Altiplano comestible earths: Prehistoric and historic geophagy of Highland Peru and Bolivia

ALTIPLANO COMESTIBLE EARTHS

Altiplano Comestible Earths:Prehistoric and Historie Geophagy ofHighland Peru and Bolivia

consumption by a variety of processes , some of which employ the use of variousearths. Our initial research into the detoxification of Andean potatoes turned upthe fact that in the American Southwest (Hough, 1907: 467; Laufer, 1930: 171),specific clays were eaten with wild potatoes to remove the bitterness. Thissuggested that the Andean clays also might be employed to bind the bitterphytotoxin solanine in potatoes into an insoluble precipitate, rendering thetubers palatable.

In research in Africa, Hunter (1973: 179, 1985: 1040; Hunter and DeKleine,1984: 169) demonstrated that comestible earths provided helpful amounts ofelemental nutrients such as calcium, potassium, magnesium , manganese, ¡ron,zinc , copper, nickel, cobalt, and selenium. Our research indicates that one classof our Andean earths might serve this same function. Hence it appears thatthe physiological component of geophagy may be as important as the culturalones previously emphasized by anthropologists. Hunter's observation(1973: 171) that "physiological drive, operating through trial and error empiri-cism over centuries, eventually yields a nutritional wisdom that is implicit inmany traditional practices" initially seemed the most appropriate explanationfor the origin of Andean practices.

In earlier research, Browman (1981, 1983) identified only eight comestibleearths. Subsequent research has identified additional earths, so that we noware working with some two dozen different named earths, attempting to identifytheir earliest archaeological occurrence as well as their specific utilization (seeTables IA, IB, IC, and ID). Four clusters are proposed, based on indigenoususages : First, the earths that seem to be valued because of the properties ofthe silicates and phyllosilicates (ch'aqu, phasa, quntuya, llink'i, lliphi); second,a cluster defined by sulfur minerals (qullpa, millu, pachacha, compi, sirsaqina,llimpi, makaya, wanayhampi); third, a grouping including both calcium sources(q'atawi, llamp'u, mat'agi, hake mas¡, khakya chunta, llipta/lejía) and salitres(chal¡, suca, alcali fijo, allpa/laq' a); and last, a cluster of earths important forcopper or ¡ron metallic elements (taku, siwayru, iman kala , kopakiri).

David L . BrowmanDepartment of Anthropology, Washington University, St. Louis,Missouri 63130

James N. GundersenDepartment of Geology, Wichita State University , Wichita , Kansas 67208

Research on comestible earths utilized in the Andes indicates that they have a history

of use of at least 2500 years. A hypothesis proposed for the origin of geophagy suggests

a considerably greater time depth. Comestible earths discussed involve those with physio-

logical, cultural , or medicinal components . This analysis includes 27 indigenously recog-nized earths. © 1993 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. r- -- --- _---- -...-,

BIBLIOTECA ETNOLOGICACOCHABAMBA - BOLIVIA

INTRODUCTION .w.. - 1.

Geophagy, or earth-eating, is a widespread human phenomenon. Reviews ofearth consumption identify its practice on all six inhabited continents, amongall ethnic groups (Anell, 1958; Hunter, 1973; Lagercrantz, 1958; Laufer 1930).

In the altiplano and puna of the Peruvian and Bolivian Andes, local inhabit-ants name at least two dozen potentially comestible earths. Many of theseearths are also listed in Inca sources, making them clearly prehispanic in use.We hope ultimately to identify all of these earths in archaeological deposits,although at this point only half a dozen have clearly been identified in pre-Inca contexts. Use of comestible earths appears to have a minimal time depthof at least 2500 years, as a specimen of lejia or katawi was recovered from thesite of Chiripa, Bolivia, in a level predating 400 B.C.

