes.Each family is a battleground for theconflict going on today. Theconsequences of defeat are tragic.In the war against the family today,

the first weapon is the cult of theplayboy; men (they say) do not have tobe committed to their wives andchildren, but should be some kind of"cool, free swingers". Sexualpromiscuity has become the lifestyle ofAmerica. Men satisfy their lustfuldesires at the expense of theirfamilies. No nation has ever beenstronger than the families within her.When the family begins to falter, whenthat basic Christian unit is destroyed,we are on the precipice of real peril....No wonder we are raising up a

generation of children with no respectfor authority, civil or otherwise. Theyhave been reared in homes where thereis no authority and in which there isno guidance or leadership. Childrenneed love, discipline, and parentalexample. When they grow up withoutever learning what the Bible has tosay, without ever learning what prayeris, and without ever having been broughtinto and trained by a good, Bible-believing, soulwinning local church,they become weak people who in turnreproduce weak homes.Another weapon against the family is

the feminist revolution, thecounterreaction to the cult of theplayboy. Women say, "Why should I betaken advantage of by chauvinists? Iwill get out and do my own thing. I willstand up for my rights." Feminists saythat self-satisfaction is moreimportant than the family. Many womenwho lead in the feminist movementpromote an immoral lifestyle.More than half the women in this

country are currently employed. Ournation is in serious danger whenmotherhood is considered a task that is"unrewarding, unfulfilling, andboring". A woman's call to be a wifeand mother is the highest calling inthe world. My wife is proud to be called

a housewife. She does not considerher lifework of making my lifehappy and of loving and shaping thelives of our precious childreninconsequential or demeaning. Womenwho choose to remain in the homeshould never feel inferior to thoseworking outside, but should knowthey are fulfilling God's commandfor the home. ...


Families

Changing Faces Of FamiliesThe profile of Americanfamilies is rapidly changing. Over the past15 years, the percentage of children under 18 living in families with three or more children has dropped by more than half. At the same time,the percentage of children living in female-headed householdshas almost doubled.

75

50

25

Three ormore children

One child

Living with twoparents

Living infemale-headedhousehold

Households:

More . . . but SmallerThe U.S. population increased by 17 percent between 1970 and 1985. But the number of households grew more than twice as fast — increasing 37 percent over the 15-year period. The reason: more people are living alone — and in smaller family units. The average number of people per household has dropped from 3.11 in 1970 to 2.75 in 1980 - to2.69 in 1985.

Number of Households, 1970-

19851970

63.4 Million

1985 86.8 Million

Other households (includes people living alone)

Singles: More ..

and Longer

75

A major reason why we have more and smaller households is that thereare more unmarried — andmore divorced — adults.And people are

marrying later. In 1982,the Census Bureau reports, more than half of all women 20 to 24 years old had never beenmarried. That same year,23 percent of women aged25 to 29 had never been married — up from just 11 percent in 1970.

50

25

20-24 yearsold

Percent Never Married, 1970 -1982

20-24

1970

25-29 Females

30-3425-29

30-34


HUSBAND'S HAZARD

For Middle-AgedMan, A Wife's New Career Upsets Old BalancesHer Outside Preoccupation Can Leave Him Isolated At Time of More Leisure'Might as Well be Roommate'

BY MARY BRALOVE11/9/81

erbert Gleason's wife tried to warnhim, but he was too busy to pay much mind. "I kept thinking nothing was going to

change," the Boston attorney recalls. Hewas dead wrong. From a comfortable life in which Mr. Gleason's career success was balanced neatly by his wife's full-time support as homemaker, the Gleason family abruptly changed course. At age 39, after a 10-year hiatus, Nancy Gleason resumed her career as a psychiatric counselor. Quite unexpectedly, the emotional sands beneath the marriage shifted.

H

"I really didn't anticipate how it wouldaffect our attitudes toward each other."Herb Gleason says of his wife's return toher career eight years ago. "I thoughtshe'd always be there just like before —supportive, adjusting to my needs."For middle-aged men like Mr. Gleason,

trying to accommodate to a wife's newcareer can be a confusing, bruisingexperience. These men are of a generationin which marriage was typically a one-provider, one-homemaker effort, not a

professional joint venture. They are ofan age when change tends to comegradually and predictably, not suddenly.And although the problems of younger two-career couples have been well-chronicled,these men of a different generation areleft to flounder on their own.


5. continued"Difficult Transition""People talk about women's problems allthe time, but the adaptive stress menundergo when their wives take on acareer has been virtually lost sight of,"says Preston Munter, a psychiatricconsultant to Itek Corp. "Even if youcould postulate an ideal man and an idealmarriage, this would be a difficulttransition to make."Although it may be cold comfort, an

increasing number of men are attemptingto negotiate such transitions. Today 24.5million wives, or roughly 50% of thenation's married women, are working orlooking for work. Some 6.2 million of themare between 35 and 44 years old, and alarge portion of these are housewives whohave only recently started new careers orrevived old ones.As these homemakers seek out their

professional fortunes, their husbands areleft behind to struggle with a welter ofconflicting emotions. They are proud oftheir wives' work accomplishments, yetare impatient with the demands of theirwives' new jobs. They are grateful thattheir wives are financially self-sufficient, yet they resent theirnewfound independence."I was the sole breadwinner, and then

all of a sudden she could take care ofherself," recalls Al Graubard, whose wifeembarked on an airline career at age 46."I felt deflated," he says. "She couldget along without me. But in a way it wasa relief. After all, I had been the onlyone bringing in the outside world."

Expressing PainJust how successfully an older man adjuststo his wife's pursuit of a career dependson such variables as the underlyingstrength of the marriage, each spouse'spersonality and the nature of the twocareers. Yet the metamorphosis ofhomemaker into breadwinner sends tremorsthrough every relationship.

"The marriage for the man provided hisone big outlet for expressing dependency,emotion and vulnerability," saysElizabeth Douvan, the director of theUniversity of Michigan's Family and SexRoles Program. "The wife, however, isn'tas available for him." Mrs Douvan, whohas conducted national surveys onAmericans' attitudes and concerns,adds: "What we're seeing is menexpressing a lot more unhappiness andpain."


5. continuedWhile men may vent their feelings to a

pollster, they are far more reticent whenpressed to explain the sources of theirdiscontent. Most agree it has little todo with sharing household chores.Tentatively, they speak instead of anewfound sense of isolation: of anemotional separation from a preoccupiedwife who now seems to be more involvedwith the world than with husband, homeand children.... Many men are ill-equipped to grapple

with the emotional ambiguities of anevolving relationship."Men find it incredibly difficult to

talk about feelings," says MarjorieShaevitz, the co-director of theInstitute for Family and WorkRelationships in La Jolla, Calif. "Theylive lives of quiet desperation andisolation."Indeed, their silence on the subject is

sometimes heart-breakingly eloquent.Asked about the adjustment he underwentwhen his wife returned to work, a New Yorkoil executive begs off with the excuse ofa heavy workload. Finally, after a long,still moment, he says quietly: "Look,I'll be honest with you. It's just toopainful for me to talk about it."

"Honey, Pm home!"

"Honey, Pm home!"

139

PART C Exercises

1.ScanningSecond Thoughts on Having It AllOther people's assessments of Rebecca Murray's life are obviously not identical with herown.Find arguments in the text

which support the notion of"Having it all," on the onehand, and "What is missing," onthe other.

2.ComprehensionThe Choices That Brought Me HereWhich way of completing each of the following sentences agrees with the original text? Some sentences may be completed in more than oneway.1.Frances Farley, a woman running forCongress in the state of Utah,a) impressed the Mormons.b)gave an all-female

dinner-party inWashington.

c) had a hard time fighting for equal rightsfor women in Utah.

2. A 35-year-old successful female televisionreportera)does not think of getting married.b)would like to get married.a)is somewhat frustrated

because she hasnot yet managed to find a man she couldmarry.

3.Quite a number of women born in the 1940sand early 1950s discovered that they couldfind a meaningful lifea)only outside marriage.b)only in marriage.

c)also in a career.4.According to Amanda Spake, this group offeministsa)considered the traditional

female roles ofwife and mother to be too emotional.

b)fought for new female valuesthat weretraditionally associated with men.

c)were determined to be mothers andwives, on the one hand, and successfulcareer women, on the other.

5. Today this group of women finds thata)they can build up more solid

relationshipsbetween men and women.

b)men still seem to prefer thetraditional"feminine" values in women.

c)society still does not accept women asequal partners of men.

3. ComprehensionHow to Have a Successful Christian FamilyNumber the paragraphs following Falwell's assumption that "the greatest heritage Christian parents leave their children is the love and training they receive in a Christian home" andmatch each statement below with the paragraph it summarizes.a)Anti-authoritarian education

leads to thedecay of the American family.

b)God made the family the basic unit ofsociety.

c)Great families have traditionally been thesource of American greatness.

d)The high percentage of workingmothersleads to a perverted image of motherhood.

e)Love and shelter in families produce happypeople.

f)The playboy cult destroys the Americanfamily.

g)The feminist movement, which regards self-fulfillment higher than a family, destroys thetraditional family.

h) Conflict and undeclared war destroy the

traditional family, i) The importance of the family has been

undermined in recent years, j)The greatest concern for the author and his

wife is the love of their children.


4.Functional AnalysisIt is the author's aim to convince the reader of the importance of his initial assumption. The paragraphs of the text either• support the assumption• indicate how the assumptionhas beenendangered lately

• give reasons for that danger.Determine which paragraph serves which function.

5.Reading StatisticsFamiliesWhich of the following statements are true and which are false? Correct the false ones.1. There were about twice as many Americanfamilies with three or more children in 1985as there had been in 1970.

2. In 1985 almost twice as many children livedin female-headed households asin 1970.

3. Between 1970 and 1985 the number ofchildren living with two parents decreased.

4. Within those 15 years the number ofAmerican households grew in proportion tothe increase in population.

5. One reason for more households is thedecrease in family size.

6. Another reason for more households lies inthe tendency of people to marryat a later age.

7. In 1982 fewer women than men were marriedbetween the age of 20 and 24.

8. The increase of householdsother thanfamilies is at least partly due to the fact thatmen and women marry later.

6. Discussion

I I

i Л liiiW-Xyesrs 27-36years 37-Kyms 47-56years 57 years arm over

j!g| It is more important for a wife to help her ' husband's career than to have one herself

It is much better for everyone involved if the man is the achiever '""' outside the home and the woman takes care of home and family

Ш A working mother can establish just as warm andsecure a relationship with her children as a mother who does not work

Source: Surveys by NORC-GSS, 1985 and 1986 combined

Reprinted with permission of American Enterprise Institute for Public Policy Research

• How do you account for the divergentanswers to the opinion polls among differentage groups?

• How does the role of women in your countryrelate to the roles described in the texts ofthis unit?

• How do you think the role of women shouldbe defined?

7. ComprehensionFor Middle-Aged Man, A Wife's New Career Upsets Old Balances1. How are the traditional roles of husband andwife described in the text?

2. To what extent does the situation in 1981correspond with these traditional rolepatterns?

3. What is the impact of a wife's new career onher husband's life?

4. Does, from a husband's point of view, awife's new career also includepositiveaspects?

5. Why is it particularly difficult for a middle-aged husband to cope with the changing roleof his wife?


9 The PoliticalSystem

PART A Background InformationFORM OF GOVERNMENT

LIMITED GOVERNMENT

FEDERALISM

SEPARATION OFPOWERS

LEGISLATIVE BRANCH

The United States is a representative democracy. Allgovernment power rests ultimately with the people, whodirect policies by voting for governmentrepresentatives. The nation's constitution defines thepowers of national and state governments, thefunctions and framework of each branch of government,and the rights of individual citizens. All publicofficials of the national as well as state governmentsmust swear to abide by the Constitution, which wascreated to protect the democratic interests of thepeople and government.The principle of limited government is basic to the

Constitution. When the Constitution was first writtenabout two hundred years ago, many Americans fearedthat government power could become concentrated inthe hands of a few. Several features were created toguard against this possibility: 1) the federalorganization of government; 2) the separation ofpowers among different branches of government; and 3)a system of checks and balances to restrict thepowers of each branch.Under federalism, the principle of limited

government was achieved by dividing authority betweenthe central government and the individual states. Thefederal (national) government has powers over areas ofwide concern. For example, it has the power to controlcommunications among states, borrow money, provide forthe national defense, and declare war.The states possess those powers which are not given

to the national government. For example, each stateestablishes its own criminal justice system, publicschools, and marriage and divorce laws.There are certain powers, called concurrent powers,

which both the federal and state government share.Examples include the power to tax, set up courts, andcharter banks.Besides the division of power between state and

national governments, power is also limited by theseparation of power among three branches —

legislative,executive,andjudicial.In theUnitedStates,each branchhas aseparatefunction.The

function ofthelegislativebranch isto makelaws. Thelegislativebranch ismade up ofrepresentativeselected toCongress.Congress iscomprisedof twogroups,calledhouses: theHouse ofRepresentatives (theHouse) andthe Senate.Lawmakersfrom all of the states are elected to serve in the House of

THE POLITICAL SYSTEM 143

DIVISION OF POWERS

POWERS OF THENATIONALGOVERNMENT

CONCURRENT POWERS

POWERS RESERVED TO STATE GOVERNMENTS

To regulate foreigntrade andcommerce betweenstates To borrowand coin money Toconduct foreignrelations with othernations To establish post officesand roads To raiseand support armedforces To declare war and makepeace To govern territories andadmit new states To pass naturalizationlaws and regulateimmigrationTo make all laws "necessary and proper" to carry out its powers

To collect taxes To borrow moneyTo establish and maintain courtsTo make and enforce laws To provide for the health and welfare of the people

To regulate trade withinthe state To establishlocalgovernments Toconduct elections To determine voterqualifications Toestablish and supportpublic schoolsTo incorporate business firmsTo license professional workersTo ratify amendments To keepall the "reserved powers" not granted to the national government nor prohibited to the states

POWERS DENIED TO THE NATIONAL GOVERNMENT

POWERS DENIED TO BOTH NATIONAL AND STATE GOVERNMENTS

POWERS DENIED TO STATE GOVERNMENTS

To tax exportsTo suspend writ ofhabeascorpus To change state boundarieswithout consent of statesinvolvedTo abridge the Bill of Rights

To pass ex post facto laws To pass bills of attainder To denydue process of lawTo grant titles of nobility

To coin money To enter into treaties To tax agencies of the federal government To tax imports or exports

HOW A BILL BECOMES A LAW

Representatives. The number of representatives eachstate sends to the House depends upon the number ofdistricts in each state. Each district chooses onerepresentative. The number of districts in each stateis determined by population. The most heavilypopulated states have more districts and, therefore,more representatives than the sparsely populatedstates. There are currently 435 representatives inthe House. Each representative is elected to a two-year term.The Senate is the smaller of the two bodies. Each

state, regardless of population, has two senators.The senatorial term is six years. Every two years,one third of the Senate stands for election.Each house of Congress is engaged in making laws,

and each may initiate legislation. A law first beginsas a "bill." Once a bill is introduced, it is sent tothe appropriate committee. Each house of Congress hascommittees which specialize in a particular area oflegislation, such as foreign affairs, defense,


EXECUTIVE BRANCH

POWERS OF THE PRESIDENT

JUDICIAL BRANCH

CHECKS AND BALANCES

banking, and agriculture. When a bill is in committee,members study it and then send it to the Senate orHouse chamber where it was first introduced. After adebate, the bill is voted on. If it passes, it is sentto the other house where it goes through a similarprocess.The Senate may reject a bill proposed in the House

of Representatives or add amendments. If thathappens, a "conference committee" made up of membersfrom both houses tries to work out a compromise. Ifboth sides agree on the new version, the bill is sentto the president for his signature. At this point, thebill becomes a law.The executive branch of government is responsible

for administering the laws passed by Congress. Thepresident of the United States presides over theexecutive branch. He is elected to a four-year term andcan be re-elected to a second term. The vice-president,who is elected with the president, is assigned only twoconstitutional duties. The first is to preside over theSenate. However, the vice-president may vote only inthe event of a tie. The second duty is to assume thepresidency if the president dies, becomes disabled, oris removed from office.The Constitution gives the president many important

powers. As chief executive, the president appointssecretaries of the major departments that make up thepresident's cabinet. Today there are 13 majordepartments in the executive branch: the Departments ofState, Treasury, Defense, Justice, Interior,Agriculture, Commerce, Labor, Health and HumanServices, Housing and Urban Development,Transportation, Energy, and Education. As chiefexecutive, the president also appoints senior officialsof the many agencies in the expansive bureaucracy.As head of state, the president represents the

country abroad, entertains foreign leaders, andaddresses the public. As director of foreign policy,he appoints foreign ambassadors and makes treatieswith other nations. The president also serves ascommander-in-chief of the armed forces and as head ofhis political party.In the United States, the president and legislature

are elected separately, housed separately, and theyoperate separately. This division is a unique featureof the American system. In the parliamentary systemsthat operate in most western democracies, the nationalleader, or prime minister, is chosen by theparliament.

The thirdbranch ofgovernment isthe judicialbranch, whichis headed bythe SupremeCourt. Underthe SupremeCourt, thereare manystate andfederalcourts. Animportantfunction ofthe judicialbranch is todeterminewhether lawsof Congressor actions ofthe presidentviolate theConstitution.The structureand functionsof thejudicialsystem arediscussedmorethoroughly inUnit 6.The division

of governmentpower amongthreeseparate butequalbranchesprovides for asystem ofchecks andbalances. Eachbranch checksor limits thepower of theotherbranches. Forexample,althoughCongressmakes laws,the presidentcan vetothem. Even ifthe presidentvetoes a law,Congress maycheck thepresident by

overriding his veto with a two-thirds vote.The Supreme Court can overturn laws passed by

Congress and signed by the president. The selectionof federal and Supreme Court judges is made by theother two branches. The president appoints judges, butthe Senate reviews his candidates and has the power toreject his choices. With this system of checks andbalances, no branch of government has superior power.


Separation of Powers and Checks and Balances

The President

Executive office ofthe president;

executive and cabinetdepartments;independent

government agencies

EXECUTIVE

Congress can change laws; initiate a constitutional amendment; restrict jurisdiction of courts to hear

certain types of cases; create whole new court systems

or abolish existing ones;expand or contract times and places that

federal courts sit

The

Congress

House—

Senate

May reject each other's bills

The Senate mustconfirm the

president's judicialappointments;

Congress can impeachand remove

judges from office

The Court can declare laws unconstitutional

TheSupremeCourt oftheUnitedStates

CircuitCourt of

Appeals ofthe

UnitedStates

DistrictCourt

LEGISLATIVE JUDICIAL

POLITICAL PARTICIPATION

By dividing power among the three branches ofgovernment, the Constitution effectively ensuresthat government power will not be usurped by a smallpowerful group or a few leaders.The basic framework of American government is

described in the Constitution. However, there areother features of the political system, notmentioned in the Constitution, which directly andindirectly influence American politics.Groups and individuals have a variety of ways they

can exert pressure and try to influence governmentpolicy. Many people write letters to elected officialsexpressing their approval or disapproval of apolitical decision. People sometimes circulatepetitions or write letters to editors of newspapersand magazines to try to influence politicians.Organized interest groups, however, can generallyexert influence much more effectively than canisolated individuals.


INTEREST GROUPS

LOBBYISTS

POLITICAL PARTY SYSTEM

TWO-PARTY SYSTEM

MINOR PARTIES

Interest groups are organized by people who want toinfluence public policy decisions on special issues.There are many different types of interest groups inthe United States. The largest organizations arelabor unions, such as the AFL-CIO; business groups,such as the United States Chamber of Commerce; farmgroups, such as the National Farmers' Union; andprofessional groups, such as the American MedicalAssociation. There are many issue-oriented groupswith broad concerns such as the environment, civilrights, and peace. Some interest groups focus onnarrow issues such as the preservation of historicbuildings or the control of neighborhood crime.What all the various interest groups have in common

is the desire to sway public opinion and politicalpolicy. The press, radio, and television are themost obvious media through which interest groupsmay influence voters and politicians. Members ofinterest groups also write letters to governmentofficials, make telephone calls, hold publicmeetings, and sponsor newspaper advertisements.To exert direct pressure on legislators in

Washington or in state capitals, a major interestgroup may employ a professional lobbyist. A lobbyist,generally a lawyer or former legislator, is someonewho not only specializes in the interest he or sherepresents, but also possesses an insider's view ofthe lawmaking process. Lobbyists work for interestgroups by keeping them informed about proposedlegislation and by talking to decision-makers abouttheir group's concerns.The term lobbyist often has a negative connotation.

Public officials and others sometimes resentlobbyists' interference. Yet lobbyists fulfill vitalfunctions. Besides voicing the concerns of a specialgroup in society, they fulfill important needs ofdecision-makers. Legislators and their stafffrequently turn to lobbyists for valuable data theywould otherwise have to gather themselves. During thecommittee stage in the legislative process, forinstance, lobbyists are invited to appear beforecongressional committees to provide advice andinformation, albeit one-sided, which will help thecommittee make a decision.While they are not mentioned in the Constitution,

organized interest groups and their lobbyists play asignificant role in American democracy. The politicalparty system is another important part of thepolitical scene which is not described in theConstitution.Historically, three features have characterized the

party system in the United States: 1) two majorparties alternating in power; 2) lack of ideology;and 3) lack of unity and party discipline.The United States has had only two major parties

throughout its history. When the nation was founded,two political groupings emerged-the Federalists andAnti-Federalists. Since then, two major parties

havealternated inpower.For over one

hundredyears,America'stwo-partysystem hasbeendominated bytheDemocraticandRepublicanParties.Neitherparty,however, hasevercompletelydominatedAmericanpolitics. Onthe nationallevel, themajorityparty inCongress hasnot alwaysbeen the sameas the partyof thepresident.Even in

years whenone partydominatednationalpolitics, theother partyretained muchsupport atstate orlocal levels.Thus, thebalancebetween theDemocrats andRepublicanshas shiftedback andforth.While minor

parties, alsocalled "thirdparties,"have appearedfrom time totime, andcontinue toappear, they

have been conspicuous in their inability to attractenough voters to enable them to assume power.Occasionally, a third


MAJORITY PARTIES IN CONGRESS AND PARTY OF THE PRESIDENT, 1861-1983

Years House Senat President1861- R R R1863- R R R1865- R R R1867- R R R1869- R R R1871- R R R1873- R R R1875- D R R1877- D R R1879- D D R1881- R R R1883- D R R1885-1887

D R D1887- D R D1889- R R R1891- D R R1893- D D D1895- R R D1897- R R R1899- R R R1901- R R R1903- R R R1905- R R R1907- R R R1909- R R R1911- D R R1913- D D D1915- D D D1917- D D D1919- R R D1921- R R R1923- R R R1925-1927

R R R

Years House Senate President1927-1929

R R R1929- R R R1931- D R R1933- D D D1935- D D D1937- D D D1939- D D D1941- D D D1943- D D D1945- D D D1947- R R D1949- D D D1951- D D D1953- R R R1955- D D R1957- D D R1959- D D R1961- D D D1963- D D D1965- D D D1967- D D D1969- D D R1971- D D R1973- D D R1975- D D R1977- D D D1979- D D D1981- D R R1983- D R R1985- D R R1987- D D R1989-1991

D D R

R Republican D Democrat

© American Government: Principals & Practices, 1983, Merrill Publishing Company. Reprinted by permission of the publisher (updated)


ELECTION SYSTEM

DEMOCRATS AND REPUBLICANS

party candidate will win a seat in Congress or in astate legislature. Seldom, however, have minorparties been successful for more than a short periodof time. In most cases, minor parties have beenassimilated by the larger two or have just fadedaway.Some current third parties in the United States are

the Socialist Labor Party, the American IndependentParty, the Libertarian Party, and the Peace andFreedom Party.The way candidates are elected explains why two

major parties have come to dominate the Americanpolitical scene. Elections are held according to thesingle-member district system, based on theprinciple of "winner take all." Under this system,only one candidate —the one with the most votes—iselected to a given office from any one district. Manypeople will not vote for a minor party candidate;they feel they are throwing away a vote since onlyone person wins.The Democratic and Republican Parties have

supporters among a wide variety of Americans andembrace a wide range of political views.

POLITICAL AFFILIATIONQuestion: "In as of , do you consider yourself a Democrat, or an

R D I R D INational 26% 43% 31%Sex $15,000-$19,999 22 42 36Male 27 40 33 $10,000-$14,999 26 44 30Female 25 46 29 $5,000-$9,999 22 50 28Race Under $5,000 19 56 25White 28 38 34 ReligionSouthern 28 43 29 Protestant ЗП 42 28Non-southern 29 36 35 Catholic ?n 48 32Non-white 7 80 13 Jewish 12 54 34

Non-southern 5 82 13 OccupationProfessional & 33 34 33

Education Clerical & sales 23 44 33College 31 34 35 Manual worker 20 46 34High school 24 45 31 Skilled 23 40 37Grade school 22 55 23 Unskilled 17 51 32

Farmer 40 32 28Region Non-labor force 29 48 23East 24 44 32Midwest 26 37 37South 25 49 26 City SizeWest 30 41 29 1,000,000 & over 21 51 28

500,000-999,999 23 42 35Age 50,000-499,999 25 43 3218-24 years 21 38 41 2,500-49,999 30 40 3025-29 24 3f 40 Under 2,500,rural 30 39 3130-49 24 43 33 Central city 19 51 3050 and older 31 47 22 Suburb 21 39 34

Income Labor Union$25,000 & over 33 34 33 Labor union ?n m 30$20,000-$24,999

27 41 32 Non-labor union families

28 41 31R-Republican

Survey taken October- December 1980Source: The Gallup Opinion Index© American Government: Principals & Practices, 1983, Merrill Publish

ing Company. Reprinted by permission of thepublisher


KEY ISSUES

The parties tend to be similar. Democrats andRepublicans support the same overall political andeconomic goals. Neither party seeks to shake thefoundation of America's economy or social structure.Democrats and Republicans, however, often propose

different means of achieving their similar goals.Democrats generally believe that the federalgovernment and state governments should providesocial and economic programs for those who needthem.While Republicans do not necessarily oppose social

programs, they believe that many social programs aretoo costly for taxpayers. They tend to favor bigbusiness and private enterprise and want to limitthe role of government.A poll taken in 1986 by Louis Harris and Associates

reveals how Americans perceive the stance of eachparty on certain key issues:

Builds up defenses

Cuts federalspending

Keeps economy prosperous

Handles federal deficit

Controls arms

race Cuts

unemployment

Works for

peaceControls

defense budget

Gives women abreak

Protectsenvironment

Helps elderlyand poor

к» WHICH PARTY FARESBETTER ON THE

i46% ISSUES?HI Republican "1 Democrat

99%

LACK OF IDEOLOGY Because of these differences, Americans tend tothink of the Democratic Party as liberal and theRepublican Party as conservative.American party politics has been largely devoid of

ideology. Several attempts at developing anideological party were unsuccessful. The PopulistParty of the 1890s and the Progressive Party of theearly twentieth century gained only temporarysupport. Senator Barry Goldwater, the Republicancandidate in the 1964 election, tried to imbue hisparty with the spirit and force of a conservativeideology. Yet the election resulted in a landslidevictory for Democratic candidate Lyndon Johnson.These examples suggest that Americans tend to prefersomewhat vague party programs to the rigors ofpolitical ideology.


LACK OF PARTYUNITY

PARTY ORGANIZATION

PARTY MEMBERSHIP

LOW VOTER TURNOUT

A third characteristic of the American partysystem, which sometimes confounds foreign observers,is the lack of unity and discipline within eachparty. Disagreement among members of the same partyis common.The voting records of Congressmen and Senators

demonstrate a baffling lack of party unity. It is notuncommon for either a Democrat or a Republican tovote against the party line. There are conservativeDemocrats who agree with Republican ideas and liberalRepublicans who agree with Democratic ideas. Personalviews and the views of constituents often havepriority over party views.The loose organization of America's political

parties helps explain this lack of unity withinAmerican parties, which contrasts sharply with moretightly-organized, ideologically-oriented westernEuropean parties.In the United States, parties are decentralized,

with relatively few members. Parties are organized asloose confederations of state parties, which, inturn, are decentralized down to the local level.Local party committees, which are numerous, arerelatively independent of each other. Only duringnational elections do party committees join togetherto clarify issues. Party leadership, insofar as itcan be located, is in the hands of a few officialsand other notables.The absence of an organized party structure and

established hierarchy of leaders contributes toparty disunity. Furthermore, candidates and electedofficials are not held accountable for following theparty line. Even at national party conventions, noformally binding party platform is drawn up.Party membership is equally undemanding.

Republicans and Democrats undergo no officialinitiation, pay no membership dues, and have noobligation to attend meetings or even vote for theparty. Identification with a particular politicalparty has less significance in the United Statesthan in most other western democracies.Political parties, interest groups, and elections

are opportunities for citizens to participate in thedemocratic process. Many Americans, however, arepolitically uninvolved.Although every citizen has the right to vote, the

percentage of the voting age population thatparticipates in elections is quite low. Voter turnoutfor presidential elections is usually under 60percent, and the percentage is even lower for stateand local elections.

Ill®Ф .Р иг е

Political Participation in National Elections

f?

1964* 1966 1968* Percent whoreported that they registered to vote

1970 1972* 1974 1976* 1978 1980*„ __ .j. Percent who reportedthat they VOted •Presidential Election Year


Voter turnout in other democratic nations is much higher:

_L Percent ofVoting Age Population

90 -

80

70

60

з у

115и з 5

50

T1965 1970 1975 1980 8°

Several factors may contribute to these differences in voter participation: —Unlike most of the nations shown on the graph, the United States requires early voter registration.—Election campaigns tend to be much longer in the United States than in many other nations. After following campaigns that sometimes begin a year or more before the election, many Americans lose interest and do not vote. —American elections are always held on Tuesdays, a normal working day, whereas elections in many other nations are held on weekends. —The American two-party system may contributeto low voter turnout because voters' choice is limited.—The other democratic nations shown on the graphhave parliamentary systems, in which the outcome ofthe election determines both the executive andlegislative branches of government. Voters in thesecountries may feel that their vote carries moreweight.The United States Constitution established a

system in which the people have the right, whetherthey exercise it or not, to influence the directionof government.

152

PART в TextsPerspective of a Public ManAn Interview with Hubert HumphreyThe late Senator Hubert Humphrey was a leading figure in American government for more than 30years. He served as mayor of Minneapolis, United States senator, vice president and was theDemocratic party's candidate for president in 1968. He was an outspoken champion of civil rights, astrong advocate of nuclear disarmament and the author of much legislation on both domestic andforeign policy issues.

In this interview with CLOSE UP, conducted in 1977, Senator Humphrey discusses his long experience in public life and the importance of inspiration and motivation in effecting change.

QUESTION All of the problems andpolicies that you have beendiscussing emphasize the need forleadership of the highest caliber inthe halls of government. What arethe qualities which make someone aneffective leader of the people?Senator Humphrey: Motivation. The

difference between a great presidentand just a president is whether ornot he can motivate people togreater achievements. As TeddyRoosevelt said, "You have to makethe White House a bully pulpit." Youhave to be a combination of educatorand evangelist. You have to movepeople. What we need in our societytoday is a kind of clarion call.People also need to learn to havepriorities, because you can't doeverything. That's where leadershipcomes in.As a senator, I've always felt

that my job is more than passinglegislation. I see my role inpolitics as being the cutting edge ofprogress. I've spent most of my timeout with the people, planting ideasby talking with hundreds ofaudiences. I've taken a lot ofrazzing for it, but I have my ownmethodology. I've tried to be ateacher as well as a senator. To dothis you have to take your messageout to the people. To be a teacher,you have to have more than aclassroom, you've got to havestudents. You've got to have morethan a rostrum, you've got to havepeople who will listen and you haveto make your message sufficientlysimple and yet profound. The goodteacher is the one who knows how tosimplify great, difficult problemsand, at the same time, make theminteresting so that he holds hisaudience. You have to recognize thatit requires repetition. You mustkeep in mind that people can onlyabsorb so much at any one session.You repeat, repeat, repeat withadaptation so that you make itinteresting. It's like a song: Eventhe most beautiful classical musicmaybe has just two or three themes init, repeated time after time indifferent variations. That is what aleader, what a teacher, has to do.

Hubert HumphreyAnother part of being a leader is

being willing to run the risk ofunpopularity. I don't like people inpublic life, particularly aspresidents, mayors and governors,who can't make decisions. You have tomake decisions.Sometimes people come to me and

say, "Well, the reason I have tovote like this is that the Galluppoll showed this or that." TheGallup poll is a momentary, current,unscientific survey of what is calledpublic opinion. The importantquestion is, "What do you think isright?" Now you don't ignore publicopinion, but if you have a strongconviction, you do it. I, for ex-ample, had a strong conviction aboutcivil rights legislation. Therewasn't much public opinion on myside— I'll guarantee you that—andsurely not among the politicalpowerhouses. I ran right smack banginto all of them. But I felt I wasright. And, if you feel you'reright, you stay with it. Yet youalso recognize that you can't geteverything you want on day one. Itmay be a long, arduous process.


1. continuedQUESTION: What advice would you giveto young people who mught becontemplating careers in politics,about the pitfalls and the rewardsof public service?Senator Humphrey: When you are

involved in anything, you have toexpect criticism. You have toconstantly ask yourself, am Iprepared to do that? You can alwaysrun away from problems and hideout; many people do. If you aregoing to be involved, you must bewilling to be criticized for yourinadequacies and your limitations.This is especially true in publiclife, where you are constantlyunder examination.Some young people today feel that

it isn't worth it. Why go throughall the sweat? Why put up with it?Let somebody else do it. But theyforget that politics is another wordfor people. Politics is the people'sbusiness, particularly in ademocracy. If the people

don't take care of their business byparticipating, by getting involved,then they will "get the business."While you may not think that yourindividual effort amounts to much,remember that every person sittingon the sidelines gives those that areinvolved that much more power.I always try to point out that

while great decisions may carry thename tag of one or two leaders, infact many more people are involved.Great decisions are the products ofa kind of digestive process thattakes place in the whole society, inwhich all individuals can expresstheir feelings on new ideas andplans.In this process, we look to the

younger generation, to those who arefilled with the love of life andwith bright ideals. They've got tocontribute. If they are involved,then politics will really be thepeople's business.

Gallup poll: a special count of opinions done by questioning a representative section of the population. George Horace Gallup, born 1901, statistician, founded the American Institute of Public Opinion.Teddy Roosevelt: Theodore Roosevelt (1858-1919) U.S. President 1901-1909.

Q A President's MissionGeorge Bush's Nomination Acceptance Speech (excerpt)

is to me the presidencyprovides an incomparableopportunity for "gentlepersuasion."I hope to stand for a new

harmony, a greater tolerance.We've come far, but I think weneed a new harmony among theraces in our country. We're on ajourney to a new century, andwe've got to leave the tired oldbaggage of bigotry behind.Some people who are enjoying

our prosperity have forgottenwhat it's for. But they diminishour triumph when they act as ifwealth is an end in itself.There are those who have dropped

their standards along the way, asif ethics were too heavy andslowed their rise to the top.There's graft in city hall, thegreed on Wall Street; there'sinfluence peddling in Washington,and the small corruptions ofeveryday ambition.But you see, I believe public

service is honorable. And everytime I hear that someone hasbreached the public trust itbreaks my heart.I wonder sometimes if we have forgotten who we

are. But we're the people whosundered a nation rather thanallow a sin called slavery -we're the people who rose fromthe ghettoes and the deserts.We weren't saints - but we

lived by standards. We celebratedthe individual - but we weren'tself-centered. We were practical- but we didn't live only formaterial things. We believed ingetting ahead - but blindambition wasn't our way.The fact is, prosperity has a

purpose. It is to allow us topursue "the better angels" togive us time to think and grow.Prosperity with a purpose meanstaking your idealism and making itconcrete by certain acts ofgoodness. It means helping achild from an unhappy home learnhow to read -and I thank my wifeBarbara for all her work inliteracy. It means teachingtroubled children through yourpresence that there's such athing as reliable love. Somewould say it's soft and insuffi-ciently tough to care about thesethings. But where is it writtenthat we must act as if we do notcare, as if we are not moved?Well I am moved. I want a kinder, gentler nation.Two men this year ask for yoursupport. And


2. continuedyou must know us.As for me, I have held high

office and done the work ofdemocracy day by day. My parentswere prosperous; their childrenwere lucky. But there werelessons we had to learn aboutlife. John Kennedy discoveredpoverty when he campaigned inWest Virginia; there werechildren there who had no milk.Young Teddy Roosevelt met the newAmerica when he roamed theimmigrant streets of New York. AndI learned a few things about lifein a place called Texas.We moved to west Texas 40 years

ago. The war was over, and wewanted to get out and make it onour own. Those were exciting days,lived in a little shotgun house,one room for the three of us.Worked in the oil business,started my own.In time we had six children.

Moved from the shotgun to aduplex apartment to a house.Lived the dream - high schoolfootball on Friday night, LittleLeague, neighborhood barbecue.People don't see their

experience as symbolic of an era —but of course we were. So waseveryone else who was taking achance and pushing into unknownterritory with kids and a dog anda car. But the big thing Ilearned is the satisfaction ofcreating jobs, which meantcreating opportunity, which meanthappy families, who in turn coulddo more to help others andenhance their own lives. Ilearned that the good done by asingle good job can be felt inways you can't imagine.I may not be the most eloquent,

but I learned early thateloquence won't draw oil fromthe ground. I may sometimes be alittle awkward, but there'snothing self-conscious in my loveof country. I am a quiet man -but I hear the quiet peopleothers don't. The ones who raisethe family, pay the taxes, meetthe mortgage. I hear them and Iam moved, and their concerns aremine.

George Bush

A president must be many things.He must be a shrewd protector of

America's interests; and he mustbe an idealist who leads thosewho move for a freer and moredemocratic planet.He must see to it that

government intrudes as little aspossible in the lives of the people; and yet remember that it is right and proper that a nation's leader takes an interest in the nation's character.And he must be able to

define - and' lead — a mission.

New Orleans, August 18, 1988

The Human Side of CongressRepresentative Jim WrightRepresentative Jim Wright (D-Tex.), a member of the House of Representatives since 1954, describesthe "nuts and bolts" of congressional decision making—people and personalities. As majority leader,a post he has held since 1977, he works with the speaker and with committee chairmen to overseeparty strategy and control the flow of legislation.

After thirty years as a memberof Congress, I am not an objectiveobserver. I believe Congress is themost fascinating human institutionin the world. It is bevond

question the most criticizedlegislative assembly on earth, andyet it is the most honored. It canrise to heights of sparklingstatesmanship, and it can sink to


3. continuedlevels of crass mediocrity. In bothpostures, it is supremelyinteresting—because it is human.The story of Congress is the storyof people.Congress is a microcosm of the

nation. It is a distillate of ourstrengths and weaknesses, ourvirtues and our faults. It is aheterogeneous collection of opinion-ated human beings. On the whole,members are slightly better educatedand considerably more ambitious thanthe average American citizen. Butmembers of Congress reflect the samehuman frailties and possess the samerange of human emotions as theirconstituents.Senators and representatives are

individualists, not easilystereotyped or categorized. If thereis a single thread of similaritythat unites most, it is that theyare driven in their work. Theaverage member of Congress workslonger and harder than do members ofany other professional or businessgroup I have ever observed. Theaverage one of my colleaguesprobably spends from twelve tofourteen hours on work in an averageday. If a member of Congress were toexpend the same amount of energy andtime in furthering any soundlyconceived business venture, I haveno doubt that he or she wouldbecome rich.A member of Congress is not some

inanimate cog in a self-propellinglegislative wheel. He or she is aturner of the wheel, a decider—alongwith others—of the direction thevehicle will take. True, there is amechanical process that makes thecar function. It needs gasoline. Itneeds a battery, a working engine,tires, and a universal joint. Butknowing the mechanics of a motor—important as that knowledge is—doesnot tell us where the car is going.Its direction and ultimate des-tination depend upon who is behindthe wheel.That is why careful students of

Congress will do well to payattention to the personalities ofdecision makers. They will reflecton backgrounds, personal philoso-phies, religious persuasions, andeconomic and educationalexperiences of members of Congress.These elements determine how well

legislators interact with theircolleagues and how much they compre-

hend and even care about differentissues. Constituency pressures andinterests, political partyaffiliation, and results of publicopinion polls are importantfactors, but not infallibleprognosticators when it comes to un-derstanding how the Congressoperates.It is instructive to ponder how

the typical member of Congress seesthe job. It includes more than justpassing laws. I would suggest that aU.S. representative is a tripartitepersonality.In the first place, members of

Congress are required to beombudsmen for their constituents. Aless dignified term might be errandboy. A widow does not receive hersurvivor benefit check in the mail.A college

wants to apply for a federal grant.A student cannot find a bank for astudent loan. One person wants outof the military service; anotherwants an emergency leave.The average representative may

receive two hundred letters a day.Forty percent of them will deal withthe individual problems of citizensenmeshed in the coils of governmentand looking to their representativeas their intercessor.The ombudsman role should not be

despised. If it takes adisproportionate share ofrepresentatives' time, it keeps themclose to real people with real needs.If citizens are entitled to gothrough doors that they simply cannotfind in the bureaucratic maze, byleading citizens to those doors,representatives perform necessaryfunctions. Were government ever tobecome so remote and aloof that theaverage citizen had no intercessorit would be a sad thing indeed.In a second role, members of

Congress serve as traveling salesmenfor their districts. Each tries tosee that his or her slice of Americagets its share of the action. Memberstry to direct federal projects intotheir cities, contracts to theirfactories, and grants to their localinstitutions of learning. Anythingthat promotes business or employmentopportunities in a member's districtis fair game to be pursued withvigor.

Jim Wright


3. continuedThe late Senator Robert Kerr (D-

Okla.), ranking Democrat on bothPublic Works and Finance Committees,once was being chided by SenatorAlbert Gore (D-Tenn.). Gore gentlyupbraided Kerr for using hispowerful posts to promote dams,highways, and public buildings forOklahoma, while writing tax lawswith "unintended benefits" forOklahomans.Kerr replied that he wanted to

offer only "one slight correction inthe otherwise excellent recitation"of his colleague. "That is thepoint," said Kerr, "at which myfriend refers to these as"unintended benefits." I want him toknow that they are fully intendedbenefits. While I am a senator ofthe United States, I am a senatorfrom and for the state of Oklahoma.I am not ashamed of that; I amproud of that."Scorn the "pork barrel" function

as they may, purists in politicalscience cannot wish it away. It isinherent in human nature. From theclash of conflicting parochial andeconomic interests, the Congresssynthesizes an amalgam that servesthe nation as a whole.In the third role, representatives

are often statesmen. There isconviction among members, andcourage. If the law makers, on theaverage, did not usually vote asmost of their constituents foundacceptable, they probably would notbe very good representatives fortheir districts. They might not berepresentatives at all for verylong.But occasions arise in the life of

each when by reason of convictiondeeply held or information notwidely known, a law maker isimpelled to vote in ways that areat least temporarily unpopular. Thisis when the mettle of the person istested. A southerner voting forcivil rights two decades ago, amidwesterner supporting the PanamaCanal Treaty, someone from the Bi-

ble Belt resisting constituentpressures to breach the wall betweenchurch and state—these are examplesof personal principle underpressure.In 1956, then Senate Majority

Leader Lyndon Johnson was in a fightfor his political life on the Texashome front. Antagonists portrayedhim as a turncoat, a traitor to thesouthern cause, a tool of the NAACP(National Association for theAdvancement of Colored People).Powerful epithets two years afterBrown v. Board of Education!Johnson never waivered. "I am not

going to demagogue on that issue,"he once said to me. "If I have totry to prove that I hate Negroes inorder to win, then I will just notwin." It was a matter ofconscience.All of the above—a mixture of

servitude and conviction, servilityand courage—combine to make up thehuman mosaic of the congressionaldecision-making process. LyndonJohnson was a master of that pro-cess not because he knew theprocedures better than others, butbecause he had an instinctive"feel" for people. He was persuasivewith his colleagues because heunderstood them. He knew what madethem tick, collectively andindividually.As House Majority Leader, I am

constantly trying to meld togethera majority out of an assortment ofminorities. It is often frustratingbut always fascinating. Buildingcoalitions in Congress is like beinga peacemaker within a family. Onemust know the concerns and needs ofthe members and must be sensitive totheir opinions and the uniqueness oftheir individual personalities.Sometimes I see my role as acombination parish priest,evangelist, and part-time prophet.Harmony among this mixture of strong-willed individualists is an elusivegrail. Sometimes you cannot find itat all, but it is fun trying.

(From 1987 to 1989, Jim Wright was Speaker of the House ofRepresentatives. This interview was given when he was House Majority Leader. He has since resigned in disgrace.)

(D-Tex.): Democrat/Texas.

majority leader: party member directing the activities of themajority party on the floor of the U.S. House ofRepresentatives.speaker, the presiding officer of the U.S. House of Representatives.pork barrel: refers to the practice of using political office tofurther the interests of one's supporters.Panama Canal Treaty: in the Panama Canal Treaties, ratifiedunder President Carter, the United States agreed to handover the canal to the Republic of Panama on December 31,1999, and to make the canal a neutral waterway open toall shipping after 1999.Bible Belt: those sections of the U.S., chiefly in the Southand the Midwest, noted for religious fundamentalism.NAACP: civil rights organization, founded in 1909. Brown v. Board of Education: see pages 109 and 113.


Lobbyists and Their Issues

American Israel Public AffairsCommitteeThomas Dine, executive director

The American Israel Public AffairsCommittee (AIPAC) is the onlyAmerican Jewish organization reg-istered to lobby Congress onlegislation affecting Israel.Headquartered in Washington, AIPACis the nationwide Americanorganization that has worked tostrengthen U.S.-Israeli relations formore than 25 years. AIPAC hasspearheaded efforts to defeat thesale of sophisticated Americanweaponry to hostile Arab regimes,and has helped to protect anddefend foreign aid requests toIsrael of more than $2.2 billionannually.On a daily basis, AIPAC lobbyists

meet with representatives, senatorsand their staffs to provide usefulmaterial, monitor all relevantlegislation and anticipatelegislative issues affecting Israel.In this way AIAPC lobbyists serve aninvaluable function in the Americanpolitical process. They are a vitalinformational and creative resourcefor members of Congress, helpingthem to deal with the multitude ofissues that confront them every day.In addition, AIPAC is active on

university campuses, educating andinvolving pro-Israel students in theAmerican political process andsensitizing America's futurepolicymakers to Israel's strengthsand needs.Once a year all 34,000 members of

AIPAC, including students, areinvited to Washington to meet withtheir U.S. representatives and toformally approve AIPAC's policystatement, which serves as theorganization's guide throughout theyear.