Earlier scholars usually proposed a cultural basis for the use of such earths,but we believe that physiological explanations are more often indicated. Ourinterest in the physiological component of the earths was stimulated by theidentification of ch'aqu, phasa, millu, and other earths as significant llamacaravan trade goods exchanged by different ethnic groups over distantes asgreat as 600 km or more (Browman, 1991). This evidente suggested an impor-tante beyond just cultural. In addition, almost all the plants first domesticatedby prehistoric inhabitants in the Titicaca basin area of highland southernPeru and northern Bolivia contained significant levels of phytotoxins. Thesedeleterious compounds are removed to render the plants palatable for human

ANALYSIS AND NOMENCLATURE

The mineral constituents of these comestible earth samples were determinedby X-ray powder diffractometry (XRD). This method of analysis is sensitive tothe crystalline structure of the constituent minerals and thereby can confirmtheir presence. The reader is referred to Gundersen and Tiffany (1986: 48-51)or Gundersen (1991:10-13) for a review of the XRD analysis method employed,as well as a brief introduction to the elemental compositions and the structuralattributes of some of the hydrous phyllosilicates (¡.e., the clay and claylikeminerals) found in these earths. A lim¡tation of XRD is that it cannot detectamorphous components that m¡ght also be part of the sample.

Although the bulk elemental composition of all the samples was evaluatedqualitatively by X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (XRF), these results are not

VOL. 8, NO. 5Geoarchaeology: An International Journal, Vol. 8, No. 5, 413-425 (1993)© 1993 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. CCC 0883-6353/93/050413-13 414


Table IA. Phyllosilicate and silicate cluster.

Substance Alternative names Literature identification Tested samples

Ch'aqu Ch'ako, chacco,ch'akko, chachakko,chacu,chago

Phasa Pasa, ppasa, ppahssa,phasalla, p'asalla

Smectite; 88-1 & 88-16 : moderatelymontmorillonite with crystallized, montmorilloniteFe, Mg, K, and as major component ; lessersometimes illite, amounts of plagioclase andkaolinite , and calcite kaolinite (no calcite)

88-15 & 88 -20: informants idas ch 'aqu or phasa, morepoorly crystallizedmontmorillonite, someplagioclase (no calcite)

Hydrated aluminum 88-2 & 88-9 : moderatelysilicate ; smectite; crystallized , quartz as amontmorillonite with major component, minorFe, Mg amounts of illite and i.ron-

Quntuya Qontoy, contuya, Smectitekuntayu, kontoya,qojtoy, contaya

Llink'i Ilinqui, llinque, Marl; fuller's earth;llinkki, ninque, aluminum silicateninki, neke

rich chlorite (nomontmorillonite)

88-15 & 88-20: informants idas phasa or ch'aqu, morepoorly crystallized,montmorillonite, someplagioclase (no calcite)

88-18 : (unknown ) results sameas 88 - 15 & 88 -20, indicatingthis phyllosilicate used by atleast A.D. 1300

No sample

No sample

Lliphi Llimpi Mica with muscovite No sampleand biotite

presented because we had no standard reference materials prepared for quanti-tative studies. XRF was only a check of the composition as indicated with XRDevaluation.

Whenever there is any ambiguity in the nomenclature of the minerals, wewill indicate how we are using these terms. We need to present some commentson the clay and claylike mineral nomenclature we utilize.

Kaolinite is the most common "species" of the kaolin "group" of clay minerals,which also includes others such as dickite and nacrite. Only kaolinite wasrecognized in our samples. Its composition is Al(Si4010)1(OH)8 and its structurecan be compared, in a simple analogy, to an open-face cheese sandwich: thesingle (Si4010) structural sheet (i.e., the tetrahedral phyllosilicate sheet) allud-ing to the single slice of bread, the Al4(OH)8 (i.e., the octahedral hydroxide


Table IB . Sulfur mineral cluster.

Literature identification Tested samplesSubstance Alternative names

Qullpa Kollpa, kkollpa,

kkollkke kollpa,

hancu-ccollqque,

q'ollpa, gollpa,

collpa, coipa, colpa

Two varieties:(1) aluminum sulfate,¡ron sulfate, coppersulfate, lead sulfate(2) salitre, potassiumnitrate, sodiumnitrate

Millu Miliou, millua,millo, miyu

Alum, aluminum

sulfate as white

variety

Iron sulfate as black

variety

Sirsuqina Sirsuquema, choque Sulfur, two varieties:or quesima, "wild" and "good"sallina sirsukina, black and yellow

sirpukiena, salli,sirsukena , sillana,sillina

Makaya Macaya, macay, Ash cakes, calcareousningro-macaya, earth, arsenic sulfidearma