The Wilderness SocietyRebecca K. Leet, director of education

The Wilderness Society is a 65,000-member conservation organizationfounded in 1935 to ensure the pres-ervation of wilderness and theproper management of all federally-owned lands. It is the only nationalconservation organization whose solefocus is the protection

of all federal lands—nationalforests, national parks, wildliferefuges, wilderness areas and thelands administered by the Bureau ofLand Management.Although the Wilderness Society is

a non-profit organization and not alobby in the traditional sense, itis active in the arenas where publicdebate shapes federal policy.Primarily the Wilderness Societyseeks to educate and influencedecision-makers in a variety ofways. Sometimes it lobbies directlyon specific legislation, talkingwith members of Congress or theirstaffs to persuade them to support aparticular bill. The Society alsoseeks to educate the public aboutimportant public land issues bymaintaining close contact with thenews media. The Society recognizesthat reporters and editorial writerswho are well-educated about impor-tant issues are very likely to turnaround and inform their readersabout these same issues.In addition, the Society's staff

discusses proper regulation andmanagement of public lands with keygovernment officials; sponsorsworkshops to teach citizens how tobecome involved in the policymakingprocess; analyzes and comments onnew preservation and managementproposals; testifies atcongressional hearings in support ofor in opposition to public landmeasures; and establishescooperative programs with other con-servation organizations. Occasionallythe Society's staff has conductedoriginal research. When the adminis-tration wanted to search for oil andgas deposits in wilderness areas,the Society, using federal data,found that despite claims by theadministration, only a negligibleamount of oil and gas exists inwilderness areas.The fairest public policy is

developed when a variety ofviewpoints are considered. TheWilderness Society considers thatits role is to bring to the processof public policy formation a wellresearched and clearly articulatedpoint of view that reflects theinterests of the public—thoseconcerned and those unaware—whodepend on the federally-owned landsto provide recreation, to protectthe air and water supplies, toprotect wildlife and fragile

ecological areas and to ensure a sus-tained yield of renewable resourceslike trees and grasslands.


Q Lobbyists and Their Issues

American Israel Public AffairsCommitteeThomas Dine, executive director

The American Israel Public AffairsCommittee (AIPAC) is the onlyAmerican Jewish organization reg-istered to lobby Congress onlegislation affecting Israel.Headquartered in Washington, AIPACis the nationwide Americanorganization that has worked tostrengthen U.S.-Israeli relations formore than 25 years. AIPAC hasspearheaded efforts to defeat thesale of sophisticated Americanweaponry to hostile Arab regimes,and has helped to protect anddefend foreign aid requests toIsrael of more than $2.2 billionannually.On a daily basis, AIPAC lobbyists

meet with representatives, senatorsand their staffs to provide usefulmaterial, monitor all relevantlegislation and anticipatelegislative issues affecting Israel.In this way AIAPC lobbyists serve aninvaluable function in the Americanpolitical process. They are a vitalinformational and creative resourcefor members of Congress, helpingthem to deal with the multitude ofissues that confront them every day.In addition, AIPAC is active on

university campuses, educating andinvolving pro-Israel students in theAmerican political process andsensitizing America's futurepolicymakers to Israel's strengthsand needs.Once a year all 34,000 members of

AIPAC, including students, areinvited to Washington to meet withtheir U.S. representatives and toformally approve AIPAC's policystatement, which serves as theorganization's guide throughout theyear.

The Wilderness SocietyRebecca K. Leet, director of education

The Wilderness Society is a 65,000-member conservation organizationfounded in 1935 to ensure the pres-ervation of wilderness and theproper management of all federally-owned lands. It is the only nationalconservation organization whose solefocus is the protection

of all federal lands—nationalforests, national parks, wildliferefuges, wilderness areas and thelands administered by the Bureau ofLand Management.Although the Wilderness Society is

a non-profit organization and not alobby in the traditional sense, itis active in the arenas where publicdebate shapes federal policy.Primarily the Wilderness Societyseeks to educate and influencedecision-makers in a variety ofways. Sometimes it lobbies directlyon specific legislation, talkingwith members of Congress or theirstaffs to persuade them to support aparticular bill. The Society alsoseeks to educate the public aboutimportant public land issues bymaintaining close contact with thenews media. The Society recognizesthat reporters and editorial writerswho are well-educated about impor-tant issues are very likely to turnaround and inform their readersabout these same issues.In addition, the Society's staff

discusses proper regulation andmanagement of public lands with keygovernment officials; sponsorsworkshops to teach citizens how tobecome involved in the policymakingprocess; analyzes and comments onnew preservation and managementproposals; testifies atcongressional hearings in support ofor in opposition to public landmeasures; and establishescooperative programs with other con-servation organizations. Occasionallythe Society's staff has conductedoriginal research. When theadministration wanted to search foroil and gas deposits in wildernessareas, the Society, using federaldata, found that despite claims bythe administration, only a negligibleamount of oil and gas exists inwilderness areas.The fairest public policy is

developed when a variety ofviewpoints are considered. TheWilderness Society considers thatits role is to bring to the processof public policy formation a wellresearched and clearly articulatedpoint of view that reflects theinterests of the public—thoseconcerned and those unaware—whodepend on the federally-owned landsto provide recreation, to protectthe air and water supplies, toprotect wildlife and fragile

ecological areas and to ensure a sus-tained yield of renewable resourceslike trees and grasslands.


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9 "If Conservatives Cannot Do It Now. . . "Interview with Irving Kristol Authority on Political Trends

At the beginning of the Reagan administration, Irving Kristol, anoted political expert, said thatwith the rise of conservatism, Republicans had their best chance in fifty years to become the country's "natural majority party" again.

О Professor Kristol, what are the chances thatPresident Reagan can mobilize conservative resources to forge an enduring coalition for governing the nation?A I think his chances are very good. And if he can establish that coalition, there is no reason why the Republican Party cannot again be the natural majority party in the country. This is the best chance conservatives have had in 50 yearsto create such a coalition. If they cannot do it now, one has toassume that they cannot do it at all. О Would conservatism then come to dominate politics as liberalism did after the 1930s? A I think so. People will have confidence in their government and its programs as long as they perceive that it's working in a vigorous way toward the solution of their problems. IfPresident Reagan can generate thekind of economic growth that his policy forecasts, the American people will be perfectly satisfied.О Which elements in the conservative movement will President Reagan have to bring together into his governing coalition? AI'd say there are perhaps four main elements:One certainly is the Moral

Majority — that is, the basically Christian-oriented, patriotic Americans who feel that the government has become too in-trusive and the United States hasbeen too weak in its foreign relations.Then you have what you might

call the Establishment conservatives — namely, the governmental types who have been serving in various Republican administrations and who are cautious, prudent men of the middle.

You also have the neoconservatives — with whom I am usually classified — who are really the people within academe,the media and the intellectual community generally who have become conservative over the past15 years.The fourth component, I

suppose, would be the traditionalright-wing organizations, like theAmerican Conservative Union, that are close to the Moral Majority but are also interested in such issues as right-to-work legislation. ... Q Can the Moral Majority element — emphasizing religious intervention in controversial issues — fit into a stable coalition?A Sure. Look, if Franklin D. Roosevelt could fuse the Southern-conservative vote and the Northern-liberal-union vote into a single coalition, then Reagan should have no trouble fusing theexisting conservative groups intoa coalition. They're far less disparate in their interests thanthe coalition established by FDR.True, moral issues such as

abortion can be very disruptive because it's hard to compromise on them. It's too bad that the Supreme Court made the abortion issue a national issue instead ofleaving it to the states. There doesn't seem to be much possibility at the moment that itwill revert to the states, so we'll just have to negotiate it as best we can. ...О What role will people like you play in the coalition-building process? A A crucial role, in my opinion. Every political movement needs its intellectual wing these days. It's the age of higher education and the media, and a movement cansucceed only temporarily unless ithas an intellectual segment to goalong with its popular appeal andan interest group to articulate what the movement is up to. ... Q What will be Reagan's most difficult challenge in translating conservatives ideas into government policy?


5. continuedA Foreign affairs, by far. He came into office with a very coherent andfully articulated economic policy, and he's going to get it through with the coalition entirely behind him. But he also took office with a set of attitudes on foreign policy, not a coherent, well-worked-out set of policies. Witness the controversyover the grain embargo within the administration. This lack of coherence is going to be a very serious problem for the administration. Let me put it this way: We have no conservative counterpart in foreign policy to "supply side" economics in economic policy — something which is identifiably ours. ...О As a student of politics and ideas, do you see the dramatic rise of conservatism as part of a cyclical pattern in the ascendancy of rival political philosophies?A There is a cyclical pattern — yes— which to some degree is simply natural. Namely, a party becomes powerful, holds office until it makes mistakes, exhausts its agenda,then another party takes its place. But this, in a way, is simply a function of retrospection. There is anatural cycle in the sense no one ever expects any party to dominate forever in a democracy. I don't know that there's more of a cycle than that. О Does the cycle shorten or lengthenaccording to how well the party out of power sees new situations emerging and develops new and persuasive ideas for meeting them?

A To some degree, yes. Mainly,however, I think it results from thefact that a ruling party eventuallyhits a crisis which it cannot copewith, as happened to the Republicanswith the Great Depression. Thenpeople will turn to the other partyalmost regardless of what it has tooffer.О Now that liberalism seems to be declining,can it avoid the stagnation that typifiedconservatism for so long after 1932?A Well, what liberals have to do is to come up with an agenda. That is not going to be easy, because, to begin with, they enacted most of their agenda. Parts of it will be repealed or cut back, but most of their agenda will remain the law of land. No one's going to repeal medicare or medicaid. Certainly no one's going to repeal Social Security or unemployment insurance.That being the case, it's hard to

see what the Democratic agenda can be. My own guess is that the Democratic Party will find its agenda on the left, because unless this administration behaves in a very stupid and inept manner, therewill be no room on the right for liberals. Therefore, they will probably have to go into the wilderness for a few years before coming out with an agenda — perhaps something that sets the goal of total equality, with more state intervention and an emphasis not on job creation, which is Reagan's program, but on job retention — thatsort of thing.

Kristol, Irving: professor of social thought at New York University, co-editor of Public Interest and senior fellow at the American Enterprise Institute.Great Depression: see page 73.Social Security: government measures providing economic assistance to persons faced with unemployment, disability, or old age.


Inflation

Where we wereFour years ago, America faced the

greatest challenge in our post-warhistory.Our nation's defenses were

dangerously weak. We had sufferedhumiliation in Iran, and we hadlost the respect of other nations.Our nation lacked leadership. Our

elected officials failed to trustin the courage and character ofAmericans, attributing our problemsto a national "malaise."Years of government overspending

and overtaxing had left our economy in ruins. In the last half of the '70s, taxes doubled; yet, federal spending increased even more. Inflation rose to over 12 percent in 1980. Interest rates were over 21 percent.Productivity, industrial production

and workers' earnings were down. Theonly things going up were prices,unempbyment, taxes and the size ofgovernment.

America is hackAmericans were ready

to make a new beginning. So we elected President Ronald Reagan and VicePresident George Bush to lead us into a morepromising future.We have come a long

way. We have new confidence in our leaders, in our institutions and in ourselves. As President Reagan has said, "America is back,"

Economic recoveryto 1961, President

Reagan offered a planfor economic recovery, and it has worked. Real after-tax income is up. Interest rates | have been cut in half. New homes are being built and sold.Consumer spending is rising. Over four million Americans found jobs last

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leading advocate of peace and freedomin the world.As President Reagan has said, "We

know the tide of the future is a freedom tide, and that America's new strength and sense of purpose will carry hope and opportunity far from our shores."

The unfinished work

d us to move for-

ward again, to unite behind four great goals to America free, secure and at peace for the '80s:1. Ensure steady economic

growth: PresidentReagan will continue his program of tax relief andsteady economic growth.2. Develop space, America's

next frontier: President Reagan has proposed the construction of a permanent manned space station.3 S t h u traditio___ our traditional values: President

Reagan wffl continue to promote arenaissance in the traditional values of faith, family, work and neighborhood.4. Build a meaningful peace:

President Reagan has proposed substantial reductions in nuclear weapons through genuine arms control.

Leadership

The choice is clear. We can I return to the failed policies of I the past. Or we can move for-1 ward together with President ji;*^ÎReagansleadership to build a ~e future in which peace, free-

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humiliation in Iran: on November 4, 1979, Iranian revolutionaries invaded the American embassy in Teheran. The diplomats andtheir staffs were taken hostage. In this situation neither diplomatic efforts nor economic pressure accomplished anything. President Carter's attempt in April1980 to free the hostages through a surprise midnight raid failed, and it was not until more than a year later that the hostages were returned to the U.S.


Keynote Addressby Governor Cuomoto the Democratic National Convention

(Excerpts)San Francisco, July 16, 1984

. .. So, here we are atthis convention to remindourselves where we comefrom and to claim thefuture for ourselves andfor our children. Today,our great DemocraticParty, which has savedthis nation from de-pression, from fascism,from racism, fromcorruption, is calledupon to do it again —this time to save thenation from confusionand division, from thethreat of eventualfiscal disaster and mostof all from a fear of anuclear holocaust.That's not going to beeasy. . . . You'reexactly right, it won'tbe easy. And in order tosucceed, we must answerour opponent's polishedand appealing rhetoricwith a more tellingreasonableness andrationality. We must winthis case on the merits.We must get the Americanpublic to look past theglitter, beyond theshowmanship — to thereality, the hard sub-stance of things. Andwe will do that not somuch with speeches thatsound good as withspeeches that are goodand sound. Not so much

with speeches that willbring people to theirfeet as with speechesthat will bring peopleto their senses. We mustmake the American peoplehear our "tale of twocities." We mustconvince them that wedon't have to settle fortwo cities, that we canhave one city,indivigible, shining forall of its people. ...Remember that unlike

any other party, weembrace men and women ofevery color, everycreed, every

orientation, everyeconomic class. In ourfamily are gatheredeveryone from the abjectpoor of Essex County inNew York, to theenlightened affluent ofthe gold coasts of bothends of the nation. Andin between is the heartof our constituency. Themiddle class, the peoplenot rich enough to beworry-free but not poorenough to be on welfare,the middle class, thosepeople who work for aliving because they haveto, not because somepsychiatrists told themit was a convenient wayto fill the intervalbetween birth andeternity. White collarand blue collar. Youngprofessionals. Men andwomen in small businessdesperate for the capitaland contracts that theyneed to prove theirworth.We speak for the

minorities who have notyet entered themainstream. We speak forethnics who want to addtheir culture to themagnificent mosaic thatis America. We speak forwomen who are indignantthat this nation refusesto etch into its govern-mental commandments the

simple rule "thou shaltnot sin againstequality", a rule sosimple — I was going tosay — and I perhaps darenot but I will — it's acommandment so simple itcan be spelled in threeletters: e.r.a.! Wespeak for young peopledemanding an educationand a future. We speakfor senior citizens whoare terrorized by theidea that their onlysecurity, their SocialSecurity, is beingthreatened. We

speak for millions ofreasoning peoplefighting to preserve ourenvironment from greedand from stupidity. Andwe speak for reasonablepeople who are fightingto preserve our veryexistence from a machointransigence thatrefuses to makeintelligent attempts todiscuss the possibilityof nuclear holocaustwith our enemy. Theyrefuse because theybelieve we can pilemissiles so high thatthey will pierce theclouds and the sight ofthem will frighten ourenemies into submission... .Of course, we must have

a strong defense! Ofcourse, Democrats arefor a strong defense. Ofcourse, Democratsbelieve that there aretimes when we must standand fight. And we have.Thousands of us havepaid for freedom withour lives. But always,when this country hasbeen at its best, ourpurposes were clear. Nowthey're not. Now ourallies are as confusedas our enemies. Now wehave no real commitmentto our friends or to ourideals, not to humanrights, not to therefuseniks, not toSakharov, not to BishopTutu and the othersstruggling for freedomin South Africa. ...We Democrats still have

a dream. We still believein this nation's future.And this is our answerto the question — thisis our credo: we believein only the governmentwe need, but we insiston all the government weneed. We believe in agovernment that ischaracterized byfairness and


reasonableness, areasonableness that goesbeyond labels, thatdoesn't distort orpromise to do thingsthat we know we can'tdo. We believe in agovernment strong enoughto use words like "love"and "compassion" andsmart enough to convertour noblest aspirationsinto practical re-alities. We believe inencouraging thetalented, but webelieve that whilesurvival of the fittestmay be a good workingdescription of the pro-cess of evolution, agovernment of humansshould elevate itself toa higher order. We —our government — shouldbe able to rise to thelevel where it can fillthe gaps that are leftby chance or a wisdom wedon't fully understand....We believe, as

Democrats, that asociety as blessed asours, the most affluentdemocracy in the world'shistory, one that canspend trillions oninstruments ofdestruction, ought to beable to help the middleclass in its struggle,ought to be able to findwork for all who can doit, room at the table,shelter for thehomeless, care for theelderly and infirm, andhope for the destitute.And we proclaim as

loudly as we can theutter insanity ofnuclear proliferationand the need for anuclear freeze, if onlyto affirm the simple

truth that peace isbetter than war becauselife is better thandeath. We believe in firmbut fair law and order,we believe proudly inthe union movement, webelieve in privacy forpeople, openness bygovernment, we believein civil rights, and webelieve in human rights.We believe in a singlefundamental idea thatdescribes better thanmost textbooks and anyspeech that I wouldwrite what a propergovernment should be.The idea of family. Mutu-ality. The sharing ofbenefits and burdens forthe good of all. Feelingone another's pain.Sharing one another'sblessings. Reasonably,honestly, fairly,without respect to race,or sex, or geography orpolitical affiliation.... For 50 years we

Democrats created abetter future for ourchildren, usingtraditional democraticprinciples as a fixedbeacon, giving usdirection and purpose,but constantlyinnovating, adapting tonew realities. ...Democrats did it — andDemocrats can do itagain. We can build afuture that deals withour deficit. Rememberthis that 50 years ofprogress under ourprinciples never cost uswhat the last four yearsof stagnation have. Andwe can deal with thatdeficit intelligently,by

shared sacrifice, withall parts of thenation's familycontributing, buildingpartnerships with theprivate sector,providing a sounddefense withoutdepriving ourselves ofwhat we need to feedour children and carefor our people. We canhave a future thatprovides for all theyoung of the present bymarrying common senseand compassion. We knowwe can, because we didit for nearly 50 yearsbefore 1980. And we cando it again. ...And, ladies and

gentlemen, on Jan. 20,1985, it will happenagain. Only on a much,much grander scale. Wewill have a newPresident of the UnitedStates, a Democrat bornnot to the blood of kingsbut to the blood ofpioneers and immigrants.We will have America'sfirst woman Vice-President, the child ofimmigrants, and she willopen with one magnifi-cent stroke a whole newfrontier for the UnitedStates. It will happen,if you and I make ithappen. And I ask younow, ladies andgentlemen, brothers andsisters — for the goodof all of us, for thelove of this greatnation, for the family ofAmerica, for the love ofGod. Please make thisnation remember howfutures are built. Thankyou and God bless you.

Cuomo, Mario: Governor of New York State since 1982.national convention: formal meeting of party delegates to adopt platforms and party rules and select presidential and vice-presidential candidates.refusenik: a citizen of the Soviet Union who has been refused permission to emigrate from his/her country.Sakharov, Andrei: (1921—1989) Russian physicist and dissident, wonthe Nobel Peace Prize 1975.Bishop Tutu: Anglican bishop in South Africa opposing apartheid.a new President of the United States: reference to Walter Mondale,Democratic presidential candidate in 1984.America's first woman Vice-President: reference to Geraldine Ferraro, Democratic vice-presidential candidate in 1984.


°The WashingtonPostAmericans Vote For Divided Government

By David S. Broder

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46

BEFORE AND AFTER THE 1988 ELECTION

HOUSE

175;

REPUBLICANS

DEMOCRATS

THE AMERICAN votersgave George Bush andthe Republican Party apattern-breakingpresidential victoryTuesday but blurred theimport of theirdecision by cautiouslyopting once again fordivided government inWashington. The outcomeof the long andexpensive strugglesignaled little morethan the start of a newround of politicalwarfare, one in whichthe White House andCongress will wrestlefor control of thepolicy agenda and bothparties will search foranswers to vexingproblems - like thebudget deficit - whichthe candidatessidestepped on thestump... . the evidence

suggests that thepreference for dividedgovernment — withDemocrats looking afterdomestic needs inCongress and the statecapitols while Repub-licans manage theeconomy, defense andforeign policy from theWhite House — may havehad as much to do withthe outcome as anyimpressions created bythe of ten-venomouscampaign. An NBC News-Wall Street Journal polljust before the electionfound voters by a 5-to-3margin thought itbetter for differentparties to control theWhite House andCongress. Ken Adams,35, a tire-store ownerin Clarkston, Ga., andpro-Bush Democrat,spoke for many when hesaid Tuesday, "I'drather have a littleargument going to workthings out." EchoedKaren Ekegren, 54, aChicago office worker,"It's not

good to have one partyin control." Scholarsof presidentialelections said theywere sure that in-depthanalysis of theunprecedented mass ofpolling data thiselection generated willdemonstrate that peaceand prosperity were thefundamental forcesbehind Bush's victory.Six years of sustainedeconomic growth, lowinflation and decliningunemployment, coupledwith improvingrelations between theUnited States and theSoviet Union, boostedPresident Reagan's pop-ularity back up from itsIran-Contra lows. Andas Reagan's standingrose, so did supportfor his loyal vicepresident.William Galston, a

professor of publicaffairs at theUniversity of Marylandand adviser to pastDemocraticpresidentialcandidates, said, "Allyear long, the votersfelt the tensionbetween general satis-faction with thepresent and vague butpervasive anxiety aboutthe future. In the end,the present trumped thefuture."That left the question

of mandate open tointerpretation. PaulWey-rich, a leadingconservative strat-egist, argued that "ifthe Democrats take thepolicy initiative onthe basis of theirprojected Senategains, they willprobably get somewherewith it. They could sayvoters weredeliberately tyingBush's hands becausethey were worried whathe might do." . . .

SE2571/8

Iran-Contra: a reference to a scandal of the Reagan presidencywhen it was discovered that the U.S. had sold arms to Iranand illegally diverted the profits to the contra rebelsfighting the Sandinista government of Nicaragua.

165

PART C Exercises

1. ComprehensionPerspective of a Public ManWhich of the following statements about HubertHumphrey's ideas is correct?In some cases, more than one statement applies.1.According to Hubert

Humphrey, a greatpresidenta)must be able to spur people

on to act tothe best of their abilities.

b)must be both a teacher and a preacher.c)must make sure that he

attaches equalimportance to all fields of politics.

2.As a senator Hubert Humphreya)found that working as a

legislator kepthim away from the people.

b)took up a second job as a teacher.c)believed that explaining

politics to thepeople was more important than passinglaws.

3.The message that politicians convey to thepublica)must be simplistic.b)is necessarily repetitive and boring.c)must be simplified but

neverthelessinteresting.

4.Hubert Humphrey likes political leaders who

a)are prepared to make unpopulardecisions.

b)base their decisions on opinion polls.c)value their personal

conviction higherthan public opinion.

5.Hubert Humphrey advises

prospectiveyoung politiciansa)to avoid becoming involved

in problemsthat invite criticism.

b)to expect unfair personal criticism.c)to be prepared to put up with criticism.

6.In a democratic society decisions ought to bemadea) by a few leading personalities.b) after a long discussionprocess that•involves as many people as possible.

c) by young people with bright ideas.

2. Analysis of a SpeechA President's Mission1. In this excerpt from the nominationacceptance speech, delivered at theRepublican National Convention, GeorgeBush defines a president's mission. Whichaspects of his mission does hemention?

2. This speech must be seen in the context ofthe 1988 election campaign. During thiscampaign the Democrats accusedtheRepublicans and the Reagan administrationof showing little regard for ethnic minorities,of caring only for the rich and neglecting thepoor and of letting officials violate people'strust in public service. How does GeorgeBush deal with these accusations?

3. A cartoon is a satirical drawing commentingon current events or politics.Describe thiscartoon and explain the point the cartoonistwants to make.

AUTH COPYRIGHT 1988 Philadelphia Inquirer. Reprinted with permission of Universal Press Syndicate. All rights reserved.

4» During the campaign George Bush was frequently reproachedfor his prosperous social background and for his lack ofeloquence. How does he react tothese attacks in this speech?


3. QuestionnaireThe Human Side of CongressHigh school students in Ohio have been discussing the structure of Congress and the legislative process. Two of the students have received a grant for an educational trip to Washington, where they will be given the chance to interview a member of Congress. The class has prepared the following questionnaire for this interview.How would Jim Wright answer

these questions?1 Does Congress really representa cross-section of the Americanpeople?

2. How does a member of Congress comparewith the average American citizen?

3. Is a member of Congress an active factor inthe decision-making process oris he/sheonly part of a machine?

4. Members of Congress are subject to all kindsof pressure from their constituencies, theirparties, the opinion polls, and their ownconvictions. How can they possibly representsuch conflicting interests?

5. How much time does a memberof Congressdevote to the actual needs of his/herconstituents?

6. What can a member of Congress inWashington do for his/her homedistrict?

7. If a representative is strongly convinced thathe/she ought to vote against the wishes ofconstituents, what can he/she do?

2. What is the function of a majority leader?

4. Scanning

Lobbyists and Their IssuesQuickly read through thepresentations of the AmericanIsrael Public Affairs Committeeand The Wilderness Society andfind out about• the type and size of the organizations• the basic issues• their activities on Capitol Hill• other activities.

5. Simulation of a DebateConsidering what you know about the Wilderness Society and with reference to the information about the "Use of Federally Owned Land" carry out a debate on the following issue:

Federal Lands should be Opened to EnergyDevelopersIn this debate, environmentalistsof the Wilderness Society and representatives of the coal industry and oil companies defendtheir viewpoints.Use of Federally Owned Land—TheDepartment of the Interiorcontrols 510 million acres offederal land, roughly one-seventhof the nation's land area.Underneath that land is estimatedto be 80 percent of the nation'soil shale deposits, 35 percent ofits uranium, and 60 percent ofits low-sulfur coal... For yearsmany people have looked uponresources located on protectedfederal lands as reserves for thelong-term future. During the1980s, however, many people beganto feel that the government shouldopen up federal land for privatedevelopment, particularly sincethe country's energy needs hadbecome more urgent...Environmentalists urge caution in

the government's granting ofdevelopment rights to any federallands or waters. Many endangeredanimals, such as the grizzlybear, live in these lands, and thebuilding of roads and the clearingof forests would disrupt theirhabitats. Furthermore, developmentcan damage water quality andincrease soil erosion. Either wouldhave a severe impact on fish.Other critics of developingfederally owned resources arguethat those resources should besaved for future crises, such aswar or a minerals embargo.Those who support development

point out that the country has hadto import large amounts of oil andstrategic minerals, such aschromium and cobalt, which couldhave been taken from federallands. Considering the costs ofenergy dependence and our largetrade deficit, the nation cannotafford to ignore resources in itsown backyard, say developmentsupporters. Moreover, theycontend, the search anddevelopment of these resourcesmust begin now; otherwise, when anemergency arises, there will notbe time to extract them.


6. Writing Newspaper ArticlesSince PLO Chairman Yasir Arafat addressed the United Nations on the subject of Palestinian rights, the question has been discussed whether the U.S. shouldrecognize the PLO as the official representative of Palestinian refugees.Imagine that the Minnesota Daily, a

newspaper published by and for students at the University of Minnesota, has asked people to write articles covering the different viewpoints of the issueunder the heading "Should the U.S. negotiate with the PLO?"Write such an article from the

point of view of either an activeAIPAC member or a pro-Palestinian. Use the information boxes below for reference.Israel—Israel was formed from partof the Palestinian Mandate—theterritory of Palestine that hadbeen taken from the TurkishOttoman Empire after its defeat inWorld War I and mandated to GreatBritain by the League of Nations.Palestine then included areas nowcomprising Jordan, Israel, andIsraeli-occupied territories onthe west bank of the Jordan River(the West Bank). Israel itself isonly about the size ofMassachusetts.Modern Israel grew out of Zionism,

a political movement founded in1897 to establish a Jewish nationalhomeland free from anti-Jewishpersecution. Twenty years later inthe Balfour Declaration, theBritish government agreed inprinciple to the establishment of aJewish homeland. Tens of thousandsof Jews immigrated to Palestine,joining Jews who had lived therefor centuries. While the BalfourDeclaration was a significantstep, the major drive to establisha Jewish state grew out of theHolocaust—the attemptedextermination of the-Jewish peopleby the Nazis. Thousands of homelessHolocaust survivors headed toPalestine in the postwar years. In1947 the United Nations PartitionPlan proposed that two states—oneArab and one Jewish—be establishedon the section of Palestine west ofthe Jordan River. On May 14, 1948,the Jewish state of Israeldeclared its independence.The United States was one of the

first nations to recognize thestate of Israel. U.S. support for

Israel was an outgrowth ofAmerican cultural and religiousties to Jews, the feeling of amoral obligation to help the Jewsestablish a homeland after theHolocaust, and the belief that thenew Israeli government would likelybe democratic. Today»the UnitedStates continues to look to Israelas its most reliable ally in theMiddle East. Despite its havingonly four million citizens, Israelhas the strongest military forcein the region and is also the onlyworking democracy there.

The Palestinians—The Palestiniansare a people without a homeland.In 1921 the British gave two-thirds of Palestine to a non-Palestinian, Arab king. This landis now the kingdom of Jordan. Whenthe western third of Palestine waspartitioned after World War II,areas that were supposed to forma separate Palestinian Arab statewere instead absorbed by Egyptand Israel and annexed by Jordan.That left the Palestinians withouta country.Approximately four million

Palestinians have been affected bythe conflicts in the Middle East.They are now scattered throughoutthe region, many living in refugeecamps in Jordan, Syria, Lebanon,and the Israeli-occupied WestBank. Others fled to Europe orNorth America.The Palestine Liberation

Organization was founded in 1964to lead the struggle for aPalestinian state. Its methodshave included both terrorism anddiplomacy. In 1974 the UnitedNations granted the PLO observerstatus, which allows it to partici-pate in the United Nations GeneralAssembly, although it may notvote. The United States hasrefused to recognize the PLO untilit renounces its charter, whichcalls for the destruction ofIsrael. The PLO says it will notrecognize Israel until thePalestinians have a state of theirown.The military power of the PLO has

greatly diminished since theIsraelis pushed them out ofsouthern Lebanon and pro-Syrianelements of the PLO overran theforces of PLO Chairman YasirArafat in 1983. However, Arafat'sPLO forces are being rearmed byIraq and are training in Jordanand Iraq. From these bases Arafatis struggling to keep the PLO thesole representative of the Pales-tinian people. Arafat's strongestsupport is among the 1.2 millionPalestinians who still live in theIsraeli-occupied West Bank or GazaStrip.

7. Global Comprehension" I f C on se rva t iv es C annot D o i t Now. . . "Decide which of the three answers best applies to Irving Kristol's views:1.The Republican Party's chances

of keeping

power in conservative hands over a longperiod are: poor/fairly good/better than everbefore.

2.Solving economic problems willlead tolittle/nwre/complete acceptance of the wholegovernment.

3.The different groups making up theconservative coalition are less divergentthan/as divergent as/more divergent than thosethat Franklin D. Roosevelt established.


4. The moral issues in this coalition are theeasiest/fairly easy/the most difficult to solve.

5. The role intellectuals play intheconservative movement is negligible/of someimportance/very important.

6. Reagan's ideas about foreign policy are notvery clear/fairly well-structured/profound.

7. There is a natural cyclical pattern accordingto which a governing politicalparty loses/maintains/increases its impact on the peopleafter some years.

8. In a severe crisis the dominant party willlose/keep/gain members.

9. The conservatives are going toimprove/retain/do away with most of thesocial achievements made under DemocraticParty rule.

10. The Democratic Party will have a chance to regain power by becoming right-wing/ moderate/left-wing.

8. Text AnalysisReagan-Bush '84—Leadership You Can Trust1. After taking a first glanceat this pamphletexplain why you think it was issued.

2. Describe the layout of thispamphlet andexplain the purpose of• the structure• the headlines• the photos• the diagrams• the quotation with Reagan's signature.

3.According to the pamphlet, what changeswere brought about in the following fields ofpolitics between 1980 and 1984?• self-confidence of the

people andconfidence in governmentdefensenuclear arms controlforeign affairssocial policyeconomy: taxes; inflation; interest rates;government spending; production;(un-)employment.

4.According to the pamphlet, which policies ofthe Reagan administration wereparticularlysuccessful?

5. Of course, one would not expect such a pamphlet to admit any failures or shortcomings. Are there any problems not explicity mentioned here that have not been satisfactorily tackled andsolved by the Reagan administration? If so, are theyidentical with the future tasks envisaged in the pamphlet?

9. Writing a Newspaper ArticleKeynote Address by Governor Cuomo to the Democratic National ConventionImagine you are a reporter for asmall daily paper and you have been sent to San Frandscc to cover the Democratic National Convention. You have listened to Governor Cuomo's speech and takenthe following notes. In the lefthand margin you have indicated the main ideas for the differentparagraphs of your article.Now write such an article. Find

a suitable headline and begin with a paragraph that not only presents the keynote of Governor Cuomo's speech but also arouses the interest of the reader.

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10. ComprehensionAmericans Vote for Divided GovernmentFind the missing words by choosing from the pairs in the list below.Although the American voters gave Bush and the Republican Party a presidential victory, they again О divided government in Washington. The White House and Congress will О for control of the О agenda and both parties will search foranswers to О problems—like the budget deficit—which the candidates О discussing during the campaign. The О for divided government is due to thevoters' О that Democrats shouldlook after <C> needs while a Republican president and his Оwould be more О at dealing with the economy, defense and foreign policy. According to an О poll just before the election, the О of voters foundit better for О parties to control the White House and Congress. Scholars of presidential elections said theywere О that peace and prosperity were the О forcesbehind Bush's victory. Six yearsof О economic growth, low inflation and О unemployment, О with improving relations between the United States and the Soviet Union, C" PresidentReagan's popularity after its Iran-Contra lows. And as Reagan'sO> rose, so did support for hisloyal vice-president.nounsfaith/beliefmajority/minorityreference/preferencepolitics/policyreputation/isolationopinion/reasoncommunity/cabinet

adjectivesessential/mysteriouscontinuous/consciousseparate/combineddomestic/staticabsent/certainsuperficial/criticalidentical/differentincreasing/decreasingcompetent/composedverbsprevented/avoided struggle/compromise raised/dropped preferred/related

11. Comparative Study1. Assess the degree of bias (Republican,Democrat, neutral) in the Irving Kristolinterview, the Reagan-Bush pamphlet, theaddress by Governor Cuomo, andthe articlefrom the Washington Post—"Americans Votefor Divided Government."

2. Judging from these four texts where do yousee the basic differences in the politicalagendas of the two main parties?

3. Between the Irving Kristol interview and theWashington Post article there is atime span ofabout eight years. In light ofthe 1984 and1988 elections, to what extentdid the newconservatism envisaged by Kristol in 1981 aspart of a cyclical pattern of politicalphilosophies become the dominant factor inAmerican politics?

4. How do the political philosophies of the twomajor parties compare with

those of the mainparties in your country?

ю America's Global Role


SUPERPOWER INFLUENCE

MILITARY STRENGTH

As a global superpower, the United States exertswide-reaching political, military, and economicinfluence. It has strong political and military tiesto democratic governments in Western Europe and inother areas of the world. As the leading power ofthe western hemisphere, the United States plays anactive role in Latin America.America's political and military alliances are

backed by its formidable military and nuclear forces.

SUMMARY OF MAJOR MILITARY FORCES: 1980 то 1985 [As of Sept. 30]

DESCRIPTION 1980 1984 1985 DESCRIPTION 1980 1984 1985

Army: Divisions..............Maneuver battalions..........

Air defensebattalions/batteries.........Special forces groups .......Aircraft, number ............Navy: Ship operating force...Tactical air squadrons.......Antisubmarine air squadrons

'...........................Marine divisions.............

16168

154 38,731538

61 223

16 155135 48,926639

63 243

17159

127 49,025669

63 243

Navy:-Con.Marine aircraft combat squadrons:Fixed-wing squadrons........Rotary-wing squadrons.......Aircraft, number ...........Air Force: ICBM launchers . .Selected aircraft squadrons.Strategic...................Airdefense..................Tactical (excluding air-lift).......................Aircraft, number 2..........................

30 24 4,8611,054125 26 6 93 10,116

31 285,0021,031124 215 9810,29

7

35 335,0391,02312421 598

10,427

NATO 1 Does not include patrol squadrons. 2Excludes foreign government-owned aircraft.

Over 2 million men and women are members of thearmed forces. About one fourth of the United Statesmilitary personnel serve overseas. The United Statesoperates military bases in strategic areas throughoutthe world, including Africa, the Middle East, CentralAmerica, Southeast Asia, and Australia. Most of itsoverseas forces, however, are concentrated in WesternEurope under provisions of the North Atlantic TreatyOrganization (NATO). This military alliance, whichincludes the United States, Canada, Greece, Turkey,and most Western European nations, guarantees thedefense of member nations against Soviet attack.Since 1949, when the alliance was created, the UnitedStates has acted as Western Europe's militaryleader.While American military involvement has given

European nations security against Soviet attack, ithas also made them dependent, in many respects, onAmerican foreign policy. Often excluded fromsuperpower arms talks, Western

AMERICA'S GLOBAL ROLE 171

ECONOMIC STRENGTH

leaders must rely on the United States to negotiatesettlements that serve Europe's security interests.A U.S. decision to withdraw troops or missiles fromEurope puts pressure on European leaders tostrengthen their nations' defense.America's political and military strength is

generated, in turn, by a powerful economy. The U.S.economy surpasses all other economies in overallproduction. Although it is neither the world'slargest nor most populous nation, its economicoutput, measured by gross national product (GNP),is twice the Soviet Union's, three times Japan's,and six times West Germany's.

A World Power... althoughit is neither first in size nor in population:

World PositionAll figures 1983/1984

Land area(million km2)

1. 2. 3. 1622,4

9,98

9,74

9,36 8,51 1,66 П

U.S.S.R. CANADA ER.ofCHINR BRAZIL E.E.C.Population(million)

1Ю50 750

1[275 ~[273 ~|237 ----

ER. of CHINA INDIA U.S.S.R. E.E.C. U.S.A.Gross

nationalproduct

U.S. $ (billion)

x-- -\3630

___ 2250

ca.1650

О1235

О620о ----

U.S.A. E.E.C. U.S.S.R. JAPAN ER. of GERMANYGross

industrialproduction

U.S.$ (billion)

/'-—ч Н50 o"^ . c a . 8 00

/^-v 500 ----

U.S.A. E.E.C. U.S.S.R.

FOREIGN TRADE The United States is not only the world's leadingproducer, but also the world's greatest importer andexporter of goods. Other nations rely heavily ontrade with the United States.

South Asia Southeast Asia East Asia (except Japan)

U.S. FOREIGN TRAPE BY REGIONS 1982

Exports in billions of US $ Imports in billionsoT US $


FOREIGN INVESTMENT

America's economic influence is also extendedthrough foreign investment. American businesses andindustries operate all over the world. Americaninvestment boosts the economies of these nations byproviding employment, technology and new products.

American Firms in Foreign Countries

U.SJnvestment Abroad

1982according to economic

sectors industry141%

petroleum 25%

according to regions and countries

other 11%Japan 3%

Asia7%(exceptJapan)

Latin America 14% Canada 20%

250

200

150

100

50

21 £

2 »1

250in billions U.S. $ > 200

|u.s

InvestmentAbroad /

150

100

124 11)1fs

50 75 / 68 If /

3 \---------\28\-----------: Y Foreign

Investmentsin the

i 0

other

Western Europe 45%

THE ROLE OF THE DOLLAR

TECHNOLOGY

Also contributing to America's economic power isthe status of the dollar as the world's chiefinternational currency. The dollar is used for mostinternational trading, and for practically alllending and borrowing transactions. The pre-eminenceof American currency is observed in Latin Americanand Eastern European countries, where the dollar hasbecome accepted as a second currency.As a leading producer and exporter of technology,

the United States contributes to worldwide economicgrowth. It exports more computer systems andelectric machinery and invests more money intechnological research than any other country.

Still Leading in High Technology Percentage of world exports of high technology

GLOBAL ECONOMIC INFLUENCE

U.S.A. 37Great Britain 10

West Germany 17Japan 25

Given the huge volume of production, trading, andinvestment, the American economy is bound to have aglobal economic influence. Foreign investors,traders, and lenders closely watch conditions in theAmerican economy such as the balance of trade, thevalue of the dollar, interest rate levels, andAmerican investment policies.

other 11


THE BALANCE OF TRADE

PROTECTIONISM

MARKET INSTABILITY

INTEREST RATES INFLUENCE ON THETHIRD WORLD

ECONOMICS AND POLITICS

U.S. FOREIGN POLICY

FROMISOLATIONISM TO INTERVENTIONISM

In the past years, the United States has experiencedmassive trade deficits, which meant it was importingmore goods than it was exporting. This tradeimbalance has promoted growth in the rest of theworld: other countries have been able to sell moreof their products to the United States, and thesesales have provided them with export surpluses. Whilethe U.S. trade deficit has benefited foreigneconomies, it has created severe economic distressfor the American economy. The markets of Americanmanufacturers have been diminished both at home andabroad owing to increased foreign competition.Many American business and labor groups have called

for the United States to adopt a protectionist tradepolicy. Import restrictions would boost the sale ofAmerican goods and reduce the trade imbalance. Onthe other hand, foreign economies, dependent onexport sales to the United States, would suffer.The high volatility of the American dollar in

recent years has created instabilities on worldwidetrade markets. Fluctuations in foreign currency ratesand the prices of stocks and precious metals are duein part to the dollar's instability.Because dollars are used for borrowing and lending,

U.S. interest rates and dollar values are ofparticular concern to foreign debtor nations. ThirdWorld countries were severely affected by highinterest rates charged in the early 1980s. Manydeveloping countries could not afford to pay theinterest on their loans.Third World countries rely heavily on American

investment to stimulate employment and industrialgrowth. These countries' economic gains, however, areaccompanied by the loss of economic power andindependence. In developing countries, whereeconomic conditions are backward, American firmsplay a dominant role. Firms can use their economicpower to influence foreign governments into adoptingpolicies that serve American political and economicinterests rather than local interests.In industrial countries as well, the United States

has often used its economic power to achieve itspolitical aims. Economic aid and economic sanctionsare frequently used to implement foreign policygoals.Understanding the power and influence of the

American economy is crucial to understandingAmerica's role in global affairs. America's economicpower is what ultimately underlies its politicalpower and gives substance to foreign policy.American foreign policy, or the set of goals that

determines America's relations with othergovernments and its stance on international issues,has been guided by several principles. First,American foreign policy serves a moral aim inpromoting and protecting democratic systems anddemocratic values such as individual freedom andhuman rights. This ideal is often referred to as"making the world safe for democracy." Second,American foreign policy is committed to the practicalprinciple of protecting America's political andeconomic interests. Third, American foreign policy is

directedtowardmaintainingthe balanceofinternationalpower. Theseprincipleshave guidedU.S. policiessince theearly part ofthe centurywhen thenation beganplaying anincreasinglyimportantrole ininternationalaffairs.In the

years betweenthe First World War andthe Second World War American foreign policy developed from isolationism to interventionism. Before its involvement in the First World War, the United States had remained aloof from the politicalconflicts of European powers. It had concentrated


WORLD WAR II

COMPETINGSPHERESOFINFLUENCE

THE COLD WAR

CONTAINING THESPREAD OF COMMUNISM

instead on expanding territories and influence inthe western hemisphere. When the First World Warbroke out, most Americans clung to this old idea ofstaying out of Europe's quarrels. Yet by this time,the United States had become the leadingindustrialized nation and could scarcely remainunaffected by world events. In 1917, the United Statesentered the war as an ally of France and GreatBritain, breaking the long tradition of neutrality anddiplomatic independence.After the war ended, the United States tried to

return to its policy of isolationism. When war brokeout again in Europe in 1939, the United Statesdeclared its neutrality. As the conflicts in Europeescalated and entry in war seemed inevitable,Americans were divided on the issue of isolationismversus interventionism. The Japanese invasion ofPearl Harbor settled the issue. America entered thewar as an Allied power, committing its entiremilitary and economic resources to defeating Germanyand Japan.The Second World War brought the American economy to

unprecedented levels of industrial production. Large-scale factories were constructed to produce warmaterials, and billions of dollars went intotechnological research for advanced weaponry. TheUnited States spent $2 billion on the development andtesting of the atomic bomb.After the Second World War, the global balance of

power became permanently altered and the role of theUnited States in world affairs changed dramatically.With the defeat of Germany and Japan, a "power

vacuum" was left in Europe and another in Asia. Onlytwo great powers remained in the world — the UnitedStates and the Soviet Union. Competing spheres ofinfluence, communist and democratic, soon emerged.The Soviet Union set up communist regimes in

Eastern Europe, and the Chinese later began to spreadcommunist influence throughout Asia. Meanwhile, theUnited States helped restore democracy in WesternEurope and Japan, thereby establishing its ownspheres of influence.To consolidate power and discourage encroachment,

both the United States and the Soviet Unionestablished military alliances. The United States andthe western democracies, and later Greece and Turkey,coordinated defense in the NATO alliance. The SovietUnion and its eastern satellite nations formed theWarsaw Pact.The years following the Second World War, known as

the "cold war" period, were characterized by

mountingtensionsbetween theUnitedStates andthe SovietUnion.During thisperiod, eachside triedto establish

political strongholds in Europe and Asia. In someinstances, armed conflict resulted. At the same time,both powers built up vast military defense arsenalswhich relied heavily on nuclear weapons.During the cold war, American foreign policy, known

as containment, focused on protecting democracy andcontaining the spread of communism. Immediately afterthe Second World War, the United States implementedthis policy by supplying both military and economicaid to war-devastated countries that were susceptibleto communist takeover.