Llimpi Ychma Cinnabar, mercuryoxides

Wanay Huanay hampi, Arsenic sulfidehampi hiwairi kolla,or hihuayri collajiwayriqulla

Pachacha Pachach, pachas, Calcium sulfatepachachi

Compi Chumbe Zinc sulfide

88-3 & 88-11: poorlycrystallized kaolinite withminor amounts of quartzand plagioclase

88-7: well-crystallized phasesof a probable organicsubstance; sample too smallto run standard tests toidentify

88-4: aluminous and sulfatecomponents in the form ofalunogen

88-10: aluminous and sulfate

components in the form of

halotrichite, with another

minor unidentified phase

also present

88-6: yellow, well-crystallizedorthorhombic sulfur

88-5: black, same as aboye, buttraces of gypsum, and someblack carbonaceous matter

88-8: granular material withwell-crystallized barite andalso celestite

No sample

No sample

No sample

No sample

sheet) to the slice of cheese. The regular, two-slice, cheese sandwich structureAl4(Si4010)2(OH)4 (pyrophyllite) does not occur in our samples, but a morehydrous mineral of a slightly similar structure does. Ideally this clay mineralwould have a theoretical composition of 8H20 • Al4(Si4010)2(OH)4 (leverrierite),which probably does not even exist in this pure form in nature. In the realworld of clays, some Al +3 cations substitute for Si+4 cations in the phyllosilicatesheets and some Mg+2, Fe+2, and Fe+3 cations substitute for the Al +3 cations inthe hydroxide layer between the phyllosilicate sheets. With such substitutions,what was an electrically neutral double phyllosilicate mineral unit structure

GEOARCHAEOLOGY: AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL 415 416 VOL. 8. NO. 5


Table IC. Metal ( iron and copper ) mineral cluster.


Taku Taqo, tacu, taco

Siwayru Sebario, siwairu,

sihuayru

Iman Quisu kala, iman

kala rumi, kichi rumi,

yauri wayuta,

aputiri

Kopakiri Copaquira, kkopa,

copagira , coravira,

corahuari

Ferruginous earth 88 -3: informant identified astaku or qullpa; probablyqullpa as is largelykaolinite

Hematite . two varieties : No samplea metallic-tinted

specular hematite,

and more matt-tinted

hematite, as male and

female siwayru (orqo

vi LIOTECA ETN©LOG;Land china)

Magnetite. two No sample

varieties, male and

female

Cupric sulfate, cupric No samplesulfide, cupric acetate,copper silicate

became electrostatically unbalanced, and other cations such as Ca', Mg+2,Na", and Kt are taken up by the structure to neutralize the overall chargeof the mineral. The double phyllosilicate structure is too tight for these ionsto fit in the hydroxide layer; they must fit in the interlayer zones on the outsideof the double phyllosilicate sheets. These interlayer cations are not irrevocablyheld in the mineral structure and can be replaced or exchanged with othercations from their environment. This is also the hydrated interlayer region ofthis clay mineral where the large polar water molecules occur. To complicatethe structure further, the number of water molecules of the zone can varyfrom zero to eight, with a corresponding shrinking and swelling of the entirestructural unit of this expandable clay mineral. In addition, certain polarorganic liquids also can displace some to all of the polar water molecules heldin the interlayer zone. All such mineral structures are collectively membersof the smectite "group" of clay minerals, the individual "species" of which arenamed mainly on the basis of their relative Al, Mg, and Fe content, and to alesser extent on the more loosely held exchangable cations, even though thepure compositional endmembers are not likely to exist. Our XRD and XRFanalyses suggest that montmorillonite is the "species" (i.e., aluminous but withsome Fe and Mg in the "cheese" layer) of the smectite "group" minerals thatoccur in our samples. Consequently, we use the term montmorillonite becausewhile all montmorillonites are smectites, not all smectites are montmorillonite.The reader might be more familiar with the commercial nickname "bentonite,"which is essentially montmorillonite with exchangable Na' or Ca+2 cationsin the interlayer zone. The highly variable compositional and structural nature


Table ID. Calcium and salitre cluster.


Q'atawi Catahui , kataui, Calcite 88-21: low-magnesium calciteor isku katawa, katawi, with minor amounts of

izku, iso, ishku, quartz and traces of illiteiscu 88-19: low-magnesium calcite

with minor amounts ofsylvite

Hake Jaqimasi, haque Calcareous tufa, 88-13L: light component.mas¡

rhaquimascamasa calcium carbonate mainly crystallized low-

waripa, ,

hagque, haquimasi,,

two varieties: white magnesium calcitetulipa huaripa tulla and black 88-13D: dark component; as

aboye, but also some

sylvite and an unknownsulfate

Khakya Qhaqha chhunta, Calcium carbonate, No samplechunta ccacca chunta, calcium sulfate, two

kkhakkya chunta, varieties: black and

chunta whiteLlipta or Llikta, llichta, llijt'a, Variable composition, 88-14: ca. 78% K, 10% Ca,

Llukta lloita, llinta, llujt'a, usually with K, Ca, 10% S, with sylvite,

or lukta, llucta, toqra, Mg, Al, Fe, alunite, gorgeyite

tokra t'oqura, toqro phosphates, sulfates,or lejia chlorides, ammonia as

frequent constituents

Mat'aqi Mataka, matake, Guano 88-12: poorly crystallized mix

mataque of hydroxyl-apatite andfluorapatite, and somehalite

Llamp'u Llampu, llamppo Calcareous earth No sampleJayu or Hayu, q'ayu, cachi Halite No sample

kachiChal¡ Potassium and sodium No sample

nitrateSuca Salitre, sodium No sample

carbonateAlcali fijo Saltpeter No sampleAllpa or Hallpa, alpa, laka Generic earth No sample

laq'a (distinguished bycolors and textures)for interna] uses

of the smectites in general gives rise to their relatively high absorptive andcation exchange capacities.

With an appropriate geological environment (enough K+ content, adequatethermal and mechanical energy accompanying burial, and time to mature),montmorillonite commonly can change to illite-a mineral whose name, origin,composition, and structure is still debated by geologists. We cannot even decideif it is a "claylike mica" or a "micalike clay." We will proceed without such a

r,rr,%nnruArn¡ nnv• Ani INTFRNATIONAI inIIRNAI 417 418 VOL. 8, NO. 5


resolution by stating an idealized illite mineral would have the composition(H30, K)2A114(Si3A1O10)2(OH)4. This structure is only a K+ step away from thecomposition K2A14(Si3A1O10)2(OH)4, which is the "species" muscovite of themica "group" of minerals. (The Mg-Fe "species" biotite is also a member ofthis mica "group"). The structural composition of muscovite is rather fixed andhas only limited absorptive and cation exchange capacity unless some of theK+ cation can be leached out and replaced, as occurs during weathering pro-cesses. Being essentially intermediate (to a first approximation) between mont-morillonite and muscovite, illite can be anticipated to be intermediate in theabsorptive and cation exchange capacities of these two minerals.

Another complex family of mineral materials expected from our literaturesearch to occur among the comestible earths are the "alums," which are inessence hydrated alkali aluminum sulfates. It seems clear from our searchthat previous workers simply equate any aluminum sulfate-bearing materialwith alum. Some are, but most are not alum.

Specifically, alum (or potash alum) is KA1(S04)2 • 12H2O. There are otheralumlike minerals where Na' and NH4 cations have replaced K+ in the 12-hydrate alum structure. All three are rare minerals. More common in occur-rence, but still rare, are the 11-hydrate K- and NaAI(S04)2 • 11H2O forros.None of these minerals were detected in our comestible earth samples. Mostalums are currently manufactured by a multistep procedure, which is outsidethe scope of our review.

It seems likely, on the basis of our small sample set, that alum (per se) isnot a component of natural altiplano comestible clays. We believe this to betrue because all the members of the natural alums' are highly soluble andtherefore classified as evaporites. They usually occur as efflorescence "salts"of weathering rocks, such as shales and felsic volcanics. To survive at all innature, they either collect in sheltered areas such as caves or as evaporites inplaya basins in desert environments. With addition of water, they easily dis-solve, but in the cave or playa environments they reprecipitate with evapora-tion essentially in place. Even when dry, they can slowly dehydrate, and carefulfuture work might require quick encapsulation of samples to prevent hydrationor dehydration of the samples. If the local populations are attempting to modifythe material by successive solution-evaporation, there might be any numberof intermediate "hydrated alkali aluminum sulfates" produced which couldeasily be recognized by XRD analysis. On the other hand, such evaporativeproducts could occur naturally.