Pearl Harbor: in a surprise attack on December 7, 1941,Japanese warplanes destroyed American airfields andaircraft and dropped bombs on the ships of the U.S. Navyin Pearl Harbor, Hawaii causing the greatest disaster inAmerican military history.


ECONOMIC AID

MILITARY FORCE

THE NUCLEAR THREAT

THE VIETNAM WAR

In 1947 the United States responded to communistpressures in Greece and Turkey by sending millionsof dollars in military aid.To ensure the stability of western European

democracies, the United States began a massive four-year program of economic reconstruction known as theMarshall Plan. Altogether the United States spentover $12 billion in economic aid. The plan broughtremarkable recovery. By the end of 1950, Europe'sindustrial production was up 64 percent, economicactivity was well above prewar levels, and communiststrength among voters was dwindling.The United States introduced a similar economic

recovery plan in Japan. Both economic programsachieved the American foreign policy objectives ofrestoring democracy and containing the spread ofcommunism.During the cold war decades of the 1950s and 60s, the

United States frequently used military force tosupport pro-western governments which were beingthreatened by communist invasion. One such use offorce was in Korea. When the communist-backed NorthKorean army invaded South Korea in 1950, the UnitedStates sent troops to defend South Korea. Similarperceptions of a communist threat led to U.S.intervention in Guatemala in 1954, in Lebanon in1958, in Cuba in 1961, in the Dominican Republic in1965, and in Grenada in 1983.During this period, cold war tensions were

increased because of the arms race between theUnited States and the Soviet Union. Each country usednew developments in nuclear and space technology toproduce weapons of devastating destructivecapabilities. In 1962, fears of nuclear confrontationreached a climax. The United States discovered thatthe Soviets were beginning to install nuclearmissiles in Cuba, where they would be able to reachAmerican cities within minutes. President Kennedyimposed a blockade on Cuba and prepared for nuclearretaliation if the Soviets refused to dismantle thesite. Soviet Premier Khrushchev agreed to remove themissiles in return for an American promise not toinvade Cuba.The Cuban missile crisis proved that the United

States was prepared to use nuclear force, ifnecessary, to respond to a direct Soviet threat toAmerican security.Throughout the 1950s and 60s, the United States

tried to curb Soviet influence by channelingeconomic aid to unstable governments in impoverishedregions of the world such as Africa, Latin America,and Asia. In Vietnam, however, a U.S. policy whichbegan as an economic and military aid programgradually escalated into full-scale war.Under Presidents Truman and Eisenhower, the United

States sentaid toestablish andmaintain apro-westerndemocraticinfluence inVietnam. Aid

was increased to contain the spreading communistinfluence in the region.Gradually, America became even more involved.

Between 1961 and 1963 President Kennedy sentthousands of military advisers.President Johnson favored direct intervention. By

1968, 500,000 American troops were fighting, andbombs were being dropped on North Vietnamese

Marshall Plan: Secretary of State George С Marshall (1880-1959) proposed a plan in 1947 to help Europe overcome the economic, social and political deterioration after the Second World War through substantial financial aid. The Marshall Plan was signed into law by President Truman in 1948.Khrushchev, Nikita Sergeevich (1894-1971): Soviet statesman, first secretary of the Communist Party (1953-64); premier of the Soviet Union (1958-64).


DETENTE

ARMS CONTROL TALKS

RENEWED HOSTILITY

CENTRAL AMERICA

targets. President Johnson's policy was continued byPresident Nixon, who increased bombing raids andsent American soldiers into Cambodia.Faced with a slim prospect of immediate victory and

increasing public opposition to American involvementin the war, President Nixon ended up withdrawingAmerican troops in 1973. In 1975, South Vietnam'sresistance broke. In the case of Vietnam, America'suse of force to achieve foreign policy goals wasneither popular nor successful.By the early 1970s cold war tensions had eased and

the United States began to pursue a policy of detente("relaxation of tensions") with the Soviet Union andthe People's Republic of China. President Nixon andSecretary of State Kissinger met frequently withSoviet and Chinese leaders to make agreements thatwould minimize conflict and encourage trade. Between1972 and 1974 U.S. and Soviet leaders signed elevenseparate agreements to enhance cooperation in spaceexploration, agriculture, environmental protection,and other fields.During the period of detente, the Soviet Union and

the United States began a series of negotiations tolimit strategic weapons. Two major agreements werereached. The first Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty(SALT I), signed in 1972, limited each country'sdefensive weapons and put a five-year restrictionon the making of several types of offensive weapons.The 1979 SALT II treaty, signed by President Carterand Premier Brezhnev, placed restrictions on long-range bombers and missiles. However, the U.S.Senate failed to ratify the treaty because manysenators believed the treaty made too manyconcessions to the Soviets.Relations between the two nations became hostile

again in 1979 when Soviet troops invadedAfghanistan. President Carter responded with harsheconomic measures. He imposed a grain embargo andcalled for the American boycott of the MoscowOlympics. He also strengthened the military by re-imposing draft registration and increasing defensespending.President Reagan also used economic measures to

express disapproval of Soviet policies. When martiallaw was declared in Poland in 1981, President Reaganimposed economic sanctions not only against Poland,but also against the Soviet Union.Although President Reagan sometimes used economic

measures to achieve foreign policy goals, hebelieved that the most effective way of dealing withthe Soviet Union and other communist governments was

through theprojection ofmilitaryforce.In Central

America,PresidentReaganadvocatedmilitary

involvement to stop the spread of communism. In theearly 1980s, President Reagan asked Congress toprovide aid to the Salvadoran government to stopcommunist forces from taking over. In 1983, theUnited States invaded Grenada to prevent a left-winggovernment from coming to power. President Reaganconsidered the left-wing Sandinista government ofNicaragua a threat to U.S. national security.Through Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) activitiesand military

Kissinger, Henry: born 1923, professor in government at Harvard University, National Security Adviser to the President from1969 to 1975, Secretary of State from 1973 to 1977, Nobel Peace Prize 1973.Brezhnev, Leonid Ilyich (1906—82): Soviet statesman, general secretary of the Communist Party (1966-82).Sandinistas: a leftist political force, named after Cesar Augusto Sandino, one of the leaders of the rebellion against the United States Marines from 1927 to 1933.


INCREASED DEFENSE SPENDING

aid, the United States supported anti-Sandinistarebels in their fight to overthrow the communistgovernment in Nicaragua. Many Congressional leaders,however, opposed President Reagan's policies inCentral America, fearing that increased involvementmight lead to war.In order to project a stronger military presence,

President Reagan increased defense spending to anunprecedented level. Between 1981 and 1986, thedefense budget rose 45 percent.

DEFENSE SPENDINGIn billions of 1982 dollars, fiscal years

DEFENSE BUILDUPFiscal years

Surface ships1981:201 1987:222Submarines1981:128 1987:139

ICBM's1981:1,0541987:1,000

Bombers1981:376 1987:315

Tanks1981:12,821 1987: 14,296

7980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988

ARMY NAVY Ш AIR FORCE И OTHER*

'includes expenses for joint services and for the office of secretary of defense

Defense outlays for all services,including the secretary's office,have increased by $89 billion, or nearly 45%

Ш

SPACE-BASED MISSILES

RENEWED ARMS TALKS

As part of his plan to increase U.S. militarystrength, President Reagan also proposed thedevelopment of a new space-based defense, known asthe Strategic Defense Initiative ("Star Wars"). Thissystem would be able to shoot down Soviet missilesbefore they could reach the United States. Critics,including the Soviets, argue that the plan can neverbe completely effective and fear that development ofspace-based missiles will only escalate the armsrace.Despite sharp differences on arms control, the two

nations reopened arms talks under the Reaganadministration. Progress, however, was slow. TheStrategic Arms Reduction Talks (START) were begun in1982 but ended when the Soviets walked out a yearand a half later in response to the NATO deploymentof Pershing missiles in West Germany.


THE MIDDLE EAST

U.S. RESPONSIBILITY

In 1985, the United States and the Soviet Unionresumed arms control talks in Geneva, Switzerland todiscuss medium-range, long-range, and space-basedmissiles.Progress toward arms reduction was finally reached

in 1987, when President Reagan and Premier Gorbachevsigned a tentative agreement to limit intermediate-range nuclear forces (INF) in Europe.Since 1947, conflicts arising out of rivalry

between the two superpowers have dominated worldaffairs. In recent decades, however, global power hasbecome somewhat less polarized as other nations andregions have gained power and influence. Both theSoviet Union and the United States acknowledge adegree of dependence on the Middle East, whichsupplies most of the world's oil. The delicateconflicts of this region have become an importantfocus of American foreign policy.The United States has become involved in Middle East

conflicts for several reasons: First, the UnitedStates wants to protect the world's oil supply.Second, it wants to maintain a friendlyrelationship with Israel, its most reliable ally inthe region. Third, the United States wants to limitthe influence of the Soviet Union in the area.These interests are difficult to secure. By

supporting Israel, the United States may anger Araboil-producing states. By seeking good relations withArab states, it compromises its support for Israel.Nevertheless, the United States has attempted to

represent its interests by negotiating peacesettlements, supplying arms, and sending militaryforces. As a negotiator, the United States helpedIsrael and Egypt reach an historic peace agreementin 1979. American leaders have tried to gain favorwith Saudi Arabia and Jordan, two moderate nationsin the region, by selling advanced military weapons.The sale of arms to Arab nations was controversialbecause it meant that the United States was helpingsustain Arab-Israeli conflict by appearing to supportboth sides. In 1982, the United States tried tocontrol fighting in Lebanon by sending militarytroops to keep peace and distance between feudingfactions. This military effort was unsuccessful, andtroops were withdrawn in 1984. In 1987, Americaincreased its involvement in the Iran-Iraq War whenit sent warships to escort oil tankers through thebesieged Persian Gulf.Global affairs continue to be dominated by the

United Statesand theSoviet Union.Even in theMiddle East,whereconflicts havelittle to dowith democracyversuscommunism,

the actions of the two superpowers can help decidewhether peace or conflict reigns.Because of its military and economic power, theUnited States has the potential to impose solutionsby the use of force. Yet global interdependence andthe threat of nuclear confrontation increase theimportance of diplomacy to American foreign policy.The United States bears an important global re-sponsibility as it balances its national securityinterests with the need for international stabilityand peace.

Gorbachev, Mikhail: born 1931, Soviet statesman, general secretary of the Communist Party since 1985.

179

PART в Texts America & the World: Principles & Pragmatism

HENRY KISSINGER

-Henry Kissinger

AMERICA has perennially engaged in asearch of its conscience. How does our foreign policy serve moral ends? How can America serve as a humane example and champion of justice in a world in which power is still often the final arbiter? How do we reconcile ends and means,principle and survival? Today the challenge of American foreign policyis to avoid the illusion of false choices: we must live up to this

nation's moral promise while fulfilling the practical needs of world order.From its beginning, Americans

have believed this country had a moral significance that transcendedits military or economic power.

Unique among the nations of the world, America was created as a conscious act by men dedicated to aset of political and ethical principles they believed to be of universal applicability. Small wonder, then, that Santayana concluded: "To be an American is of itself almost a moral condition."But this idealism has also been

in constant tension with another deep-seated strain in our historical experience. Since Toqueville, it has been frequently observed that we are a pragmatic people — commonsensical, undogmaticand undoctrinaire, a nation of practical energy, ingenuity and spirit. We have made tolerance and compromise the basis of our domesticpolitical life. We have defined our fundamental goals — justice, liberty, equality and progress — inopen and libertarian terms, enlarging opportunity and freedom rather than coercing a uniform standard of conduct. America has been most effective internationallywhen we have combined our idealistic and our pragmatic traditions. ...America - and the community of

nations -today faces inescapable tasks:• We must maintain a secure and just peace.• We must create a cooperative and beneficialinternational order.

• We must defend the rights and thedignity ofman.Each of these challenges has both

a moral and a practical dimension. Each involves important ends, but ends that are sometimes in conflict. When that is the case, we face the real moral dilemma of foreign policy: the need to choose between valid ends and to relate our ends to means.Peace is a fundamental moral

imperative. Without it, nothing else we do or seek can ultimately have meaning. Averting the danger of nuclear war and limiting and ultimately reducing destructive nuclear arsenals is a moral as well as a political act.In the nuclear age, power politics, the struggle


1. continuedfor marginal advantages, the drive for prestige and unilateralgains must yield to an unprecedented sense of responsibility. History teaches us that balances based on constant tests of strength have always erupted into war. Common sense tells us that in the nuclear age history must not be repeated. Every President, sooneror later, will conclude with President Eisenhower that "there is no alternative to peace". But peace cannot be our only goal. Toseek it at any price would renderus morally defenseless and place the world at the mercy of the most ruthless. Mankind must do more, as Tacitus said, than "make a desert [and] call it peace."There will be no security in a

world whose obsession with peace leads to appeasement. But neitherwill there be security in a worldin which mock tough rhetoric and the accumulation of arms are the sole measure of competition. We can spare no effort to bequeath to future generations a peace more hopeful than an equilibrium of terror.In the search for peace we are

continually called upon to strikebalances — between strength and conciliation; between the need todefend our values and interests and the need to consider the views of others; between partial and total settlements.America's second moral

imperative is the growing need for global cooperation. We live in a world of more than 150 countries, each asserting sovereignty and claiming the right to realize its national aspirations. Clearly, no nation can fulfill all its goals withoutinfringing on the rights of others. Hence, compromise and common endeavors are inescapable.The growing interdependence of states in the face of the polarizing tendencies of nationalism and ideologies makes imperative the building of world community.We live in an age of division —

between East and West and between the advanced industrial nations and the developing nations. Clearly, a world in which a few nations constitute islands of

wealth in a sea of despair is fundamentally insecure and morally intolerable. Those who consider themselves dispossessed will become the seedbed of upheaval. But the tactics of confrontation with which some of the developing nations have pursued their goals are as unacceptable as they are unproductive.

The objectives of the developing nations are clear: economic development, a role in international decisions that affect them, a fair share of global economic benefits. The goals of the industrial nations are equally clear: widening prosperity, an open world system of trade, investments and marketsand reliable development of the resources of food, energy and raw materials.The process of building a new

era of international economic relationships will continue through the rest of this century.If those relationships are to be equitable and lasting, negotiations and mutual regard among diverse and contending interests will clearly be required. On the part of the industrial nations, there must bea moral commitment - now, while there is still time for conciliation - to make the sacrifices necessary to build a sense of community. On the part of the developing nations, there must be an end to blackmail and extortion - now, before the worldis irrevocably split into contending camps - and a commitment to seek progress through cooperation.Our third moral imperative is

the nurturing of human values. Itis a tragedy that the very tools of technology that have made

ours the most productive century in history have also served to subject millions to a new dimension of intimidation, suffering and fear. Individual freedom of conscience and expression is the proudest heritage of our civilization. All we do in the search for peace, for greater political cooperationand for a fair and flourishing international economy is rooted in our belief that only liberty permits the fullest expression ofmankind's creativity. Technological progress without justice mocks humanity; national unity without freedom is a hollowtriumph. Nationalism without a consciousness of human community and human rights is likely to become an instrument of oppression and a force for evil. As the world's leading democracy,it is our obligation to dedicate ourselves to assuring freedom for the human spirit. But responsibility compels also a recognition of our limits. Our alliances, the political relationships built up with othernations, serve peace by strengthening regional and world security. If well conceived, theyare not favors to others, but a recognition of common interests. They should be withdrawn when those interests change; they should not, as a general rule, be used as levers. . . .

Kissinger, Henry: see page 176.Santayana, George (1863—1952): Spanish-bom American philosopher and poet.Tocqueville, Alexis de (1805-59): French statesman and historian who traveled through the United States for eight months in 1831. His Democracy in America is one of the most important books about America.


9 American Policyin Vietnam:Peace Without Conquest

Lyndon B. JohnsonExcerpt from a speech delivered at John Hopkins University, April 7, 1965I have come here to review onceagain with my own people theviews of the American government.Tonight Americans and Asians aredying for a world where eachpeople may choose its own pathto change. This is the principlefor which our ancestors fought inthe valleys of Pennsylvania. Itis a principle for which our sonsfight tonight in the jungles ofVietnam.Vietnam is far away from this

quiet campus. We have noterritory there, nor do we seekany. The war is dirty and brutaland difficult. And some fourhundred young men, born into anAmerica that is bursting withopportunity and promise, haveended their lives on Vietnam'ssteaming soil.Why must we take this painful

road? Why must this nation hazardits ease, and its interest, andits power for the sake of apeople so far away? We fightbecause we must fight if we areto live in a world where everycountry can shape its owndestiny, and only in such a worldwill our own freedom be finallysecure. This kind of world willnever be built by bombs orbullets.The world as it is in Asia is

not a serene or peaceful place.The first reality' is that NorthVietnam has attacked theindependent nation of SouthVietnam. Its object is totalconquest. And it is a war ofunparalleled brutality'. Simplefarmers are the targets ofassassination and kidnapping.Women and children are strangledin the night because their menare loyal to their government.And helpless villages are ravagedby sneak attacks. Large-scaleraids are conducted on towns, andterror strikes in the heart ofcities.Over this war — and all Asia —is another

The misery of Vietnam

reality: the deepening shadow ofCommunist China. The rulers inHanoi are urged on by Peking.This is a regime which hasdestroyed freedom in Tibet,which has attacked India and hasbeen condemned by the UnitedNations for aggression in Korea.It is a nation which is helpingthe forces of violence in almostevery continent. The contest inVietnam is part of a widerpattern of aggressive purposes.Why are these realities our

concern? Why are we in SouthVietnam? We are there because wehave a promise to keep. Since1945 ever} American President hasoffered support to the people ofSouth Vietnam. We have helped tobuild, and we have helped todefend. Thus, over many years,we have made a national pledgeto help South Vietnam defend itsindependence. And I intend tokeep that promise.We are also there to strengthen

world order. Around the globefrom Berlin to Thailand are


2. continuedpeople whose well-being rests inpart on the belief that theycan count on us if they areattacked. To leave Vietnam toits fate would shake theconfidence of all these peoplein the value of an Americancommitment and in the value ofAmerica's world. The result wouldbe increased unrest andinstability, and even wider war.Our objective is the

independence of South Vietnam andits freedom from attack. We wantnothing for ourselves — only thatthe people of South Vietnam beallowed to guide their owncountry in their own way. We willdo everything necessary to reachthat objective. And we will doonly what is absolutelynecessary.In recent months attacks on

South Vietnam were stepped up.Thus it became necessary for

us to increase our response andto make attacks by air. This isnot a change of purpose. It is achange in what we believe thatpurpose requires. We do this inorder to slow down aggression. Wedo this to increase theconfidence of the brave people ofSouth Vietnam who have bravelyborne this brutal battle for somany years with so manycasualties. And we do this toconvince the leaders of NorthVietnam — and all who seek toshare their conquest — of a verysimple fact: We will not bedefeated. We will not growtired.We will not withdraw, either openly or under the cloak of a meaningless agreement. We will use our power with restraint and with all the wisdom that we can command. But we will use it.. . .

Vietnam: see page 15.valleys of Pennsylvania: allusion to the War of Independence.

Top Dogs and UnderdogsJ. William FulbrightAMERICA is top dog in the world and,although we may be convinced that we are good top dogs, most people around the world are convinced that there is no such thing. Because we are rich, we are perceived as voracious; because we are successful,we are perceived as arrogant; because we are strong, we are perceived as overbearing. These perceptions may be distorted and exaggerated, but they are not entirely false. Power does breed arrogance and it has bred enough in us to give some substance to the natural prejudices against us. Much to our puzzlement, people all over the world seem to discount our good intentions and to seize upon our hypocrisies, failures and transgressions. They do this not because we are Americans but becausewe are top dogs and they fear our power. They

are frightened by some of the ways in which we have used our power; they are frightened by the ways in which we might use it; and most of all, I suspect, they are frightened by the knowledge of their own inability to withstand our power, should it ever be turned upon them.They are, so to speak, tenants in the world at our sufferance, and noamount of good will on our part can ever wholly dispel the anxiety bred by the feeling of helplessness.VVhat do these feelings about

American power have to do with the war in Vietnam? They go far, I think, to explain why our war policycommands so little support in the world. Anxiety about America's greatpower predisposes people, even against their better judgment, to take satisfaction in our frustrations and


3. continuedour setbacks. The French, for example, who well understand the importance to themselves of America's weight in the world balance of power, nevertheless seem to derive some satisfaction from seeing more than half a million Americans fought to a stalemate — orworse — by a ragtag army of Asian guerrillas. Seeing the Americans cutdown to size like that is balm for the wounds of Dien Bien Phu, salve for the pride that was lost in the days of the Marshall Plan, when France survived on American generosity. If our military failuresin Vietnam have this effect on the French, as I believe they do, thinkwhat they must mean to the real underdogs of the world, to the hundreds of millions of Asians, Africans and Latin Americans who caneasily identify themselves with the Viet Cong guerillas but could never see themselves in the role of the lordly Americans. There may even be people in our own country who feel some sneaking respect for a resourceful enemy, an enemy who, in a curious and purely emotional way, may even remind them of the ragtag American revolutionaries who humbledthe mighty British Empire almost 200years ago.Such attitudes, it will be argued,

are irrational and unfair; and so, in large measure, they are. People,it will be said, should be rational and should act on their interests, not their emotions; and so, indeed,they should. But they don't. I might be able to think up some goodreasons why elephants should fly, but it would not be rewarding; elephants cannot fly and there is nothing to be done about it. So it is with men; they ought to be cool and rational and detached, but

they are not. We are, to be sure, endowed with a certain capacity forreason, but it is not nearly great enough to dispel the human legacy ofinstinct and emotion. The most we can hope to do with our fragile toolof reason is to identify, restrain and make allowance for the feelings and instincts that shape so much of our lives.That brings me to one of the most

important of the many flaws in our war policy in Vietnam — its failure to take account of people's feelingsand instincts, especially those pertaining to top dogs and underdogs. American policy asks people to believe things that they are deeply reluctant to believe. It asks them to believe that the world's most powerful nation is notonly strong but motivated by deeply benevolent and altruistic instincts,unrelated even to national interests. Even if that were true — and on occasion it probably has beentrue — nobody would believe it, because nobody would want to believeit. ...Rich and powerful though our

country is, it is not rich or powerful enough to shape the course of world history in a constructive or desired direction solely by the impact of its power and policy. Inevitably and demonstrably, our major impact on the world is not in what we do but in what we are. For all their worldwide influence, our aid and our diplomacy are only the shadow of America; the real America — and the real American influence — is something else. It is the way ourpeople live, our tastes and games, our products and preferences, the way we treat one another, the way we govern ourselves, the ideas about man and man's relations with other men that took root and flowered in the American soil.

Marshall Plan: see page 175.Viet Cong: cf. Vietnam War, page 15.ragtag: badly-behaved.Fulbright, ]. William: born 1905, American educator and political leader, chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee (1959-74).


Published by American Enterprise Institute

Feb/March 1986

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ExportingAmericanCulture

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Our Music, Movies, Campaign Techniques,Our Values plus more in Opinion Roundup, page 30


Exporting American Culture

Richard Burt, our young-at-heart ambassador to West Germany,recently startled the diplomatic community there with his

rendition of tworock and roll classics, "Teenager in Love" and "Tell Me"—both

sung in aWest Berlin recording studio to the accompaniment of a local

group calledthe "Subtones." Surprising as such a performance was to German

diplomats,it actually played to an American strength. American popular

culture,in fact, may be an emissary as important as Ambassador Burt

himself—or any ambassador for that matter.

Around the world, people hum American tunes, line up forAmerican movies, and demand American television programs, even

as theyderide them. Clint Eastwood packs them in in France, andBruce Springsteen brings them to their feet in Germany.

Alexis Carrington is loved and loathed from London to Monaco.

And after the movies, or between miniseries, citizens abroad can lace

up their Nikes and jog off to the local McDonald's or BurgerKing

for a hamburguesa and a shake. Or, if it's a leisurelycontinental breakfast

they want in, say, Thailand, they can hole up in any of fifteenDunkin' Donuts shops with a cup of coffee and a good book—

What They Don't Teach You at Harvard Business School, perhaps,the best seller in Bangkok. Much as some nations deplore what

has been calledthe "Coca-colonization" of their cultures, their citizens adore

Coca-Colaitself—and its major competitor, Pepsi.

For those who demand a little culture from American culture, there areArtistic Ambassadors—young American pianists who

play newly commissioned pieces of American music. Add tothese the Fulbright scholars, the

political consultants, and the foreign exchange students, andyou have a

collection of some of the best traveling salesmen around. Theseexpressions

of America are explored by Richard Grenier, Tim Page, JohnRussonello,

and Jack Valenti in the pages that follow. More on the Americancultural

roadshow appears in Opinion Roundup, pages 30-35.

PUBLIC OPINION, FEBRUARY/MARCH 1986 VAS and KHK

Burt, Richard: born 1947, American journalist and diplomat,ambassador to West Germany from 1985 to 1989.Eastwood, Clint: born 1930, American movie star. He became knownthrough the CBS Western series Rawhide and gainedinternational recognition in Sergio Leone's trio ofItalian-made Westerns.Springsteen, Bruce: see page 242.Carrington, Alexis: character in the TV series "Dynasty."Nike: tradename of sport shoes.Fulbright scholar: recipient of a U.S. government scholarship sponsored by Senator J.W. Fulbright for graduate study abroad.

186

PART C Exercises

1. Text AnalysisAmerica & the World: Principle & Pragmatism1. Kissinger discusses

idealism andpragmatism. Define these termsaccording tothe information given in the text.

2. In his essay, Kissinger deals with war,disorder and conflict on the one hand, andwith peace, order and appeasement on theother. Find the various wordsandexpressions which are characteristic of thesepolarizing fields.

3. Among the stylistic and rhetorical figuresused by the author, we find metaphors,antitheses, parallelism and accumulation.What is the function of these devices? Make alist of examples.

2. Text AnalysisAmerican Policy in Vietnam: Peace Without Conquest1. Lyndon B. Johnson, President of the U.S.from 1963 to 1968, delivered this speech,which was broadcast nationwide, at JohnsHopkins University on April 7,1965. Thiswas a few months after American militaryinvolvement had increased dramatically,when U.S. bombers had raided NorthVietnam. What, do you think, was the mainpurpose of the President's

speech in thissituation?

2. In his address, Johnson defines America'srole in Southeast Asia. Read through the textagain and find out all the reasons he gives forAmerica's commitment in Vietnam. How arethese reasons related to each other?

3. Johnson was obviously awareof the fact thathis military policies did not meet withapproval from all Americans. Show how heuses rhetorical devices like comparison,images and parallelism to convince theaudience that his policy is right.

4.Make a list of all the words and phrases usedin order to describe violence and aggressionin Asia in the fourth and fifth paragraphs.What is the effect the speaker wants toachieve by this enumeration ofexpressionsof violence?

5. At the end of the third paragraph, Johnsonpoints out that a free and secure world "willnever be built by bombs and bullets." Lateron, however, he speaks about American airraids. How does he justify those attacks? Doyou find his way of arguing convincing?

3. ComprehensionTop Dogs and UnderdogsDetermine which of the followingstatements agree with the text. Correct the false statements.1. The way Americans see themselves ismarkedly different from the way they areseen by others.

2. The distortions and exaggerations whichcan often be found in the perceptions ofAmericans by people all over the worldcannot be substantiated at all.

3. The underdogs' fear of thetop dogs' powermakes many people dwell on the negativesides of Americans.

4. It is the anxiety of the less powerful ratherthan rational consideration that makespeople derive satisfaction from the plight ofthe Americans in Vietnam.

5. Only the French, who suffered a similardefeat in Dien Bien Phu, do not show somekind of malicious joy when half a million

American soldiers do not stand a chance ofwinning the war against the Asian guerillas.

6. The Viet Cong guerillas arouse moresympathies among the underdogs of theworld than the American soldiers.

7. The fight of the American soldiers inVietnam is sometimes even compared withthat of the American revolutionaries 200years ago.


8. Although at present the attitude towardsAmericans is largely emotional andirrational, in the long run, rational thinkingwill get the upper hand.

9. If American politicians had considered thepsychological implications of therelationship between top dogsandunderdogs, they would have understood thecriticism America's involvement in Vietnamaroused outside the U.S.A.

10. Senator Fulbright argues that Americans should exert an influence on others not bydisplaying their power abroadbut by setting a positive example through their way of life at home.

4. Visual ComprehensionExporting American CultureIn its February/March 1986 issue, the American magazine Public Opinion dealt with "ExportingAmerican Culture." Have a look at the collage shown on the front page and identify as manyfacets of American culture as possible.

6. InterviewingMany of the cultural influences mentioned in the introduction toPublic Opinion are rather accidental. A more comprehensiveimpression of American culture is left on foreigners who have actually been to the United States. Among the numerous exchange programs for young people, American Field Service International (AFS) and Youth for Understanding (YFU) areespecially well known. AFS was founded in 1947 and organized 10,000 student exchanges among 70 countries in 1985. YFU, founded in 1951, hosted 4,000 foreign high school students in America and sent 2,500 American high school students abroad in 1986/7.Try and find somebody who has

taken part in a student exchangewith the United States or has lived there for some time. Ask him/her about the aspect of American culture that he/she found and still finds most striking.

5. DiscussionWhich aspects of American culture can you find in your own city or country?What do your friends think about

the American cultural influence inyour country?How do you personally feel about it?

и EducationPART A Background Information

SCHOOL Every American is entitled to an education. Schoolattendance is compulsory

ATTENDANCE for all children. Students attend school five toseven hours a day, five days a

week for nine months each year, from September to June. Publiceducation

from kindergarten through grade 12 is tax-supported; no tuition isrequired.

The System of Education in the U.S.A.

HIGHER EDUCATION

Technical Institute

PrivateCareerSchool

JuniorCollege

Postgraduate StudiesGraduate Studies

Undergraduate Studies

"Doctor's Degree (e.g. Ph.D.)

Master's Degree (e.g. M.A., M.S.)

"""Bachelor's Degree (e.g. B.A., B.S.)

SECONDARY EDUCATION 4-year

High School

Senior High

School Junior

High School

High School Diploma

ELEMENTARY EDUCATION

Elementary School

Kindergarten

Nursery School

Grade(= School Year)

Age

EDUCATION 189

About 85 percent of American children attend publicschools. The other 15 percent choose to pay tuitionto attend private schools. Most private schools arerun by religious organizations and generally includereligious instruction. Since 1940, the educationsystem in the United States has made significantadvances in educating an ever greater proportion ofthe population. A 1985 Census Bureau study reportedthat in 1940 only 38 percent of those between theages of 25 and 29 had received a high school diplomaand only 6 percent had college degrees. In 1985, 86percent of those surveyed said they had high schooldiplomas and 22 percent said they had collegedegrees. A 1981 survey showed that almost 32 percentof Americans 25 years or older had at least somecollege education. This contrasts with 17.3 percentof East Germans, 17.2 percent of Canadians, 15.5percent of Swedes, and 14.5 percent of Japanese.

1984 Percent of High School Graduates (18-24 years old) Enrolled in College I

Hispani

cs

Blacks

Whites

1980

1974

20% 30% 40%

VARIED OPPORTUNITIES

Educational opportunities in the United Statesare highly varied. High school students at the samegrade level do not take the same courses. Studentswho do not plan to go to college may be enrolled inclasses such as basic accounting, typing, oragricultural science, along with "core" curriculumcourses such as mathematics, social studies,science, and English. College-bound students may beenrolled in college-preparatory courses such aschemistry, political science, or advanced writing.Which courses a student takes depends on his or

her abilities and future goals, but also on theparticular course offerings of the school. Someelementary schools offer computer and foreignlanguage courses. Courses in scuba diving or Russianare available at some high schools.In higher education, the wide variety of degree

programs is remarkable. Besides colleges anduniversities which offer degrees in traditionalfields of scholarship, there are also small artscolleges which grant degrees to students whoconcentrate in specialized fields such as ballet,film-making, and even circus performing.Besides the diversified course offerings at all

levels, variety also exists in schools' academicstandards and reputations. The standards studentsmust meet to attain a high school diploma arerigorous in some schools and lax in others. The sameis true for college admission standards. Highlyreputable


DECENTRALIZED FUNDING AND ADMINISTRATION

CURRICULUM

DEMOCRATIC IDEAL

INEQUALITIES IN EDUCATION

PRESIDENT JOHNSON'S GREAT SOCIETY

colleges such as Harvard and Yale accept onlystudents of exceptional ability. At the other end ofthe spectrum are less desirable institutions,sometimes negatively referred to as "degreefactories," which accept practically any high schoolgraduate.The main reason for such diversity in course

offerings and standards is that there is no nationaleducation system in the United States. In publicschools, decisions about school curriculum, teachercertification, and student achievement standards aremade by boards of education at the state and/ordistrict level. Spending for public education isalso determined by state and local educationleaders.Accordingly, education standards and requirements

differ from state to state. For example, New Yorkadministers standardized competency tests tostudents. In some states, the selection of textbooksis decided by local officials, whereas in otherstates, textbook selection is made by state educationofficials. Some school systems require that a highschool student complete three years of mathematicsbefore graduation. The national average, however, islower.Although there is no national curriculum, certain

subjects are generally taught in all public schoolsystems across the country. Almost every elementaryschool instructs children in penmanship, science,mathematics, music, art, physical education,language arts (which includes reading, writing, andgrammar), and social studies (which includesgeography, history, and citizenship).Most secondary schools require students to takeEnglish, mathematics, science, social studies, andphysical education. In addition to this "core"curriculum, students choose "elective" courses intheir areas of interest.Traditionally, the American educational ideal has

been to offer equal opportunity for education to allcitizens. The education system can boast that nowmore than 95 percent of all fourteen- to seventeen-year-olds attend high school compared with only 50percent in 1930, and that America produces propor-tionately more college graduates than any industrialnation. Yet the education that each student receivesis by no means equal.The fact that public schools receive the bulk of

their funds from local property taxes createsinequalities. Rural farming communities and poorinner-city districts have less money available forschool buildings, learning materials, and teachersalaries. More money is spent for the education of achild living in a wealthy district than a child

living in apoorcommunity.Thedemocraticideal ofprovidingequaleducation forall citizenshas been hardto satisfy.To eliminate

inequalities,the federalgovernmenthas increasedits share ofschoolfinancing andnowcontributesbetween 10and 15percent.Despite thisinjection offederalmoney,spending perpupil variesconsiderably,from $1,300 ayear inMississippito $2,400 ayear inMassachusetts.The first

majorcontributionof federalaid foreducation wasin 1965 whenPresidentLyndon B.Johnsonproposed newprograms ashisinstrumentfor realizinghis liberalhope for a"GreatSociety" ofgreaterequality andless poverty.His new

federal programs, backed by 1.3 billion dollars, wereinitiated to provide remedial schooling for childrenfrom poor families. One plan that was established inthe spirit of equality was the Economic OpportunityAct, which provides money for adult literacyprograms and pre-school education for poor children.Another was the Higher Education Act, which offersgovernment scholarships to needy college students.

EDUCATION 191

DESEGREGATION Children being "bussed" to school in Boston. Opposition in the local white community was so strong that police were brought in from other states.

The discrimination against blacks which prohibitedblack children from attending white schools wasfinally declared unconstitutional by the SupremeCourt in the 1954 landmark case, Brown v. the Board of Educationof Topeka. Subsequent court decisions ordered schools tobegin desegregation immediately. During the 1960s,Congress passed laws denying federal aid to schooldistricts that failed to comply with the ruling.Another measure introduced to speed up integration

was the compulsory "bussing" of black children toschools in white areas and white children to schoolsin black neighborhoods. Before the Brown case, schoolsfor blacks were not only separate but unequal. Threetimes as much money was spent per pupil in whiteschools as in black schools. In the deep South, itwas five times as much.The attempts of the last 30 years to achieve fully

integrated schools have resulted in successes andfailures. In some cities, compulsory bussing hasworked. Yet in many areas, people reacted stronglyagainst it. When bussing was first introduced as away to achieve integrated schools, whites begansending their children to private schools or movedto the suburbs.Although progress has been slow, integration has

succeeded in narrowing the education gap betweenblacks and whites. The dropout rate among black highschool students has declined significantly. U.S.Census Bureau statistics show that the dropout rateamong blacks declined from over 22 percent in 1970 to16 percent in 1980 and to 12.6 percent in 1985.

Brown v. the Board of Education: see page 113.bussing: carrying students by bus to a school in a different area where the pupils are of a different race, especially as a compulsory integration measure.


PROTECTING THE HANDICAPPED

NEED FOR QUALITYEDUCATION

A NATION AT RISK

In the 1970s, measures to protect minorities fromdiscrimination were extended to handicapped children.Because public schools were ill-equipped to handletheir special needs, handicapped children used tohave to attend expensive private schools. In 1971,federal courts ruled that public schools should takemeasures to accommodate handicapped children.Aside from the schools' task of socializing and

equalizing youngsters of different social, cultural,and economic backgrounds, schools have the obvioustask of providing quality instruction. The public'sconcern for better schools and more learning isincreasing as results of standardized tests show acontinual decline in students' academic achievement.The 1983 report, A Nation at Risk, by the National

Commission on Excellence in Education asserted: "Theeducation foundations of our society are presentlybeing eroded by a rising tide of mediocrity." Thefollowing statistics of the report bear out thisclaim:• 13 percent of all seventeen-year-olds in the UnitedStates are functionallyilliterate;

• among minority teenagers, the figure may be as highas 40 percent;• average achievement of high school students on moststandardized tests islower than in the mid-1950s;

• reading, writing, and math skills are so poor among young people thatemployers have spent millions of dollars on remedialeducation and trainingprograms for their employees.The commission's recommendations for improving

student achievement, widely supported by the public,include the following points: 1. stronger academiccurricula, with a back-to-basics emphasis on reading,writing, math, and science; 2. stricter standards forstudents, including a heavier homework load andhigher grading standards; 3. higher salaries toattract and keep talented, well-qualified teachers.By its democratic standard, America has succeeded

in educating the many and has made gains in eveningout inequalities. The challenge for Americaneducation today is to improve the quality of learningwithout sacrificing these gains.

193

PART в Texts

0American Educational Philosophies

by Diane Ravitch.

SINCE THE MIDDLE 1940S, AMERICAN schools have been at the center of a tug of war between competing educational philosophies. With striking regularity, educational policy has swung from domination by "progressives" to domination by "traditionalists" in roughly ten-year periods....

Progressivism in the late 1940s was called "life adjustment education" by friend and foe alike. ... It judged every subject by its everyday utility, substituting radio repair for physics, business English for the classics, and consumer arithmetic foralgebra. Under the rubric of life adjustment education, schools were encouraged to merge traditional subjects like English and history with health and guidance to create "common learning" courses, in which students could examine their personal and social problems.

Beginning in 1949, critics complained that "how-to" courses and socio-personal adjustment had been substituted for history, science, mathematics, foreign languages, and literature. Life adjustmenteducation was condemned by some because it was anti-intellectual, and by othersbecause it aimed to teach group conformity. ...

After the Russians orbited Sputnik in 1957, the national press was filled with indictments of American schools for ignoring science and mathematics. The Russian's feat served as evidence for

many of the critic's worst complaints about the softness of American education. ...

During the late 1950s and early 1960s, educators shifted their focus from "meeting the needs of the whole child" to "excellence". Programs were developed to identify talented youth at an early age and to speed their way through rigorous courses inhigh school and college.... The political climate, typified by the brief presidency of John F. Kennedy, also stimulated the popular belief that theidentification of talent and the pursuit of excellence were appropriateeducational goals. Part of Kennedy's image was the idea that youth, talent, intelligence, and educationcould right society's problems. The drive for excellence was in high gear during the early 1960s, andenrollment in advanced courses and foreign languages rose steadily, along with standardized test scores. The sudden andremarkably quiet disappearance of the "pursuit of excellence" in the mid-1960s showed how dependent it was on the sociopolitical climate. A series of cataclysmic events shook national self-confidence: violence against blacks and civil rights workers in the South; Kennedy's assassination; the rediscovery of poverty; American involvement in Vietnam. By 1965, the nation's competition with the Soviets for world supremacy had lost its motivating power. As the Cold War appeared to fade, students in elite universities — the


1. continuedpresumed beneficiaries of the post-Sputnik years — protested against technology, against the middle-class values of their parents, and againstthe meritocratic pressuresof an achievement-orientedsociety. ...Responding to changes in the social and cultural milieu, educators sought to adapt the schools to thenew conditions and to placate their numerous critics. The innovation that had the most influence in the public schools was the open education movement.The open education philosophy answered perfectly the need for a set of educational values to fit the countercultural mood of the late 1960s; it stimulated participatory democracy; it justified theequal sharing of power between the authority figure (the teacher) and the students; it made a positive virtue of nonassertive leadership; and it insisted that children should study only what they wanted. At the high-school level, the openphilosophy led to dropping of requirements, adoption of mini-courses, schools-without-walls, and alternative schools.On paper, open education wasideal. Once it was put intopractice, the problems

appeared. Many schools removed classroom walls, hired open educators, sent their veteran teachers to workshops to be retrained, and provisioned classrooms with the obligatory gerbilsand sensory, tactile materials. Despite their training, some teachers couldn't handle the open-ended situation; children wandered about aimlessly, got into fights, demanded that the teacher tell themwhat to do. In some districts, parents complained bitterly that their children couldn't read, that the classroom was chaotic, and that there was no homework. By the mid-1970s, the open education movement had goneinto decline. ...The swing away from open education was hastened by the public reaction to thenews in 1975 that score onthe Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) had dropped steadily since 1963. Regardless of explanations blaming such factors as Vietnam, Watergate, drugs, the effect of television, and working mothers, a substantial part of the public believed that the decline of standards in the school was primarily responsible for lower test scores. The College Board's1977 report on the score drop confirmed that part ofthe drop was in fact due to lowered standards, gradeinflation, absenteeism, andthe widespread decline of critical reading and careful writing.

Ravitch, Diane: associate professor of History and Educationat Teachers College, Columbia University.Scholastic Aptitude Test: (SAT), standardized admission test for college. Watergate: see page 29.

EDUCATION 195

What Makes Great Schools Great

A Tough School Pays Off^^^■^^^нн LOS ANGELESBy 8:01 a.m. at the inner-citycampus of Thomas Jefferson HighSchool, students already have learnedthe first lesson about attendingclasses here: Be on time.Starting at 7:30, Principal Francis

Nakano is standing by to greet theschool's nearly 2,000 predominantlyHispanic and black students as theyarrive. Promptly at 8, Nakano locksthe gates to keep out unwantedvisitors.Tardy students are screened by

security personnel and sent to aholding room to wait for one periodso that they won't disrupt classesfor others. Students who are latethree times in one month are assignedto 20 minutes of work cleaning up thecampus."Now, we have students running to

classes," says Alberta Moss, whoheads the tardiness program. FromFebruary, the monthly number of latestudents dropped from 1,049 — morethan half of the school — to 430 inMay.Getting students to school on time

is only one of the disciplinarymeasures adopted by the 46-year-oldNakano that have changed the fortunesof a troubled campus. When Nakano, athird-generation Japanese American,came to Jefferson High two years ago,he found a graffiti-marred campusthat openly showed its latest scars:The blackened hulls of threeadministrative offices gutted by fire.Students freely roamed halls thatcrackled with an ever present threatof gang violence about to explode."Climate for learning." Nakano

immediately masterminded an overhaulof the buildings. "When people feelsafe, you have a climate forlearning," he says. The burned-outarea was sealed from view, and a new$85,000 full fire-and-security alarmsystem was installed.An aging sprinkler system was

repaired, bringing back green grassand fresh plants to the campus.Students felt proud of their schoolagain.There have been no gang fights on

campus for 18 months, observes EricParker, who becomes student-bodypresident this fall. Unlike before,he says, "I'm not

afraid any day I go to school. Dr.Nakano is trying to make school agood place."With physical changes has come a

renewed attention to learning. Topscholars are recognized at an annualacademic banquet where they receiveOlympic-style medals for theirefforts. Honors programs were startedlast year at each of the three gradelevels in English.Still, serious academic problems

remain. Standardized test scoresremain low, although the percentageof students scoring in the bottomquarter has steadily declined."Sixty percent of our 10th graders

read at fifth-grade level от below,"says Barbara Shealy, head of theEnglish department. "But we'regetting kids who care more aboutschool and are willing to work."

Principal Nakano has brought order to Jefferson High School.


2. continuedAbout 225 sophomores with low scores

will enter the 8-month-old SchoolWithin a School program this fall.Participants sign learning contractsin which they accept responsibilityfor their own progress in exchangefor special individual instruction.More parents are coming to once

sparsely attended school meetings,and local business is activelylending its support. Last spring,Hughes Aircraft Company provided a"quality circles" training programto help teachers identify andpropose solutions to school problems.The Knudsen Corporation, a large

dairy 3 miles from campus, provideson-site internships to students anddonates dairy products for schoolfund-raising events. One morning whenschool officials needed paint to covergraffiti, the dairy delivered itwithin an hour.In a school once plagued by fear and

hopelessness, teachers, students andthe community again believe thatanything is possible.