Although not "alums," two aluminous sulfate hydrates, alunogen and halotri-chite, were recognized, as mentioned in our discussion of the millu earths.

An aluminous sulfate material we expected to find in abundante was aluniteKA13(S04)2(OH)6, an alkali aluminum sulfate hydroxide (i.e., not a hydrate).In contrast to the "alums," alunite is essentially insoluble in water, and oncehaving formed would easily survive any subsequent treatment of comestibleclay (unless heated beyond 500°C). It was found only in samples of lejia. In its


Table II. Test sample origins.

Sample Name Location Date

88-1 Ch'aqu Oruro July 1987

88-2 Phasa Oruro July 1987

88-3 Qullpa/taku Oruro July 1987

88-4 Millu Oruro July 1987

88-5 Azufre negro Potosi July 1987

88-6 Azufre amarillo Potosi July 1987

88-7 Qullpa blanco Unkas July 1987

88-8 Makaya July 1987

88-9 Phasa wasa Oruro July 1987

88-10 Millu Potosi July 1987

88-11 Qullpa Unkas (?) July 1987

88-12 Mat'agi Huari, Oruro July 1987

88-13 Hake mas¡ Potosi July 1987

88-14 Lejia La Paz July 1987

88-15 Phasa Achocalla, La Paz July 1987

88-16 Ch'aqu llave, Puno April 1987

88-17 Unknown Estuquina site A.D.1300-1450

88-18 Unknown Estuquina site A.D.1300-1450

88-19 Cal Azapa, Arica A.D. 1000-1450

88-20 Ch'aqu/phasa La Paz July 1987

88-21 Lejia/q'atawi Chiripa site 400-100 B.C.

88-22 Unknown Algarrobal site A2.1300-1450

Pilot study specimens purchased for Browman in the "Witches' Market" in La Paz, Bolivia, byNiki R. Clark. Date refers to purchase date for modern samples, but to archaeological period forprehistoric samples. Location refers to the source of the earth according to the vendor, or thearchaeological proveniente of prehistoric samples.

crude ore form, it is called alumstone or alum rock, and it is the best suitedraw material for commercial manufacture of alum.

EARTH PREPARATIONS UTILIZED ON THE ALTIPLANO

In order to investigate the physiological and cultural properties of the comes-tible earths, we initiated a small pilot project, collecting a series of earthsfrom a vendor in the indigenous pharmaceutical market (called the "Witches'Market") in La Paz, Bolivia. In addition, a few archaeological samples of earthswere also included. These samples are listed in Table II.

Literature sources were employed to attempt to cover those earths for whichwe lacked samples in our pilot study. It was evident from the sometimesconflicting determinations that either these comestible earths, as cultural cate-gories, could include more than one chemically defined earth, or that tentativecharacterizations were in error.

In Tables IA-ID, we have summarized the various comestible earths in ourinventory. The first column contains the most appropriate native linguisticname for the earth, while the second column includes several common alterna-

GEOARCHAEOLOGY: AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL 419 420 VOL. 8. NO. 5


tive spellings and even alternative names . The third column lists the variouschemical identifications reported in the literature , while the fourth column liststhe chemical characterization of the substance from any sample we collected inthe pilot study. Additional details on the physiological, cultural, and medicinalutilization of these earths are covered in a separate article (Browman andGundersen, n.d.).

The phyllosilicate and silicate cluster of ch'aqu, phasa , quntuya, llink'i, and

lliphi, include the most frequently consumed earths. Use of ch'aqu and phasahas a considerable time depth, with indications of use in ethnohistoric and

prehistoric contexts. These, as well as most of the other consumed earths, are

identified in the prehispanic Inca period, and ultimately we expect to be ableto demonstrate utilization of many of the earths millennia into the past. Thesilicates/phyllosilicates quntuya, llink'i, and lliphi are sometimes consumed,but more often are employed for medicinal purposes, pigments, ceramics, or

other cultural purposes.The sulfur mineral cluster includes qullpa, millu, sirsaquina or sallina, ma-

kaya, llimpi, pachacha, hampi or jiwayiri qulli, and compi. In some cases,indigenous categories may include more than one chemical compound for thesame native named substance. For example, qullpa includes two variants: oneidentified as an alum, and the other as a salitre . The qullpa variant identifiedas an alum is employed most often in practices that make use of its astringentqualities, such as in medicinal and religious preparations, and as a mordantfor dyes. The qullpa variant identified as a salitre is employed as a comestiblesauce. Native subcategories for qullpa (and also for millu) involved additionaldifferentiation between "black" or "wild," and "white" or "good," distinctions.