Going First ClassiGLENVIEW,

Glenbrook South High School is amicrocosm of the successful suburbanChicago community that surrounds it.According to 1980 Census Bureau

figures, Glenview, with a populationof about 31,000, boasted the ninth-highest median income of all cities inthe country. Large corporations basedhere, such as Zenith and publisherScott Foresman, further boost thelocal tax base. As a result, perpupil spending at Glenbrook South isnearly $6,000 — about twice the stateand national average. "If there's alesson to be learned here," saysHarry Gottlieb,

mm -...- —«-^ ^».Innovations at Glenbrook South make classes stimulating.

a 1983 graduate now attending BrownUniversity, "it's that putting moneyinto education is worthwhile."The district has spared little

expense in making learning attractive.The sleek two-story structure offersan indoor swimming pool and agreenhouse for its 2,100 students.The curriculum guide, which exceeds

100 pages, offers more than 200courses, ranging from automotive re-pair to a special program of advancedstudy in English, social studies andforeign languages. A full timestudent-activities co-ordinatorsurveys students annually to seewhich extracurricular clubs should beexpanded or dropped.Ready funding also has enabled the

school to be at the forefront ofeducational innovations. The firstcomputer was installed at GlenbrookSouth in 1968. Today, the school hasa microcomputer lab with 22computers, a minicomputer with 24terminals and one of the fewadvanced-placement computer-sciencecourses in the nation. Students caneven use computers to compose musicor simulate scientific experiments."There is something here for every

student," says Associate PrincipalDavid Smith. "We put as much emphasison the lower-level student as on thegifted student."Success-oriented. Like the community

in which it is located, GlenbrookSouth is geared toward success. Morethan 80 percent of last year'sgraduates went on to two and four-year colleges. "The kids areachievers because their parents areall achievers," says senior StephanieCotell. "Everybody is reallymotivated."The emphasis on achievement at home

and school presents problems for manystudents in their first year. To helpyoung people cope, the school since1973 has offered a peer-groupcounseling program in which upper-classmen help freshmen deal withpersonal and academic adjustments.More than two thirds of the freshmenparticipate.Students also appreciate the

individual attention many teachersgive. Says Lisa Kivirist, student-council president: "A teacher I hadfor freshman history still keeps intouch with me and asks how I'm doing.I like that."Because of the bounteous working

environment and an attractive to/>salary of about $42,000 forteachers, the staff turnover rate islow. But an emphasis on innovation,with the financial wherewithal tosupport it, keeps staff stabilityfrom turning stale."Things are constantly changing

around here," says English teacherTom Valentin. "There's always a newapproach, a new program. We're always

aiming a little higher, pushing forimprovement."By LUCIA SOLORZANO witr JUANITA R HOGUE, SARAH

PETERSON, DOUGLAS С LYONS and MICHAEL BOSC

U.S. NEWS & WORLD REPORT, Aug. 27, 1984

honors program: special program for more academically-minded students.

EDUCATION 197

An American Senior High School

An American student talks about his high school

Quincy Senior High School, Quincy, Illinois

Quincy, Illinois, is a typical midwestern town of about 50,000 inhabitants. It is.situated 120 miles north of St. Louis, the nearest big city. Quincy Senior High with a student population of1,900 is the only public senior high school in the town and it also draws students from the surrounding region.

Q: Alan, which high school do you attend?A: I attend Quincy Senior High School

m Quincy, Illinois. I've been therefor four years, and I'm in thetwelfth grade.

0: What are the subjects required inyour four years of high school?

A: Well, in my four years of highschool I have to complete twentycredits, one in math, three inhistory, three in English, threeand a half in P.E., a half inhealth and one year of science.And that adds up to twelvecredits. The other eight wereoptional and I could take more ofany one subject such as math,history or I could take other

subjects such as psychology orcomputers, or so on.

Q: And what are your subjects now?A: My present subjects now are math,

English, German, computers,business law and one study hourwhich normally would be P.E. But Irun track after school and sotherefore I take a study hallinstead of P.E.

Besides sports there are alsoseveral other activities afterschool such as band, drama club,theater, chess club, many otherclubs such as German club andSpanish club and so forth.

Q: What does your schedule look like?A: Well, I attend school between YÔ

and 2.20 every day and in thattime period I have" six hour-classes and a thirty-minute breakfor lunch. And between each classI've five-minute breaks.

Q: Can you tell me anything about thetests and examinations at yourschool?

A: Well, we have many different kindsof tests. Usually we have essaytests, multiple choice tests. Thenthere are other tests such asquizzes and oral examinations suchas book reports and speeches andsuch.

Q: What about homework?A: It's different with every teacher.

Some teachers like to give lots ofhomework and others don't give thatmuch. !t just depends upon theirteaching style.

Q: How do teachers evaluate theperformance of students?

A: Well, usually a teacherevaluates^the performance bywritten tests equalling fifty percent of the grade, oral tests andquizzes as forty per cent andhomework as ten per cent. And thenusually we write a large papertwice a year called the term paperand that also adds mto the grade.


3. continued0: Is there a strict code of conduct at your school?0:A: Each student receives a detailed

student handbook which therein has the rights and responsibilities A: governing smoking, lavatory use, language -obscene or vulgar - what may and may not be brought to school,such as radios or weapons or drugs. There are also rules concerning absenteeism Q: and tardiness toclass and the penalties such as A: detention, in-school suspension, out-of-school suspension and expulsion.I know these rules sound really strict, and they are a bit, but for the most part they're common sense. And

the atmosphere isn't as bad as itsounds. It is not a prison. It'sactually quite relaxed and quitefriendly. What part of the schoollife at Quincy would you be criticalof?Well, as a whole I like Quincy High a lot and if I could change one thing, it would probably be the breaks between class. I think they are too short. Five minutes isn't enough time to get from one class to the other. What do you like best about your school? Well, I like Quincy High a lot. I like the teachers the best. They're good teachers and they're easy to get along with. I also like the fact that Quincy is a bigger school because that gives me more opportunities in sports and in thevariety of classes that I can take.

Attendance Policy & Procedures

Quincy Senior High Attendance Policy for 1984—85

Improved attendance is a major goal for Quincy Senior High School because it means students should learn more and get better grades. The efforts of the past school year on the part of students, parents and school staff yielded a decrease in absences from 9.3% in 1983 to 7.3% in 1984. In actual days this means that the average student missed 16.3 days in 1983 and 12.8 days in 1984 [...] We are very happy about this trend, but we know we can do better. Even our current improved record wouldn't be acceptable to employers.Poor attendance affects

learning and earned grades the most for those students who miss 20 days or more during the schoolyear. With this in mind, our attendance policy in 1984-85 insists that students attend class a given number of days before credit in the course is allowed. Our faculty feels strongly that students who miss class excessively miss so much content that it is very difficultto make up outside class. ...When a student reaches 12 class

absences in a semester at Quincy Senior High, we believe that too much class time has been missed to justify granting credit for the course. When a student has 12 absences or more, his or her grade will become "incomplete". This means that credit is suspended until certain requirements are met. To change this "incomplete" to a credit-bearing grade will require much responsibility on the student's part to change the attendance pattern and meet other obligations set by the school, students and parents.

Of course, there will be some special circumstances where exceptions will need to be made in the interest of fairness. The Illinois School Code, in Section 122:26-1, gives school officials the right to excuse a student temporarily. Within the guidelines of the school code, this policy will be implemented fairly for students who have medical excuses from a doctor andother extenuating circumstances which contribute to absences which can't be avoided.The following reasons for

absences are included in the 12 absence limit. These are classified as excused absences asfar as makeup work is concerned. Most students should miss less than 6 days a year for these reasons.1.Illness of the student.2.Serious illness in the family.3.Death in family.4.Approved emergency needs at home.5.Absences which have been

arranged byparents prior to the student's absence.Tardiness, or being late to

class, is also a bad habit for students to develop. When a student is tardy three times, it will be counted as a one-day absence.Skipping classes or being

unexcused is a more serious type of absence. These absences count more heavily toward the 12-day limit. Each class absence for skipping or an unexcused reason counts the same as 3 days excused absence toward the limit of 12.. . .

EDUCATION 199

In a 1984 opinion poll student leaders were asked to qualify the public schools in the U.S.A. The statistics show their answers to five

key questions.

What letter grade would yougive to the overall quality of education you are receiving at your school?

The single most important action my school could take to improve my education is:

A (excellent)............28.1%В (good).................57.2%С (average)..............13.4%D(fair).................. 1.1%F(poor).................. 0.2%

щщ What letter grade would yougive to ^J the overall qualityof your teachers?

A (excellent)............14.1%B(good)..................55.3%С (average)..............26.2%D(fair).................. 4.2%F(poor).................. 0.3%

More money could be spent best in my school by:Q

Buying better textbooks andinstructional materials..47.3%

Raising all teachers' salaries..........................23.2%Raising the salaries of a fewsuperior teachers.......18.1%

Extending the school day. .2.6%Other.....................12.9%

Raise the quality of teachers..........................50.0%Make classwork morechallenging.............26.3%

Improve discipline........14.0%Extend the school day..... 2.3%Other.....................12.3%

The biggest problem with the quality of teachers today is:Q

They fail to make subject matterinteresting.............56.1%

They do not challenge studentstowork harder in class.....22.2%

They cannot maintain disciplineinthe classroom............10.6%

They do not have a good graspoftheir subject matter.....8.7%

Other.....................13.1%

Note: Percentage totals mayexceed 100 because some studentsgave more than one response tocertain questions.


UNIVERSITIESIN TRANSITION

By David Riesman

The following text is taken from an essay in the Wilson Quarterly which deals with some fundamental changes at American universities duringthe 1970s. Although the explosive activism on university campuses during the 1960s gave that decade the greatest press coverage, Professor Riesman claims that the 1970s have brought about a more significant change in higher education. He sees the reasons for this in the large-scale tuition subsidies granted by Congress in 1972 and the active recruitment of blacks and other minorities which have brought eleven million students of all races and social backgrounds into U.S. universities.

Students at Bostcm University

he sheer diversityof American highereducation, so

baffling to foreigners,baffles many Americansas well. There were, atlast official count,3,075 accreditedcolleges anduniversities in theUnited States. Many ofthem have their own se-parate lobbies inWashington: thecommunity colleges, theland-grant schools andother stateuniversities, theformer teachers'colleges and regionalstate universities, thepredominantly blackschools, the privatecolleges. Not tomention women's schoolsand Catholic schools,and schools affiliatedwith dozens of otherreligiousdenominations. . .. Atthe end of World War II,approximately half ofthe 1.5 million collegeand university studentsin the United Stateswere educated inprivate institutions,the other half in stateor locally supportedschools. Today, privatecolleges educate barelyone-fifth of the 11million Americanstudents.

T

... it is not simplytuition that has takenprivate schools out ofthe market, for

inflation spreads its penalties — andwindfalls — all too evenly. There are stillmillions of Americans who have enough, couldsave enough, or could safely borrow enough tosend their children even to the mostexpensive private college. ...At the heart of the problem is the fact

that, as our culture becomes "democratized",the idea of attending a private school hascome to

EDUCATION 201

6. continuedseem unnatural andanachronistic to manypeople. . ..Among one group of

victims of thisegalitarianism - theexclusively privatesingle-sex colleges —panic has beenspreading since thelate 1950s. ... It hasbecome an increasinglyidiosyncratic choice toattend the few single-sex schools thatremain. One element ofAmerican diversity isthus being lost -as isan opportunity for someyoung people who wouldbenefit, for a time,from not having tocompete /ith or for theopposite sex. Yetopportunity to chooseis supposed to be oneof the very essentialsof democratization....Advocates of public

higher education claimthat there is virtuallyno innovation to befound in the privatesector that cannot alsobe duplicated in thepublic sector. Andindeed, the publicschools are often lessmonolithic than isoften thought. TheUniversity of Califor-nia, with its eightcampuses, offersstudents everythingfrom small-collegeclusters in ruralsettings of greatnatural beauty (SantaCruz) to large urbanuniversities (Los

Angeles). And EvergreenState College, begun 10years ago in Olympia,Washington, is moreavowedly experimentalthan most privatecolleges.Yet an important

difference remains:Private colleges, and(with such exceptionsas Northeastern and NewYork University) mostprivate universities aswell, are on averagefar smaller thanpublic ones. And whilesmall size is notnecessarily a virtue,it often is, par-ticularly insofar as itcontinually reminds thesprawling public cam-puses that "giantism"may itself be adeformity. I am inclinedto believe that, in theabsence of the privatemodel, state collegesand universities wouldnever have sought tocreate enclaves ofsmallness. .... . . private schools

were the first activelyto seek re-cruitment ofminority students.Private colleges havealso in fact (though byno means universally)possessed a somewhatgreater degree ofacademic freedom andautonomy than publicones. Sheltered fromthe whims of angrygovernors andlegislators, they set astandard for academicfreedom and non-inter-

ference that the publicinstitutions can — anddo — use in defendingthemselves.State university

officials recognize theimportance ofmaintaining a privatesector. State pride isa factor here. Thestate universities ofMichigan and Texas, ofIllinois and Indiana,Virginia and NorthCarolina, Washington andCalifornia all want tobe world-class in-stitutions on a levelwith privateuniversities likeStanford, Chicago andYale, and they use theseprivate models as spursto their legislativesupporters andbeneficent graduates.They have even beenable to maintain someselectivity, shuntingthose students withless demonstrableability to the growingregional branches ofcentral stateuniversities. Theseregional state collegesand universities arenow large and wellestablished. Given thegeneral egalitariantemper of the times,these schools have noqualms about competingfor state money withthe older, more pres-tigious parentcampuses. The in-eluctable, if notimmediatelyperceptible, consequenceis that of "leveling".

Riesman, David: born 1909, professor of social sciences at Harvard University and author of The Lonesome Crowd, the most celebrated and widely translated study of American character in the twentieth century.

202

PART C Exercises

1. Global ComprehensionAmerican Educational Philosophies1. Diane Ravitch distinguishes between three clearly identifiable periods in American educational policy: -the late 1940s to 1957; -1957 to the mid 1960s; -the mid 1960s to the mid 1970s. Whichperiod(s) does she regard as progressive and which as traditional? Find names for each of the three

2.corresponding educational movements.

2. Text Analysis1. Describe the characteristics of eacheducational movement.

2. What kind of criticism did each movementevoke?

3. Show how American educationalphilosophies respond to changes in the socialand political climate.

3. Discussion and Comment1. Diane Ravitch's analysis ofeducationalhistory finishes in 1977. Taking into accountthe information about the 1983report "ANation at Risk" do you think that it is stilltrue that policies swing from progressivismto traditionalism?

2. The controversy between progressives andtraditionalists is basically about the questionof whether education should bemore child-centered, i.e. centered

around the individual's capacities, interests and habits or moresociety-oriented, i.e. geared to the specialneeds and requirements of society. Findarguments for both sides and discuss them inclass.

4.ComprehensionWhat Makes Great Schools GreatWhen you have read the two texts, compare the situation at Thomas Jefferson and that at Glenbrook South High School. Make two columns and look at each of the following aspects:a)size of school;b)ethnic and social background of students;c)forces and efforts that

make the schooloutstanding;

d)problem areas and how they are tackled;e)parent support;f)community support.

5.Interpretation and Discussion1. If you compare both schools, it is obviousthat they are very different in type. Judgingfrom the descriptions of thesetwo schools,which factors do you think mainly determinethe character of a school?

2. Besides the forces that constitute the"greatness" of both schools, are there anyother aspects of school-life not mentioned inthe text that you would regardas important?How would you characterize your ownschool?

EDUCATION 203

6.Dialogue Writing and InterviewPractice1. Imagine NBC wants to produce a radioprogram featuring different types ofoutstanding American schools. On the basisof the information given in the precedingarticles, write an interview between theNBC-reporter and a student, teacher, orparent involved in the life ofone of the twoschools.

2. Now imagine that NBC has planned tobroadcast another program on schools inother countries. Among others, your school isgoing to be featured, and a student has beenselected to answer the reporter's questions.In pairs, work out the structure of theinterview, formulate the questions thereporter wants to ask, and then carry out theinterview with one of you as the interviewerand the other the interviewee.

7.Text ProductionAn American Senior High SchoolWrite a short newspaper articleabout Quincy Senior High Schoolbased on the informationprovided by the interview.

8.Discussion and CommentWould you like to participate ina student exchange program and attend an American senior high school? Discuss the various aspects of such a venture.

9.ComprehensionAttendance Policy and Procedures1. What are the reasons for the Quincy SeniorHigh attendance policy?

2. Read the attendance regulations carefully andconsider the following case:Stephen Brown has been in grade eleven of Quincy Senior High for two months. So far hehas missed three days because his mother was taken to hospital and he had to stay at home to take care of his little sister. He has been late five times because he overslept, and he has skipped his math class once because hehad arranged to meet his girlfriend at that time.What are Stephen's prospects

for the rest of the school year?

3.How often and for what reasonshave youmissed classes at your school?How oftenhave you been late?What would your record mean

at Quincy Senior High School?

10.Comment and DiscussionFind out about the attendance policy of your school and compare it with the Quincy Senior High regulations. Which regulations do you consider appropriate?

11.Text ProductionWhat Students Think About Their SchoolsWrite a newspaper commentary in which you interpret the findings.


12. ComprehensionUniversities in TransitionTo make sure that you have understood the main points of this article find out whether the following statements are true or false.1. The total number of 3,075 accredited collegesdoes not include church affiliated colleges.

2. There are now about three times as manystudents attending private colleges anduniversities as at the end ofthe SecondWorld War.

3. The tuition fees are the main reason for therelative decline in the number of studentsundergoing private education.

4. The idea of private education is not inaccordance with a democratic society whichguarantees equal rights to everybody.

5. Panic which has broken outin someexclusive single-sex schools has led to anumber of victims.

6. Riesman believes that the decrease in thenumber of single-sex schools is a steptowards equality of educationalopportunities for young people.

7. There are as many innovations andexperiments to be found in public schools asin the private sector.

8. Private colleges are much smaller thanpublic colleges and universities can ever be.

9. The academic freedom and independence ofprivate colleges served as a model for publiccolleges.

10. State universities are often proud to be ableto compete with famous private universities.

11. Regional branches of state universitiesattract equally qualified students.

12. Regional state colleges anduniversitiescannot compete with their parent campusesbecause they get less financial support.

13. Text Analysis1. What can you deduce from

this text aboutDavid Riesman's personal attitude towardsprivate colleges and universities?

2. What advantages and disadvantages ofprivate universities does he mention?

14. Discussion1. Can you think of any otherpoints for oragainst private schools and universitieswhich Riesman does not mention?

2. Do you think private schools and universitiesshould have a place in a democratic society?

12 ReligionPART A Background Information

HIGH DEGREE OFRELIGIOUSPARTICIPATION

RELIGION AND POLITICS

In most western societies, modernization has beenaccompanied by a marked decline in religiousobservance. America, in contrast, has remainedunusually religious. Church buildings representing anastonishing variety of faiths line residentialstreets, outnumbering even the gas stations. Sundaymorning traffic is typically congested as peopledrive to Sunday School and church. Most bookstoreshave an entire section of religious books and reporta tremendous volume of sales of books aboutChristianity and Christian living. Bibles continueto be the nation's best-selling books.Religiousness is conspicuous. Billboards, T-shirts,

and bumper stickers bear messages such as "JesusSaves." There are even a few Disneyland-type touristparks, such as South Carolina's "Heritage USA,"devoted entirely to religious themes. These visiblereminders of America's religious activity are accom-panied by impressive statistics:• More than nine out of ten Americans say they believe in God• One third claim they are born-again Christians• More than four out of ten attend church or synagogue at least once a week• Two thirds are members of a local church or synagogueInterest in religion is high even among young

people, whose religious activity has typically beenless regular than that of their parents and grand-parents. A Gallup poll indicates that young Americansare far more religious than their counterparts inmost other countries. About741 percent of America'syoung people feel that religion should be "veryimportant" in life, a percentage far greater than inAustralia, Britain, France, Japan, Sweden, and WestGermany.Although the Constitution declares the separation

of Church and State, religion has always pervadedAmerican political life. The motto of the seal of theUnited States carries the biblical words, "Rebellionto tyrants is obedience to God." When the pledge ofallegiance to the American flag is recited, the twowords "under God" receive emphasis. American currency

bears theinscription"In God WeTrust."Almost all

Americanpresidentshave

claimed affiliation with an established church.During inaugural ceremonies, U.S. presidents taketheir oath of office on the Bible. Every session ofCongress opens with a prayer. Politicians frequentlymake reference to God and the Bible in theirspeeches. Religion is bound to have an influence onpolitics in a society where so many people valuereligion.

Gallup poll: see page 153.


Religious InformationCensus of Religious Groups in the U.S.

Source: 1987 Yearbook of American and Canadian ChurchesThe 1987 Yearbook of American and Canadian Churches reported a total of 142,926,363 members

of religious groups in the U.S.—59.3 percent of the population; membership fell half a percentfrom the previous year.Comparisons of membership statistics from group to group are not necessarily meaningful.

Membership definitions vary e.g., Roman Catholics count members from infancy, but someProtestant groups count only "adult" members, usually 13 years or older; some groups compiledata carefully, but others estimate; not all groups report annually.The number of churches appear in parenthess. Asterisk (*) indicates church declines to

publish membership figures; (**) indicates figures date from 1977 or earlier.

Group MembersAdventist Christian Ch. (368) . . 28,830Primitive Advent Christian Ch. (10) .................................546Seventh-day Adventists (4,009) 651,954

American Rescue Workers (20) .... 2,700Anglican Orthodox Church (40) ..... 6,000Baha'l Faith (1650) ............. 100,000Baptist churches:Amer. Baptist Assn. (1,641) ...... 225,000Amer. Baptist Chs. in U.S.A. (5,814) .................................1,559,683Baptist General Conference (753) .................................132,546Baptist Missionary Assn. of America (1,367) . 227,720Conservative Baptist Assn. of America(1,140) ................... 225,000

Duck River (and Kindred) Assn. of Baptists(85) ....................... **8,632

Free Will Baptists (2,548) ...... 217, 838Gen. Assn. of Regular Baptist Chs. (1,571) .. 300,839Natl. Baptist Convention of America(11,398) ......................"2,668,799

Natl. Baptist Convention, U.S.A. (26,000) __________________________________"5,500.000Natl. Primitive Baptist Convention (606)................................."250,000No. Amer. Baptist Conference (258) .................................42,863Seventh Day Baptist GeneralConference (60) ................ 5,008

Southern Baptist Convention (36,898) .................................14,477,364

Brethren (German Baptists):Brethren Ch. (Ashland, Ohio) (122) .................................14,229Christian Congregation (la Follette, IN)(1,441) ................... 103,990

Fellowship of Grace Brethren (301) .................................41,733Old German Baptist Brethren (52) .................................5,254

Brethren, River:Brethren in Christ Ch. (185) ..... 16,783

Buddhist Churches of America (100) ...................................100,000Christadelphians (850) .......... "15,800The Christian and Missionary Alliance(1,646) ..................... 227,846

Christian Catholic Church (4) ..... 2,500Christian Churches and Churches of Christ(5,487) ..................... 1,051,469

Christian Methodist Episcopal Church (2,340) .. 718,922Christian Nation Church U.S.A. (5) 226Christian Union (114) ........... 6000Churches of Christ (13,150) ....... 1,604,000Churches of Christ in Christian Union (260) ____________________________________11,400Churches of God:

Chs. of God. General Conference (353) .................................34,870Ch. of God (Anderson, Ind.) (2,291).................................185,593Ch. of God (Seventh Day), Denver, Col.(135)....................... 5,830

Church of Christ, Scientist (3,000)Church of God by Faith (105)....... "4,500Church of the Nazarene (4,989) . . 522,082Conservative Congregational ChristianConference (163) ................. 28,624

Group MembersEastern Orthodox churches;Albanian Orth. Diocese of America (10) .................................5,250American Carpatho-Russian Orth GreekCatholic Ch. (70) ............ "100,000

Antiochian Orth Christian Archdiocese of No.Amer. (120) ....................................................280,000

Diocese of the Armenian Ch. ofAmerica (66) ................... "450,000

Bulgarian Eastern Orth. Ch. (13) . "86,000Coptic Orthodox Ch. (28) ........ 115,000Greek Orth. Archdiocese of N. and S.America (535)................... 1,950,000

Orthodox Ch. in America (440) . 1,000,000Patriarchal Parishes of the Russian Orth. Ch.in the U.S.A. (38)..............................................9,780

Romanian Orth. Episcopate of America (34) .

60,000Serbian Eastern Orth. Ch. (78) ..................................97,123Syrian Orth. Ch. of Antioch (Archdiocese ofthe U.S.A. and Canada) (22) ...................................30,000

Ukrainian Orth. Ch. of America (EcumenicalPatriarchate) (28) ............................................25,000

Ukrainian Orthodox Church in the U.S.A.(107). . .:.................. "87,745

The Episcopal Church in the U.S.A. (7,274) 2,739,422American Ethical Union (Ethical CultureMovement) (23) .....................................................3,500Evangelical Church of North America (138) ____________________________________12,591Evangelical Congregational Church of America(566)......................................................85,150

Evangelical Free Church of America (880) ...................................95,722Evangelical associations:Apostolic Christian Chs. of America (80).................................16,916Apostolic Christian Ch. (Nazarean) (48) .................................2,799Christian Congregation (1,441) ....................................103,990

Friends:Evangelical Friends Alliance (217) ...................................24,095Friends General Conference (505) .................................31,600Friends United Meeting (536) . ..................................57,443

Grace Gospel Fellowship (52) .........................................4,400Independent Fundamental Churches ofAmerica (1,019) ....................................................120,446Jehovah's Witnesses (8,220)........ 730,441Jewish organizations:Union of Amer Hebrew Congregations(Reform) (804) ............... 1,300,000

Union of Orthodox Jewish Congregations ofAmerica (1,700) ............... 1,000,000

United Synagogue of America (Conservative)(800)....................... 1,250,000

Latter-day Saints:Ch. of Jesus Christ (Bickertonites) (53) ...................................2,654Ch. of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints

(Mormon) (8,396) ............... 3,860,000

Reorganized Ch. of Jesus Christ of Latter DaySaints (1,101) ................................................192,082

RELIGION 207

Group MembersLutheran churches:American Lutheran Ch. (4,940) . . . 2,332,316Ch. of the Lutheran Brethren of America(108)........................... 11,374

Ch. of the Lutheran Confession (67).................................8,910Assn. of Evangelical Lutheran Chs. (272) __________________________________110,934Evangelical Lutheran Synod (116) .................................19,850Assn. of Free Lutheran Congregations (156) . 18,205Latvian Evangelical Lutheran Church ofAmerica (59) ................... 13,576

Lutheran Ch. in America (5,817) . 2,898,202Lutheran Ch.-Missouri Synod (5,876).................................2,638,164Protestant Conference (Lutheran) (9).................................959Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod(1,179) ....................... 415,389

Mennonite churches:Beachy Amish Mennonite Chs. (83) . 5,862Evangelical Mennonite Ch. (25) 3813General Conference of Mennonite BrethrenChs. (128) .................... 16,942

Hutterian Brethren (77) .......... 3,988Mennonite Ch. (989) ............ 91,167Old Order Amish Ch. (598) ..... 34,000Old Order (Wister) Mennonite Ch (38) .................................9,731

Methodist churches:African Methodist Episcopal Ch. (6,200) .................................2,210,000African Methodist Episcopal Zion Ch.(6,057) ................... 1,202,229

Evangelical Methodist Ch. (126) . 9,040Free Methodist Ch. of North America (1,048) . 72,223Fundamental Methodist Ch. (14).... 700Primitive Methodist Ch., U.S.A. (87) .................................9,978Reformed Methodist Union Episcopal Ch. 3,800(18) ...........................

Southern Methodist Ch. (150) ... 7,231United Methodist Ch. (37,990) . 9,266,853

Moravian churches:Moravian Ch. (Unitas Fratrum), NorthernProvince (fOO) ................. 32,415

Moravian Ch. in America (Unitas Fratrum).Southern Province (56) ........... 21,714Unity of the Brethren (27) ...... 3,006

Moslems ......................... 2,000,000+New Apostollic Church of North America (457) .. 33,068North American Old Roman Catholic Church

(130)....................... 62,380Old Catholic churches:Christ Catholic Ch. (6).......... 1,269Mariavite Old Cath. Ch. Province of NorthAmerica (166) .................. 357,927

No. Amer. Old Roman Cath. Ch. (Schweikert)(130)........................... 62,380

Group MembersPentecostal churches:Apostolic Faith (Portland, Ore.) (54) .................................4,100Assemblies of God (10,761) . . . . 2,082,878Bible Church of Christ (6) ...... 4,350Bible Way Church of our Lord Jesus ChristWorld Wide (350) ............... "30,000

Church of God (Cleveland. Tenn.) (5,346) ... 505,775Church of God of Prophecy (2,051) .................................73,952Congregational Holiness Ch. (174) .................................8,347Gen. Council. Christian Ch. of No. Amer.(104)....................... 13,500

Intl. Ch. of the Foursquare Gospel (1,185) ... 177,787Open Bible Standard Chs (290) . 46,351Pentecostal Assemblies of the World (560) ... "4,500Pentecostal Church of God (1,142) .................................89,506United Pentecostal Ch. Intl. (3,408) .................................500,000Pentecostal Free Will Baptist Ch. (130)

10,700Plymouth Brethren (1,150) ......... 98,000Polish Natl. Catholic Church of America (162) .. "282,411Presbyterian churches:Associate Reformed Presbyterian Ch. (Gen

Synod) (172).................... 36,543Cumberland Presbyterian Ch. (818). 98,037Evangelical Presbyterian Ch. (100) .................................27,000Orthodox Presbyterian Ch. (171) 18,502Presbyterian Ch. in America (878) .................................177,917Presbyterian Ch. (U.S.A.) (11,572) .................................3,092,151Reformed Presbyterian Ch. of No. Amer (71) .

5,146Reformed churches:Christian Reformed Ch. in N. America (650)____________________________________219,988Hungarian Reformed Ch. in America (31) __________________________________11,000Protestant Reformed Chs. in America (21) ... 4,544Reformed Ch. in America (926). . . . 342,275Reformed Ch. in the U.S. (34) . . 3,778

The Roman Catholic Church (24,251) ...................................52,654,908The Salvation Army (1,088) ....... 427,825The Schwenkfelder Church (5) .... 2,881Social Brethren (40)............... "1,784Natl. Spiritualist Assn. of Churches (142) ...................................5,558Gen. Convention, The Swedenborgian Church

(49) ....................... 2,245Unitarian Universalist Assn. (948). 171,838United Brethren:Ch. of the United Brethren in Christ (256) ... 26,869United Christian Ch. (11) ..... 421

United Church of Christ (6,408) .. . 1,683,777Universal Fellowship of Metropolitan

Community Chs. (230) ......... 34,000Vedanta Society (13) .............. 1,500Volunteers of America (607) ..... 36,634The Wesleyan Church (1,714) ....... 109,541


Major Christian Denominations: How Do TheyDiffer?

Italics indicate that area which, generally speaking, most distinguishes that denomination from any other.

Denom-ination Origins Organizati

onAuthority

Special rites

Bap-tists

In radical Reformation objections to infant baptism, demands for church-state separation; John Smyth, English Separatist in 1609; RogerWilliams, 1638, Providence, R. I

Congregational, I.e., eachlocal church is autonomous.

Scripture; some Baptists, particularly in South, interpret the Bible literally.

Baptism, after about age 12, by total immersion; Lord's Supper.

Church Among evangelical Presbyteriansof in Ky. (1804) and Penn. (1809), inChrist distress over Protestant(Dis- factionalism and decline of fervor.ciples) Organized 1832.

Congregational.

"Where the Scriptures speak, wespeak: where the Scriptures aresilent, we are silent"

Adult baptism, Lord'sSupper(weekly)

Epis- Henry VIII separatedEnglish copal- CatholicChurch from Rome, ians1534, for political reasons.

Protestant Episcopal Church inU.S. founded 1789.

Bishops in apostolic succession, are elected by diocesan representatives: part of Anglican Communion, symbolically headedby Archbishop of Canterbury.

Scripture as interpreted by tradition; esp, 39 Articles (1563); not dogmatic. Tri-annual convention ofbishops, priests, and laymen.

Infant baptism, Holy Communion, others, Sacrament is symbolic, but has real spiritual effect.

Luth- Martin Luther in Wittenberg.erans Germany, 1517, objected to

Catholic doctrine of salvation by merit and sale of indulgences; break complete by 1519.

Varies from congregational to episcopal: in U.S. a combination of regional synods and congregational polities is most common.

Scripture and tradition as spelledout in Augsburg Confession (1530) and other creeds. These confessions of faith are binding although interpretations vary.

Infant baptism, Lord's Supper. Christ's true body and blood present "in, with, and under the bread and wine."

Metho- Rev. John Wesley begandists movement, 1738, within Church of

England. First U.S. denominationBaltimore, 1784.

Conference and superintendent system. InUnited Methodist Church, general superintendents are bishops—not a priestly order, only an office — who are elected for life.

Scripture as interpretedby tradition, reason, and experience.

Baptism of infants or adults, Lord's Supper commanded. Other rites, inc. marriage, ordination, solemnize personal commitments

Мог- In visions of the Angel Moroni by mons Joseph Smith 1827, in New York, in which he received a new revelation on golden tablets: The Book of Mormon

Theocratic; all male adults are in priesthoodwhich culminates in Council of 12 Apostles and 1st Presidency (1st President, 2 counselors).

The Bible, Book of Mormon and other revelations to Smith, and certain pronouncements of the 1stPresidency.

Adult baptism, laying onof hands (which confers the gift of the Holy Spirit), Lord's Supper. Temple rites; baptism for the dead, marriage for eternity, others.

Ortho- Original Christian proselytizing in dox 1stcentury; broke with Rome,

1054, after centuries ofdoctrinal disputes and diverging traditions.

Synods of bishops in autonomous, usually national, churches elect a patriarch, archbishop or metropolitan. These men, as a group, are theheads of the church.

Scripture tradition, andthe first 7 church councils up to Nicaea IIin 787. Bishops in council have authority in doctrine and policy.

Seven sacraments: infant baptisrr-and anointing, Eucharist (both bread and wine), ordination, penance, anointing of the sick, marriage.

Pente- In Topeka, Kansas (1901), and costal Los Angeles (1906) in reaction to

loss of evangelical fervor amongMethodists and otherdenominations.

Originally a movement, not a formal organization, Pentecostalism now has a variety of organized forms and continues also as a movement.

Scripture, individual charismatic leaders, the teachings of the Holy Spirit.

Spirit baptism, esp, as shown in"speaking in tongues": healingand sometimes exorcism: adultbaptism. Lord's Supper.

Pres- In Calvinist Reformation in 1500s; byter- differed with Lutherans over ians sacraments, church government. John Knox founded Scotch Presbyterian church about 1560.

Highly structured representational system of ministers and laypersons (presbyters) in local, regional andnational bodies (synods).

Scripture

Infant baptism, Lord's Supper; bread and wine symbolize Christ's spiritual presence.

Roman Traditionally, by Jesus who Catho- named St. Peter the 1st Vicar; lies historically, in early Christian

proselytizing and the conversion of imperial Rome in the 4th century.

Hierarchy with supreme power vested in Pope elected by cardinals. Councils of Bishops advise on matters of doctrine and policy.

The Pope when speaking for the whole church in matters of faith and morals, and tradition, which is partly recorded in scripture and expressed in church councils.

Seven sacraments: baptism, contrition andpenance, confirmation, Eucharist, marriage, ordination, and anointing of the sick (unction).

United By ecumenical union. 1957,ofChurch Congregationalists andof Evangelical & ReformedChrist representing both

Calvinist and Lutheran traditions.

Congregational; a GeneralSynod, representative of all congregations, sets general policy.

Scripture.

Infant baptism, Lord'sSupper.

RELIGION 209

Practice Ethics Doctrine Other Denom-ination

Worship style varies fromstaid to evangelistic.Extensive missionaryactivity.

Usually opposed to alcohol and tobacco; sometimes tends towardsa perfectionist ethicalstandard.

Wo creed; true church is of believers only, who are all equal.

Since no authority can stand Baptists between the believer and God, the Baptists are strong supporters of church-state separation.

Tries to avoid any rite or doctrine not explicitly part of the 1st century church. Somecongregations may rejectinstrumental music.

Some tendency toward perfectonism; increasing action programs.

Simple New Testament faith; avoids any elaboration not firmly based on Scripture.

Highly tolerant in doctrinal andChurchreligious matters; stronglyofsupportive of scholarly education. Christ

(Dis-ciples)

Formal, based on Book ol Common Prayer (1549); services range from austerely simple to highly elaborate.

Tolerant; sometimes permissive; some socialaction programs.

Apostles Creed is basic; otherwise, considerable variation ranges rom rationalist and liberal to acceptance of most Roman Catholic dogma.

Strongly ecumenical, holding talks Epis-with all other branches ofcopal-Christendom,ians

Relatively simple formal liturgy ,vith emphasis on the sermon.

Generally, conservative in personal and social ethics; doctrine of "2 kingdoms" (worldly and holy) supports conservatism in secular affairs.

Salvation by faith alone through grace. Lutheranism has made major contributions to Protestant theology.

Though still somewhat divided along ethnic lines (German, Swede, etc.), main divisions are between fundamentalists and liberals.

Luth-erans

Worship style varies widely by denomination, local church, geography.

Originally pietist and perfectionist; always strong social activist elements.

No distinctive theological development;25 Articles abriged fromChurch of England's 39 not binding.

In 1968, United Methodist ChurchMetho-joined pioneer English- anddistsGerman-speaking groups. UMs leaders in ecumenicalmovement.

Staid service with hymns,sermon. Secret templeceremonies may be moreelaborate. Strongmissionary activity.

Temperance; strict tithing. Combine a strongwork ethic with communal self-reliance.

God is a material being;he created the universe out of preexisting matter; all persons can be saved and many will become divine. Most other beliefs are traditionally Christian.

Mormons regard mainline churches as apostate, corrupt. Reorganized Church (founded 1860) rejectsmost Mormon doctrine and practice except Book of Mormon.

Mor-mons

Elaborate liturgy, usually in the vernacular, though extremely traditional. The liturgy is the essence of Orthodoxy. Veneration of icons.

Tolerant: very little social action; divorce, remarriage permitted in some cases. Priests neednot be celibate; bishopsare.

Emphasis on Christ's re-surrection, rather than crucifixion; the Holy Spirit proceeds from Godthe Father only.

Orthodox Church in America, orginally under Patriarch of Moscow, was granted autonomy in 1970. Greek Orthodox do not recognize this autonomy.

Ortho-dox

Loosely structured service with rousing hymns and sermons, culminating in spirit baptism.

Usually, emphasis on perfectionism with varying degrees of tolerance.

Simple traditional beliefs, usually Protestant, with emphasison the immediate presenceof God in the Holy Spirit

Once confined to lower-classPente-"holy rollers," Pentecostalism now costal appears in mainline churches and has established middle-class congregations.

A simple, sober servicein which the sermon is central.

Traditionally, atendency towardstrictness with firmchurch- and self-discipline; otherwisetolerant.

Emphasizes the sovereignty and justice of God; no longer doctrinaire.

While traces of beliefin predestination (that God had foreordained salvationfor the "elect") remain, this idea is no longer a central element in Presbyterianism.

Pres-byte-rians

Relatively elaborate ritual; wide variety of public and private rites, e.g., rosary recitation, processions, novenas.

Theoretically very strict; tolerant in practice on most issues.Divorce and remarriage not accepted. Celibate clergy, except in Easternrite.

Highly elaborated. Salvation by merit gained through faith. Unusual development of doctrines surrounding Mary. Dogmatic.

Roman Catholicism is presently in Romana period of relatively rapid change Cath-as a result of Vatican CouncilsI olicsand II.

Usually simple services with emphasis on the sermon.

Tolerant: some socialaction emphasis.

Standard Protestant; Statement of Faith (1959) is not binding.

The 2 main churches in the 1957United

union represented earlier unionsChurch

with small groups of almost every ofProtestant denomination. Christ


THREE MAJORFAITHS

RELIGIOUS DIVERSITY

Religion in America today is built primarily on thestructure of Protestantism, Catholicism, and Judaism.Within each of these groups there is great diversity.Among Protestants alone, there are 186 differentorganizations. Besides the three major groupings ofProtestants, Catholics, and Jews, there are about1,500 major and minor sectarian churches. Among thesesects are established groups such as the Quakers andMormons. There are also bizarre groups such as theHoliness Church, which is a snake-handling cult.The degree of religious diversity in America

becomes evident when one compares the religiouscomposition of American society with that of itsneighbors. Mexico's population is 96 percentCatholic. Canada's three largest denominations, RomanCatholic, Anglican, and the United Church of Canada,account for 86 percent of total membership. Toaccount for 86 percent of America's total churchmembership, it is necessary to add together 19separate denominations. The First Amendment to theConstitution prohibits an established nationalreligion and protects the individual's right topractice the religion of his or her choice.

RELIGIOUS PREFERENCEMajor Faiths and Denominations 1981

Baptist

Catholic

Methodist

Jewish E. Orthodox

Other

None

Denomination undeslgnated

Other Protestant denominations

Lutheran

Presbyterian Episcopalian Mormon

PROTESTANTS Based on national surveys and approximately 29,000 interviews

The immigrants who first came to America fromcountries all over the world brought a variety ofreligions. Many came with the express purpose ofestablishing communities where they could practicetheir own form of worship without interference orfear of persecution.Although the official separation of Church and State

provided a climate for these diverse religiouspractices to flourish, Protestantism, because ofnumbers and influence, has until recent decadesoccupied a dominant position in American society.

First Amendment: "Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances."

RELIGION 211

PURITANS

MAINSTREAM PROTESTANTISM

CATHOLICS

JEWS

CHANGES IN THERELIGIOUSLANDSCAPE

The first settlers of Massachusetts were membersof a radical Protestant group called Puritans.Puritans thought of themselves as God's chosenpeople. They believed that God had elected, or"predestined," only certain persons to be saved.Devoting themselves to work as a way of pleasing God,they viewed their prosperity as an outward sign thatGod counted them among the saved. Many people tracethe American drive for success through hard work tothis Puritan, or Protestant, work ethic.Among the immigrants to America were Protestants of

many denominations from all over Europe, includingPresbyterians from Northern Ireland, Lutherans fromScandinavia and Germany, Episcopals from England, andmembers of various European Reformed Churches.Along with the Congregationalist Church, which is

the denomination established by the early Puritans,the Presbyterian, Lutheran, Episcopal, and Reformedchurches constitute what is referred to as"mainstream Protestantism" in America. Baptists andMethodists, once peripheral sects, are now usuallyconsidered part of mainstream Protestantism as well.Other Protestant denominations, such as

Mennonites, Pentecostals, and Southern Baptists, aresometimes referred to as "radical" Protestants.Worship services of radical churches are less formaland liturgical than services of mainstreamProtestants. Many radical churches encourage"speaking in tongues," faith healing, and "born-again" conversion experiences. Mainstream churchestend to be middle or upper class, while radicalchurches usually consist of lower-income groups.In 1985, 57 percent of the population named

Protestantism as their religious preference.Catholics constitute the second largest religious

group. In 1985, 28 percent of Americans surveyedidentified themselves as Catholic.The first Catholics in America were missionaries

from Spain, Portugal, and France. In the sixteenthcentury they set up churches in what is now Texas,New Mexico, California, and Florida. In theseventeenth century Catholics from England settledthe colony of Maryland. But the greatest influx ofCatholics to America occurred in the nineteenthcentury. Catholics emigrated to the United Statesfrom Ireland, Germany, and France between 1830 and1880 and from eastern and southern Europe duringthe 1880s. During the nineteenth and into thetwentieth century, American society, however, waspredominantly white Protestant. White Anglo-SaxonProtestants (WASPs) set the basic character ofnational life and were often intolerant ofCatholics.Jews constitute 2 percent of the population. Many

Jews came to America during the nineteenth centuryto escape persecution in Europe. Like theCatholics, Jews frequently encountered hostility and

resentment.Since the

1960s,America'sreligiouslandscape

has undergone major transformations, the mostsignificant being the declining influence of themainline Protestant churches. They have sufferedsizable membership losses, such that the Protestantmajority in America decreased from 67 percent of thepopulation to 57 percent in 1985.

Puritan: see page 13.Speaking in tongues: prayer characterized chiefly by incomprehensible speech practiced in ecstatic forms of worship.WASP: see page 13.


PROTESTANT DECLINE

LIBERAL VS.CONSERVATIVECHURCHES

TRENDS IN THECATHOLICCOMMUNITY

INCREASING PLURALISM

Many observers link the decline of the majorProtestant churches in America to the permissivenessof the 1960s. Mainline churches have tended to beliberal in social outlook and theology. In contrastto more radical churches, mainstream Protestantchurches have not insisted on strict obedience to aparticular code of behavior. During the liberalsocial climate of the 1960s, many mainstream membersabandoned churchgoing altogether.Today, however, there seems to be a growing desire

for spiritual direction. An important pattern hasemerged. While liberal Protestant churches have lostmembers, conservative fundamentalist Protestantchurches have been steadily attracting members. Inthe late 1960s and 70s, strict, evangelical andfundamentalist bodies such as the Seventh-DayAdventists, the Church of the Nazarene, Assembliesof God, and Southern Baptists grew at phenomenalrates. By drawing rigid behavioral boundaries,returning to traditional values, and offeringabsolutist moral teachings, these churches seemedto fill the needs of many Americans who werefrustrated by the lack of direction in modern life.To attract members, mainline Protestant churches

have been shifting away from their relaxed, liberalstance towards a more conservative theology.Membership has begun to stabilize.The Catholic community has experienced conflicts

and developments of its own, as well as a similarshift to conservatism. American Catholics, thoughincreasing in population, do not participate asactively in church activities as they once did.Between 1958 and 1982, the percentage of Catholicsattending weekly mass declined sharply from 74percent to 51 percent.The American Catholic Church has also had to cope

with widening differences with Pope John Paul II,whose conservative stance on issues such as birthcontrol, celibacy for priests, and women in thepriesthood provoke dissidence and disobedience.American bishops have been outspoken on politicalissues, challenging nuclear strategy and criticizingthe presuppositions and policies of economic andpolitical leaders.In the past decades, America's Protestants,

Catholics, and Jews have become less divided. Thedecline of mainstream Protestant influence has beenaccompanied by the rise in status of Catholics andJews. Anti-Catholicism and anti-Semitism are nowmainly confined to radical right-wing groups suchas the Ku Klux Klan and the John Birch Society.In the years after the Second World War, Catholics

made spectacular gains in education and income, suchthat their overall status levels now equal those ofProtestants. American Jews, once treated likeoutsiders, are now more readily accepted. Theiracceptance has been facilitated by many immigrantJews' willingness to discard those practices that

madeJudaismseemexotic.IntermarriagebetweenJews andChristianshas alsohelped tocreate anatmosphereoftolerancetowardsJews.Between 40and 50percent ofall Jewsmarry non-Jews.A

significant trend inAmericanreligiouslife isonetowardsincreasingpluralism.Coexistence amongAmerica'sdiversereligiousgroups andsects isstressed.The trendtowardspluralismhas notonly meantthatCatholicsand

Ku Klux Klan: asecret society organized in the South afterthe Civil War to re-establish white supremacy with methods of

terrorism.John Birch Society: an ultraconservative anti-Communist organization founded by Robert Welch in 1958.

RELIGION 213

SECTS AND CULTS

RISE OF THEEVANGELICALMOVEMENT

POLITICAL ACTIVISM

Jews are gaining acceptance in American society. Inaddition, tolerance is extended to an even broaderrange of religious groups, including Easternreligions such as Buddhism and Hinduism.While open religious prejudice is not as pronounced

as it used to be, Americans show little tolerancetowards some cults. The Moonies, the Hare Krishnas, andthe followers of Bhagwan Rajneesh are commonly regardedas bizarre and potentially dangerous. Their methods ofattracting and holding members are controversial.Critics accuse the cults of manipulating and brain-washing their members.One event which intensified the controversy over

cults was the 1978 mass suicide that occurred at acommune in Jonestown, Guyana. By persuasion and atgunpoint American cult leader Jim Jones led more than900 members of his Peoples' Temple commune to commitsuicide by drinking a mixture of fruit juice andcyanide.Religious fanaticism exists, but events such as these

are not characteristic of all cults. Many observersargue that not all sects should be condemned for theabuses of some.Besides the increasing visibility of cults and sects,

there has been another recent development in Americanreligious life: the rise of the evangelical, orfundamentalist, movement, and its offspring, theelectronic church. This movement has arisen so quicklyand has acquired so much influence that it has drawnmuch national attention.The term evangelical is applied across all Christian

denominations to religious alliances that share thebelief that a true Christian must have a born-againexperience, that the Bible is the authoritative word ofGod, and that a personal relationship with Jesus is atthe center of every Christian's life. Evangelicalsalso share a desire to convert others to their way ofbelieving.The evangelical movement, which has quietly existed

for a long time, derived new momentum from the anti-modern, conservative countercurrents that were flowingin the 1960s. In the 1960s, while most churches wereexperiencing declining memberships, evangelicalchurches were gaining members and influence.Representing the right-wing of the political spectrum,evangelicals attacked "secular humanism" and crusadedfor moral issues, focusing attention on the family andschools.These conservative Christian leaders did not limit

their crusades to the pulpit; they gained immediateattention by their involvement in politics and theirmedia skills. Despite the constitutional separation ofreligious and secular life, conservativefundamentalists actively lobbied for anti-abortion

legislationand for aconstitutional amendmentpermittingprayer inschools.Fundamental

ist ministerJerryFalwell'sMoralMajority hasbeen themostinfluentialpoliticallobby of thenewReligiousRight sincethe late1970s. TheMoralMajority'spoliticalagenda,based onmoralabsolutism,opposeshomo-sexuality,pornography,abortion,and theteaching ofevolution inschools. In1986,Falwellmerged hisMoralMajoritywith theLibertyAlliance, aconservativelobby group,to formLibertyFederation,a religious-politicallobby withan evenbroaderappeal.In the 1980

presidentialelections,the

evangelical right gave Ronald Reagan and manyconservative senators strong support. In the 1980s,evangelist leaders successfully extended their spheresof influence far beyond the church. Some, like T. V.evangelist Pat Robertson, who was a candidate for the1988 presidential election, have crossed the boundarybetween religion and politics altogether.


THE ELECTRONICCHURCH

What has enabled the evangelical movement to takeoff with such speed and gain a powerful sphere ofinfluence in American society is its skillful use oftelevision. Every Sunday morning, millions ofAmericans tune in to elaborate television broadcasts ofpopular preachers such as Jerry Falwell, RobertSchuller, Jimmy Swaggart, and Pat Robertson. Withtheir show-biz flair, gospel entertainment, andsermons designed to tug at viewers' emotions, thesepreachers resemble commercial television show hostsmore than ministers.Religious broadcasting has exploded into a multi-

million dollar business. More than 1,300 radio andtelevision stations devote all their time to religion.Gospel programs that buy time are proliferating.

RELIGIOUS TELEVISION PROGRAM VIEWING BY SELECTED DEMOGRAPHIC GROUPS: 1983

VIEWERS VIEWERS

GROUP Con-firmedfrequent

OtherNon-

viewers

GROUP Con-firmedfrequent

«herNon-viewers

Total:......... 18.0

Age18-29 years old..30-49 years old50-65 years old. .Over 65 years old.

SexMale.............Female...........

RaceWhite ............Non-White.........

RegionNortheast........Southeast........

EducationLess than high school..High schoolgraduate...Some college and more

Household income:Under $15,000........ 25.9$15,000 to $24,999 . . 17.4$25,000 to $35,000 . 13.0Over $35,000 ....... 9.3

Importance of religion:Very important....... 25.3Important............ 9.3Not very important... 1.4Not important at all. 2.5

Denomination:Southern Baptist..... 21.8Other Baptist........ 28.4Lutheran............. 15.2Methodist............ 18.4Presbyterian ........ 11.9Catholic ............ 8.4

Church attendance:Once a week or more . 22.8Less than once a week 12.2

Local annual contributions:None................. 9.7Under$120........... 14.6$120 to $300......... 16.9$301 to over $1,200. . 23.7

45.5 28.46.6 36.139.0 48.036.7 54.1

49.0 25.839.2 51.

17.5 81.112.3 85.

255.4 22.850.3 21.

42.0 42.48.4 33.45.9 42.31.4 60.

247.6 29.637.0 50.825.7 64.642.0 43.

43.8 39.43.3 27.

5.3 34.6 60.2

11.9 44.6 43.527.7 43.7 28.632.8 46.0 21.216.1 41.2 42.719.3 43.6 37.116.3 40.8 42.926.3 53.5 20.116.1 34.4 49.419.9 50.9 29.229.2 45.5 25.316.9 44.1 39.011.8 39.6 48.6

42.9

1 Includes other denominations, not shown separately.

The appeal of the so-called electronic church and itsevangelical preachers to so many Americans is notjust a matter of technique. They provide moralanchorage to many Americans by emphasizing theindividual's personal responsibility and unswervingcommitment. In a sophisticated modern world, whenconnections between life and faith seem vague, thisis the message many people desire.

215

PART в Texts

Sunday in HopeUNDAY in Hope is a day verylargely shaped byChristian faith and

social convention. Hope is nota Sabbatarian town. It is,however, a church-going town,and for all but its two hundred-odd Roman Catholics, servicesusually begin with Sunday School(classes for both adults andchildren), at nine-thirty;followed by Morning Worship, atten forty-five; followed by anafternoon Church TrainingProgram; followed, at seveno'clock, by Evening Worship.Almost everybody in Hope — oldor young, white or black —attends at least one of theseservices, and there are somewho attend them all. I chose,on the second Sunday of mystay, to attend Morning Worshipat the First Baptist Church.

S

The nave of the First BaptistChurch seats six hundred andfifty people in comfortablycushioned pews, and there isroom for over two hundred morein a balcony. When I arrived andwas shown to a place, the navelooked almost full, and therewere also people in the balcony.Most of the worshippers werefamilies with one or more (well-behaved) children. It was a con-gregation of Sunday suits andSunday bests. There were noturtlenecks, no pantsuits, noteven, as far as I could tell, anysports jackets: all the men worebusiness suits, and all thewomen wore dresses. An organ anda piano flanked the pulpit, andthere was a large choir. Dr.Richard Stiltner, the pastor, ayouthful-looking man with anexpressive face, wore a darksuit. After the opening prayer,

we sang "O Worship the King,"and after the Invocation andanother prayer we sang "Rock ofAges, Cleft for Me." Dr.Stiltner's sermon was one of aseries on the Ten Commandments.It was entitled "The Sanctityof

Life," and dealt with the SixthCommandment. "This commandmentis commonly taken to read,'Thou shalt not kill,'" he said."A more careful rendering of theHebrew is 'Thou shalt notmurder.' " He said that the OldTestament accepts the right ofa soldier to take a human lifein war, and it accepts the rightof society to inflict the deathpenalty. We sang a final hymn,"Something for Thee," andreceived the Benediction. Dr.

Stiltner waited in the vestibuleto greet the departingcongregation. I saw Hulan White,immaculate in a tan summer suit,and a dozen other familiarfaces. And half an hour later,at the ritual Sunday dinner inthe restaurant at the QualityInn, I recognized several of myfellow worshippers. Most of myfellow diners began their mealwith the usual aperitif of theregion — a cup of coffee.

Sabbaterian: strictly observing the Sabbath, in Christian churches the Sunday, as the day of rest.


e I Have a DreamMartin Luther King (1929—1968), a Baptist minister, was theoutstanding leader of the nonviolent Civil Rights Movement in the1950s and 1960s. On August 28, 1963, he led the "March onWashington", which culminated in

the meeting of 200,000 people in front of the Lincoln Memorial.Commemorating the Emancipation Proclamation, King reminded his

audience in a carefully prepared speech that even 100 years after AbrahamLincoln had declared the slaves free, the black people were far from being

free but found themselves segregated, discriminated against andimpoverished within American society. Halfway through his speech, he wascarried away by the enthusiastic reaction of the crowd and, drawing on his

experience as a minister, began to improvise. This part of his speech iscovered by the following text.

Martin Luther King at the Lincoln Memorial

■

RELIGION 217

I say to you today, my friends, even though we face the difficulties of today and tomorrow, I still have a dream. It is a dream deeply rooted in the American dream.

I have a dream that one daythis nation will rise up andlive out the true meaning of itscreed: "We hold these truths tobe self-evident; that all menare created equal."

I have a dream that one day even the state of Mississippi, astate sweltering with the heat ofinjustice, sweltering with the heat of oppression, will be transformed into an oasis of freedom and justice.

I have a dream that my four little children will one day live in a nation where they willnot be judged by the color of their skin but by the content oftheir character.

I have a dream today.I have a dream that one day

down in Alabama with its viciousracists, with its governor having his lips dripping with the words of interposition and nullification, one day right there in Alabama little black boys and black girls will be able to join hands with little white boys and white girls as sisters and brothers.

I have a dream today.I have a dream that one day

every valley shall be exalted, every hill and mountain shall be made low, the rough places will be made plains, and the crooked places will be made straight, andthe glory of the Lord shall be revealed, and all flesh shall see it together.

This is our hope. This is thefaith that I go back to the South with. With this faith we will be able to hew out of the mountain of despair a stone of hope. With this faith we will beable to transform the jangling

discords of our nation

into a beautiful symphony of brotherhood. With this faith we will be able to work together, to pray together, to struggle together, to go to jail together, to stand up for freedom together, knowing that we will be free one day.

This will be the day when allof God's children will be able to sing with new meaning, "My country 'tis of thee, sweet landof liberty, of thee I sing. Landwhere my fathers died, land of pilgrims' pride, from every mountainside, let freedom ring."

And if America is to be a great nation this must become true. So let freedom ring from the prodigious hilltops of New Hampshire. Let freedom ring fromthe mighty mountains of New York. Let freedom ring from the heightening Alleghenies of Pennsylvania!

Let freedom ring from the snowcapped Rockies of Colorado! Let freedom ring from the curvacious slopes of California! But not only that; let freedom ring from Stone Mountain of Georgia! Let freedom ring from Lookout Mountain of Tennessee. Let freedom ring from every hilland mole hill of Mississippi. From every mountainside, let freedom ring, and when this happens,

When we let freedom ring, when we let it ring from every village and every hamlet, from every state and every city, we will be able to speed up that day when all of God's children, black men and white men, Jews and Gentiles, Protestants and Catholics, will be able to join hands and sing in the words of the old Negro spiritual, "Free at last! Free at last! Thank Godalmighty, we are free at last!"


RELIGION

BREAKING NEWGROUND ONWAR AND PEACE"The American Catholic Church has made a striking change in its historic attitude toward war."

by Paul Bock

Cardinal Bernardin: "If you take a strong stand against abortion as the unjust taking of human life, then you cannot remain indifferent to nuclear warfare."

N May, 1983, theNational Conference

of Catholic Bishops metin Chicago and, aftermaking some revisions,they adopted the finaldraft of the "PastoralLetter on War, Armamentsand Peace." The seconddraft discussed by thebishops in November,1982, in Washington,D.C., aroused anincredible amount ofpublic attention, andmany people waited witheagerness to see whatthe final draft wouldsay.

I

Although some of theforthright statements ofthe second draft weretoned down, the finaldocument still breaksnew ground, takingpositions that are quitedifferent from earlierAmerican Catholicstatements on war. Itstates that massiveretaliation on populatedareas should never beallowed; that thereshould be a halt in thetesting, production, anddeployment of newnuclear weapons systems;that a "first-strike"policy must bechallenged; that alimited nuclear war isnot likely to staylimit-Dr. Bock Associate Religion Editor ofUSA Today, is associate professorof religion. Doane College, Crete, Neb

ed; that vigorous stepsshould be taken towardmultilateral disarma-ment; and that seriousquestions must be raisedabout the morality ofdeterrence.Consistent with their

heritage, the bishopsworked extensively withthe "just war" theorywhich has been theprevailing view inCatholic thought on warsince Augustinedeveloped it around 400A.D., thereby departingfrom the pacifist viewwhich was dominant duringthe first threecenturies of thechurch's history. Thejust war theory statesthat a war may be justi-fied only if it meetscertain conditions: itmust be a last resort;it must be declared bya proper governmentalauthority; there mustbe a just cause such asdefense againstaggression; it must befought with the rightattitude (no revenge);it must be carried onwith discrimination —aiming at military andnot civilian targets;and it must follow theprinciple ofproportionality -thatis, it must do more goodthan harm. Althoughoften used in the pastto justify particularwars, the theory is nowbeing used to challengemilitary policies. Thebishops drew

heavily on theprinciples of discri-mination andproportionality —nuclear war would notdiscriminate betweenmilitary and civilianpersonnel, and itcertainly would not domore good than harm.There are several very

remarkable things aboutthe pastoral letter andthe procedure followedin developing it. Firstof all, it is amazingto see how much publicattention it received,especially from thegovernment. It is hardto remember an occasionwhen a church documentaroused such interest,as reflected in thecover-page story in Timemagazine. Nor can oneremember an occasionwhen the government feltso challenged by achurch document as tocause it to intervene inthe development of thestatement. NationalSecurity Advisor WilliamP. Clark sent a seven-page letter to thebishops, saying that, inits second draft, thepastoral letterreflected amisunderstanding ofgovernment policy inregard to the bombing ofpopulated areas.Something is happeningwhen the governmentseeks to defend itsmorality to churchleaders.

RELIGION 219

3. continued

Second, there issomething quite unusualabout the procedure usedin drafting the document— namely, the wideconsultation. Extensivehearings were held andexperts were invited totestify. These includedtop government officialsas well as theologians,and the theologiansincluded Protestants aswell as Catholics.Footnotes to the letterinclude Protestantauthorities on war andpeace, and among themis a Mennonite. Eachdraft took into accountsuggestions receivedthrough the mail - ofwhich there were many —as well as those made atmeetings and hearings.The Catholic bishopshave never engaged in somuch consultation be-fore, and the procedurefollowed may set apattern for the future.Third, there is

something special aboutthe style of theletter. It does

not command obedience ordictate what is right.It should be pointedout that the letter hastwo audiences -American RomanCatholics and thepublic. However, even inaddressing the RomanCatholics, it does notcommand, but ratherinvites the faithful tothink with the bishopson the issues raised.One reason for thisapproach is that thereis no authoritativeteaching on some aspectsof nuclear deterrence,whereas there is onsubjects such asabortion. Essentially,the bishops are saying,"Come let us reasontogether. Are not thecurrent governmentpolicies in violation ofthe Catholic teaching onthe just war?"Fourth, it is apparent

that the AmericanCatholic Church has madea striking change in itshistoric attitudetoward war. In Americanhis-

tory, Catholics haveoften beensuperpatriotic inwartime. This is partlybecause, as lateimmigrants suspected ofhaving beliefs incom-patible with democracy,they felt a need toprove how loyal theywere. An example ofsuperpatriotism isFrancis CardinalSpellman beingphotographed behind amachine gun in Vietnamand being quoted as say-ing. "My country, rightor wrong." A veryspecific example of thechanged outlook is seenin the attention givenin this document to thepacifist position. Itis only since VaticanII that the RomanCatholic Church hasregarded conscientiousobjection as a validposition. Before that,only the just war viewwas recognized. .. .

Augustine, Saint (354—430): early Christian Church father and author.Mennonite: member of an Evangelical Protestant Christian sect opposed to taking oaths, holding public office, or performing military service.


RELIGION

Power, Glory —And Politics

Right-wing preachers dominate the dial

T WAS PART POLITICALcaucus, part campmeeting, part trade

show — and all barnburner. As the crowds of4,000 milled through theSheraton WashingtonHotel in the nation'scapital last week, Gospelsingers crooned, video-equipment salesmen hawkedtheir wares, and mediaconsultants prowled themeeting rooms for newtalent. Dozens of Senatorsand Congressmen made ittheir business to turnout for the cameras andlights, cementingalliances and buffing upimages. Jeane Kirkpatrickand Jesse Jackson werethere. President Reagan,appropriately, sent amessage on videotape.

I

The occasion was theconvention of the NationalReligious Broadcasters.This is a group whosemost resonant names - andrecognizable faces - arethe televangelists, thestars of the electronicchurch, the pastors of"Pray TV." And at onesession after another,cheered on by such honoredelders of the field asBilly Graham and OralRoberts, these powerhousepreachers strutted theirstuff. Jimmy Swaggartroared that the SupremeCourt is "an institutiondamned by God Almighty"for allowing abortions.Jerry Falwell argued that"theologically, any Chris-

tian has to supportIsrael, simply becauseJesus said to." EvenWhite HouseCommunications DirectorPatrick Buchanan drewaudience cries of "Amen!"and "Praise the Lord!"when he exhortedRepublicans to "tap intothe spiritual revivalthat is going in thecountry."

Pat Robertson

If Buchanan soundeddownright evangelical fora politician, one evan-gelist in particularsounded mighty like apolitician. He wasMarion Gordon ("Pat")Robertson, 55, head

of the ChristianBroadcasting Network and afixture on CBN's four-times-a-day The 700 Club.Robertson, a SouthernBaptist, has beentransmitting signals thathe might join the race

RELIGION 221

4. continued

for the Republicannomination to succeedReagan. Political pros areuncertain how big a factorhe could be in theprimaries, let alone theconvention, but they areconvinced that he couldenergize the Christianright and siphon votesfrom other candidates.True believers aretingling at the prospect.As ROBERTSON IN 1988 buttonsblossomed, the amiableVirginian took the N.R.B.platform to denounce theevils of abortion,homosexuality and schoolviolence, all to beovercome by a flood tideof moral regeneration."We are going to see achange in this nation,"he promised hislisteners, "and you aregoing to be a part of it."Perhaps they are already.Preachers like Robertsoncommand audiences thatform, if not a true MoralMajority, at least severalpotent and readilymobilized minorities.Robertson's followingprovides much of CBN's$233 million annualincome. In a year,viewers of The 700 Club log 4million prayer calls to4,500 volunteers manningtelephone banks in 60counseling centers. Suchmotivated constituenciescan - and do - bestowblessings aplenty, in theform of money and votes,upon candidates who wintheir favor.

The fact that aRobertson is even apotential candidateconfirms the ex-traordinary power andinfluence amassed in thepast decade by theshrewd, colorfulheadliners of Gospel TV.While impressing some asshallow and vulgarpopularizers, they bringreal inspiration andsolace to others. Theirpast struggles in low-paid Gospel circuitsbespeak a deep com-mitment, whateverskepticism might bearoused by their presentenjoyment of stardom'srewards. They havechanged the face oftelevision; they may begradually altering thevery nature of AmericanChristianity. .. .Dynamic and high-

profile achievers, everyone, yet none of thesepreachers can compare toRobertson as a TVentrepreneur. Robertsonpioneered the firstreligious TV station, thefirst religious networkand the first Christianprogramming to use atalk-show format, aswell as a number of nowwidely imitated viewer-response and fund-raisingtechniques. He was alsothe first Christianbroadcaster to sign upcommercial sponsors, adevelopment that appearsto be the trend of the1980s. His 24-hour CBNnetwork reaches 30million subscribers,making it not only thelargest Christian cableoperation but the fifthlargest of any kind .. .

TV householdsreached

permonth,

in millionsFrequency of TV show

Pat Robertson daily 16.3

Jimmy Swaggart

weekly 9.3

Robert Schuller

weekly 7.6

Jim Bakker daily 5.8

Oral Roberts weekly 5.8

Jerry Falwell weekly 5.6

CBN's viewership hastripled since 1981, whenRobertson switched froman all-religion scheduleto a family entertainmentapproach, combiningChristian shows withwholesome reruns {Flipper,Father Knows Best), westerns,old movies and game shows.Two weeks ago the networkpremiered CBN News Tonight, aregular evening newscastproduced in Washington,with special emphasis onright-wing issues . ..During the programs, 800

numbers continually flashonscreen, encouragingviewers to phone in theirrequests, comments,prayers or pledges ...

RATINGTHE REVERENDS


SCHOOL PRAYERNational Religious Broadcasters

President Reagan's remarks at the Association'sAnnual Convention, January 31, 1983

. . . I've always believed that thisblessed land was set apart in aspecial way, that some divine planplaced this great continent herebetween the two oceans to be foundby people from every corner of theEarth — people who had a speciallove for freedom and the courage touproot themselves, leave theirhomeland and friends to come to astrange land. And, when cominghere, they created something new inall the history of mankind — acountry where man is not beholdento government, government isbeholden to man.I happen to believe that one way

to promote, indeed, to preservethose traditional values we shareis by permitting our children tobegin their days the same way theMembers of the United StatesCongress do — with prayer. Thepublic expression of our faith inGod, through prayer, is funda-mental — as a part of our Americanheritage and a

privilege which should not beexcluded from our schools.No one must be forced or

pressured to take part in anyreligious exercise. But neithershould the freest country on Earthever have permitted God to beexpelled from the classroom. Whenthe Supreme Court ruled that schoolprayer was unconstitutional almost21 years ago, I believe it ruledwrong. And when a lower courtrecently stopped Lubbock, Texas,high school students from evenholding voluntary prayer meetingson the campus before or afterclass, it ruled wrong, too.Our only hope for tomorrow is in

the faces of our children. And weknow Jesus said, "Suffer the littlechildren to come unto me, andforbid them not, for such is thekingdom of God." Well, last yearwe tried to pass an amendment thatwould allow communities todetermine for themselves whethervoluntary prayer should bepermitted in their public schools.And we failed. But I want you toknow something: I'm determined tobring that amendment back again andagain and again and again, until —[ a p p l a u s e ] — . . .

223

PART C Exercises

1. ComprehensionSunday in HopeExplain how the author tries toshow the close link between Christian faith and social conventions by referring to:• the number of church activities on a Sunday• church attendance• clothes• the contents of the pastor's sermon.

2. Discussion1. How do religious activities and experiences in your country differ from those in the Connecticut Mutual Life Report on American Values in the 1980s?

Religious Activities and ExperiencesHow frequently do you do each of the following?

Number ofFeel that God loves you Respondents

2. How does the church attendancein Hopecompare with the figures in the chart above?

3. Interpret the statistics onreligious beliefs.What strikes you most when youcomparereligious beliefs in the different parts of theworld? Carry out an opinion poll in yourclass and compare the results with the figuresin the chart.

RELIGIOUS BELIEFSU.S. Wester Latin Afri Far

Europe Americ East"Do you in God?"Yes 94% 78% 96% 95% 89%No 3% 16% 3% 2% 6%Don't know 3% 6% 1% 3% 5%"How important

to you

are your

religious beliefs?"Very important 56% 27% 62% 73% 76%

Fairly important 30% 32% 18% 13% 13%Not too important 8% 26% 11% 7% 9%Not important 5% 13% 7% 4% 2%Don't know 1% 2% 1% 3% --

Engage in prayer

Attend religious services

Have something you call a religious

experience34%

Participate in a church social activity

37% i 38%

Encourage others to turn to religion

43%

Listen to religious broadcastOccasionally

3. Analysis of a SpeechI Have a Dream1. Martin Luther King says that his dream "isdeeply rooted in the American dream." Whatdoes the American dream mean to him?

2. Quoting from the Bible (Isaiah 40,4), Kingproclaims that his dream will come true as aresult of the revelation of God's glory. Howdoes he combine this religiousconvictionwith his political hopes?

3. This speech has been calleda masterpiece ofrhetoric. Listen to the speechand have acloser look at the rhetorical devices whichKing uses.a)The most striking device is

repetition.Give examples and explain the effect onthe audience.

b)When he contrasts injustice andoppression with justice and freedom, heuses the device of antithesis. Find moreexamples.

41%

Frequently


c)Show how he draws his imagesfromnature and religion.

d)Describe the interaction between thespeaker and his audience. Would youagree that the speech leadsto a kind ofhymnal climax?

4. Note TakingBreaking New Ground on War and PeaceThe article is clearly subdivided into seven paragraphs. Take notes undereach of the following headings:1.Adoption of the Catholic bishops' "PastoralLetter on War, Armaments and Peace"

2. New Catholic positions3. The "just war" theory4. Public reactions5. The procedure of drafting6. The style of the letter7. A changed attitude towards war.

5.DiscussionAccording to the First Amendmentto the Constitution, church and state are strictly separate. Discuss whether, in your opinion, the Catholic bishops should comment on political issues.

6.ScanningPower, Glory—and PoliticsGo quickly through the text to extract information on thefollowing questions:1. What is the occasion covered by this story?2. Why did politicians take part in the event?3. Who are the stars of the electronic church?

4.Which of the political issues that PatRobertson stands for are mentioned in thetext?

5. What is his power and influence based on?6.Why can Robertson rightly be called a TVentrepreneur?

7. What has he done to attractlarger audiences?8. How does Robertson manage to get theviewers involved in his programs?

7.Text AnalysisSchool Prayer1.How did the Supreme Court ruleon schoolprayer?

2.Why does President Ronald Reagan disagreewith this decision and why would he like topermit school prayer again?

3.What exactly did the President do toreintroduce school prayer?

4.Why does he mention the Members of theU.S. Congress and the court decision atLubbock, Texas?

5.Whom is he addressing and how does he tryto gear his speech to his audience?

8.Letter WritingYou have read the remarks the President made at the Annual Convention of National ReligiousBroadcasters. Now write a letterto an American penfriend expressing your amazement about a constitutional amendment to allow voluntary prayer in publicschools and ask your friend about his/her opinion. You want to include the following ideas:• amazement at the President's support ofschool prayer

• the President's attempt to override the FirstAmendment prohibition against governmentadvancement of religion.

• fear that even voluntary school prayer wouldfoster certain—but not all—religious practices. and beliefs• suspicion that the argument oftraditionalvalues is only used to hide the true motives,for example, the attempt to secure the supportof the right-wing evangelical movement.

13 The ArtsPART A Background Information

COMMITMENT TO THE ARTS

INCREASING ATTENDANCE AT CULTURAL EVENTS

MOREPARTICIPANTS INTHE ARTS

MORE FACILITIES

MASS APPEAL

One stereotype of the United States is that of aculture where television, sports and other forms ofpopular entertainment overshadow the arts. In fact,Americans are deeply committed to the arts. Not onlydo more people today attend arts events than sportsevents, but almost as many people go to art museumsas to pop concerts.Louis Harris's Americans and the Arts poll reveals a

surge of artistic activity in America from the mid-1970s to the mid-1980s. During this period, atten-dance at arts events increased:• the number of people who attended movies rose from 70 percent to 78percent

• attendance at theatrical performances rose from 53 percent to 67 percent• the number of people attending dance performances rose from 23 percent to34 percent

• attendance at live performances of classical or symphonic music went upfrom 25 percent to 34 percent

• between 1980 and 1984, attendance at live performancesof operas or musicalsrose from 25 percent to 30 percent.The same poll also reveals that more people are

participating as amateurs or professionals in thearts:• from the mid-1970s to the mid-1980s, the number ofpeople involved inpainting, drawing, or the graphic arts rose from 22percent to 29 percent;

• the number of adults who play musical instruments went up from 18percent to 31 percent;

• participation in local theater groups increased from3 percent to 7 percent;• the number of people who write stories and poems almost doubled, goingfrom 13 percent to 25 percent;

• participation in ballet and modern dance increasedsignificantly from 9percent to 21 percent.To accommodate the public's increasing demand for

the arts,many newculturalfacilitiesare beingbuilt; thearchitecturaltrend towardsexpansive,imposing newdesigns formuseums andtheaterssuggests theelevatedstatus of thearts inAmericatoday.The media,

particularlytelevision,havegenerated abroad base ofinterest andenthusiasmfor the artsthroughregularpromotion andcoverage ofculturalevents. Thereach of thearts extendsin sizablenumbers topeople of allages, almostall economicgroups, andall regionsof thecountry.


MINIMALGOVERNMENTSUPPORT

MIXTURE OF STYLES

The Guggenheim Museum, New York

The cultural explosion is all the more remarkablewhen one considers the relative lack of governmentsupport of the arts. Promotion of the arts throughprivate and commerical funding rather than governmentfunding is a firmly established tradition in theUnited States. Recently, however, the government'srole in supporting the arts has increased. TheNational Endowment for the Arts, a government agencycreated in 1965, has been contributing to theadvancement of the arts. B} 1985, the federalgovernment was spending $163 million a year on thisendowment; the annual spending of state governmentsreached $160 million. Still, all government artsspending remains small compared with private artscontributions, which exceeded $4 thousand million in1985. Moreover, the arts still receiveproportionately less government funding in the UnitedStates than in any other major Western nation. Evenwithout the security of government subsidies that thearts in other countries traditionally enjoy, thearts in America have flourished.As American culture evolved, American artists began

to create their own art forms. The styles of Americanart are as diverse as the people. Just as there isno single ethnic group, there is also no singleAmerican style. American artists have been inspiredby a variety of influences, including folk

primitivismand Europeansophistication. Painters,sculptors,musicians,andinnovators inother fieldshave won fameboth at homeand abroad.

THE ARTS 227

THE VISUAL ARTS

Until the 1940s, America's visual arts—painting andsculpture—were primarily influenced by Europeantrends. American art developed mainly through subjectmatter and skills, as artists imitated theestablished styles of the European masters. The mostsignificant developments in American art emerged inthe years following the Second World War.

f if*

Flowers, Mary's Table (1971) Willem de Kooning

Mobiles by Alexander Calder


ABSTRACT EXPRESSIONISM

SCULPTURE

MIXED MEDIA

POP ART

OPART RECENT TRENDS

AMERICAN MUSIC

RAGTIME

BLUES

JAZZ

Abstract expressionism, which was begun by a groupof New York artists in the 1940s, became the firstAmerican art movement to command the attention ofartists abroad. Revolting against traditional graphicstyles, the artists of this movement sought to remakethe goals and methods of art. Abstract expressionistsrejected traditional subject matter, such as thehuman body, still life, or rural scenes. Instead,they focused on such things as the utilization ofspace, dimension, and surface texture, and theinterrelationship of colors. The internationalinfluence of America's abstract expressionists was sogreat that the painting center of the world shiftedfrom Paris to New York.Among the movement's leaders were Jackson Pollack

(1912-54), who is famous for his turbulent paint-splattered canvases; Willem de Kooning, who usedsavage brush strokes and intense colors; and MarkRothko, who is known for the bold blocks of colorthat dominate his huge canvases.During this period, American sculptors developed new

styles of their own. Alexander Calder (1898-1976)designed the mobile. David Smith (1906-65) was thefirst sculptor to work with welded metals.In the late 1950s and early 1960s, young artists

reacted to abstract expressionism to produce works of"mixed" media. Robert Rauschenberg and Jasper Johnsintegrated everyday objects such as photographs andnewspaper clippings into their paintings.The reaction to abstract expressionism continued

with a movement called "pop art" ("pop" is short for"popular"). The members of this movement attempted toproduce works of art that would reflect the pervasiveinfluence of mass marketing, mass media, and othertrends in American popular culture. Important in thepop-art movement were Andy Warhol (1930—87), famousfor his multiple rows of soup cans and multipleportraits of Marilyn Monroe; and Roy Lichtenstein,recognized for his mimicry of well-known comicstrips."Pop" was followed by "Op" art, based on the principle of optical illusion.Recent trends in art emphasize variety and

innovation. Movements of the 1970s and 80s includeperformance art, earth art, conceptual art, graffitiart, neo- and figural-expressionism, and neo-geo art.Unique forms and styles of music have developed in

America. Ragtime, blues, jazz, country-western, rock'n' roll, and the musical are all American-born.The black American music tradition has produced and

influenced a variety of genres. Ragtime was the firstblack American music to gain wide popularity. ComposerScott Joplin (1868—1917) helped develop ragtime fromsimple parlor piano music into a serious genre.Ragtime is most important for its association with theblues, which then inspired jazz, America's mostoriginal music form.The blues evolved from African folk songs and

churchmusic. Sungby soloistsor featuringsoloinstruments,blues music

often expresses disappointment or regret.Jazz, now recognized as a world-wide art form,

originated around the turn of the century among blackmusicians in the American South. The music wasinspired by African culture but evolved directly fromspirituals, ragtime, and blues. Jazz is characterizedby improvisation and a lively attention to rhythm,

de Kooning, Willem: born 1904, Dutch-Americanpainter. Rothko, Mark (1903—70): Russian-born American painter.

THE ARTS 229

COUNTRY-WESTERN MUSIC

THE MUSICAL

ROCK MUSIC

something famous jazz musician Duke Ellington (1899—1974) called "swing."By 1920, jazz had spread from the South, and in the

1930s, it reached its heyday of mass popularity asbig band music. Louis Armstrong, (1900-71) atrumpeter and soloist, was one of the first well-known jazz singers. Other early jazz leaders wereDuke Ellington, "Dizzy" Gillespie and CharlieParker.Although the improvisational style of early jazz

still survives today, jazz has moved on to newfrontiers. In the 1960s and 70s, jazz musicians begancombining the rhythms of rock 'n' roll and electronicinstruments with traditional elements of jazz toform a blend of music called "fusion." Today, jazzis extremely popular in America and abroad. Jazzconcerts draw thousands of listeners every year.The influence of jazz is found in many types of

American music. The music of George Gershwin (1898-37), one of America's most popular song writers andcomposers, was strongly influenced by jazz. Theconcerto "Rhapsody in Blue" and the opera "Porgy andBess" were two of his works which incorporated jazz.Another popular type of music which came out of the

American South is country-western. However, itscultural origin and musical sounds are totallydifferent from jazz. The style of country westernmusic has its roots in the folk songs and ballads ofthe early Scottish and English settlers in thesouthern colonies. The music developed over a longperiod with melodies and lyrics reflecting rural lifein the Southeast and Southwest. The distinctive soundof country music depends on the guitar, banjo andfiddle. Lyrics generally focus on the sorrows oflove or the economic hardships of poor whites.In the 1940s, the appeal of country music extended

beyond the rural South, and the music began toattract nationwide attention. Weekly music ratingsindicate the continuing popularity of this type ofmusic.In the 1930s another native American-born art form

emerged. Themusical was anew form ofentertainmentwhichcombinedacting,music, andballet. Themusical wasinspired bythe Anglo-Irish musicaltheater, thecentral

European operetta, and the American vaudevilleminstrel show. Basically entertaining in character,most early screen musicals were lavish and glamorousescapist fantasies. Dreams of success came true forcharacters who overcame hardships by faith and hardwork, with some spectacular singing and dancingalong the way.Later musicals, such as Rodgers and Hammerstein's

"Oklahoma" and Sond-heim and Bernstein's "West SideStory," included serious themes and social criticism."A Chorus Line," first performed in 1975, is stillone of the most popular musicals today.Rock music has dominated the popular music scene

ever since America was inundated with the new soundin the 1950s. Rock 'n' roll developed as a

Ellington, Edward Kennedy ("Duke") 1899-1974: American jazz composer,pianist and bandleader.Rodgers, Richard (1902-79): American composer.Hammerstein, Oscar, II (1895-1960): American librettist and songwriter.Sondheim, Stephen: born 1930 American composer and lyricist.Bernstein, Eeonard: born 1918, American conductor, pianist and composer.


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THE ARTS 231

MODERN DANCE mixture of black blues and white country-western.The music quickly won intense and sustained appealwith young people not only in America, but all overthe world. Early rock musicians such as Elvis Presleyand Bob Dylan were idolized by millions of teenagers.In the 1970s and 80s, rock 'n' roll became heavily

commercialized. Hundreds of bands copied the formulaof success and went into recording studios to makemoney rather than innovative music. Some rockmusicians, however, have emerged from the studiowith unique sounds and messages in their music.Among these artists are guitarist-songwriter BruceSpringsteen and singer Stevie Wonder.Closely tied to developments in American music was

modern dance, which emerged in America as a new artform early in the century. The creators of moderndance rejected the artificial formality of classicalballet. Instead, they sought to convey the innermostfeelings of the human mind and body in simple,flowing dance movements.The first and most influential leader of the

movement was Isadora Duncan (1878-1927). MarthaGraham's New York-based group became the best knownmodern dance company. America's newest generation ofmodern dance choreographers includes Alvin Aileywhose style features African dance elements andblack music, and Twyla Tharp, who experiments with newareas for dance such as video and films.In the past three decades, dance, both ballet and

modern, has been the most rapidly developingperforming art in the nation. New York City hasbecome the dance center of the world.

Modern Dance: The American Ballet Theater


HOLLYWOOD FILMS

INFLUENCE OF TELEVISION

Born in Hollywood after the turn of the century, themotion picture became the monumental popular art formof the century. In Hollywood's golden age during the1940s, the major studios were turning out over 400movies each year.Like most businessmen, motion picture executives and

entrepreneurs wanted to develop products that had massappeal. Once they found a successful formula, theyrepeated it in film after film. Westerns, gangsterfilms, comedies, and musicals were some of thepopular films that emerged as distinct genres.Hollywood films were tailored to an American audienceand appealed to its tastes by reinforcing traditionalmyths, values, and beliefs. The western fused violenceand rugged individualism into larger, mythical themesof taming the frontier, curbing lawlessness, andforging a nation. Entertaining comedies and musicalscarried messages of aspiration and optimism. In filmdirector Frank Capra's (born 1897) It Happened One Night(1934), the poor boy who fell in love with a rich girlmanaged to win her heart. Class divisions were healedand everyone lived happily ever after. Audiences werecharmed. During these decades of Hollywood's goldenage, films, movie stars, and even the architecture ofthe theaters were glittering and glorious.The movies have changed since television

intervened. Film attendance declined sharply,conglomerates bought up studios, and Hollywood's oldmonopoly on stardom and American style was lost.Today's moviegoers are mostly teenagers. Theirparents prefer television entertainment. The majorfilm studios have adapted to the new viewing patternsby cutting back on production, targeting films to theyounger audience, and creating new markets. Studioshave recaptured television audiences by renting theirfeature films to television networks and by producinglow-budget made-for-TV movies and television series.Video cassettes have also created new markets for filmstudios. Although the golden age is past, films remaina popular and profitable form of entertainment inAmerica.Innovations in these varied artistic fields have

enriched America's cultural life and have made animpact on the rest of the world. The flourishing ofthe arts in America today signals a continuedmomentum for new developments in American art in thefuture.

233

PART в Texts

Toward a National TheaterBy Howard Stein

Today no majorplaywrights dominatethe Broadway stage inthe way the giants ofpast decades once did:from 1920 to 1940 Eu-gene O'Neill andClifford Odets, from1940 to I960 TennesseeWilliams, Arthur Millerand William Inge. SinceI960 there have been noplaywrights quite onthe level of these,although many talentedwriters have emerged,such as Edward Albee,Sam Shepard and NeilSimon. In the pastquarter century thefocus has increasinglyshifted away fromBroadway to distant re-gions of the country,and energy, poeticimagination and vitalityhave sparked theAmerican theater in ahost of institutionsacross the country.Two significant

changes have takenplace: first, thedecentralization oftheatrical activity,which has resulted in anation of theatersrather than a nationwhose theater is housedin the few square blocksin Manhattan, New YorkCity, known asBroadway; and second,the encouragement ofwriters throughout thenation to develop plays

rather than to writescripts which are thenpresented to a Broadwayproducer for finaljudgment. These twochanges in the patternof playmak-ing in theUnited States havecaused

a radical shift in thekinds of plays producedand the kinds ofwriters nurtured. Infact, America finallyhas a nationaltheater, although itis not the kind ofnational theater oneassociates with theNational Theatre ofEngland or the MoscowArt Theater or theComedie Fran-gaise.Instead, it is a loosenetwork of theaterspresenting materialthat both reflects andilluminates Americansociety, a society thatcontinues to be amelting pot full ofenergy and variety.No longer dominated by

the tyranny of Broadwaymoguls, American theaternow includes around 400professional not-for-profit companies incities across thecountry. Most of thesehave evolved over thelast 20 years, since theestablishment of theNational Endowment forthe Arts. Therefore,American theater is nowmade up of bothcommercial and nonprofitinterests. In New YorkCity itself, forexample, the theaterworld is divided betweenthe commercial producersof Broadway and thescattered, smaller, not-for-profit theatersknown as "off-В roadway." AlthoughFor more than a century

Broadway was a stableand profitable communi-ty. Originating its ownshows, which some woulddescribe as manufactur-ing its own products,Broadway produced showbusiness. Broadway pro-ducers tested theirwares out-of-town in oneof the majornortheastern cities(Boston, Philadelphia,Washington or NewHaven), opened in Man-hattan, and then,depending upon a play's

success or failure asdetermined by the NewYork newspaper critics,toured the country,sometimes with theoriginal cast, morefrequently with a secondcompany. That pat-Although Broadway did

not produce only onekind of play for all


1. continuedthose years, there wasa significantsimilarity in Broadwayplaywrights' work.Those plays, for themost part, were devotedto social realism, tothe family, to middle-class people talking inmiddle-class languageabout middle-classproblems— problems thatcentered aroundmarriage, raisingchildren, extramaritalaffairs, divorce,business and personalintegrity.The fact remains that

a more authenticpicture of the countrywould be one of anation comprised of farmore than middle-classfamilies, a

nation of significantvariety and geographywhose character isperhaps too vast tocapture in the theater,certainly in thetheater of Manhattan.America is a nation ofno single background,heritage, culture, lan-guage, interest or setof values. The strengthand identity of thenation is in itsdiversity and boundlessenergy. The theater ofthe last 25 years hassucceeded in reflectingthat diversity and thatenergy; this nation oftheaters offers theentire world a muchmore realistic image ofAmerica than the oldBroadway ever did.

Stein, Howard: professor and chairman of Columbia University's Hammerstein Center for Theatre Studies.O'Neill, Eugene (1888-1953): His plays won him the Pulitzer Prizeseveral times and earned him the Nobel Prize in 1936. Among his plays are the trilogy Mourning Becomes Electra, the New England folk comedy Ah, Wilderness*, and the autobiographical tragedy Long Day's Journey into Night.Odets, Clifford (1906—63): actor and playwright who became famous by the production of his one-act play Waiting for Lefty, dealing with a taxi strike.Miller, Arthur: born 1915, author of All My Sons, Death of a Salesman (Pulitzer Prize) and The Crucible.Inge, William (1913-73): wrote plays about seemingly ordinary Midwestern people. Picnic earned him the Pulitzer Prize.Albee, Edward: born 1928, author of The Zoo Story, The American Dream and Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf?Shepard, Sam: born 1943, author of Buried Child (Pulitzer Prize), True West and Fool for Love.Simon, Neil: born 1927, American playwright and television writer, author of highly successful comedies like Barefoot in the Park, Star Spangled Girl, and The Prisoner of Second Avenue, which reflect his ability to see the comic incongruities of everyday life.National Endowment for the Arts: part of the National Foundation on the Arts and the Humanities, an independent agency of the U.S. government, founded by Congress in 1965. It was established to foster the growth and development of the arts in the United States

THE ARTS 235

A Dozen Outstanding Plays of the Past Quarter Century

WIto's Afraid of Virginia Woolf?

Streamers

Indians

Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf? (1962) by Edward Albee—With this searing portrait of a marriage seemingly based on fantasies, infidelities and alcohol, Edward Albee, then 33, achieved instant fame. "The quality and the character of his writing alerted the theater," writes critic Stuart Little, "and excited and challenged his contemporaries. He had opened a new vein of dramatic writing."

The Old Glory (two parts of this trilogy first produced in 1964; the third in 1968) by Robert Lowell— Commissioned by an off-Broadway theater dedicated to new works, this play by the late, eminentpoet Robert Lowell is based on three stories by 19th-century writers—two by Nathaniel Hawthorne and one by Herman Melville. "The title, The Old Glory," said Lowell in 1976, "has two meanings: it refers both to the flag and also to the glory with which the Republic of America was started."

The Great White Hope (1968) by Howard Sackler—This drama, one of the first to transfer directly from a regional theater to Broadway, is based on the life of black prizefighter Jack Johnson, who challenged early 20th-century racial attitudes. At a time when civil rights was a major issue in national politics, The Great White Hope, according to critic Ethan Mordden, "made a breakthrough for black theater, acclimatizing the public to racial drama in which rage would be explained rather than exploited, and black culture might be explored."

Indians (1969) by Arthur Kopit—A fantastical representation of Buffalo Bill's Wild West Show, this play is also a reconsideration of the treatment of American Indians during the settling of the West. "Indians," wrote critic Otis Guernsey, "reached its climax and fulfillment not in the events onstage... but out in the auditorium, where we were forced to reexamine some of our value judgments through a crack in our beloved national epic of the West."

House of Blue Leaves (1971) by John Guare—Produced off-Broadway, this black comedy about a middle-aged zookeeper who longs to write songs for the movies is the work of one of America's most idiosyncratic playwrights. Sometimes criticized for failing to restrain what critic Ross Wetzsteon called "the wild inventions and weird mutations of his imagination," Guare maintains that the theater is "the last refuge for poetry."

Streamers (1976) by David Rabe—With this study of violence set in a military training camp, and two earlier plays. The Basic Training of Pavlo Hummel and Sticks and Bones, Rabe became "the first American playwright to write unflinchingly about Vietnam," said David Richards in The Washington Star. Two of these plays were nurtured at Joseph Papp's influential Public Theater in New York.

Photographs by Martha Swope


2. continued

House of Blue Leaves

Uncommon Women and Others (1977) by Wendy Wasserstein—First staged when its author wasa student in Yale University's prestigious playwriling program, this effervescent comedy focuses on a groupof graduates from an elite women's college. Wasserstein's work, wrote Michiko Kakutani in The New York Ti mes, concerns itself with "the choices facing contemporary women— and the additional pressures created by feminist ideals."

Fifth of July (1978) by Lanford Wilson—An oddly assorted group of survivors from the turbulent 1960s try to build new lives in their old Missouri hometown. First produced at the Circle Repertory Company in New York, the play was revived on Broadway in 1980, where New York Times theater critic Frank Rich praised it as "Wilson's own morning-after-Independence-Day dream of a democratic America—an enlightened place where the best ideals can bloom."