The metals cluster includes principally ¡ron and copper compounds. The iron-

based materials include taku, siwayru, and iman kala, and the copper-basedmaterial is kopakiri. These metal compounds may be employed for therapeuticpurposes in various comestible forms. The most frequent forms of ingestionare powders for mixing in drinks, and fabricated bars and, halls which are

eaten like candy bars.The calcium and salitre clusters include a number of earths which appear

in large part consumed for calcium or other salts. The most important calciumearth is q'atawi, which is frequently employed as a food additive. Utilizationof this earth has considerable antiquity, being identified in Pacific Coast sam-ples at least by A.D. 1300, and in one sample from Bolivia as early as 2500years ago (see Table II). Hake mas¡, llamp'u, and khakya chunta appear tomix characteristics of sulfur and calcium compounds. Literary sources vary asto whether they are employed because of sulfur or calcium. As with sulfurcompounds, they are often identified as both white and black, good and bad,or male and female forms. Included in the salitre "cluster" are a number of

other mineral preparations. Some of them, such as llipta or lejia , and mat'agi,may contain significant organic binders. Others such as jayu or kachi, andallpa or laq'a seem to refer to generic earth and mineral salt clusters . We have


included three earths identified as consumed-chali , suca and alcali fijo-thatwe have yet to find enough information on to feel comfortable with classifica-tion, although all three of these seem to be salitres used in a variety of ways,such as salting down meats for preservation, as well as general medicinal andcomestible functions.

No mention has been made here of the preparations made from bezoar"stones," the calculi deposits derived from the camelids as well as other animals.Because the powdered mixtures made from these concretions or "stones" areonly used for medicinal and ritual purposes, they were not included in ourlistings, although preparations made from the bezoar stones are extremelyimportant for ethnohistoric and prehistoric periods.

FUNCTION AND ORIGIN OF GEOPHAGY

Review of the comestible earths from the Andes indicated that while somenamed varieties might be employed specifically for nutritional purposes, andutilized as sauces, mineral supplements, and detoxicants , certain of theseearths might also be used for technological purposes , such as colorants, mor-dants, acarcides , and fertilizers , and others were employed in a very wide rangeof medicinal ( preventative , diagnostic , and curative ) situations.

In terms of the question of whether the clays are effective detoxicants withrespect to phytotoxins , the most important Andean earths are phasa and ch'aquof the phyllosilicate cluster . Previous studies by Forbes (1870: 250), Chervin(1908: 161), and Cespedes and Villegas (1977: 155) indicated these to be princi-pally smectities , illítes, and kaolinites.

A recent study by Johns ( 1985 , 1986 ) greatly helps our understanding. Johnsstudied the adsorptive qualities of phasa and ch'aqu from the Andes and dleeshfrom the Chinle area of Arizona, and compared them to the commerciallypurchased materials bentonite [ a trade name of montmorillonite] and kaolin[kaolinite according to his supplier , Sigma Chemical , August 21, 1989], interms of their ability to adsorb glycoalkaloid ágent s, the principal phytotoxiuof Andean tubers. The aboriginal clays had an adsorption capacity of 0.14-0.50g of glycoalkaloid per gram of clay ; for the commercial sources, kaolin wasrated at only 0.05 g/g, while bentonite , one of the best commercially availableadsorbants , was rated at 0.37 g /g (Johns 1985:238, 1986 : 637). In this case,not only were the comestible clays phasa and ch 'aqu effective in adsorbing thephytotoxins, but one of the samples , the phasa from Achocalla , Bolivia, wassuperior (0.50 g/g) to the best commercial adsorbant (bentonite 0.37 g /g). Johnshas rather nicely added to our research by showing that these Andean comesti-ble earths are very effective adsorbants of phytotoxins , not only glycoalkaloidssuch as solanine , which are typical of Andean tubers, but other toxic alkaloidssuch as saponins , which are found in the Andean chenopod grains, and steroidand cardiac glycosides as well.