Buried Child (1978) by Sam ShepardShepard

writes plays that take place, as critic Ronald Bryden has written, "in an eternal present haunted fry an unknown past. "In the Pulitzer-prizewinning Buried Child, first staged at San Francisco's Magic Theatre, a young man returns to his family's midwestern farm to find that no one recognizes him.

Children of a Lesser God (1979) by Mark Medoff—Centering on a voice teacher and the strong-minded deaf student he loves and marries, this play was developed at the Mark Taper Forum in Los Angeles and later triumphed on Broadway. JohnBeaufort said in The Christian Science Monitor: "Children is not merely about the plight of physical impairment. It is about the human condition and the struggle to communicate across daunting barriers."

Sister Mary Ignatius Explains It All for You(1979) by Christopher Durang—In this satiric comedyabout parochial education and authority figures, former students confront the righteous nun who taught them. "Anyone can write an angry play," wrote Frank Rich in praise of Durang, who continues to work off-Broadway, "but only a writer of real talent can write an angry play that remains funny and controlled even in its most savage moments."

ASoldier's Play (1981) by Charles Fuller—Developed at the Negro Ensemble Company, this Pulitzer prizewinner is a murder mystery in which, as Walter Kerr wrote in The New York Times, "the excitement comes not from tracking down the criminal, but instead from tracking down the identity of the victim." Investigating the character of the victim, a vicious black sergeant on a southern military base in 1944, allows Fuller to explore the uneasy contradictions of racism,, both black and white.

THE ARTS 237

DIALOGUE

JACK NICHOLSONFrom FILM COMMENTAfter a decade of low-budget films, Jack Nicholson achieved movie stardom in 1969 with the unheralded hit Easy Rider. Since then, he has created a variety of menacing yet oddly sympathetic characters in such movies as Chinatown, One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest and The Shining. Unlike many stars, Nicholson has never sought a glamorous screen image or insistedon leading roles. In fact, in Terms of Endearment (1983) he played a seedy, out-of-shape astronaut, yet he won all major movie awards for supporting actor.

This risk-taking independence is evident throughout Nicholson л long movie career, in his directing and screenwriting as well as his acting. As the producer of his recent film, P.rizzi's Honor, says, "He is prepared to do whatever the part requires, and anything he does becomes in itselfinteresting. "Here, Nicholson talks unth journalist and screenwriter Beverly Walker about the challenges inherent in Hollywood filmmaking.

Tell me about your beginnings.I got out of school [in New

Jersey] a year early, and though Icould've worked my way through col-lege, I decided I didn't want todo that. I came to California wheremy only other relatives were; andsince I wanted to see movie stars,I got a job at MGM, as an officeboy in [he cartoon program. For acouple of years I saw movie stars,and then I was nudged into atalent program. From there I wentto the Players Ring Theatre, one ofthe little theaters in Los Angelesat the time. I went to one actingclass before I was taken to JeffCorey's class.Up until then I hadn't cared about

much but sports and girls and lookingat movies—stuff vou do when you're17 or 18. But Jeff Corey's method ofworking opened me up to a whole areaof Study. Acting is life-study, andCorey's classes got me into lookingat life as—I'm still hesitant to

say—an artist. They opened uppeople, literature. I met loads ofpeople I still work with. Fromthat point on, I have mainly beeninterested in acting. I think it'sa great job, a fine way to live yourlife....

It's been said that you gaveyourself 10 years to become a star. Isthat true?No. Corey taught that good

actors were meant to absorb life,and that's what I was trying todo. This was the era of the BeatGeneration and West Coast jazz andstaying up all night on VeniceBeach. That was as important asgettingjobs, or so it seemed atthe time.At the beginning, you're very

idealistically inclined towardthe art of the thing. Or youdon't stick because there's nomoney in it. And I've alwaysunderstood money; it's not a bigmystical thing to me. I say thisby way of underlining that it wasthen and is still the art of actingthat is the well-spring for me.In that theoretical period of

my life I began to think that thefinest modern writer was thescreen actor. This was in thespirit of the '50s where a veryantiliterary literature wasemerging. I kind of believed whatNietzsche said, that nothing notwritten in your blood is worthreading; it's just more pollutionof the airwaves. If you're goingto write, write one poem all yourlife, let nobody read it, and thenburn it. This is very youngthinking, I confess, but it is theseminal part of my life. This wasthe collage period in painting,the influence of Duchamp andothers. The idea of not buildingmonuments was very strong amongidealistic people. I knew filmdeteriorated. Through all thesepermutations and youthful poetry,I came to believe that the filmactor was the great "litterateur"of his time. I think I know whatI meant....The quality of acting in 1..A.

theater then was very highbecause of the tremendous numberof actors who were flying back andforth between the East Coast andHollywood. You could see anybody—anybody who wasn't a star—intheaters with 80 seats. But italways bothered me when peoplecame off stage and were told howgreat they were. They weren't,really, in my opinion. It was thenI started thinking that, contraryto conventional wisdom, film wasthe artful medium for the actor,not the stage.


3. continuedThe stage has a certain

discipline. But the ultimatestandard is more exacting infilm, because you have to seeyourself— and you are your owntoughest critic. I did not wantto be coming off the stage at themercy of what somebody else toldme I did...You obviously saw Easy Rider [1969]

before knowing the critical andpublic response. Did you have anyclue it would become such a hit?Yes, a clue. Because of my

background with Roger Gorman, Iknew that my last motorcyclemovie had done $6 to $8 millionfrom a budget of less than half amillion. I thought the moment forthe biker film had come,especially if the genre was movedone step away from exploitationtoward some kind of literaryquality. After all, I was writinga script [Head] based on thetheories of Marshall McLuhan, soI understood what the release ofhybrid communications energymight mean. This was one of adozen theoretical discussions I'dhave every day because this was avery vital time for me and mycontemporaries.Did you think it would make you a star?When I saw Easy Rider, I thought it

was very good, but it wasn'tuntil the screening at theCannes Film Festival that I hadan inkling of its powerfulsuperstructural effect upon thepublic. In fact, up to thatmoment 1 had been thinking moreabout directing, and I had acommitment to do one of severalthings I was interested in. WhichI did. Immediately after Easy Rider,I directed Drive He Said.But at Cannes my thinking changed. I'd been

Jack Nicholson in Easy Rider

there before, and I understoodthe audience and its relativeamplitudes. I believe I was oneof the few people sitting inthat audience who understoodwhat was happening. I thought,"This is it. I'm back into actingnow. I'm a movie star."...Since Easy Rider, by what criteria do

you select projects?I look for a director with a

script he likes a lot, but I'mprobably after the directors morethan anything. Because of the waythe business is structured today,I have sometimes turned downscripts that I might otherwisehave accepted had I known who wasdirecting them.You've taken more risks with

subject matter, supporting roles ordirectors than any American star ofrecent memory. Is the directorcentral in your taking risk?Yes. There are many directors

in the middlerange who've made mostlysuccessful pictures, andthen there are a few greatdirectors who've hadsome successes and some failures.I suppose my lifewould be smoother if I wasn'talmost totally enamored of the latter categoryDo you enjoy directing?I love it.Why?Let me put it this way: both as

an actor and a viewer, what Ilook for in a director and amovie is vision. I wasn't madabout Roman's Pirates script, butbecause it's Roman [Polanski] Iknow it's going to be a greatmovie. Roman is top five; the samefor Stanley [Kubrick] as well asJohn Huston. The imagery of amovie is where it's at, and thatis based upon the director'svision.Everybody's always talking about

script. In actuality, cinema isthat "other thing"; and unlessyou're after that, I'd just assoon be in the different medium.If it's going to be about script,let it be a play.The quality of a scene is

different if it's set in a phonebooth or in an ice house, and thedirector has got to know when hewants one or the other. Scenes aredifferent when the camera sitsstill or if it's running on atrain. All these things are

indigenous to the form.There's someone I know who

keeps a book of drawings made byguests to her home. She asks ev-eryone to make a drawing with twoelements of her choosing: a heartand a house. The wildest one inthe book was made by StevenSpielberg, and it shows exactly whyhe's a great movie director. This iswhat he drew: a big paper heart asif it were a hoop, busted open,through which was coming a carpulling a trailer home behind it.Motion...movement...explosion areall there in that one littleRorschach of a draw-

THE ARTS 239

ing. Everybody in town's in thatbook. If I were the head of astudio and I looked through thebook, I'd stop right there andsay, "This boy here is a moviedirector."So why do I want to direct? Well,

I think I have special vision. Ifyou ask anybody who was in collegeduring the period ot Drive, He Said[1971], they'll tell you it was thepeer-group picture of the time. Butit cost me because it was verycritical of youth. I did notpander to them.I'm very proud of my two movies,

and I thinkthey have something special.Otherwise, I havenothing to offer. I don't want todirect a movie asgood as Antonioni, or Kubrick, orPolanski or whoever. I want it to be my own. Ithink I've got the seedof it and, what's more, that I canmake movies thatare different and informed by mytaste. Since that'swhat I'm looking for when I'm inthe other seat, Iwonder why others aren't....Well,obviously because I make 'em a lot of money asan actor__________________________Have you been doing any other

writing in recent years? The lastcredit I see on your filmography isfor Head [1968].I've contributed to other

things, such as Goin' South [1978]and the scene on the bluff with myfather in Five Easy Pieces. I lovewriting, but I stopped because Ifelt I was more effectiveapproaching filmmaking from adifferent vantage point. At thismoment, I suppose I can do more fora script as an actor than as awriter—in the film sense. I wroteright up to Easy Rider, at which timeI became someone who could addfuel to a project as an actor.I've always approached film as aunit, but you have to work yourown field....

Do you feel the more auteur-orienteddirectors are generally smart enoughto incorporate a star into their ownvision?Yes. The people I work with are

auteurs in the sense that if theywant something a certain way,they'll get it. I don't argue withthem past a certain point. But Ifeel it's myjob to attempt toinfluence their thinking. OK, thedirector makes the movie. But somemovies can't get made withoutsomeone like me in them.Looking over all of it, the

single most obvious thing to me,in all we read and all we writeabout films, is this: people fearthe creative moment. That's whythey talk so long about a givenscene.But the creative moment ishappening when the camera isturned on and stops when it'sturned off. First time...thistime...only now...never again to bethat way again. That's it.One person cannot be in charge

of all that. The director sayswhen to turn on the camera,whether to do another take, and heselects which of the moments hethinks is worthwhile. Prom acollage point of view, he isprimary.But in that sense, you can't

separate out the actor. I alwaystry to get into whatever mold adirector has in mind, but in allhonesty, in the real action of it,they don't know. They want you todeliver "it." They hire someonelike myself because they hope I'lldo something beyond whatever theyhave in mind. Bring something theydidn't write. They've createdeverything up to that moment whenthey turn on the camera—theclothes, the day, the time—butwhen that rolls, they're totallyat the mercy of the actor.

MGM: Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, Hollywood movie studio.Beat Generation: young people who, after the Second World War, had lost faith in Western cultural traditions and rejected conventional norms of dress and behavior.Nietzsche, Friedrich Wilhelm (1844-1900): German philosopher, poet, and critic.Duchamp, Marcel (1887-1968): French painter.Corman, Roger: born 1926, motion picture producer, director and distributor.McLuhan, Marshall (1911—80): Canadian cultural historian and mass-communication theorist.Rorschach, Hermann (1884—1922): Swiss psychiatrist, invented a psychological test of personality.auteur: (French = author); here: film director who is regarded as the true author of a film.


FILMLiterary Hollywood

By Stanley Kauffmann From THE NEW REPUBLIC

The most commerciallysuccessful director-producer in the worldhistory of film hasdirected and produced avirtually all-black film.The landmark juncture ofSteven Spielberg and ablack subject in The ColorPurple reflects currentAmerican society, but inthis case there's an extradimension. Spielberg hasbecome a golden eminencenot just through talent,which he certainly has,but also, perhapsespecially, because he isnot the least bit shrewd.He is open and self-gratifying. Spielbergmakes us feel that, asproducer or producer-director, he makes filmsthat he himself wants tosee. He apparentlyoperates on the assumptionthat if he wants to seeit, the international filmpublic will also want it,an assumption that is nowpretty well validated. Soit's significant that hewanted to see, thus wantedto make, a film of AliceWalker's novel The ColorPurple. If Spielberg is acongenital vicar for animmense public, which heseems to be, then animmense public is ready fora black film that offerssome unpleasant views ofblack American life.Walker's novel won a

Pulitzer Prize and anAmerican Book Award in1983 and has been read bymillions. (This is noguarantee of film success;

the past is strewn withfailed film transcriptionsof best sellers.) Except forone salient episode, The ColorPurple is not about black-white relations: it is aboutblacks. Specifically, it isabout the mistreatment, theabuse, of black women byblack men. Walker's novel isoften affecting, but at asomewhat elemental level.The

Ibook is composed ofletters, most of themwritten in so-calledblack English that initself evokes pathos.Celie, the heroine,addresses letters to God.(Later there are moreliterate and much lessmoving letters from hersister who escapes fromrural Georgia to becomea missionary in Africa.)"Dear God," begins thebook, "I am fourteenyears old." Then cometwo crossed-out words.Then: "1 have alwaysbeen a good girl. Maybeyou can give me a signletting me know what ishappening to me." Thatsalutation, thosecrossed-out words, thebewildered appeallaunch the book at onceon its accessible way.God gives Celie plenty

of signs of what ishappening to her, mostof them oppressive, butCelie endures, with taci-turn courage. The storyfollows this Georgiafarm girl from 1909 to1931. Her stepfathertwice gets Celie preg-nant, then takes thebabies away. She doesn'tknow where they are.Then he hands her overfor marriage to awidower who had come toask for Celie's sister.Her husband tyrannizesher and taunts her withhis passion for a bandvocalist. Celie,continually jeered at asugly, is first toldotherwise by the singer.Celie matures, achievesindependence and at lastis reunited with hermissionary sister, whoalso brings Celie'schildren home.The book might have

been written forSpielberg. He and Walkerare both genuine, bothskilled practitioners ofpopular art. It seemsinevitable that thisshould be the book to

switch him, temporarilyanyway, from space sagasand kid stories.Allen Daviau has

photographed the film incolors that are the visualequivalent of QuincyJones's lush music:Spielberg apparentlyfeels that the floodingmusic and color transcendartifice because of theauthenticity they

Stanley Kauffmann is film critic for The New Republic

Reprinted by permission of The New Republic. © 1986, The New Republic, Inc.

THE ARTS 241

4. continuedadorn. Moreover,Spielberg keeps thecamera below eye-level agood deal of the time,often near floor-level,looking upward as if toassert that he feels thestory is epic.For Celie, Spielberg,

with his usual goodinstincts, chose comedianWhoopi Goldberg. She isa solo performer ofsketches she herselfcreates. Her Broadwayappearance last yeardemonstrated that herperforming talent isbetter than her writing.As Celie, Goldberg isperfect.Danny Glover, as the

widower who weds Celiereluctantly, goes fromstrength to strength asan actor. Up to now, hehas played sympatheticroles — notably, thefield hand Moses in Placesin the Heart. Here he plays abrute who mellows withthe years. Glover makesthe younger man bothterrifying andunderstandable, and

makes the mellowing ascredible as anyone coulddo.Two women are

outstanding. OprahWinfrey is Sophie, aplump proud woman whopays grievously for herpride. Margaret Avery isShug (short for Sugar),the singer who bewitchesCelie's husband but whoselove turns out to be theliberation of Celie'sspirit. Avery is worldlywise, yet warm and lovely.The film travels a bit

errantly and sluggishlytoward the happy endingwe know it must have,whether or not we've readthe book, but Spielberg'sconvictions carry itthrough: his convictionthat this is now themoment for a mass-appealfilm on these aspects ofblack life and hisconviction about happyendings. Clearly hebelieves that happyendings are integral tofilm, that they are whatfilm is for. These twoconvictions, of instanceand of principle, sustainThe Color Purple.

Danny Glover and Whoopi Goldberg in The Color Purple1985 Warner Brothers Company


The Chairman and the Boss

The first great Americansuperstar singer, and thelatest Voices for wholegenerations. Musicians whocan sculpt in song anentire interior landscapeof American dreams playedout in late-night bars oron empty midnight high-ways. Jukebox visionaries.World-class artists.Frank Sinatra and Bruce

Springsteen have a lotmore in common than theirnative state of NewJersey. They dwell in thesame kind of spiritualterritory: a world ofloneliness, romanticretribution, hard prideand tenuous triumph wherea song can be a testamentor a talisman. Even theirmost sweeping upbeatnumbers have an undertowfrom the outer darkness.Their music moves todifferent beats. That isobvious. But whetherSinatra swings orSpringsteen rocks, theyboth sound like they aresinging about lives in thebalance.Their audiences do not

overlap. Not many kidsBorn in the U.SA. want to haveit My Way, and those whohave hoisted One for My Babymay not feel they are Bornto Run. Could Sinatra coverCover Me} Could Springsteenget behind Spring Is Here} Nomatter. They share thesame solitary spirit.Sinatra's greatest record— and his self-acknow-ledged favorite — is the1958 album Only the Lonely, inwhich the haunted force ofhis singing transformsromantic

Frank Sinatra

abandonment into anelegant paradigm ofspiritual despairstraight up, no chaser.Springsteen has neverbeen better than on 1980'sThe River, a two-record setfull of blind alleys,dashed dreams and rave-ups that sound like laststands. The protagonistsof Springsteen's songs allstand and fall by them-selves. In Sinatra's mostindelible performances,the singer makes a compactbetween the will and theheart, and desolation iswhat is left after thethrill is gone.They share some of the

same background too.Despite Springsteen'sDutch surname, his lineageis half-Italian. TheSinatra bloodlines havebeen evokecl to place himsquarely within suchvarying Mediterraneantraditions as bel cantoand the Mafia. It may be,however, that the Mobmythology surroundingSinatra is simply part ofthe public projection ofhis nightshadepersonality, based on thesame kind of willedmisperception thattwisted Springsteen intoa Fender-bender Rambo. Thesame perceived darknessis present in Presley andDylan, Dean and Brando.Americans like theirsuperstars with an edge ofdanger and a whiff ofsulfur.Sinatra has been happy

to oblige. Springsteenplays his private lifeclose, but Sinatra's hasbeen up for grabs sincehe wowed the bobby-soxers at the ParamountTheatre in 1944,Springsteen's effect on anaudience can be just asdevastating, but a greatpart of his appeal is theimpression of a privateman going public. Eachconcert becomes a ritualcelebration, just as aSinatra performance, eventoday, is a renewal of oldties and a reconfirmationof old values. TheChairman of the Board,with his unforced,slightly ironic ease, andthe Boss, who has thestage force of some as yetunclassified naturalphenomenon, are bothpeerless showmen, andthey both got their movesdown in the sameneighborhood. The rockclubs all around theJersey shore are not sovery different now from

jazz joints like theRustic Cabin (Route 9W,Alpine, N.J.), whereSinatra spent 18 months inthe late '30s, learninghis craft and occasionallywaiting tables.Springsteen's sense of

himself and of theredemptive power of thesongs

Bruce Springsteen

he sings has translatedinto political statement(as in his participationin Steve Van Zandt'santiapartheid Sun Cityproject) and politicalaction (as with his quietcontributions, in each ofhis U.S. concert venues,to local charities likefood banks). Sinatra,whose music usuallyavoided political matters,was also, in his time, anoutspoken populist. Thesinger who now entertains

at the White House — andat Sun City — also stagedJohn Kennedy's inaugural,appeared at plenty ofcivil rights benefits andwas one of the first moviefigures to try formally tobreak the I lollywoodblacklist with his hiringclout.That has changed now.

Springsteen's own changesmay be different, but whatwill likely remainconstant with him, as ithas with Sinatra, is theprimacy of the music.They are both likeseparate swift currents in

the American musicalmainstream that hasflowed around the world.There would be a pleasingsymbolism in the fulfill-ment of one Springsteenfriend's long-cherisheddream of having Sinatrarecord the Boss's grandmelodrama Meeting Across theRiver. However it turned outsuch a recording would bean irresistible confluenceof myths. And somethingmore. It would do bothSpringsteen and Sinatraproud. Just in fact asthey have done us.

— By Jay Cocks

the Chairman, the Boss: nicknames of Frank Sinatra and Bruce Springsteen.Dean, James (1931-55): American actor.Brando, Marlon: born 1924, American actor.Paramount Theatre, Hollywood movie studio.Steve van Zandt, former guitarist in Springsteen's band.

243

PART C Exercises

Before the 1960s

domination of the stage by fewmajor playwrights

censorship in playwriting by Broadway producers

similarity ofBroadway playsthrough middle-

classorientation

Since the 1960s

decentralization and regionalization of theatricalactivities toward a national theater

expansion of the theatricalscene by around 400 non-profit theaters

3. ComprehensionAn Interview with Jack NicholsonWhich ways of completing the following sentences are correct?There may be more than one possibility.1.After leaving school Jack Nicholson

a)went straight to college.a)went to California to

become a moviestar.

b)became an office boy in a California filmcompany.

2.Due to Jeff Corey's influence,Jack Nicholsona)became interested in

sports, girls andseeing films.

b)tried to live an intensive life.c)learned that acting

requires an intensiveinsight into life.

3.Already at the beginning of his career as anactora)money played such a crucial

role that healmost gave up acting.

b)he strongly believed in acting as aliterary art form.

c)he considered scriptwritersto be thegreatest literary artists of the time.

4.Comparing film-acting and acting on thestage, Jack Nicholsona)regarded the stage as the

true mediumfor an actor.

b)believed that screen-acting was thehigher art form.

c)thought that second-rate actors were tobe found on the stage.

5.Jack Nicholson is of the

1. Structural OutlineToward a National TheaterProvide the missing information about the change

2. ScanningA Dozen Outstanding Plays of the Past Quarter CenturyDescribing American drama beforethe 1960s, Howard Stein says, "Those plays, for the most part,were devoted to social realism,to the family, to middle-class people talking in middle-class language about middle-class problems—problems that centered around marriage, raising children, extra-marital affairs,divorce, business and personal integrity."Scan the survey of recent

opinion thatcriticisma)from the

theater audience helped him alot.

b)after atheaterperformance was notalways fair.

c)of acting is donebest bythe actorhimself.


6. Jack Nicholson anticipated that Easy Riderwas not going to be a failurebecausea)the motorcycle film he had

done beforehad been a success.

b)he had given up trying to reach a kind ofliterary quality with this film.

c)he was familiar with the basic ideas ofthis film.

7.The success of Easy Rider at the Cannes FilmFestivala)made Nicholson think of

directing filmshimself for the first time.

b)showed Nicholson that he wasat his bestas an actor.

c)caused him to give up all plans ofdirecting films.

8.When choosing a new project, Nicholsonbelieves thata)the script is the most important criterion.b)the director is more

important than thescript.

c)only great directors guarantee thefinancial success of a film.

9.Jack Nicholson enjoys directing because hethinksa)he can do it as well as

Antonioni,Kubrick or Polanski.

b)there are always excellent scripts to relyon.

c)he has the special vision that is neededto produce the right images.

10. Jack Nicholson gave up writing because he

a)never really liked it.b)felt that he was not

effective enough as awriter.

c)thought he could contribute

to a filmmore through acting than throughwriting.

4.Interview PracticeLiterary HollywoodJournalists such as Stanley Kauffmann often work in different media. Imagine he is going to be interviewed on a live radio morning show. The interviewer at the radio stationhas read the review in The New Republic and, as he has neither seen the film nor read the novel, is basing his five-minuteinterview almost entirely on thereview. Put yourself into the position of the interviewer and,based on an analysis of the review, prepare questions which both interest the listeners and can be answered informatively byStanley Kauffmann.Then conduct the interview in

pairs, the interviewee relying on a few notes which he or she has made to each of the questions before.

5.Comparative StudyThe Chairman and the Boss1.List what the author of this article says aboutFrank Sinatra, the Chairman ofthe Board,and Bruce Springsteen, the Boss. Payparticular attention to• the impact of their musicon American people and culture the spiritual character of their music their audiences their best albums the protagonists of their songs their (ethnic) backgrounds their personalities their performing powers their political commitments.

2. Where does the author see parallels andwhere does he see differences?

3. Pick a few songs from bothsuperstars.Categorize them and say whether you agreewith the description the author gives of theirsongs.

14 SportSPART A Background Information

A SPORTS-LOVING NATION

MEDIA COVERAGE

PRIVATE ANDINSTITUTIONALIZEDACTIVITIES

Whether they are fans or players, the millions ofAmericans who participate in sports are usuallypassionate about their games. There is more tobeing a baseball fan than buying season tickets tothe home team's games. A real fan not only can reciteeach player's batting average, but also competes withother fans to prove who knows the answers to the mostobscure and trivial questions about the sport. That'sdedication. Dedication short of madness is also whatinspired hundreds of thousands of football fans tofill Denver's stadium in dangerously freezingtemperatures, not to watch an exciting game but justto demonstrate team support in a pre-Superbowl peprally, days before the actual contest. And it is withpassion that Americans pursue the latest fitness fad,convinced that staying fit requires much more thanregular exercise and balanced meals. For anyone whoclaims a real desire to stay healthy, fitness hasbecome a science of quantification involvingweighing, measuring, monitoring, graph charting, andcomputer printouts. These are the tools for knowingall about pulse and heart rates, calorie intake, fatcell per muscle cell ratios, and almost anything elsethat shows the results of a workout.The immense popularity of sports in America is

indicated by the number of pages and headlines theaverage daily newspaper devotes to local and nationalsports. The emphasis on sports is evident in localevening news telecasts, too. Every evening for fiveto seven minutes of the half-hour local news show,the station's sports analyst, whose territory isexclusively sports, reports on local, regional, andnational sports events.Television has made sports available to all. For

those who cannot afford tickets or travel toexpensive play-offs like baseball's World Series orfootball's final Superbowl, a flick of the televisiondial provides close-up viewing that beats front rowseats. Although estimates vary, the major networksaverage about 500 hours each of sports programming ayear. Recently, the emergence of several cablechannels that specialize in sports gives viewerseven more options. The foremost of these channels,ESPN, runs sports shows at least 22 hours a day and

is nowreceived by37 millionAmericanhomes, ornearly halfof the 86

million homes with television sets.Opportunities for keeping fit and playing sports

are numerous. Jogging is extremely popular, perhapsbecause it is the cheapest and most accessiblesport. Aerobic exercise and training with weight-lifting machines are two activities which more andmore men and women are pursuing. Books, videos,

Superbowl: the championship game of the National Football League. pep rally: an assembly intended toinspire enthusiasm.


American football

and fitness-conscious movie stars that play up theglamour of fitness have heightened enthusiasm forthese exercises and have promoted the muscular,healthy body as the American beauty ideal. Mostcommunities have recreational parks with tennis andbasketball courts, a football or soccer field, andoutdoor grills for picnics. These parks generallycharge no fees for the use of these facilities. Somelarge corporations, hospitals, and churches haveindoor gymnasiums and organize informal team sports.For those who can afford membership fees, there isthe exclusive country club and its more modernversion, the health and fitness center. Members ofthese clubs have access to all kinds of indoor andoutdoor sports: swimming, volleyball, golf,racquetball, handball, tennis, and basketball. Mostclubs also offer instruction in various sports andexercise methods.

SPORTS 247

AMERICAN SPORTS

VIOLENCE AND SPORTS

COMMERCIAL ASPECTS

Schools and colleges have institutionalized teamsports for young people. Teams and competitions arehighly organized and competitive and generally receivesubstantial local publicity. High schools and collegescommonly have a school team for each of these sports:football, basketball, baseball, tennis, wrestling,gymnastics, and track, and sometimes for soccer,swimming, hockey, volleyball, fencing, and golf.Practices and games are generally held on the schoolpremises after classes are over. High schools andcolleges recognize outstanding athletic achievementwith trophies, awards, and scholarships, and studentathletes receive strong community support.Football, baseball, and basketball, the most popular

sports in America, originated in the United States andare largely unknown or only minor pastimes outsideNorth America. The football season starts in earlyautumn and is followed by basketball, an indoor wintersport, and then baseball, played in spring and summer.Besides these top three sports, ice hockey, boxing,golf, car racing, horse racing, and tennis have beenpopular for decades and attract large audiences.Although many spectator sports, particularly pro

football, ice hockey, and boxing, are aggressive andsometimes bloody, American spectators are notably lessviolent than are sports crowds in other countries.Fighting, bottle throwing, and rioting, commonelsewhere, are not the rule among American fans. Base-ball and football games are family affairs, andcheerleaders command the remarkably non-violent crowdto root in chorus for their teams.For many people, sports are big business. The major

television networks contract with professional sportsleagues for the rights to broadcast their games. Theguaranteed mass viewing of major sports events meansadvertisers will pay networks a lot of money tosponsor the program with announcements for theirproducts. Advertisers for beer, cars, and men'sproducts are glad of the opportunity to push theirgoods to the predominantly male audience of the bigprofessional sports. Commercial businesses enjoy thepublicity which brings in sales. The networks are gladto fill up program hours and attract audiences whomight perhaps become regular viewers of otherprograms produced by those networks, and the majorsports leagues enjoy the millions of dollars thenetworks pay for the broad-casting rights contracts.Many sports get half of their revenues from thenetworks. National Football League (NFL) teams, forexample, get about 65 percent of their revenues fromtelevision. The networks' 1986 contract with the NFLprovided each of the 28 teams in the league with anaverage of $14 million a year.

Just as inany business,investmentsare made andassets areexchanged.Team ownersusually signup individualplayers forlucrativelong-termcontracts.StarquarterbackJoe Namathwas invitedto play forthe New YorkJets, one ofthe NFLteams, for$425,000 in1965. Covetedbaseballplayer KirkGibsonrecentlysigned athree-yearcontract withthe DetroitTigers for$4.1 million.More often inthe past thannow, teamowners tradedplayers backand forth asitems forbarter.Any

businessoperatorhopes to geta good deal.However, thenetworksportsindustrieshave not beenfaring welllately. Theyhaveexperiencedfinancialsetbacksmainly causedby theoversaturation of sports

programming on networks and competing cable channels.Networks claim they are now losing money on once-lucrative telecasts. Ironically, the slump in businessis occurring at a time when sports shows are drawinglarger audiences than in recent years. Part of theproblem is that advertising costs got too high, andthe


PROFESSIONAL SPORTS

COLLEGE SPORTS

STUDENT ATHLETESAND ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

WINNING

industries that traditionally buy ads—beer and carcompanies —are not paying the high prices. Networks,dependent on advertising for revenue, are hopingthat the market will change before they have to makedrastic reductions ir sports programming.The commercial aspects of American professional

sports can make or break an athlete's career. Young,talented athletes make it to the top because they areexceptionally talented, but not in every casebecause they are the best. In women's tennis, forexample, an aspiring young tennis star must notonly possess a winning serve and backhand, she mustalso get corporate agents on her side. Withoutagents who line up sponsors and publicity, a playerhas a very difficult time moving from amateur toprofessional sports. To get the endorsement ofcorporate advertising sponsors, a talented youngtennis player has a much better chance for success ifshe is also attractive. Sales-conscious tennissportswear companies pay large sums of money totennis pros who promote their products. Many topplayers earn more money a year in product-endorsement fees than in prize money. Competitionand success in sports, then, is not only a matterof game skill, but marketability as well.College sports lost its amateurism years ago. Teams

and events are institutionalized and contribute tocollege publicity and revenue. Sports bring in moneyto colleges from ticket sales and television rights,so colleges like having winning teams. The betterthe team, the greater the ticket sales and televisioncoverage, and the more money the college can channelback into athletics and other programs. Football andbasketball are the most lucrative college sportsbecause they attract the most fans. Other collegesports, particularly women's sports, are oftenneglected and ignored by spectators, the news media,and athletic directors who often disregard women'ssports budgets and funnel money for equipment andfacilities into the sports that pay. On the otherhand, top college teams get a lot of attention. In1986, the Division 1 college football programs had abudget of nearly $1 billion, while entertainingmillions of spectators and television viewers.To recruit student athletes for a winning team,

many colleges are willing to go to great lengths,providing full academic scholarships to athletes,and sometimes putting the college's academicreputation at risk. The tacit understanding shared bycollege admissions directors as well as the potentialsports stars they admit is that athletes do notenroll in college to learn, but to play sports andperhaps use intercollegiate sports as a springboardfor a professional career. The situation often

embarrassescollegeadministrators, who arecaughtbetweeneducationalideals andcommercialrealities,andinfuriatesotherstudents, whoresent thepreferentialtreatmentgiven toathletes. Oflate, someuniversities,such as theUniversity ofMichigan,haveinitiatedsupport pro-grams toimproveacademicperformanceandgraduationrates ofathletes.Increasing

commercialization ofcollegesports ispart of alarger trend.Americansports arebecoming morecompetitiveand moreprofit-oriented. Asa result,playing towin isemphasizedmore thanplaying forfun. This istrue from theprofessionallevel all theway down tothe level ofchildren's

Little League sports teams, where young players areencouraged by such slogans as "A quitter never wins;a winner never quits," and "never be willing to besecond best." The obsession with winning causes somepeople to wonder whether sports in America shouldbe such serious business.

249

PART в Texts

° Interview:High School Sports

Q: Steve, you graduated from high school in Quincy, II, and afterwards went to school in Germany for almost a year. As faras school sports are concerned, do you think there is a great difference between Germany and the U.S.A.? A: Yes, a large difference, actually. In Germany,school sports mean P.E., whereas in the U.S. the school sports program has a double role, with the P.E. program on one side and organized competitive sports on the other. In Germany, the function of the competitive sports is taken over by non-school sport clubs, which exist only in small numbers in the U.S.Q: Let's first talk about physical education or P.E., as itis commonly called. What role does it play in the curriculum?A: Well, it's a requirement, which means that every student must be enrolled in a P.E. course, and the courses meet fivetimes a week for one hour a day.Q: What kinds of sports are offered? A: There's usually a period right at the beginning of each semester where a general physical fitness program is done,and, after that, the students getto choose between various team and individual sports ranging from basketball, football and baseball to tennis, weight lifting and aerobics. Q: Let'sturn to competitive sports now. What were the most popular teams at your school, and how importantwere they for the school? A: The biggest team at QHS is by farthe boy's basketball team, and then the other teams are heavily dependent on success. For instance, in the last couple of years, the girls' volleyball teamhas had some success, and, of course, that means a more popularfollowing for the team, although the basketball team has always had a cult following, through thick and thin.

Q: So, obviously, the home games of the top teams are the important events in the life of the school, aren't they?A: Yes, they are. The basketball games attract a large,diverse audience. They're played at the senior high gym, and it's always packed to capacity. Another thing, if the basketball team were to go to the state tournament, the students would be released from school early so that they would have the opportunity to travel with the team. And we can't forget the financial implications: the gamesgenerate revenue for the school.Q: What other things beside the actual competition on the field add to the atmosphere of the game?A: At the very beginning of thegame, when the players are introduced, the mascot from Quincy comes out dressed as a blue devil. The high school team is called the Blue Devils. He walks out with a flaming pitchfork, and he goes around thegym, which is divided into sections, and, with his back to the crowd, he covers himself in his cape. All of a sudden, he turns around, throwing open his cape, and everybody in that section stands up and cheers as loud as they can, with the student section generating the loudest screams. On top of that there's a band to add to the pre-game and intermission carnival atmosphere, and there's the omnipresent cheerleaders for the same purpose. Q: What do you understand by cheerleaders? A: These are girls, organized into squads, who perform various chants and acrobatics to hype up the crowd.Q: Do they wear special clothes? A: It's the lack of clothes more than the clothes. They wear very provocative outfits. Q: To what extent does the community become


1. continuedinvolved and interested in those games? Do you remember incidents that would illustrate this interest?A: The community has always been very much behind the basketball program at QHS. For example, when we went to the state tournament in 1981, a localprinting company distributed posters, and, driving around town, you could see these posterswith this huge blue devil staringout at you on just about every house, and then many Quincians went to the tournament to supportthe team. And during the regularseason, the games are always broadcast on the radio, and, likeI said before, the gymnasium is always filled to capacity, so there is a very big grass roots support, and that multiplies whenthe team is successful. For example, when a team returns fromstate tourney, it goes to the mall, gets on board an old fire truck and parades around town before going to the gym for a victory rally, which is like a large party for the players and fans.Q: I guess the members of the top basketball team are very popular with the other students and with the girls.A: Yeah, they're the stars of the high school community, and, as long as they don't get too arrogant, they're highly regardedby the major portion of the high school population. The girls findthe guys to be quite sexy, but the guys at the high school tend to lean toward the cheerleaders rather than the basketball players. Q: Imagine a student wants to join the basketball team. How does he go about it? A:Well, the basketball team in Quincy is very selective, and there's quite a competition for membership, but it's pretty well all decided by the time the people are playing at the junior high. The other teams are more

open to entrance later on. Q: What do they do to train?

High-school basketball game

A: As with any sport, a major portion of time is devoted to callisthenics, just general physical fitness, and the rest ofthe time is spent on tactics, teamwork and basic skills. Q: How would you describe the role of the coach?A: The coach is of major importance for the team, as he

determines their success to a large extent. Coaches are hired by the school board as coaches first and as teachers second. Andwhen a coach's luck runs out, he's gone as a coach, but he's retained as a teacher. The community at large stands behind the coaches when they have a winning record; for instance, onefan in Quincy gave a basketball coach a brand new Corvette, just for being a good coach.

tourney, tournament.

SPORTS 251

e SPORTS IN AMERICA:COLLEGES & UNIVERSITIES

by James A. Michener

The athletic programs of American colleges and universities have come in for a great deal of criticism but there does not seem to be a chance to alter the system.James A. Michener gives background information and comments on the problems.

First, the United States is theonly nation in the world, so far asI know, which demands that itsschools like Harvard, Ohio State andClaremont assume responsibility forproviding the public with sportsentertainment. Ours is a uniquesystem

which has no historical sanction orapplication elsewhere. It would beunthinkable for the University ofBologna, a most ancient andhonorable school, to providescholarships to illiterate soccerplayers so that they could entertainthe other cities of northern Italy,and it would be equally preposterousfor either the Sorbonne or Oxford todo so in their countries. Our systemis an American phenomenon, ahistorical accident which developedfrom the exciting football gamesplayed by Yale and Harvard and to alesser extent Princeton and certainother schools during the closingyears of

College football


2. continuedthe nineteenth century. If we hadhad at that time professional teamswhich provided public footballentertainment, we might not haveplaced the burden on our schools.But we had no professional teams, soour schools were handed the job.Second, if an ideal American

educational system were beinglaunched afresh, few would want tosaddle it with the responsibilityfor public sports entertainment. Icertainly would not. But since, by aquirk of history, it is so saddled,the tradition has become ingrainedand I see not the remotest chance ofaltering it. I therefore approve ofcontinuing it, so long as certainsafeguards are installed.Categorically, I believe that ourschools must continue to offersports entertainment, even thoughcomparable institutions throughoutthe rest of the world are excusedfrom doing so.Third, I see nothing wrong in

having a college or a universityprovide training for the young manor woman who wants to devote hisadult life to sports. My reasoning istwofold: 1) American society hasordained that sports shall be a majoraspect of our

national life, with major attention,major financial support and majorcoverage in the media. How possiblycan a major aspect of life beignored by our schools? 2) If it ispermissible to train young musiciansand actors in our universities, andendow munificent departments to doso, why is it not equally legitimateto train young athletes, and endowthem with a stadium?Fourth, because our schools have

volunteered to serve as unpaidtraining grounds for futureprofessionals, and because some ofthe lucky schools with good sportsreputations can earn a good deal ofmoney from the semi-professionalfootball and basketball teams theyoperate, the temptation to recruityoung men skilled at games buttotally unfitted for academic workis overpowering. We must seriouslyask if such behavior is legitimatefor an academic institution. Thereare honorable answers, and ! knowsome of them, but if we do not facethis matter forthrightly, we aregoing to run into trouble.

BASEBALL

aseball is a nine-a-side game played with bat, ball, and glove, mainly in the

U.S.A. Teams consist of a pitcher and catcher, called the battery, first, second, and third basemen, and shortstop, called the infield, and right, centre, and left fielders, called the outfield. Substitute players may enter the game at any time, but once a player isremoved he cannot return.

B

The standard ball has a cork-and-rubber centre wound withwoollen yam and covered withhorse-hide. It weighs from 5 to 51/4 oz. (148 g.) and is from 9 to9 1/2 in. (approx. 23 cm.) incircumference. .. . The bat is asmooth, round, tapered piece ofhard wood not more than 2 3/4in. (approx. 7 cm.) in diameterat its thickest part and no morethan 42 in. (1.07 m.) long.Originally, fielders played

barehanded, but gloves have beendeveloped over the years. Firstbasemen wear a special largemitt, and catchers use a large,heavily-padded mitt as well as achest protector, shin guards, anda metal mask. Catchers

were at first unprotected.Consequently, they stood back ata distance from home plate andcaught pitched balls on thebounce, but the introduction ofthe large, round, well-paddedmitt or "pillow glove" and theface mask enabled them to move upclose behind the plate and catchpitched balls on the fly.Players wear shoes with steelcleats and, while batting andrunning the bases, they useprotective plastic helmets.The game is played on a field

containing four bases placed atthe angles of a 90-ft. (27.4 m.)square (often called a diamond):home plate and, in counter-clockwise order, first, second,and third base. Two foul linesform the boundaries of fairterritory. Starting at home,these lines extend past firstand third base the entire lengthof the field, which is oftenenclosed by a fence at itsfarthest limits.The object of each team is to

score more runs than the other.A run is scored whenever a playercircles all the bases andreaches home without being putout. The game is divided intoinnings, in

SPORTS 253

3. continued

each of which the teams alternateat bat and in the field. A teamis allowed three outs in eachhalf-inning at bat, and mustthen take up defensive positionsin the field while the otherteam has its turn to try toscore. Ordinarily, a gameconsists of nine innings; in theevent of a tie, extra innings areplayed until one team outscoresthe other in the same number ofinnings.The players take turns batting

from home plate in regularrotation. The opposing pitcherthrows the ball to his catcherfrom a slab (called the"rubber") on the pitcher's mound,a slightly raised area of thefield directly between home andsecond base. ... Bases arecanvas bags fastened to metalpegs set in the ground.The batter tries to reach base

safely after hitting the pitchedball into fair territory. A hitthat enables him to reach firstbase is called a "single," atwo-base hit is a "double," athree-base hit a "triple," and afour-base hit a "home-run." Afair ball hit over an outfieldfence is automatically a homerun. A batter is also awardedhis base if the pitcher deliversfour pitches which, in theumpire's judgement, do not passthrough the "strike zone" — thatis, over home plate between thebatter's armpits and knees; orif he is hit by a pitched ball;or if the opposing catcherinterferes when he swings thebat. To prevent the batter fromhitting safely, baseballpitchers deliver the ball withgreat speed and accuracy andvary its speed and trajectory.Success in batting, therefore,requires courage and a highdegree of skill.

After a player reaches basesafely, his progress towardshome depends largely on his teammates' hitting the ball in sucha way that he can advance. ...Players may be put out in

various ways. A batter is outwhen the pitcher gets three'strikes' on him. A strike is apitch that crosses the plate inthe strike zone, or any pitchthat is struck at and missed oris hit into foul territory. Aftertwo strikes, however, foul ballsdo not count except when abatter 'bunts' — lets the ballmeet the bat instead of swingingat it — and the ball rolls foul.A batter is also out if he hitsthe ball in the air anywhere infair or foul territory and it iscaught by an opponent before ittouches the ground. He is out ifhe hits the ball on the groundand a fielder catches and throwsit to a player at first base, orcatches it and touches thatbase, before the batter (nowbecome a base runner) getsthere.A base nnner may be put out if,

while off base, he is tagged byan opposing player with the handor glove holding the ball, or ifhe is forced to leave his baseto make room for another runnerand fails to reach the next basebefore an opposing player tagshim or the base; or if he is hitby a team mate's batted ballbefore it has touched or passeda fielder.An umpire-in-chief "calls" balls

and strikes from his positiondirectly behind the catcher athome plate, and one or more baseumpires determine whetherrunners are safe or out at theother three bases.


HEALTH

Running for your LifeA Harvard study links exercise with longevity

HE hordes of Americans whoroll out of bed, slip intotheir Reeboks and run for

an hour in the face ofsnarling dogs, potentialmuggers and hordes ofAmericans heading in theopposite direction on theirSchwinn 10-speeds must wondersometimes whether it's worththe aggravation. After all, ifa rash of recent books andarticles like "The ExerciseMyth" can be believed, theevidence that physicalactivity leads to a longerand healthier life is basedon a flawed interpretation ofcause and effect. It isn'tthat exercise prolongs life,the argument goes, it's justthat people who engage insports and active occupationsare healthier in the first place. Butthe fitness buffs should notput their rowing machines indry dock just yet. Accordingto a long-term study involvingnearly 17,000 loyal sons ofHarvard, it now seems thatathletic effort is far from awaste of time. Moderateexercise, said a report inlast week's New EnglandJournal of Medicine, can addup to two years to a person'slife.

T

In the mid-1960s Dr. Ralph S.Paffenbarger Jr. and hiscolleagues at the StanfordUniversity School of Medicinerecruited the Harvardgraduates, 35 to 74, and askedthem to answer detailedquestionnaires about theirgeneral health and livinghabits. Follow-ups carriedout until 1978 showed thatmen who expended at least2,000 calories per weekthrough exercise hadmortality rates one-quarterto one-third lower than thoseburning up fewer calories.The life-prolonging level ofactivity cited in the reportis the equivalent of fivehours of brisk walking, aboutfour hours of jogging or ashade more than three hours ofsquash. More exercise meant abetter chance at a long life- up to a point. A regimenthat burned more than 3,500calories tended to causeinjuries that negated most ofthe benefits derived fromexercise.Countering disease: During

the survey, 1,413 of the mendied: 45 percent from heartdisease, 32 percent fromcancer, 13 percent from other"natural causes" and 10

percent

Reeboks: trademark of jogging shoes.Schwinn 10-speed: trademark of racing bicycles.