Nutritional contributions , in terms of elements otherwise deficient in thediet , is a second physiological contribution of the comestible earths. Clays

GEOARCHAEOLOGY: AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL 421 422 vni A nin r,


sometimes bind nutrient elements and render them unavailable to the organ-ism. However, the kaolinite component of the Andean clays seems to be of thesame nature as those seen in the "eko" clays studied by Vermeer and Ferrell(1985:635) in Africa, which, similar to the Andean earths, were traded overhundreds of kilometers, were effective in adsorbing toxins, and also did notinterfere significantly with absorption of ¡ron or zinc (two of the elementscommonly bound by clays). Studies particularly of lejia or llipta suggest itcould be a valuable source of several elements. In this sense , at least some ofour comestible earths serve as important dietary mineral supplements. AsHunter observed (1973: 179), "perhaps most important, the clays offer a muchwider range of mineral supplementation than the commercial products do."

The origin of geophagy is an issue which is difficult to determine: Just howwas it that the Andean populations discovered which earths were effective?Johns (1986: 643) argues that because eight extant primates are geophagous,that the earliest hominids also likely were geophagous, specifically ingestingexogenous substances for their detoxification properties. As he points out(1985:252), prior to human ability to control fire and use it to break downphytotoxins which are heat -sensitive , geophagy was the major mechanismavailable to human populations dealing with plant toxins. But even after theadvent of fire control, Johns argues that geophagy is a more effective meansof dealing with heat stable and/or water-insoluble compounds such as glycoal-kaloids than is cooking. Recently Johns (1990:204) has proposed that "geo-phagy alone appears to be the key that enabled humans to overcome theconstraints (glycoalkaloid) toxicity placed on the domestication process" in theAndes.

Primates, however, are not the only geophagous species. Many mammalseat earth-salt licks or mineral licks are common throughout the world. In arecent study based in North America (Jones and Hanson, 1985), herbivoressuch as moose, antelope, elk, deer, bison, mountain sheep, and mountain goats,carnivores such as brown and black bear, small mammals such as woodchucks,raccoons, porcupine, and squirrels, and other species such as many kinds ofbirds and small rodents, were all found to be geophagous.

Of particular interest to our studies, and we think to the possible origins ofgeophagy, is the fact that in their analyses of the various mineral licks utilizedby the herbivores, Jones and Hanson (1985:80) found that the most importantcomponents were three of the hydrous phyllosilicates: illites, kaolinites, andsmectites. These, of course, were the most common constituents of the Andeanphasa and ch'aqu comestible earths. It is evident that these clay and claylikeminerals might be employed by quite a number of mammalian species for theirabilities to adsorb various substances in the diet.

In answering the question how Añdearl human groups may have determinedwhich specific local earth Más sú table fo ^utritional or detoxification purposes(in contrast to most o`f the earths avgilablq,around their habitations, which donot have useful bioávailable próperties);'it' now seems most likely that the


early inhabitants of the Andes may simply have followed their prey, the variouscamelids, deer, and other herbivores, and exploited some of the same localeswhich the animals used as licks. We no longer have to posit the model ofAndean groups sampling all sorts of earth in a trial and error method, asprevious studies have suggested for geophagy among humans. Both the claysexploited by herbivores in their salt licks, and the most important comestibleclays of the highland groups, phasa and ch'aqu, are smectites, illites, andkaolinites. Hence we can suggest this linkage as a reasonable mechanism forhuman identification of appropriate comestible clays, at least for these specificvarieties.

We gratefully acknowledge the assistance of Niki R. Clark from Washington University in ob-taining voucher specimens from the La Paz herbalist market and of Karl Gundersen, and especiallyRick Dunn from Wichita State University in sample preparation , XRD analysis, and laborioussearch through the diffraction data of known minerals in attempting to help identify the mineralcomponents of our samples . Dr. Cam Dorey (WSU-Chemistry) made the preliminary study ofSample 88-7 . Dr. Lucy Briggs assisted in sorting out some of the Aymara terminology. Any errorsin interpretation are ours alone.

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Received November 25, 1991Accepted for publication March 20, 1993

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Altiplano comestible earths: Prehistoric and historic geophagy of Highland Peru and Bolivia