Jogging for healthfrom trauma. While previousstudies indicated thatexercise protects againstheart disease, Harvard's isthe first to show a favorableeffect of exercise onmortality from all diseases.As would be expected, smoking,high blood pressure and afamilial history of death atan early age were associatedwith an increased mortalityrisk. But, according to thestudy, exercise played asignificant part in counteringeven these major factors. Forexample, hypertensive men whoexercised had half themortality rate of theircounterparts who remainedsedentary. Among smokers,exercise reduced deaths byabout 30 percent.Harvard men who were varsity

athletes while in college —and were thus presumed by theresearchers to have beenstarting out life withbasically strong bodies - hadno advantage over theirclassmates in terms ofsurvival rates. Indeed,lettermen who subsequentlyturned soft and sedentary in-creased their mortality risk."It's not the kind ofactivity that you did incollege . . . but the amountof contemporary activitythat's associated with thelong survival," saysPaffenbarger.

MATT CI.ARK with KAREN SPRING^Nlettermen: people who have been awarded a letter, the initial of their school, for outstanding performance especially in sports.

Anything wrong?"

SPORTS 255


LOUSY AT SPORTS

I'VE DECIDED TO COME OUT OF THE closet. It is not an easy decision to admit openly that Ireally don't like sports. There— I've said it.Do you know what it's like to

be a man who is not a sports fan? Who not only doesn't care who wins the World Series but who is never exactly sure whichteams are playing? Who never, but never, reads the sports section?I approach this subject with a

light touch, but in truth it has been a problem that has plagued me for most of my life,particularly when I was a youngboy. For to be a boy not interested in sports was, particularly back then, to run the risk of being thought a homosexual. As a matter of fact, at an early age, when I began to face the awful truth that I simply had no taste for the world of athletics either as participant or observer, I kept it very quiet. Could it bethat, indeed, I was a "fairy" or reasonable facsimile thereof?

(The euphemism "gay" came into the language later.)When I married and my wife

became pregnant, I kept my fingers crossed. "Please

don't make it a boy." He'll insist that I play ball with him, take him to Yankee Stadium and engage in the sports rituals so necessary for healthy male bonding. It was a girl, and I was saved. But onlyfor a while. Three and a half years later, Jonathan was born. When he was 8 years old, I forced the poor kid to go to a park in New York, where I wouldlob softballs his way, demanding that he hit them backto me. I saw, almost at once, that Jonathan had inherited my disease. He was lousy at sports, too.Even after three marriages,

three children, and some in-between love affairs, plus the sure knowledge that I adore women, I still feel, from time to time, that, somehow, I must be lacking in the right male genes.When I first came to New York

in the 1940s, I had been anewscaster and announcer at aSan Francisco radio station.Gotham was tough for a newcomer.I was hungry, anxious and inneed of work. I auditioned foreverything.One day, I was called in by

radio station WOR and told there was an opportunity to audition for the job of host ofa panel game. "What sort of game?" I asked politely, although I knew that whatever it was, I would grab it if I could."It's a sports quiz," the executive explained.I felt the blood leave my face."We were hoping to make Jack

Dempsey the host," he went on, "bui when we put a microphone in front of Jack's face, he froze. So what we want is for Dempsey to sit at your side to give the program authenticity, but you'll be the real moderator. We've lined up the best sportswriters in the country to be on the panel. Do you think you can handle it?"I agonized. I saw the $150 fee

(huge money back then) fade into the distance. I took a

breath. "Absolutely," I said. "I can certainly handle a sports quiz." I looked the executive right in the eye.

SPORTS 257

5. continuedBefore the audition, I took

care to find out that Jack Dempsey was a former heavyweight boxing champion. Then I tried out and — mirabile dictul — got the job. For 26 weeks, every Monday night, I would bravely pitch sports questions at the experts arrayed at the panel desk in front of me. It was an excruciating experience. It mademe remember boyhood nightmares in which I would be in a strange classroom about to take a final exam in a course I had never heard of.Apparently, I got away with

the bluff, because not one of the sports mavens ever seemed to doubt that I knew whereof I spoke. The proof came a few weeks after the demise of that quiz when I was once again called by WOR.My employer smiled

benevolently. "You've done a good job, Goodson. Now I have areal opportunity for you. We are looking for someone to help describe the Dodger ball games from Ebbets Field. How does thatstrike you?"I paused. I had never been to

a major-league ball game. I knew nothing, minus zero, aboutbaseball. He responded to my hesitation. "This is a big deal,guaranteed $25,000 a year." I swallowed. "I'll do it." "Good," he replied, looking at his calendar. "We will give youan on-the-air test in about two weeks." "Terrific," I said — and dashed to the nearest bookstore.There, I bought "Baseball: The

Official Rules." If it wasn't 100 pages thick, it seemed to be. I began on page 1, where the precise measurements of the"diamond" were

diagramed, then went on to the functions and duties of each player in the infield and outfield, the definition of a strike, a foul, an infield fly and on and on through the fine print. As I got to the 10th page, I collapsed. Much as I needed the money, I knew there was no way that I could manage this bluff! I can't remember the alibi I gave the executive, but certainly it wasn't anythingas shameful as "I've really never seen a baseball game." But I did bow out.Twenty years later, long after

I had given up performing and was running a television production company specializingin "game" shows (quite an ironyfor a non-sports-fan to earn a living at "games"), I was invited by my banker to have dinner on the company yacht while cruising around Manhattan Island. It was a "men only" party, and the talk centered onbusiness and, of course, sports.After dinner, I stood on the

deck in a group that included Gene Tunney, another former heavyweight champion and by then a successful Wall Street investor. I thought I was doing an acceptable job of being responsive to the sports chatter, when Tunney suddenly broke off from the conversation,turned, gazed down at me suspiciously from his enormous height. "Goodson," he asked, "tell me about you. What do youdo for a living?"Because "What's My Line?" was

my show at that time, it seemednatural for me to respond, "What do you think I do?" He looked at me thoughtfully. "Goodson, I'd say you are a poet."I blushed. I knew what he

meant. He'd found me out.

Mark Goodson is president of Goodson-Todman TV Productions.

258

PART C Exercises

1. ComprehensionInterview: High School SportsWhich way of completing each of the following sentences agrees with the information given in the interview?1.When compared with Germany,schoolsports in the U.S.a)put much more emphasis on

competitivesports.

b)are almost entirely organized by sportsclubs.

c)consist of competitive sports and, equallyimportant, P.E.

2.In P.E., studentsa)do individual sports only.b)can choose between team and

individualsports.

c)have to go through a general fitnessprogram.

3.The popularity of the basketball team atQHSa)has traditionally been strong.b)has recently been matched

by the girls'volleyball team.

c)is strongly dependent on its success.

4. The basketball games are important for theschool because theya)attract large audiences.b)attract new students.c)improve the school's finances.

5.At QHS 'Blue Devils' is the name ofa)the school's teams.b)the mascots.c)the basketball team's following.

6.The cheerleaders' function isa)to stimulate the players

during the

games.b)to create a stimulating

atmosphere inorder to support their team.

c)to please the audience through theirappearance and performance.

7.The community supports thebasketballteam bya)having large posters

printed for everygame.

a)attending the home games.b)frequently accompanying the

team totournaments outside of Quincy.

8.When a successful team returns from atournament,a)it is enthusiastically

welcomed by thecommunity.

b)it parades along the mall on an old firetruck.

c)it first goes to the gym tocelebrate itssuccess.

9.The members of the basketballteam area)popular unless they get tooarrogant.b)as popular with the

girls as thecheerleaders are withthe boys.

c)unpopular because they are too arrogant.10. The coach of the basketball team

a)is a local, celebrity as long as the team issuccessful.

b)will lose his coaching job if he is notsuccessful.

c)cannot be fired as a coach.

2. Text Analysis and CommentSports in America: Colleges and universities1. Why does Michener consider

the Americancollege and university sports system unique?

2. Where is Michener critical of the system?3. What role do sports play

in Americansociety?

4. The author uses the rhetorical device ofcomparison. Give examples and show what

function they serve.5. "... I sort of get sick

to my stomach whensome faculty committee issues a statementthat my boys should be scholars first andathletes second. Any self-respectin' man withhis head screwed on right must realize thatfootball consumes so much of aboy's time,fall, winter, spring and summer, that he

SPORTS 259

simply ain't got time to be a scholar too. If we didn't havea supply of snap courses, and cooperatin' professors who know the score, ain't no way my boys could stay in school. We hire them to play football,and we pay them well to do it,and it's only after their eligibility is used up that they got time to be scholars."(A university football coach, quoted from Michener, Sports in America, p.228)In the light of this

quotation, what would you suggest to solve the problem?

3. ComprehensionBaseballDecide whether the following statements aretrue or false and correct the false statements.1.The ball used in the game of baseball iscovered with leather.

2. There are eleven players ina baseball team.3. Fielders used to wear gloves, but now theycatch the ball in their bare hands.

4. The team which fields is called the battery.5.A player does not score a run unless he runsround all the bases before the next ball ispitched.

6. There is more than one umpire.7.The batter is out if he hits the ball into thecrowd.

8.After three players are out, the teams changepositions and the batters become thefielders.

9.A player is out if he hits the ball into foulterritory and a fielder catches it before ittouches the ground.

10. If both teams have scored

the same numberof runs at the end of nine innings, the gamecontinues until one player scores a homerun.

11. The batter can go to first base if he is hit bythe pitched ball.

12. The catcher wears a face mask because thebouncing ball kicks up a lot of dust.

4.ComprehensionRunning for Your LifeWhich of the following statements are true, which are false? Correct the false ones.1.Quite a number of recent booksand articlesrefute the notion that physical exerciseprolongs life.

2.A long-term Harvard study does notconfirm that view.

3.The study covered 35-year-old and 74-year-old Harvard graduates.

4.Men who did not burn more than 2,000calories per week had a lower mortality rate.

5.The study shows that people who jog fourhours per week have a good chance ofprolonging their lives.

6.According to the study, the more exercisespeople do, the greater their life expectancybecomes.

7.Another result of the study is that regularexercise not only protects against heartdisease but against other diseases as well.

8.30 per cent of the smokers who did regularexercises died during the survey.

9.University athletes are likelyto live longerthan their less athletic classmates.

10. Sports activities in later years affect

longevity much more than activities during the college years.

5.Letter WritingWrite a letter to the editor in which you express your personal opinion about physical exercise,and point out concrete examples which either support or refute the findings of the Harvard study.


6. Preparing an InterviewLousy at SportsImagine that this revelation of a prominent TV producer in The New York Times magazine has arousedthe interest of a popular talk show host, who now uses the magazine article as the basis for his interview.Put yourself into the position of the interviewer and prepare an introduction, in which you• point out the importance of being asportsman/sportswoman or at least a sportsfan, if you want to be accepted in Americansociety

• remind the audience of the large number ofwell-known athletes who have been invitedto the show

• introduce your guest and explain why he hasbeen invited.

Then prepare questions concerning• Mark Goodson's reasons for publiclyconfessing his absolute dislike of sports

• the attitude of many Americanstoward menwho are uninterested in sports

• Mark Goodson's anxieties as the father of aboy

• his job as a moderator of a sports quiz• the offer to become a baseballreporter• his experience of being eventually found outat a dinner party.

15 The MediaPART A Background Information

U.S.A.-A MEDIA STATE?

COMMERCIAL CONTROL OF THEMEDIA

NEWSPAPERS AND MAGAZINES

NEW PRESS DEVELOPMENTS

Mass communication has revolutionized the modernworld. In the United States, it has given rise to whatsocial observers sometimes call a media state, asociety in which access to power is through themedia. The term media, understood broadly, includesany channel of information through which informationcan pass. Since a democracy largely depends on publicopinion, all those involved in communicatinginformation inevitably have an important role toplay. The print and broadcasting media not only conveyinformation to the public, but also influence publicopinion. Television, with access to virtually everyAmerican household, which typically tunes in about sixhours a day, is a powerful influence. The broadcastmedia, capable of mass-producing messages and imagesinstantaneously, have been largely responsible forhomogenizing cultural and regional diversities acrossthe country. Beyond this cultural significance, thepower of the media is important to politicians, whouse the media to influence voters; and to businessmenand women, who use the media to encourage consumptionof their products.The relationship works in the other direction as well.

The audience's opinions influence the media industry.Most newspapers, magazines, radio and televisionnetworks in the United States are private commercialenterprises and must be responsive to their audience'sdemands, especially for entertainment, if they are tostay in business.Newspapers and magazines have long been major lines

of communication and have always reached largeaudiences. Today, more than 11,000 differentperiodicals are published as either weekly, monthly,bimonthly, quarterly, or semiannual editions. In 1986,a total of 9,144 newspapers were published in theUnited States. More than 62 million copies of dailynewspapers are printed every day and over 58 millioncopies of Sunday papers are published every week.Readership levels, however, are not as high as they

once were. Newspapers have had to cope withcompetition from radio and television. They havesuffered a decline in circulation from the peak yearsaround the turn of the century largely because of thetrend of urban populations moving to the suburbs.

Studies showthat mostsuburbanreadersprefer toget"serious"news fromtelevisionand tend toreadnewspapersprimarilyfor comics,sports,fashions,crimereports, andlocal news.Nowadays,Americansconsidertelevisiontheir mostimportantsource ofnews, and amajorityrankstelevision asthe mostbelievablenews source.Accordingly,newspapershave madechanges toincreasetheirreadershiplevels. Someestablishedmetropolitannewspapersare nowpublished in"zoned"editions fordifferentregional


audiences. In some cases, they have lost theirreadership to new weekly suburban newspapers thatresemble magazines in format. To meet the publicdemand for more feature material, some publishershave started adding "lifestyle" and "home living"sections to their papers to make them more likemagazines.

Circulation of Leading U.S. MagazinesGeneral magazines, exclusive of groups and comics. Based on total average paid

circulation during the 6 months prior to Dec. 31. 1986.

CONGLOMERATION

LARGE NATIONAL PAPERS AND NEWSSERVICES

Circulation Magazine

TV

Guide 16,800,441Reader's Digest......16,609,847Modern Maturity .....14,973,019National Geographic. .10,764,998Better Homes & Gardens....8,091,751

Circulation

.

1,442,478.

1,431,047.

1,412,723.

1,405,087.

1,379,781.

1,362,225.

1,348,098Magazine

Circulation Magazine

Penthouse ...................Smithsonian...................U.S. News & World ReportSouthern Living...................Field & Stream...................VFW ...................Money...................Seventeen ...................Popular Science ...................The Workbasket .....Home & Away...................Parents...................Life

.2,379,333 .2,310,970 .2,287,016 .2,263,922 .2,007,479 .1,951,004 .1,862,106 .1,853,314 .1,843,067 .1,779,463 .1,749,083 .1,721,8

Sunset............Bon Appetit.......The American Hunter...True Story........Changing Times ...The American Rifleman .Woman's World.....Discover ........Boys' Life........Mademoiselle......Vogue ............Golf Digest.......New Woman ........Rodale's OrganicGardening.......

Home Mechanics ...The Family Handyman ..Teen.............Sesame Street.....Travel & Leisure .

Family Circle ............................6,261,519Woman's Day...............................5,744,842Good Housekeeping.........................5,221,575McCall's..................................5,186,393Ladies' Home Journal .....................5,020,551Time ....................................4,720,159National Enquirer .. ......................4,381,242Guideposts................................4,260,697Redbook...................................4,009,450Star......................................3,706,131Playboy...................................3,447,324Newsweek............................3,101,152People..............................3,038,363Sports Illustrated.. ......................2,895,131Cosmopolitan..............................2,873,071Prevention ..............................2,820,748American Legion...........................2,648,627Glamour...................................2,386,150Another

trend whichhasaccompaniedthe declinein readership

and number of publications is the dramatic declinein competition. Variety at local and national levelshas been reduced as media operations have becomeconcentrated in the hands of just a few publishersand corporations. New York City is a good example.In the 1920s people in Manhattan could choose fromfourteen different morning and evening dailies.Thirty years later, the choice was reduced by half,and today New York has only two morning papers, theTimes and the News, plus one afternoon daily. In otherareas around the country, the percentages of citieswith competing newspapers have decreased dramaticallyas publishers are driven out of business by largercompetitors. In 1926 there were more than 500 citieswith competing newspapers. Today there are under 40and the number is falling. At this point, 97 percentof the cities carrying daily papers have but asingle publisher. They are called "one-owner-towns."Moreover, more and more of the remaining newspapersare under chain or group control. Chain publishersown newspapers all over the country. With a totalcirculation of over 22 million, chains comprise morethan one third of the total daily newspapercirculation in the United States.The U.S. has never had a national press or

newspaper with a mass national circulation like TheTimes and The Daily Telegraph in Britain or the leadingpapers in other countries. However, the influence ofa few large metropolitan newspapers, most notably theNew York Times and the Washington Post, has increased sothat these papers come close to constituting anational press. Both papers syndicate their staff-written stories to regional newspapers all over thecountry.Most newspapers rely heavily on wire copy from the

two major news services, the Associated Press (AP)and United Press International (UPI), which gather

wire copy: send in a news report (by telegram in former times).

THE MEDIA 263

A wide variety of publications is available

OBJECTIVITY

FREEDOM OF THEPRESS

national and international news stories and sellthem to subscribing newspapers. The storiesreported in major papers often influence othernews media. Newspapers around the country and,significantly, television news programs take a leadfrom the Times in deciding what is and is not a bigstory. When the Times ceased publication for severalweeks in 1978, there was clear evidence of televisionnews programs' lack of direction.The trend toward concentration of ownership is

defended on the ground that large-scaleorganizations can provide the funds, know-how, andmanagement to keep a newspaper profitable andcompetitive. But conglomeration raises questionsamong some social commentators about objectivity.Would marketplace diversity not ensure that error andbias would be counterbalanced, and does monopoly notincrease the chance that the public may bemisinformed?The American press, especially in recent decades,

has insisted on objectivity and detachment in newsreports, usually imposing a more rigorous separationof fact from opinion than do newspapers in othercountries. Opinion is excluded from news columnsand is presented on separate editorial pages, whichfeature unsigned editorials and include opinionssigned by readers, contributors, and syndicatedcolumnists. Careful effort to preserve objectivityis made even among monopoly newspapers. The WashingtonPost, for example, which in 1976 had a monopoly in themorning market in the Washington, D.C., area,covered that year's presidential election by givingequal space to candidates Gerald Ford and JimmyCarter. Even the photographs of the candidates werescrupulously equal in size and placement.The mass media in the United States claim explicit

recognition of their right to be free fromgovernment control and censorship. The FirstAmendment to the Constitution states: "Congressshall make no law. . . abridging the freedom. . .ofthe press." Government and media often engage inconfrontations when reporters disclose classifiedinformation or pursue investigative reporting touncover injustices and corruption within Americaninstitutions. This adversary stance toward governmentwhich many news executives and reporters advocate hasled government officials and other critics to accusethe


RADIO ANDTELEVISION

NETWORKS

PROGRAMMING

news media of transgressing the bounds of journalismand influencing events they once merely described.The controversy over the role of the media has led tomany stormy court battles. When, in 1971, theWashington Post and New York Times published the "PentagonPapers," a classified U.S. Defense document about theorigins of the U.S. involvement in the Vietnamconflict, the Supreme Court ruled that thenewspapers were within their rights to publish thematerial. The Washington Post's role in uncovering theWatergate scandal is another example of the media'sinvolvement in national events. The story started asequence of events that led to the resignation ofPresident Nixon.Theoretically, anyone in the United States can start

a newspaper or magazine, but to become a radio ortelevision broadcaster one must be granted a portionof the limited radio-television spectrum by thegovernment's licensing board, the FederalCommunications Commission (FCC). For the most part,the American broadcasting system has always been acommercial system. It is supported by money frombusinesses that pay to advertise goods or servicesto the audience. Advertising messages are usuallypresented as 15, 30, or 60-second commercialannouncements before, during, and after programs.Ссдц-mercial broadcasting is a huge industry bringingin profits of about 1.8 billion dollars annually. Asof 1984, there were over 8,000 commercial AM and FMradio stations and over 850 commercial televisionstations. Attracting a smaller audience, there isalso noncommercial public broadcasting for radio andtelevision. The funding for public broadcasting comesprimarily from congressional appropriations, grantsfrom foundations, and contributions from viewers. Theprograms, often educational or cultural, appeal to ahighly selective audience.The number of radio and television broadcasting

stations provides for wide diversification inprogramming. Most radio stations offer listeners avariety of music programs, including country-western,pop music, classical music, and jazz. Other stationsfeature news, talk interviews and discussions, andreligious programs exclusively.Most commercial television stations are affiliated

with one of the three major networks, ABC, CBS, andNBC. Networks are essentially program distributioncompanies. A network buys programs from independenttelevision production companies, most of which arelocated in Hollywood, and distributes these programsacross the country to television stations that areaffiliated with the network. The network is paid byadvertisers to insert commercial announcements on the

programsthenetworkbuys.Becausenetworksarecommercialsystemsdependentonadvertising, theycompetewith eachother forviewersand areintent onchoosingprogramsthat willwin highaudienceratings.Programsthat aimat massentertainment arepreferredovereducational and newsprograms.Eveningnewsprogramsand othernews showsare oftencriticizedforconcerningthemselveswithentertainment.Criticschargethatnetworksoftenemphasizethepersonalities ofnewscasters at theexpense ofissues ofpublic

importance.Supreme Court: see page 97.Watergate: see page 29.Vietnam: see page 15.ABC: American Broadcasting Company.CBS: Columbia Broadcasting Service.NBC: National Broadcasting Company.

THE MEDIA 265

CABLE TELEVISION

SATELLITE TELEVISION

ISSUES

Viewers whose tastes are not satisfied by the manyofferings of network and local programs are nowincreasing their options by subscribing to cabletelevision. About 35 million Americans pay a monthlyfee of approximately $17.00 for greater selection.Cable television companies receive signals fromtelevision stations through a larger master antenna ordish and relay the signal into the homes ofsubscribers by wires attached to home receivers. Cablecompanies can program 40 different channels, providingviewers with many specialized programs such asHollywood musicals, local theater productions, andrecent film releases.Satellite TV was originally designed to offer a

greater selection of programs to people in rural areasthat could not easily be connected to the cablesystem. It now provides anybody who is ready to have asatellite dish installed in his or her backyard withthe same programming as cable TV. There has been acontroversy recently as to the viewer's right tofreely receive signals that are beamed down onto hisor her property. The so-called superstateons, whichare in fact small independent stations, utilize thepower of both cable and satellite to programnationwide. Conventional television has had tostruggle to retain its audience as people switch overto cable viewing, satellite TV or renting videocassettes.As responsive as television is to audience ratings,

many critics complain that producers and networkexecutives should be more sensitive to the effects oftelevision violence on children and adults. The debateover the possible link between the amount of violenceon television and the amount of violence in societyhas not yet been resolved. However, protest did lead tothe introduction of "family viewing time" from sevento nine o'clock in the evening. During these hours,adult programs containing violence and sexualsuggestiveness are kept to a minimum. There is aconsiderable amount of citizen involvement on otherissues as well. For example, there are groups thatlobby for a better standard of children's television,and other groups associated with the religious rightwhich object to explicit language and immorality on thetelevision screen.

266

PART в Texts

THE CASE FORTELEVISIONJOURNALISMby ERIC SEVAREIDCourtesy of Saturday Review

When Eric Sevareid retired from CBS News in November 1977, his fellow journalists bestowed on him tributes befitting a statesman. Newsweek dubbed Sevareid "without doubt the most imposing of all broadcast commentators," and the Christian Science Monitor called him TV's answer to antiquity's oracle at Delphi. In his two-minute commentaries on CBS's nightly news broadcast, he perfected his own literary form, blending fact and opinion, always leaving a twingeof optimism in the air. Though he was originally an essayist and became a broadcaster at 26 with reluctance, he left television after 38 years a staunch defender of the medium.

kind Qf adversaryrelationship between print journalismand electronic journalism exists andhas existed for many years in theUnited States. Innumerable newspapercritics seem to insist thatbroadcast journalism be like theirjournalism and measured by theirstandards. It cannot be. The two aremore complementary than competitive,but they are different.

The journalism of sight and soundis the only truly new form ofjournalism to come along. It is amass medium, a universal medium; asthe American public-education systemis the world's first effort to teacheveryone, so far as that is possible.

It

has serious built-in limitations aswell as advantages, compared withprint. Broadcast news operates inlinear time, newspapers in lateralspace. This means that a newspaper ormagazine reader can be his owneditor in a vital sense. He canglance over it and decide what toread, what to pass by. The TV vieweris a restless prisoner, obliged tosit through what does not interesthim to get to what may interest him.While it is being shown, a local busaccident has as much impact, seemsas important, as an outbreak of a bigwar. He can do little about tlrs,little about the viewer's unconsciousresentments.

Everyone in America watchestelevision to some degree, includingmost of those who pretend theydon't. Supreme Court Justice FelixFrankfurter was right; he said thereis no highbrow in any lowbrow, butthere is a fair amount of lowbrow inevery highbrow. Television is acombination mostly of lowbrow andmiddlebrow, but there is morehighbrow offered than highbrows willadmit or even seek to know about.They will

THE MEDIA 267

1. continuedmake plans, go to trouble andexpense, when they buy a book orreserve a seat in the theater. Theywill noi study the week's offeringsof music or drama or seriousdocumentaries in the radio and TVprogram pages of their newspaper andthen schedule themselves to bepresent. They want to come home, eatdinner, twist the dial and findsomething agreeable ready,accommodating to their schedule.

TV programming in Americaconsumes 18 to 24 hours a day, 365days of the year. No other medium ofinformation or entertainment evertried anything like that. How manygood new plays appear in U.S.theaters each year? How many finenew motion pictures? Add it alltogether and perhaps you could fill20 evenings out of the 365.

Every new development in masscommunications has been opposed byintellectuals of a certain stripe. Iam sure that Gutenberg was denouncedby the elite of his time—his devicewould spread dangerous ideas amongthe God-fearing, obedient masses.The typewriter was denounced byintellectuals of the more elfinvariety—its clacking would drive awaythe muses. The first motion pictureswere denounced—they would destroythe legitimate theater. Then thesound motion picture was denounced—itwould destroy the true art of thefilm, which was pantomime.

To such critics, of course,television is destroying everything.

It is destroying conversation,they tell us. Nonsense.Nonconversing families were alwaysthat way. TV has, in fact, stimulatedthousands of millions ofconversations that otherwise wouldnot have occurred.

It is destroying the habit ofreading, they say. This is nonsense.Book sales in the United Statesduring the lifetime of generaltelevision have greatly increasedand well beyond the increase inpopulation. At the end of a programwith Supreme Court Justice HugoBlack, we at the ColumbiaBroadcasting System (CBS) announcedon the air that if viewers wanted oneof those little copies of theConstitution such as he had held inhis hand, they had only to write to

us. We received about 150,000requests at CBS—mostly, I suspect,from people who didn't know theConstitution was actually down onpaper, who thought it was written inthe skies or on a bronze tabletsomewhere. After my first TVconversation with Eric Hoffer, alongshoreman and author, his bookssold out in nearly every bookstorein America—the next day.

TV is debasing the use of theEnglish language, they tell us.Nonsense. Until radio and

Eric Severeid

then TV, tens of millions of peopleliving in sharecropper cabins, insmall villages on the plains and inthe mountains, in the great cityslums, had never heard good Englishdiction in their lives. If anything,this medium has improved the generallevel of diction.

The print-electronic adversaryrelationship is a one-way street.Print scrutinizes, analyzes, criti-cizes us on TV every day; we do notreturn the favor. We have tried nowand then, particularly in radio dayswith "CBS Views the Press," but notenough. On a nationwide networkbasis, it's almost impossiblebecause we have no real nationalnewspapers—papers read everywhere— to criticize for the benefit of thenational audience. Our greatestfailure is in not criticizingourselves, at least through themechanism of viewers' rebuttals. Hereand there, now and then, we have doneit. It should have been a regularpart of TV from the beginning. TheAchilles heel of TV is that peoplecan't talk back to that little box.If they had been able to, over theyears, perhaps the gas of resentmentcould have escaped from the boiler in

There is the myth that since thepioneering, groundbreaking TVprograms of Edward R. Mur-row andFred Friendly in the 1950s, CBS Newshas been less daring, done fewerprograms of a hard-hitting kind. TheMurrow programs are immortal in thisbusiness because they were the first.Since then we have dealt,forthrightly, with every conceivablecontroversial issue one can think of—drugs, homosexuality, governmentcorruption, business corruption, TVcommercials, gun control,pesticides, tax frauds, militarywaste,


1. continuedabortion, the Vietnam War—everything. What shortage hasoccurred has been on the side ofthe materials, not on the side ofTV's willingness to tackle them.

I have recently inquired of otherCBS News veterans if they can recalla single case of a proposed newsstory or a documentary that waskilled by executives of the parentorganization. Not one comes toanyone's mind. Some programs havebeen anathema to the top executivelevel, but they were not stopped.Some have caused severe heartburn atthat level when they went on the air.Never has there been a case of peopleat that level saying to the NewsDivision, "Don't ever do anythinglike that again."

For more than 13 years, I havedone commentary—personal opinioninescapably involved— most nights ofthe week on the evening news. Inthat time exactly three scripts ofmine were killed because of theirsubstance by CBS News executives.Each one by a different executive,and none of them ever did it again.Three—out of more than 2,000 scripts.How many newspaper editorialists orcolumnists, how many magazinewriters, have had their copy sorespected by their editors9

There is the perennial myth thatsponsors [advertisers] influence,positively or negatively, what weput on the air. They play no rolewhatever. No public affairs programhas ever been canceled because ofsponsor objection. Years ago, theyplayed indirect roles. When I starteddoing a 6 p.m. radio program, nearly30 years ago,

Ed Murrow, then a vice-president,felt it necessary to take me tolunch with executives of the in-surance company sponsoring theprogram. About 14 years ago, when Iwas doing the Sunday night TV news, arepresentative of the advertisingagency handling the commercialswould appear in the studio, thoughhe never tried to change anything.Today one never sees a sponsor oran agency man, on the premises oroff.

After all, in the United States TVnetwork broadcasting might at itsinception have become an appendageand apparatus of government; itmight have gone completely Hollywood.It did neither. It grimly held toevery freedom the law allows, and itfights for more.

We are not the worst people inthe land, we who work as journalists.Our product in print or on the air isa lot better, more educated and moreresponsible than it was when Ibegan, some 45 years ago, as a cubreporter. This has been the bestgeneration of all in which to havelived as a journalist in America. Weare no longer starvelings, and wesit above the salt. We have affectedour times.

It has been a particular strokeof fortune to have been a journalistin Washington these years. There hasnot been a center of world news tocompare with it since ancient Rome.We have donethe job better, I think,than our predecessors— and oursuccessors will do it better thanwe. ■

Copyright s 1976 by SATURDAY REVIEW/WORLD, INC

Saturday Review: a bi-monthly general arts review.

Christian Science Monitor: daily evening paper; general political tendency: independent; Christian moral attitude.Gutenberg, Johann: (circa 1400—1468), German inventor of movable type. Vietnam War: see page 15.

THE MEDIA 269

PART I: In theprogramming strategy,particularly of thenetworks, what hasalways been the case isthis. Within the primetime, i.e. from 8 inthe evening until 11 —that's what we Considerour prime time of theday — the networkstraditionally werefairly successful atsharing the massaudience that was outthere. That is to say,NBC would have roughly30 percent, and CBSwould have had 30percent and ABC wouldhave had 30 percent.This is in the primetime. Those numberswould be slightly lowerif you took them over aday's time, but I'mconcerned only with theevening viewing time.And that other 10percent of the audiencetraditionally wouldhave watched publicbroadcasting or theywould have watchedindependent stationsor they might have, inthe very early days ofcable, been watchingone of thesuperstations. But byand large the networkswere reasonablysatisfied to have 30percent, 30 percent, 30percent. Over the last5 or 6 or 8 years thatnumber has started todrop, and they areobviously veryconcerned about that.That number went downas low as 75 percent inthe last 2 or 3 years.In a commercially basedsystem every viewerthat you lose and every

rating point that youlose can be convertedinto dollars. And theadvertisers are saying,"Well, now look. Youused to be able todeliver to us, as theysay, so many hundredsof thousands ofviewers. You don't seemto be able to do it anymore. Why should we paythe same advertisingrate?" In trying toget this 30 percentthe networks have beenaccused frequently ofproducing what somecritics have called the

least objectionableprogramming. And byleast objectionable'what people mean is, itdoesn't have to begood. You don't haveto take any risks withit. You don't have toput a lot of time intoit. It just has to beless objectionable thanwhat the other networkis looking at. Becausethe theory is thatlarge numbers of peopledon't watch programsanyway. They watchtelevision. They goover to the televisionand say, "What's on?"and keep turningthrough or pressingthe buttons, andsomebody says, "Oh,that's okay. Stopthere. That's fine."Well, in this theorythat I am explainingvery superficiallyhere, what you finallystop at is what's leastobjectionable, at leastfor you. So thenetworks will take andhave taken thisposition that you don'thave to win, you justdon't fail. You see ifyou take big risks, youare likely to fail. Sodon't fail. That wouldbe a primary rule.Don't lose your onethird, and try to pro-duce the leastobjectionable pro-gramming possible.PART II: Now, if yousubscribe to thisanalysis of televisionprogramming,particularly by net-works, what you findout is that there isn'treally as muchdiversity as thereappears to be. I lookat the schedulesometimes and in my bestefforts to findsomething least ob-jectionable what I haveto conclude is thatit's all objectionableand I'll be better offto go for a walk orlisten to music or doanything but watch the

The Natureof TV in America

television. And I thinkif you looked at thisand if you look at aweekly televisionguide, you'd say, "Yes,yes fine, I see 15 or 20or 25 opportunitieshere, but I don't haveany real choice at all.It's all

pretty much the samestuff." Then, ofcourse, the networks ofthose programs wouldsay, "You're being muchtoo demanding." This isafter all a mass mediumand you may have highlyadvanced tastes." Idon't really. I likepolice dramas a lot,but I can't always findthem when I want them.So the argument here isthat this compulsion todo the leastobjectionable, theleast risk in factleads to a rathermediocre, rather blanddiet of the kinds ofprograms that you wouldsee listed here. Inattempting to staywith programming thathas the broadest massappeal they obviouslywill take programswhich are pretty safe.[And they will takeprograms which aren'tvery controversial, andthey will do programswhich have obviouslarge audience appeaLJNow in programming Ithink it is reasonableto say that the greatbulk of it is designedfor mass entertainment,as opposed to news,information, education,instruction. I think ifyou counted up thehours here and youlooked at a week'sworth you'd say, "Thisis clearly anentertainment-orientedmedium." Now, what isthe nature of thisentertainment, of allthe possible formatsthat we produce, of thewestern, the actiondrama and the varietyshow and this kind ofthing. This so-calledsituation comedy is byfar the most popularformat that you wouldsee here and also overa long period of time.When people are askedin various kinds ofsurveys what have beentheir favorite programsfrom 1950 on invariably50 percent, 60 percent,70 percent of thatwould identify the so-called situation

comedy, that is to saya situation which isartificially contrivedand created each weekwith a cast ofcharacters thatessentially remainsthe same. People comein and out. And that'sreally, not only thisseason, but over a longperiod of time probablythe predominant formatin this entertainmentprogramming.

From: A talk by RichardBurke,

delivered atBloomington, IN,

April 24, 1986


The Herald-Telephone, Thursday, April 24,

All

TelevisionTHURSDAY EVENING

6:00 6:30 7:00 7:30 8:00 8:30 9:00 9:30 10:00 I 11:00 11:30 12:00C WTWO e News NBC News Fortune Happy

DaysCosby Show

Family Ties

Cheers Night Court

Hill Street Blues News Tonight

wn о Ditf Strokes

Company Little House On The Prairie

All In Family

Baseball: Cincinnati Reds at Houston Astros News Movie

© wn в Quilting Business MacNeil / Lehrer Newshour

Heart Of The Dragon Mysteryl Capitol Jrnl.

I.U. Journal

Business Gourmet

© WRTV о News ABC News Ent. Tonight

Movie: "Invitation To Hell" 20/20 News Benson Nightline

— WTVW о Benson ABC News News Ent. Tonight

Movie: "Invitation To Hell" 20/20 News B. Miller WKRP

© WISH о News CBS News Chance Simon & Simon Bridges To Cross News H's Heroes

Night Heat

© WON — Good Times

Jeftersons

B. Miller B. Newhart

Movie: "The Chosen" News WKRP Trapper John, M.D.

m WTHI C News CBS News Nevrtyweds

Price Simon & Simon Bridges To Cross News Night Heat

и WTBS — A. Griffith

Gunsmoke Sanlord Movie: "Psycho" Baseball: Atlanta Braves at Los Angeles Dodgers

© Jim And Tammy 700 Club L. Sumrall

Life Lesea Alive In Touch Praise The Lord Praise Lord

WTHR ( News NBC News Jeopardy Fortune Cosby Show

Family Ties

Cheers Night Court

Hill Street Blues News Tonight

И MTV — VJ: Martha Quinn Monkees VJ: Martha Quinn VJ: Mark Goodman Rock Influences VJ

m WXM Star Trek Too Close Taxi Movie: "Right Of The Phoenix" B. Newhart Benny Hill

H'mooners

— WBAK Make A Deal

ABC News Ent. Tonight

Company Movie: "Invitation To Hell" 20/20 ML Zone Nightline Sanford !

8 ESPN — Horse Racing SpoCtr. SpeedWeek Fashion Stanley Cup Playoffs: Division Final SpoCtr. Outdoor Lite

( USA — Cartoons Radio 1990

Animals Motorcycle Racing: Daytona 200 Classic Petrocetli Alfred Hitchcock Hour

EdgeNt.

a NASH — Country Rock Be A Star Fandango Nashville Now Country Rock Videocount.

Be A Star Fandango Nashville

о CNN — Newswatch Showbiz Moneyline Crossfire Primenews Larry King Live News Moneyline Sports NewsNkjht

© CSPN — Viewer Call-In National Press Club Congressional Hearing Viewer Call-In Today In Washington

UFE — Simmons It Figures

Family Cassie S Co. Regis Philbin's Lifestyles

Dr. Ruth Show Movie: "September Storm"

ARTS — "Dinner At Ritz" Cont'd

Shortstories Music Of Man Montserrat Caballe: The Woman, The Diva

At The Met Madrigal Music

CBN — Green Acres

Rifleman Alias Smith And Jones

Wackiest Ship In TheArmy

700 Club Don't Die Girl From U.N.C.LE. Groucho

PAY TV CHANNELS( HBO — Movie: "Between Friends"

Cont'dMovie: "Cat's Eye" Movie: "Code Of Silence" Movie: "Act Of Vengeance"

a ns — Disney Ozzie Movie: "Treasure Island" Island Movie: "Country" "Darby O'Gill And The Little People"

@ SHOW — Movie Showtime Tom Petty & Heartbreakers

Movie: "D.C. Cab" Honeymooners "Ten From Your Show Of Shows"

e MAX — Crazy About The Movies

Movie: "Supergirl" Movie: "Body Heat" Comedy Movie: "Fanny Hill"

THE MEDIA 271

The Herald-Telephone, Thursday,April 24,

All

TelevisionMovies

EVENING 8:00 Q SD ** "Invitation To Hell"(1984, Drama) Robert Urich, Susan Lucci. A devilish woman serves as the director of a countryclub where she seduces men physically and womenmaterially. (R) g (2 hrs.) ® **H "The Chosen"(1961, Drama) Maximilian Schell, Rod Steiger. Based on Chaim Potok's novel. A friendship slowly develops between a worldly, assimilated Jew and the son of a Hassidicrabbi. (2 hrs.) (5) S3 * ** "Flight Of The Phoenix" (1966, Adventure) James Stewart, Peter Finch. When contact with rescuers becomes impossible, crash survivors begin repairingan old airplane forced down in the desert. (3 hrs.) Ш +* "D.C. Cab"(1983, Comedy) Mr. T, Adam Baldwin. Drivers of a nearly bankrupt Washington taxicab operation become heroes when they rescue two kidnapped children. 'R' g8:05 QD **+Ъ "Psycho" (1960,Suspense) AnthonyPerkins, Janet Leigh. Ayoung woman encounters apsychotic killer at asecluded motel afterstealing a large sum ofmoney from her employer.(2 hrs., 25 min.)

9:00® **% "CodeOf Silence"{1984, Adventure) Chuck Norris, Henry Silva.A maverick Chicago cop wages a solitary war against rival drug-running gangs. 'R'g(l hr., 41 min.)

@ *** "Country" (198i, Drama) Jessica Lange, Sam Shepard. Threatened with foreclosure of her farm, anIowa woman struggles to hold on to her land and keep her family together. 'PG'(1 hr., 49 min.) (29 *+*H "Body Heat"(№1, Suspense) William Hurt,Kathleen Turner. A smalltime Florida lawyer ispersuaded by his lover to murder her husband. 'R' (1 hr., 53 min.) 11:000) ** "SeptemberStorm"(1960, Adventure) Joanne Dru, Mark Stevens. An international group attempts to recover alarge Spanish treasure froma sunken ship. (2 hrs.) (7) "Act Of Vengeance"(1986, Drama) Charles Bronson, Ellen Burstyn. Based on the true story of Joseph "Jock" Ya-blonski, whose crusade to rid the United Mine Workersunion of corruption led to violence and ultimately to murder in December 1969. □@9 *+* "Darby O'Gill And The LittlePeople" (1959, Fantasy) Albert Sharpe, Sean Connery. An old Irish caretaker who isabout to lose his job to a younger man captures the king of the leprechauns and forces him to grant three wishes. 'G' (1 hr., 35 min.) (57) +*H "Ten From Your Show Of Shows"(1973, Comedy)Sid Caesar, Imogene Coca. Ten classic skits from the original telecasts of "Your Show Of Shows," with personal anecdotes by

Sid Caesar. 'G' (1 hr., 32 min.) 11:30® * "Fanny Hill"(1983, Drama) Lisa Raines, Oliver Reed. A woman of pleasure hopes to gain fortune in 18th-century London. 'R' (1 hr.,30 min.) 12:000 **H "The Barbarian And The Geisba"(1958, Drama) John Wayne, Sam Jaffe. The first American ambassador to Japan receives cold rebuffs fromthe emperor and devotion from a geisha. (2 hrs.)


° This Is Not Your Life:

Television asthe Third Parent

Benjamin Stein

EN YEARS AGO, I spent one yearstudying the handful of powerfulpeople here in Hollywood who governthe general themes and specificsocial and political messages ofprime time commercial television.The conclusion, now not seriouslyquestioned, was that a politicallyand socially homogeneous cliquemakes television in the image ofits own world view. That world viewhas little in common with the viewsof the larger society and is, infact, often at war with observablereality.For the past five years, I have

been studying the other end of thefunnel: the effect of mass culture,specifically television, upon theviewing public, and particularlyupon young people. In a nutshell, Ihave been trying to discover moreabout the intersections of youthculture and mass culture.To that end, I have questioned

groups of students at ten highschools in the Los Angeles area. Ihave also just spent eight monthssitting in on classes atBirmingham High School, a largemiddle-class school with studentsof every ethnic description locatedin suburban Van Nuys, California.One basic hypothesis seems to me

almost unassailable: American massculture, particularly the massculture purveyed by television, isso powerful, intrusive, attractive,and ubiquitous, so thoroughlyunchecked in its ability toinstruct and command, that it isvirtually a "third parent" in thelives of

American children. For the child of1986, television is a source ofvalues, an encourager for thefuture, a confidant, a narcotic, ablanket of security and inadequacy— in short, a parent.

The Way the World Really WorksOver and over in the past fiveyears, I have talked to boys andgirls who receive almost no clearmessages about what the world issupposed to be from parents orfriends. Frequently, a child hasonly one parent at home, who isoften absent. The children canbarely recall even talking withtheir parents about any subjectbeyond home life. Yet they have anextremely well-developed idea ofhow the world is supposed to work.There is supposed to be trouble anddanger, but it will all work out inthe end. There is supposed to beaction and excitement, but aresolution leading to calm. Forceand strength generally can beexpected to solve problems. Thepeople who trust in goodness andact honestly will triumph. Theseare the values of television.If you ask a child who has seen

nothing but chaos anddisappointment in his or her ownlife just why he or she believesthat things will turn out all rightin the end — and if you push anddon't take silence for an answer —you almost always hear a variant of,"Because that's the way it happenson 'Remington Steele'."

THE MEDIA 273

4. continuedAlthough the children I talked

to live in Los Angeles, none ofthem is part of the gilded world oftelevision or movie production.Their parents are far more likelyto be working two jobs each than tobe inking million dollar deals atParamount. Yet these young peopleare convinced that a larger, moreglamorous world awaits themsomewhere beyond VenturaBoulevard. When you probe fordetails about that world, thepromised land sounds surprisinglylike the countries of "Dynasty" or"Dallas" or "Family Ties."In fact, many of the children I

talked to are morally certain thatthe "real" world is much more likethe world they have seen on TV thanthe one they can smell and touch.More bizarre still, many of thembelieve that the world of"Diff'rent Strokes" or "Miami Vice"is the real world, every bit asauthentic and available as Van NuysBoulevard or their own kitchens.That is, when discussing life,

these children talk about thingsthat happen to them every day —fights with parents, car crashes,problems with school — and thenthey talk about events on "TheCosby Show" or "Webster" as ifthey, too, were part of daily life— as in a sense they have become.

Days of Their LivesThe more time I spent with thesechildren, the clearer it becamethat for many of them, there is nolonger any line between what isreal and what is on TV. It is allone large sphere of experience —with television comprising by farthe more compelling, coherent,accessible, attractive portion....Television appeals to young

people as a friend and a source ofvalues, but it also tends toconfuse them about what theirrational expectations should be.That is, TV shows are so much more

attractive as a way of life than thelives of the children I talked to,and the children are so unable totell that TV is a fantasy, thatthey are both uplifted and saddenedby TV shows. In a word, TV offers abetter way of life, which encourageskids to believe life can be betterthan it is, but TV's way of life isalso maddeningly unavailable.

"On television, no one is everlonely, and no one's parents everneglect them, and no one is everbored, and no one ever gets leftout. That's the way life shouldbe," said the daughter of a brokenhome, whose stepfather routinelybeat her when drunk. "Sometimeswhen I see how easy it is for BillCosby's kids, I get crazy thinkingabout my own life."Another- student in Encino told

me matter-of-factly that hemeasures his goals against the waypeople live on television. "If Ican live even half as well as thepeople on 'Dallas' by the time I'mtheir age, that'll be doing reallywell," he said. "Even 'FalconCrest' would be all right."If mass culture on TV offers a

coherent world view, is perceivedas at least as "real" as reality,and is indeed considered part ofreality, if it offers moral solaceand moral structure, and alsoimplicitly holds up standards forpersonal accomplishment to chil-dren, it looks — at least to me —very much like a parent. If childrensee the world of TV shows as part oftheir world, not as a fantasyseparate from it, they will — anddo — accept television's messagesas part of the general wealth ofexperience offered by the world.Again, in the absence of clearfamily structure, meaningfulcommunication between parents andchildren, and a well-ordered edu-cational system, TV rushes intothe void with a world viewpackaged in living color, withpretty girls, handsome men, andgreat cars to make it more tempting— all at the touch of a button. Isit any wonder that such anattractive, teaching, moralizing,comforting parent is so appealing?All of this offers an important,

even crucial challenge to us, thereal parents, so to speak, in thesociety: If we have allowed a thirdparent to become part of ourAmerican family, we had better payclose attention to what the newparent is teaching our young aboutthe world, and about us.At the least, it looks as if that

new parent hasalready taught our children thatthere is no difference

between reality and fantasy. Thatlesson is definitelynot going to help them or us. \T\

Benjamin Stein, who appears in the movieFerris Bueller's Day Off, is a long-time observer of youth and mass culture.


о The Likability Sweepstakes

"... And that's the wonder, the wonder of thiscountry, that a man can end with diamonds hereon the basis of being liked!"— Death of a Salesmanilly Loman knew how important itwas to be well liked. Since

Eisenhower won with the primitivistslogan "I Like Ike," Americans seemto require a pleasing affabilityfrom their Commander in Chief.Under Ronald Reagan, geniality wasraised to an art form; thePresident became the nation'ssurrogate grandfather.

W

Pollsters say that the advent oftelevision campaign coverage made"image impressions" more importantthan issues. Likability is onecomponent of that impression. In acampaign where no single issuecommands attention, it becomes evenmore significant.Since last winter, Bush

strategists had known they had tospruce up the Vice President'simage. George Bush was seen asawkward, wimpish, maladroit. SoBush's handlers engineered a make-over. They had him utter self-deprecating cracks about his lackof charisma. They arranged for himto be photographed amid hisphotogenic grandchildren.As Bush's negatives receded, he

sought to raise those of Dukakis.After slipping up in the firstdebate, Bush smiled and said,"Wouldn't it be nice to be the IceMan, so you never make a mistake?"His aides later christened thecontest the Nice Man vs. the IceMan. The idea was to portray Bush'soccasional goofiness as engaging,and Dukakis' competence as soulless.The Dukakis camp came late to the

likability, wars. Competence waswhat counted. So what if hesometimes seemed to be running forAccountant in Chief? After thefirst debate, however, polls showedthis to be costly, a TIME pollrevealed voters thinking thatDukakis had won, but that Bush (by44% to 38%) was more likable.Dukakis aides began pushing for a"kinder, gentler," warmer Dukakis.In short, they wanted more Zorba,less Zeno.The new strategy was simple:

depict the Nice Man as incompetent,and the Competent Man as nice. TheGovernor began to act more likeMike Douglas than Mike Dukakis. InNorth Dakota he pecked two

George Bush and Michael Dukakischeerleaders on the cheek andled a crowd in a spiritedrendition of Happy Birthday. No moreclenched fists; Dukakis beganshowing open palms.But likability goes deeper than

gestures. "It is the ability todisclose a sense of the privateself in public," says Kathleen HallJamieson, a scholar of thepresidency. "In the television age,candidates have to be comfortablewith public intimacy and self-disclosure." But Dukakis, as lastweek's debate showed, isuncomfortable with self-disclosure.His manner suggests it's none ofyour business."Competent people are sometimes

seen as arrogant," says Bush'sdirector of polling, Vince Breglio."He's made competence his emblem.But competence is only a part ofimage. A President has to be openand caring, as well as tough andhard. He must project a comfortableimage. It's tough for Dukakis toretrace his steps now and makehimself nice."This week the Dukakis campaign

unveils commercials that attempt to thaw outthe Ice Man. Theads, says Dukakis media chief DavidD'Alessandro,"show who he really is." Dukakistalks directly tothe camera. In one he recalls whatit was like to be ayoung father. In another hesketches his hopes forthe future. But do not expect PhilDonahue. SaysD'Alessandro: "Dukakis has a limitas to how muchhe can do as far as changing hispersona." Maybe allthis touchy-feely stuff is not soimportant after all.Noted campaign manager Susan

Estrich after thedebate: "I think we shouldn't maketoo much of

likability." - By RichardStengel

Willy Loman: character in the play Death of a Salesman by Arthur Miller. Mike Douglas: American actor.

THE MEDIA 275

О DilemmasA CIA spy's life may be indanger if his name is madepublic. The spy has playeda key role in a major news event.

4%18%

78%

Question:(Respondents were asked topretend they were editors)For each of the following stories, please say whether that story should almost always be reported,whether it should sometimes be reported depending on the particular circumstances, or whether it should almost never be reported.

Story should be reported...

i Almost always

A woman who has been held hostage escapes and runs half naked into the street.One of your photographers takes her picture.

You have obtained some secret government documents dealing with an important national security issue.

3%21%

6% 26%

76%

68%

Sometimes, depending on particular circumstances

Almost never

You have a poll that sayswho will win theelection, but there arestill four hours left tovote.

13% 27%

60%

"Reprinted with permissionof American Enterprise Institute for Public PolicyResearch"

A woman is in despair because her son has just been killed in a car accident, and one of your photographers takes a picture of her.

5% 48% 46%

A reporter has sent back a story from an area where American troops are fighting-even though the president has declared the area "off limits" to the press.

20% 41% 39%

A major fire has occurred inyour area. Your deadline is approaching, but you aren't certain that all the facts in the story are completely accurate.

10% 54% 36%

A reporter discovers thatsomeone who holds public office is a homosexual.

23% 41% 36%

A reporter has learned that a government official has broken the law. However, the source of that information can'tbe revealed.

34% 48% 18%

CIA: Central Intelligence Agency, the U.S. governmentdepartment that collects information about other countries, especially in secret.

276

PART c Exercises

criticism

TV destroys conversation

TV debases the use of the English language.

Sponsors

influence public affairs programs.

rebuttalBroadcast journalism is a new and distinctive form of journalism.

TV has increased booksales in the U.S.

CBS has dealt with every conceivable controversial issue one can

think of.

• the average time spent readingpapers andwatching TV

• the dangers of TV as pointed out by someintellectuals

• the criticism of TV by print journalists• the future development of print andelectronic media.

Remember to offer at least threealternativeanswers to each question.Example: Which medium do you resort to whenyou want to be informed about current politicalaffairs?a) mainly newspapers and magazines,b)mainly TV,c)both newspapers/magazines and TV equally.

3. Global ComprehensionThe Nature of TV in America Parti:1. What was the traditional

pattern in thedistribution of prime time ratings among thenetworks?

2. How has this pattern changed over the lastyears?

3. What are the financial implications of thischange?

4. What consequences does thischange have onthe programming?

Part II:5. How does Richard Burke feel

about thechoice of programs offered by American TV?

6. What, according to Richard Burke, are the

1. ComprehensionThe Case for Television JournalismPleading for television journalism, Eric Sevareid cites criticism normally put forward by newspaper journalists and intellectuals in order to refute

2. Opinion PollFollowing the text by Eric Sevareid, make up your mind about the relationship between print journalism and TV journalism by preparing and carrying out an opinion poll to be published in a student magazine. Develop a questionnaire including questions about

determining factors for TV programming?

7. Looking at the design of American TVprogramming in general, what is itspredominant feature?

8. Which format of TV entertainmentis themost popular?

THE MEDIA 277

4.Choosing a TV ProgramTelevision—Thursday EveningDoes American TV cater for a great variety of tastes? Make suggestions for an evening's viewing for people whoare interested in situational comedyenjoy watching TV seriesare fond of police dramasare interested in politicslike music videosare very religiousare sports fansenjoy watching movie films.

5.Comparative Study1. Compare Eric Sevareid's and

Richard Burke'sviews on television.

2. How does TV programming in your countrycompare with that in the United States?

6.Text AnalysisThis is Not Your Life: Television as the Third Parent1. What was the object and the result of theresearch which the author pursued earlier?

2. How does the present object of researchrelate to the previous one?

3. What hypothesis is his research based on?4. Where did he try to findproof for thishypothesis?

5. To what extent do parents and TV form achild's view of the world?

6. How does the average child's real lifeexperience compare with television reality?

7. What kind of values are propagated by TV?8. Which findings verify Stem's hypothesis andhow does he support his

arguments?

7.Letter WritingWrite a letter to the editor of PUBLIC OPINION and comment on the hypothesis and the findingsof Benjamin Stein.

8.Analysis and DiscussionThe Likability Sweepstakes1. In the age of television, the images ofcandidates are more important than issues.At the beginning of the 1988 presidentialcampaign, Bush was seen as awkward,wimpish, maladroit, goofy and lackingcharisma, whereas Dukakis was characterizedas competent, soulless, reserved, tough andhard. How did the image-makersremodeltheir candidates to make them appear morelikeable and appealing to a vastTV audience?

2. How useful then are televised presidentialdebates?

3. The quotation from Arthur Miller's Death ofSalesman underlines the Americanbelief thatbeing well-liked is an important key tosuccess. Do you share this view?

4.To what extent do you think the likability■ factor decides elections inyour country?

9.CommentDilemmas1. Which cases mentioned in the opinion polldid the respondents find the mostobjectionable and which the leastobjectionable? How do you account for theresults of this opinion poll?

2. If you were an editor, howwould you react

in each of the situations described?

3. Do you know any similar cases that actuallyhappened in the U.S.A., any other country oryour own country?


Some Facts about the StatesDate of Area Land Population Citie

State admission Capital (sq. mi.)

area (1982est.)

Density1 100,000+1 Delaware 1787 Dover 2,057 1,982 602,000 312 _____

2 Pennsylvania 1787 Harrisburg 45,333 44,966 11,865,000 264 43 New Jersey 1787 Trenton 7,836 7,521 7,438,000 996 44 Georgia 1788 Atlanta 58,876 58,073 5,639,000 97 45 Connecticut 1788 Hartford 5,009 4,862 3,153,000 647 56 Massachusetts 1788 Boston 8,257 7,826 5,781,000 739 37 Maryland 1788 Annapolis 10,577 9,891 4,265,000 434 18 South 1788 Columbia 31,055 30,255 3,203,000 106 —9 New Hampshire 1788 Concord 9,304 9,027 951,000 106 —10 Virginia 1788 Richmond 40,817 39,780 5,491,000 138 1011 New York 1788 Albany 49,576 47,831 17,659,000 373 612 North 1789 Raleigh 52,586 48,798 6,019,000 123 513 Rhode Island 1790 Providence 1,214 1,049 958,000 908 114 Vermont 1791 Montpelier 9,609 9,267 516,000 56 —15 Kentucky 1792 Frankfort 40,395 39,650 3,667,000 92 216 Tennessee 1796 Nashville 42,244 41,328 4,651,000 113 417 Ohio 1803 Columbus 41,222 40,975 10,791,000 263 718 Louisiana 1812 Baton Rouge 48,523 44,930 4,362,000 98 419 Indiana 1816 Indianapolis 36,291 36,097 5,471,000 152 520 Mississippi 1817 Jackson 47,716 47,296 2,551,000 54 121 Illinois 1818 Springfield 56,400 55,748 11,448,000 206 322 Alabama 1819 Montgomery 51,609 50,708 3,943,000 78 423 Maine 1820 Augusta 33,215 30,920 1,133,000 37 —24 Missouri 1821 Jefferson City 69,686 68,995 4,951,000 72 425 Arkansas 1836 Little Rock 53,104 51,945 2,291,000 59 126 Michigan 1837 Lansing 58,216 56,817 9,109,000 160 827 Florida 1845 Tallahassee 58,560 54,090 10,416,000 192 828 Texas 1845 Austin 267,338 262,134 15,280,000 58 1529 Iowa 1846 Des Moines 56,290 55,941 2,905,000 52 330 Wisconsin 1848 Madison 56,154 54,464 4,765,000 88 231 California 1850 Sacramento 158,693 156,361 24,724,000 158 2632 Minnesota 1858 St. Paul 84,068 79,289 4,133,000 52 233 Oregon 1859 Salem 96,981 96,184 2,649,000 28 234 Kansas 1861 Topeka 82,264 81,787 2,408,000 29 335 West 1863 Charleston 24,181 24,070 1,948,000 81 —36 Nevada 1864 Carson City 110,540 109,889 881,000 8 237 Nebraska 1867 Lincoln 77,227 76,483 1,585,000 21 238 Colorado 1876 Denver 104,247 103,766 3,045,000 29 539 North Dakota 1889 Bismarck 70,665 69,273 670,000 10 —40 South Dakota 1889 Pierre 77,047 75,955 691,000 9 _41 Montana 1889 Helena 147,138 145,587 801,000 6 —42 Washington 1889 Olympia 68,192 66,570 4,245,000 64 343 Idaho 1890 Boise 83,577 82,677 965,000 12 144 Wyoming 1890 Cheyenne 97,914 97,203 502,000 5 —45 Utah 1896 Salt Lake City 84,916 82,096 1,554,000 19 146 Oklahoma 1907 Oklahoma City 69,919 68,782 3,177,000 46 247 New Mexico 1912 Santa Fe 121,666 121,412 1,359,000 11 148 Arizona 1912 Phoenix 113,909 113,417 2,860,000 25 449 Alaska 1959 Juneau 589,757 569,600 438,000 1 150 Hawaii 1959 Honolulu 6,450 6,425 994,000 155 1Dist. of Columbia

Washington 67 61 631,000 10,016 1Puerto Rico San Juan 3,435 3,421 3,261,000 943 5Guam Agana 209 111,000 531 —American Samoa Fagotogo 76 34,000 447 -Virgin Islands Charlotte 132 102,000 772 —

'Density: persons per square mile of land area

PRESIDENTS AND VICE-PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES 279

Presidents and Vice-Presidents of the United States

Years in StatePresident office Party Born Died Born/Home Vice-President

1 George Washington 1789-1797 1732 1799 Virginia John Adams2 John Adams 1797-1801 Federalist 1735 1826 Massachusetts Thomas Jefferson3 Thomas Jefferson 1801-1809 Republican 1743 1826 Virginia Aaron Burr

George Clinton4 James Madison 1809-1817 Republican 1751 1836 Virginia George Clinton

Elbridge Gerry5 James Monroe 1817-1825 Republican 1758 1831 Virginia Daniel D. 6 John Quincy Adams 1825-1829 Nat. Rep. 1767 1848 Massachusetts John C. Calhoun7 Andrew Jackson 1829-1837 Democratic 1767 1845 S.C./Tenn. John C. Calhoun

Martin Van Buren8 Martin Van Buren 1837-1841 Democratic 1782 1862 New York Richard M. Johnson9 William Henry

HarrisonMar. 1841 Whig 1773 1841 Va./Ohio John Tyler

10 John Tyler 1841-1845 Whig 1790 1862 Virginia11 James K. Polk 1845-1849 Democratic 1795 1849 N.C./Tenn. George M. 12 Zachary Taylor 1849-1850 Whig 1784 1850 Va./La. Millard Fillmore13 Millard Fillmore 1850-1853 Whig 1800 1874 New York14 Franklin Pierce 1853-1857 Democratic 1804 1869 New Hampshire William R.D.

King15 James Buchanan 1857-1861 Democratic 1791 1868 Pennsylvania John C. Breckinridge16 Abraham Lincoln 1861-1865 Republican 1809 1865 Ky./Ill. Hannibal HamlinAndrew Johnson

17 Andrew Johnson 1865-1869 Republican 1808 1875 N.C./Tenn.18 Ulysses S. Grant 1869-1877 Republican 1822 1885 Ohio/Ill. Schuyler Colfax

Henry Wilson19 Rutherford B. 1877-1881 Republican 1822 1893 Ohio William A. 20 James A. Garfield 1881 Republican 1831 1881 Ohio Chester A. 21 Chester A. Arthur 1881-1885 Republican 1830 1886 Vt./N.Y.22 Grover Cleveland 1885-1889 Democratic 1837 1908 N.J./N.Y. Thomas A.

Hendricks23 Benjamin Harrison 1889-1893 Republican 1833 1901 Ohio/Ind. Levi P. Morton24 Grover Cleveland 1893-1897 Democratic 1837 1908 N.J./N.Y. Adlai E.

Stevenson25 William McKinley 1897-1901 Republican 1843 1901' Ohio Garret A. HobartTheodore

26 Theodore Roosevelt 1901-1909 Republican 1858 1919 New York Charles W. Fairbanks27 William Howard

Taft1909-1913 Republican 1857 1930 Ohio James S.

Sherman28 Woodrow Wilson 1913-1921 Democratic 1856 1924 Va./NJ. Thomas R. 29 Warren G. Harding 1921-1923 Republican 1865 1923 Ohio Calvin Coolidge30 Calvin Coolidge 1923-1929 Republican 1872 1933 Vt./Mass. Charles G.

Dawes31 Herbert С Hoover 1929-1933 Republican 1874 1964 lowa/Cal. Charles Curtis32 Franklin D. Roosevelt

1933-1945 Democratic 1882 1945 New York John N. GarnerHenry A. WallaceHarry S. Truman

33 Harry S. Truman 1945-1953 Democratic 1884 1972 Missouri Alben W. Barkley34 Dwight D. Eisenhower

1953-1961 Republican 1890 1969 Tex./NY., Pa. Richard M. Nixon35 John F. Kennedy 1961-1963 Democratic 1917 1963 Massachusetts Lyndon B. Johnson36 Lyndon B. Johnson 1963-1969 Democratic 1908 1973 Texas Hubert H. Humphrey37 Richard M. Nixon 1969-1974 Republican 1913 Ca./N.Y.,

Cal.Spiro T. AgnewGerald R. Ford

38 Gerald R. Ford 1974-1977 Republican 1913 Neb. /Mich. Nelson A. Rockefeller39 Jimmy (James Earl)

Carter1977-1981 Democratic 1924 Georgia Walter F.

Mondale40 Ronald Reagan 1981-1989 Republican 1911 Ill./Cal. George Bush41 George Bush 1989- Republican 1924 Mass./Texas James Danforth

Quayle

Indexabortion issue 759, 220 abundance 27 abstract expressionism 228 achievement 292 Adams, J.T. 29 aerobics 245 affirmative action 723 affluence 59 Afghanistan 776 AFL - CIO 65, 146 Age Discrimination Act 115 agribusiness 63 agriculture 50, 63, 73 Ailey, Alvin 231 air-conditioning49 amendment to theConstitution

222 amendment I 220 amendment II 106 amendment VIII 107 amendment XIII 112 American culture184 American dream 18, 29,

32, 35, 217 American IndependentParty 148

American IndianMovement 7 75

Americanization 46, 185 American MedicalAssociation 746

A Nation at Risk 192 antebellum South 57 anti-Communism 774, 181 anti-feminism 737 architecture 50, 87, 93 Arizona 46 arms control 762,276 Armstrong, Louis 229 arts 225assimilation 75, 772 Associated Press 262 Atlanta 48, 84 automation 65

balance of power 173, 774 balance of trade 273 ballet 232 Baltimore 48 baseball 245, 247, 252 basketball 246, 247, 248,

249, 252 Beacon Hill 83 Bellow, Saul 81 Bernstein, Leonard 18,

229bilingualism 774 Bill of Rights 25,97, 143 blacks 77, 81, 772 blues 45, 228 boarding school 777 boards of education 790

Boone, Daniel26 Boston48, 83, 85

boxing 247Brezhnev, Leonid Ilyrich776

Broadway 233 Brown v. Board of Education

108, 109, 113, 191 Buddhism 206, 213 budget deficit 62 Burger, Warren Earl 99 burglary 99 Bush, George 253, 762,264, 274

business84, 146bussing797

cabinet 244cable television 265Calder, Alexander 227,

228California 45,55 Capra,Frank 232career 233career woman 233, 236 Carnegie, Andrew 64 car racing 247 Carter,Jimmy 262, 776,263

Catholic bishops 218 Catholic Church 272, 278 Catholicism22 2, 272 Central America 276 Central Intelligence Agency(CIA) 276

chamber of commerce246 Chavez, Cesar 222 checks and balances 244 cheerleaders 247,249 Chicago 25, 46, 82 Chicanos 727child care 732, 232 children 227,737 church 206, 272, 275 church attendance 205,

206, 212church buildings205 city 75, 79, 82crime 203, 705planning 83, 84, 87,

93 civil rightslegislation 7 73civil rightsmovement 7 73,226

Civil War 25, 44, 49,112 class 46, 65, 162Cleveland 85 climate 43, 47 coaches 250 cold

war 274 college 43, 48, 189, 200,257

college sports 248, 251 colonialism 30 colonies 23 commercial broadcasting262, 264

communication 67, 262 communism 274, 275 community 89 commuting 83 - competition 59, 62, 262 computer 67, 196 Confederacy 49 congregation 275 Congregationalist church

277 Congress 242, 247, 754,764 congressional

committee743, 757

conservatism 29, 45, 59,

159 Constitution 25, 97, 142,

145, 151, 263 containment 174 convention 262 corporation 47, 64, 67, 70,73, 93

counseling 296 country club246 country music 45 country-western 229 courts 97, 99 crime 28, 88, 97, 99prevention 200rate 99 criminal

200 Crocket, Davy 26 Cuban missile crisis 275 cultural diversity 25 cultural identity2 24 culture 225curriculum 290

Dale, Sir Thomas 27 death penalty 200, 206 Declaration ofIndependence 26, 31,112

Decter, Midge 132 defense 262,272, 277 de Kooning, Willem 227,228 Democratic

Party 45, 146,148, 262, 264

democratic values 273 departments 244 Depression, Great 73, 160 desegregation 223, 292,227

detente 276 deterioration 82, 83 Detroit

82, 85 Dewey, John 26 dialect, Southern 45 disabled, the 225 discipline 295, 298, 299 discrimination 15, 18, 25,

112, 115do-it-yourselfer27 dollar, role of 272 downtown 84 Dixie 49, 50 Dukakis, Michael 274 Duncan, Isadora 232 Dylan, Bob 232

ecology 75, 157 economic aid 273,275 economic interests 273 Economic Opportunity Act290

economic strength 272 economy 59, 160, 262, 764 editorials 263 education 2 27, 734, 788,200, 251

educational ideal 290 educational philosophies793

egalitarianism 207 Eisenhower, Dwight D.709, 775, 274

elderly, the 7 75, 722 election campaign 48, 133,

148, 161, 162, 274 electronic church 274 Ellington, Duke229 Emerson, Ralph Waldo 26 entertainment 55,225, 264 entrepreneur64, 66 Episcopal church 22 2 equality 228, 279Equal Pay Act 728equal rights 722 Equal Rights Act 128 Equal Rights Amendment(ERA) 52, 130, 133

ethnic minorities 112 ethnicity 14, 15, 19, 81 European EconomicCommunity 64

evangelical movement 223 evangelism 223, 220 examinations 294, 297 excellence 293 executive branch244

Falwell, Jerry 223, 220family 232, 733, 734, 735farmer 73farmland 46fast food 70Faulkner, William 45, 50federalism 242

INDEX 281

Federal-CommunicationsCommission 264

federal land 757female-headed household735

feminism 728, 133, 134 fencing 247 Ferraro, Geraldine 129 film 232, 237, 240 film director 237film making 237,240 film producer 237 fitness 245,254 Fitzgerald, F. Scott 117,

119folk music 45 football 245, 251 Ford, Gerald 263 Ford, Henry 64 foreign affairs 160 foreign investment 772 foreign policy 161, 164,

173, 179foreign trade 272 Founding Fathers 25, 59,

112free enterprise 59, 64 freedom 25,59, 173, 179,

181, 216freedom of the press 263 Friedan, Betty 228 frontier 26 Frostbelt 47 fruitpicking 720 Fuller, Margaret 26 fundamentalism 734, 273 fund-raising 220

Gallup poll 252,253 gentrification S3 Georgetown 83 Gershwin, George 229 Gibson, Kirk 247 Gillespie, "Dizzy" 229 Goetz, Bernhard 702, 705 Gold water, Barry 249golf 247Gorbachev, Mikhail 178 government 37, 46, 59,742, 767, 762

Graham, Martha 237 graphic arts 227, 228 Great Depression 73, 160Great Lakes 43, 46 growth 47 gun control 702, 705gymnastics 247

Hammerstein, Oscar 229 handguns, registration of702

handicapped, the 792 Harvard 43, 119, 251 health 724, 254 Higher Education Act 790 high school

789, 795, 797 high technology 45, 66,67, 93

Hinduism 273 Hispanics 774 hockey 247 Holiness Church 270 Hollywood 232, 237, 240,

242, 264 homicide 99 homosexuals 775, 232 horse racing 247 House of Representatives742

housing projects 704, 727 Houston 82 human rights 273 Humphrey, Hubert 752

ice hockey 247 ideals 25 ideology 749 illegal aliens 76, 27 illegal immigration 76, 27,774

illiteracy 792 immigration 73, 74, 75, 76,

20, 21, 81 independence 26 Independence Day 28 Indians 74, 224, 226 individualism 26, 59 industrialization 75, 44,

50, 82integration 797 interest groups 746 interest rates 773 intermediate-range nuclearforce (INF) 778

international affairs 270 international relations279, 787, 782

interventionism 773 inventiveness 27 investment policies 272 Iran767Iran-Iraq War 278 isolationism46, 173 Israel 257, 278, 220

James, William 26 jazz 45, 228Jefferson, Thomas 26, 30 Jews 220, 222 job discrimination728 jogging 245, 254 John Birch Society 272 JohnsJaspar 228 Johnson, Lyndon B. 749,756, 775, 787,

790 Joplin, Scott 228 Judaism 270, 27 7 judge 99 judicial branch 97 jury 97 justice 97, 179,

217

Kennedy, John F. 77, 775,793 Khrushchev,

NikitaSergeevich

775 King, MartinLuther Jr.773, 226

Kissinger, Henry 776, 279 Koch, Ed 29, 205 Korea 775 Ku Klux Klan 222

labor unions 47, 65, 146 law 97, 143 lawyer 96 Lebanon2 78 legislation 742, 752, 754 liberalism 759 liberals 59 Libertarian Party 748 liberty 779Liberty Federation 273 Lichtenstein, Roy 228 literature 43, 45 living standard 59, 132 lobby 746,757 Los Angeles 48, 82 Lutheran church 207, 208, 211

magazines 267, 262 mainstream culture 47,

162 mainstream Protestantchurches 277

majority leader 754 manager 732 manifest destiny 55 market instability 773 marriage 727, 732, 733,735, 736

Marshall Plan 775, 783 Massachusetts Institute ofTechnology (MIT)

43 materialism 54 McCullers, Carson 45 mechanization (of farming)

63 media 38, 146, 252, 261,266, 274

megalopolis 82 melting-pot 77, 79, 49, 81 metropolitan area 82 Mexican-American76,774, 720

Mid-Atlantic states43 migrant worker 720 migration 47 military aid 775, 178 military intervention 775,278, 787

military strength 770 Middle East 778 Midwest, the 46 minorities 78, 92, 100, 112,

120, 124, 162, 200 Miranda rule

700 Mitchell, Margaret 52 mixed media 228 mobility 28, 47modern dance 237 Monroe, Marilyn 228 Montana 46 Moral Majority 759, 273,222

moral principles 234 Mormons 45, 208, 210 motherhood 232, 232, 234 movie 232, 237, 240 movie actor 237 mugging99 murder 99, 200,703 museums 225 music 228 musical 78, 229

Namath, Joe 247 National CommissiononExcellence in Education792 National

Endowment forthe Arts 226

National Farmers Union246 National

Football League(NFL) 244

national identity 77, 25, 28 nationalism 28, 38,180 National Organization forWomen (NOW) 728

NATO 770 nature 75, 776 negro spiritual 45 neighborhood 79,87, 88,

89neoconservatives 759 networks 264, 267 New England 43, 53 New Mexico 46 newspapers 267, 262 news services 262 New York 79, 82 New York Times 262 Nicaragua 776 Nixon, Richard 29, 176,

264nonviolence 723 nuclear war 779,278 nuclear weapons775, 776,777, 278

O'Connor, Sandra Day729

"Op"-art 228 opera 229 optimism 27 opportunity 29, 179 Oregon 45

painting 227, 228 Parker, Charlie 229 parties 746, 748, 750 patriotism 28, 30, 38

282 INDEX

peace 161, 179, 218 Peace and Freedom Party248

Peachtree Center 84 Pearl Harbor 174 Pentagon Papers 264 Philadelphia 84 pioneers 26 Pittsburgh 48, 85, 93 plantation 44, 51 plays 233, 235 playwrights 233 pluralism 222 police 300, 202 political participation 245 politician 252 politics 252, 220 Pollack, Jackson 228pollution 75pop art 228pop concerts 225Populist Party 249post-industrial age 48, 62poverty 57, 81, 83, 91, 114power politics 282pragmatism 26, 28, 179prejudice 18, 113Presbyterian church

207, 208, 211president 99, 144,

153, 161, 163, 164presidential elections 244,253, 264, 223, 220, 274

Presley, Elvis 232press 86, 262principles, moral 234, 279prison 202, 224private enterprise26, 59, 64, 149

private schools 289productivity 59, 60, 62, 62, 63

professional sports 248programming 264,

269, 270, 272progress 29, 179Progressive Party 249prosperity 59, 262protectionism 273Protestants 23,

44, 210, 222, 222public opinion 246, 262public schools 189, 190public service 252Puritans 23, 43, 53, 211

Quakers 220 quality of life 232race relations

222, 227racial prejudices 223racism 227radical churches 222radio 264ragtime 228rape 88ratings 264, 269Rauschenberg, Robert

228, 230 Reagan, Ronald 38, 115,

159, 161, 164, 176, 213,274

recreational parks 246 Reformed churches 222 refugees 26, 20 regional identity 43 regions of the U.S. 43 Rehabilitation Act 225 Rehnquist, William 99 religion 43, 116, 205 and politics 259, 223, 220religious books 205 religious broadcasting214, 220, 222

religious cults 223 religious diversity 222 religiousness 205 religious sects223 representative 254representative democracy 242

Republican Party 44, 146, 148, 250, 259, 264

resources 46, 157restoration 83, 87retirement resort 222rights of man 280robbery 99Roberts, Oral 220Robertson, Pat 223, 220rock' n roll 229Rodgers, Richard 229roles 233Roosevelt, FranklinD. 259Roosevelt, Theodore252Rothko, Mark 228ruralization 85rural life 85

Sandinistas 2 76San Francisco 85 Santa Fe 48 satellite TV 265 schedule 297 Schlafly, Phyllis 232 Scholastic Aptitude Test(SAT) 294

school 288, 193, 195, 199administration 290attendance 288prayer 213, 222sports 247,

249 Schuller, Robert 224 screen writer 237 sculpture 228segregation 223 self-defense 202, 205 self-reliance 65 Senate 242, 264 senator 255 service 225 service industries 62 sex

discrimination 224,

128Silent Majority 225 singers 242 skyscrapers 82 slavery 25, 44, 112 slaves 44 slums 82, 83 slum clearance83 small town 85, 86.215 Smith, Adam 59

Smith, David 228 smoking 224 soccer 247 socialproblems 200 social programs 249 Socialist LaborParty 248 Social Security 260, 262 social services82, 161 Society Hill 84 Sondheim, Stephen28,

229South, the 44, 49, 51 Southern belle 52 Spanish language224 speaker 254 sports 245 and society 256 and sponsors 247, 248 and the media 247, 256 and violence 247 college 248, 251 high school 297,249 professional 248, 256 spectator 245, 247 Springsteen, Bruce 232 Stanford University 48 Statue of Liberty 30 stock market 62 Strategic Arms LimitationTreaty 276

Strategic Arms ReductionTalks (START)

277 Strategic Defense Initiative(SDI) 277

street gang 227,204 student athletes 248, 252 suburbs 82 suburbanization 82 success 64, 133 Sunbelt 47 Sun City 322 Superbowl 245 superstations 265 Supreme Court 97, 107, 108, 109, 113, 144, 191, 222, 264 suspect, rights ofcriminal200

Swaggart, Jimmy224, 220 swimming246

teachers 292, 295,297, 299 technology45, 50, 60, 272television 224,220, 232,

261, 264, 266and society 272and moral standards 275

and politics 274journalism 266stations 266

tennis 246, 248 tests 292, 294, 295, 297 textbooks 290 Thanksgiving 28 theater 225, 233, 235 theft 99

Third World countries 273 Thoreau, Henry David 26 Tharp,Twyla 232 tournaments 249 track 247

trade 60, 172 tradedeficit 173 transcendentalists 26 transportation 83 Truman, Harry S. 108,175

Union, the 49United Press International(UPI) 262

universities 43, 48, 200,

251 University of NorthCarolina 48

University of Texas48 urbanization 50, 81 urban renewal83, 84, 85,

87, 93 Utah 45values 25, 54, 55, 132, 133,

134, 161vice president 244, 263 vigilantism 202,205 Vietnam War 25. 29, 36,

38, 73, 175, 181, 182, 193,264

video 265 viewing time 269 violence 45, 99, 103, 113,

265volleyball 247, 249 volunteerism 27 voter registration 252

war 228war technology 277Warhol, Andy 227,228Warren, Robert Penn 45water 46Watergate 29, 264War of Independence 31Warsaw Pact 274Washington, D.C. 46, 83Washington Post 264welfare 262West, the 27, 45White Anglo-Saxon Protestant(WASP) 23, 222

White House 252,264 Whitman, Walt 26 wildlife 257 winning 36, 248 Wolfe, Thomas 45women 227 Women's Liberation52 Wonder, Stevie 232 worker participation 65World War I 273 World War II 274 wrestling 247

Yankee 50, 53 yuppies 36, 65

AcknowledgmentsWe are grateful to the following for permission to reproduce copyright material:American Enterprise Institute for Public Policy Research for an extract from an article by V A Sackett & К Н Keene in Public Opinion (Feb/March 1986) & an extract from an article by В Stein in Public Opinion (Nov/Dec 1986); Association of American Geographers for an article by J F Hart inAnnals of Association of American Geographers, 62, No2 (June 1972); Richard С Burke, Professor ofTelecommunications at Indiana State University, for a transcript of his talk"The Nature of TV in America" (Universityof Indiana 24.4.86); Campbell Connelly &Co Ltd for the words of the song "America" by Stephen Sondheim in West Side Story words by Stephen Sondheim, music by Leonard Bernstein. Copyright (c) 1957 (renewed) Leonard Bernstein & Stephen Sondheim, Jalni Publications, Inc, US & Canadian Publisher С Cohimor, Inc, worldwide print rights & publisher rest of world Campbell Connelly & Co Ltd. Allrights reserved; Close up Foundation forextracts from articles in Current Issues (1986), copyright 1985 Close Up Foundation, the articles "American IsraelPublic Affairs Committee" and "The Wilderness Society", an extract from thearticle "How A Case Reaches the Supreme Court", the abridged articles "Thoughts on the Supreme Court", "Perspective of aPublic Man" & "The Human Side of Congress" in Pespectives, copyright 1985 Close Up Foundation; Joan Daves for an extract from "I Have A Dream" speech by Martin Luther King, Jr. Copyright © 1963by Martin Luther King Junior; Dow Jones &Co, Inc for extracts from American Character: Views of America from the Wall Street Journal edited by Donald Moffit, © Dow Jones & Co, Inc 1983; the Administrative Manager on behalf of the author, Jerry Falwell for an abridged extract from a Moral Majoritypublication; Fortune magazine for the articles "Pittsburge" by Alicia Hills Moore in Fortune (6.2.84) & "The New Look From America's Top Lab" by Gene Bylinsky in Fortune (1.2.88); Hodder & Stoughton Ltd & Pantheon Books, a Division of Random House, Inc for extracts from American Dreams: Lost & Found by Studs Terkel. Copyright © 1980 by Studs Terkel; Martin,Seeker & Warburg Ltd & Random House, Inc for an extract from Sports in America: Colleges & Universities by James Michener. US copyright © 1976 by Random House, Inc; MS Foundation for Education & Communication, Inc for an abridged article by Amanda Spake in MS (Nov 1984);National Endowment for the Humanities for an article by Diane Ravitch in Humanities Vol 3 No5 (Nov 1982); National Journal for the article "Hand Gun Control" in National Journal (31.6.86). Copyright 1986 by National Journal, Inc;The New Republic, Inc for an extract from a review of "The Color Purple" by Stanley Kauffmann in The New Republic (27.1.86), © 1986, The New Republic, Inc;New York Magazine for the an extract from the article "Second Thoughts On Having It AH" by Tony Schwartz in New York(15.7.85); The New York Times Company for

the articles "The American Idea" by Theodore H White (magazine, 6.7.86), "Children of Poverty — Crisis in New York" by Andrew Stein (magazine, 8.6.86), "About Men: A Brother's Murder"by Brent Staples (magazine, 30.3.86) & "About Men: Lousy at Sports" by Mark Goodson (magazine, 11.5.86). Copyright ©1986 by the New York Times Company; The New Yorker Magazine, Inc for a drawing by Geo. Price in The New Yorker (12.8.85), ©1985 The New Yorker Magazine, Inc; Newsweek, Inc for the articles "Immigration Today: A Case Study of Savuth Sath" in Newsweek (14.7.88), "Brothers" by Sylvester Monroe in Newsweek (23.5.87) & "Running for Your Life" by Matt Clark Newsweek (17.5.86), © Newsweek, Inc; Harold Ober

Associates, Inc for extracts from Special Places by Berton Roueche, first published in The New Yorker. Copyright © 1982 by Berton Roueche; The Observer for an abridged article by Peter Black in The Observer (17.5.81), copyright The Observer 1981; Omni Publications International Ltd& Penthouse International Ltd for the article "The Role of the Media, International Communication Agency, USA" by Eric Sevareid in Saturday Review, © 1976 by Saturday Review/ World, Inc; Oxford University Press for an abridged extract from The Oxford Companion to Sports & Games editedby John Arlott (pub 1975), © Oxford University Press 1975; The Progressive, Inc for the article "Put Out No Flags" by Matthew Rothschild in The Progressive (July1986), copyright © 1986, The Progressive,Inc; Random House, Inc for an extract from A Raisin in the Sun by Lorraine Hansberry.Copyright © 1958 by Robert Nemiroff, as an unpublished work. Copyright © 1959, 1966, 1984 by Robert Nemiroff; Republicans Abroad (UK) on behalf of the Republican National Committee for the Reagan/Bush 1984 Campaign Leaflet; Simon & Schuster, Inc for an extract from Mayor by Edward I Koch. Copyright © 1984 by Edward I Koch; Society for the Advancement of Education for the articles "Arming Citizens to Fight Crime"by Frank Borzellieri in USA Today (luly 1985), "Breaking New Ground on War & Peace" by Paul Bock in USA Today (Nov 1983), "The Death Penalty: Legal Cruelty?" by Donald В Walker in USA Today (Nov 1983) & an abridged article "Economics vs. Ecology" by Robert W Haseltine in USA Today (Jan 1986), copyright by the Society for the Advancement of Education; Sojourners forthe article "The Forgotten Farmer: The Crisis in American Agriculture" by Danny Collum in Sojourners (16.10.86); Time, Inc for the articles "America & The World: Principle & Pragmatism" by Henry Kissinger in Time (27.12.76), "The Chairman & The Boss" by Jay Cocks in Time (16.6.86), "The Likability Sweepstakes" by Richard Stengel in Time (24.10.88), theabridged articles "Where There's Smoke" by Otto Friedrich in Time (23.2.87) & "Power, Glory.. & Politics" by Richard NOstling in Time,(17.2M). Copyright Time Inc;US News & World Report for extracts from the articles "What Makes A Great School Great" by Lucia Solorzano in US News & WorldReport (27.8.84), "How New Entrepreneurs are Changing US Business" by Peter Drucker in US News & World Report (26.3.84) & an abridged article "If Conservatives Cannot Do It Now" by Irving Kristol in USNews & World Report (20.7.81). Copyright US News & World Report; United States Information Agency for extracts from "Toward a National Theater" by Howard Stein in Dialogue Vol 70, No4 (1985); United States Information Service for extracts from Outline of Amercian Government; the author, Beverly Walker for an abridged version of her article "An Interview With Jack Nicholson" in Film Comment Qune 1985), © Beverly Walker 1985;The Washington Post Writers Group for anabridged article "Americans Vote for Divided Government" by David S Broder in The Washington Post, (c) 1988, Washington PostWriters Group; Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars for abridged extracts from the articles "The Cooling of the South" by R Arsenault in

Wilson Quarterly (Summer 1984), copyright 1984 by the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars & "Universities in Transition" by David Riesman in Dialogue Vol 12, Nol (1979), copyright 1979 by theWoodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars.We have been unable to trace the copyright holder in the poems "I am theRedman" & "My Lodge" by Duke Redbird & would appreciate any information that would enable us to do so.

We are grateful to the following for permission to reproduce copyright photographs:Ace Photo Agency/Gabe Palmer for page 200; Action Plus London for page 246; Reproduced from a sign by ASH (Action on Smoking and Health) for pages 124 (lower middle) and 124 (top); All-Sport Photographic Ltd for page 251; American Automobile Association for page 98; Reprinted with permission of American Enterprise Institute for Public Policy Research for pages 140, 184 and 275; Courtesy of American Lung Association forpage 124 (upper middle); The New Yorker Cartoon Album, 1975-1985 Third Edition, 1986 Andre Deutsch Ltd for pages 61 (bottom), 138, 255 and 265; Annenburg School of Communications, University of Pennsylvania for Page 214; Art Directors Photo Library for page 30; Bart Bartholomew for page 195 (bottom); Bettman Newsphotos/Reuters for page 218/UPI for page 274; Bilderberg/Wolfgang Volz for page 67; The Bridgeman Art Library/The Collection of Mr & Mrs GrahamGund Agent: Art Resources Inc. for page 227; The Bridgeman Art Library for page_230; Camera Press Ltd for pages 91, 191, 220 and 227 (bottom); The J. Allan Cash Photolibrary for page 263; Colorific/1984 Phil Huber for page 23 (left), /1981 Michael Montfort for page 31, /Louis Y s\\\o-y os tot paê %, 1 (g) âcoyvies \Л. С>\\ет\е\, \^ ooAivt\ Сате^ & Assoc. All Rights Reserved for page 118,/Matthew McVay for page 124 (bottom), /Mary Fisher for page 152, /John Nordell/JB for page 155, /Gian Franco Gorgoni for page 230 (bottom), /1985 Barbara Kinney for page 242 (top) and /John Moss for page 254; The Connecticut Mutual Life Report on American Values in the 80's; The Impact of Belief for page 223 (left); Zoe Dominic for page 231; Gudrun Fiedler for page 84; The Gallup Poll for page 223 (right), Susan Griggs for page 123; The Herald Telephone for pages 270 and 271; Kevin Horan for pages 195 (top) and 196; From the 1988 INFORMATION PLEASE ALMANAC. Copyright © 1987 by Horghton Mifflin Company. Reprinted by permission of Horghton Mifflin Company for page 101; Hulton/TheKeystone Collection for page 116, /UPI/Bettmann Newsphotos for pages 181 and 216; Robert Hunt Library for page 215; The Image Bank for pages 54 and 93;Images Colour Library Ltd for page 226; The Kobal Collection for pages 230 (top right), 238 and 241; Joe Liesen for page 197; The Mansell Collection Ltd for page 23 (right); © American Government: Principals & Practice, 1983, Merrill Publishing Company. Reprinted by Permission of the Publisher for pages 147, 148, 150 and 151; Copyright Ms Magazine 1988 for page 133; National Women's Political Carcus for page 129 (bottom); Drawing by Geo Price; © 1985 The New Yorker Magazine, Inc for page 126; Peter Newark's Western Americana forpage 49; THE WORLD ALMANAC & BOOK OF FACTS, 1988 Edition, Copyright © Newspaper Enterprise Association, Inc. 1987, New York, NY 10166 for pages 206-207, 208-209 and 262; Newsweek/Arms Control Association for page 177; Wayne Stayskal/From Best Editorial Cartoons forThe Year 1983 Edition, Pelican PublishingCompany, Inc. for page 72; Best

Editorial Cartoons of the Year 1983 Edition, Pelican Publishing Company, Inc. for page 102; Picturepoint Ltd for page 253; Popperfoto/UPI for page 105; Popperfoto for page 267; From INSIDE AMERICA, by Louis Harris. Copyright © 1987by Louis Harris. Reprinted by permission of Random House, Inc. for page 149; Rex Features Ltd for pages 75 and 154; Francine Blau, Women In the Labor Market Copyright 1985. Reprinted by Permission of Sage Publications, Inc. for page 130; MAYOR, copyright © 1984 by Edward I. Koch.Reprinted by Permission of Simon & Schuster, Inc. Photos by Longman Photo Unit for page 19; 198 Martha Shope for pages 235 (left), 235 (top right), 235 (bottom right), 236 (left)

and 236 (right); Douglas Smith for page 256; Social Science Education Consortium,Inc. for page 145; Society for The Advancement of Education, USA Today, July198^ for page 74; Frank Spooner Pictures for pages 51, 179 and 242 (bottom); John Spragens Jr. for page 73; Tony Stone Photo Library for pages 35 and 96; Topham Picture Library for page 20; AUTH COPYRIGHT 1988 Philadelphia Inquirer. Reprinted with Permission of University Press Syndicate. All rights reserved for pages 165 and 222; 1961 United Artists Pictures Corp. All Rights Reserved. National Film Archive for page 18; Reproduced by Permission of United Feature Syndicate, Inc. for page 40; U.S. Bureau of the Census for pages 135 (top), 135 (middle) and 135 (bottom); U.S. Department of Defense for page 170; U.S. Immigration & Naturalization Servicefor page 17; Copyright, 1984, U.S. News &World Report for page 199; Eric Velasquez for page 103; Virginia State Library & Archives for page 87; Vision International/J.F. Gerard for page 250; Zefa for page 38.We have been unable to trace the copyright holders of the photographs on pages 47, 60 (top), 60 (bottom), 61 (top), 62, 63, 64, 129 (top), 161, 171 (top), 171 (bottom), 172 (top), 172 (bottom), 189, 210 and would be grateful for any information to enable us to do so.Picture Research by Ann Hazelwood.

Cover photographs by The Telegraph Colour Library Ltd.

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