ADB Support for Gender and Development (2005–2015

ADB Support for Gender and Development (2005–2015) Supplementary Linked Document A (Country Portfolio Assessment)

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BANGLADESH1

I. Background and Introduction

1. An assessment of Asian Development Bank’s (ADB) operations to support gender and

development in Bangladesh for the period January 2005 to December 2015 was undertaken to provide

inputs into the Independent Evaluation Department’s (IED) Thematic Evaluation Study on ADB’s Support

to Gender and Development.2 The assessment consisted of portfolio analysis, a desk review of

documents, and additional information gathered during the independent evaluation mission (IEM) on 9–

24 August 2016. The IEM included interviews with knowledgeable informants at the central government

level; discussions with key non-government observers, and representatives of other development

partners; interviews with Bangladesh resident mission staff; and visits to selected project sites in Dhaka.

2. This report is organized around the common evaluation framework developed for the country

portfolio assessments. Section II sets out the country context and the status of gender equality in

Bangladesh corresponding to the outcomes of human development, economic empowerment of women,

voice and participation of women in development, resilience to external shocks, and time poverty. Section

III describes the government’s gender strategy, and Section IV discusses ADB support for gender equality

in the country. Section V assesses the relevance, responsiveness and results of ADB support for gender

equality during the study period. Finally, Section VI sets out the findings and recommendations that

emerge from this evaluation.

II. Country Context: Gender Equality in Bangladesh

3. Bangladesh is a densely populated lower middle-income country, with per capita income of

$1,080 in 2014.3 Bangladesh exports doubled their world market share between 1995 and 2012, mainly

driven by exports of ready-made garments (RMG), an industry which provided the first mass formal

employment for women in the country. Today, Bangladesh is the world’s second largest RMG exporter.4

4. The status of women in Bangladesh has improved over the last few decades. On the United

Nations Gender Inequality Index 2015,5 it ranks above India and Pakistan, and just below Nepal (Table

1). The ADB Country Partnership Strategy (2011–2015) notes the progress made in terms of gender: “The

economic and political participation of women has increased sharply, as the garment industry, labor

migration, and microfinance programs contributed to a rise in female participation in the labor force and

a higher proportion of female employment in government institutions and the legislature. Gender

disparity has been eliminated in primary and secondary enrollment, and fertility rates nearly halved from

1990 to 2009.”6 The Bangladesh Demographic and Health Survey 2014 data reveals improvement on

many dimensions in areas such as decision making power within the home.7

1 This assessment was authored by Ma. Patricia Lim and Maya Vijayaraghavan from Independent Evaluation Department; and Gita

Gopal (Consultant). Nasheeba Selim (Social Development Officer [Gender], Bangladesh Resident Mission) provided comments on

the initial draft assessment and ADB South Asia Department’s comments during interdepartmental circulation were considered

in finalizing the same.

2 IED. 2016. Evaluation Approach Paper. Thematic Evaluation Study on ADB’s Support to Gender and Development. Manila: ADB.

3 ADB. 2016. Basic 2016 Statistics. Manila.

4 World Bank. 2016. Country Partnership Framework for Bangladesh for the Period FY2016–FY2020. Washington.

5 The Gender Inequality Index measures gender inequalities in three important aspects of human development: reproductive

health, measured by maternal mortality ratio and adolescent birth rates; empowerment, measured by proportion of

parliamentary seats occupied by females and proportion of adult females and males aged 25 years and older with at least some

secondary education; and economic status, expressed as labor market participation and measured by labor force participation

rate of female and male populations aged 15 years and older.

6 ADB. 2011. Country Partnership Strategy 2011–2015. Manila.

7 Ministry of Health and Family Welfare. National Institute of Population Research and Training. 2014. Bangladesh Demographic

and Health Survey 2014. Dhaka (Chapter 13).


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Table 1. Gender Inequality Index in Selected South Asian Countries

5. This section provides a brief overview of gender equality in Bangladesh. It discusses gender

equality outcomes in human development, economic empowerment, voice and participation, time

poverty of women, and resilience to risk or vulnerabilities.

A. Human Development

6. Bangladesh has made significant strides in addressing gender disparities in health and education.

The United Nations Human Development Report 2013 identifies Bangladesh as belonging to a group of

Highlighted 18 countries in the world that have seen rapid progress in human development. The

achievements, and areas where progress is still needed, are briefly discussed below.

7. Health. Women’s life expectancy increased from 54.3 years in 1980 to 71 years in 2013, one of

the largest increases in the region.8 The maternal mortality ratio has declined by 40% since 2001, to an

estimated 176 deaths per 100,000 live births in 2015 (220 in 2012).9 Population growth has also slowed

considerably during the past 30 years, falling from an average of 2.7% per year in the 1980s to around

1.2% in 2014 (footnote 6). This coincides with impressive achievements of Bangladesh’s family planning

program, which helped to increase the prevalence of contraception and to lower total fertility from over

6 children per woman in the 1970s to 2.2 in 2013. The percentage of births attended by skilled health

personnel rose from 11.6% in 2001 to 32% in 2013 (Table 2).

Table 2. Selected Health Indicators

Indicator

Life expectancy: females as a % of males, 2012 102.2

Contraceptive prevalence (%), 2008–2012 61.2

Total Fertility Rate 2.2

Antenatal care (%) 2008–2012, at least one visit 54.6

Antenatal care (%) 2008–2012, at least four visits 25.5

Delivery care (%) 2008–2012, skilled attendant at birth 31.7

Delivery care (%) 2008–2012, institutional delivery 28.8

Maternal mortality ratio, 2008–2012, reported 220.0

Maternal mortality ratio, 2010, adjusted 240.0

Source: United Nations Children’s Fund. 2013. http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/bangladesh_bangladesh_statistics.html

8. Education. Gender disparities are in favor of women at the primary and secondary levels, with

more girls completing primary education in Bangladesh. The Primary Education Stipend Program initiated

by the government in July 2002 played an important role in increasing the enrolment of girls in primary

education. According to studies by Education Watch, girls had higher primary completion rates of 51.9%

compared to boys with primary completion rates of 48.3%.10

Table 3 shows how gender disparity in net

enrolment rates in secondary education has disappeared and is today in favor or girls. Women, however,

8 Government of Bangladesh. General Economics Division, Bangladesh Planning Commission. 2015. The Millennium Development

Goals: Bangladesh Progress Report 2015. Dhaka.

(http://www.plancomm.gov.bd/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/MDGs-Bangladesh-Progress-Report_PDF_Final_September-

2015.pdf)

9 ADB. 2016. Bangladesh Consolidating Export-Led Growth: Country: Country Diagnostic Study. Manila.

10 ADB. 2010. Country Gender Assessment: Bangladesh. Manila.

Country Value Rank

Nepal .489 108

Bangladesh .503 111

Pakistan .536 121

India .563 130

Source: United Nations Development Programme. 2015. Human Development Report. Available at:

http://hdr.undp.org/en/2015-report.

http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/bangladesh_bangladesh_statistics.html


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accounted for only 26% of technical and vocational education (TVET) students (footnote 9). Gender parity

index in the tertiary sector has increased from 0.33 in 2005 to 0.67 in 2013, according to a report by the

Bangladesh Planning Commission.

Table 3. Selected Education Indicators

Indicator Total Male Female

Adult literacy (%), 2015 83.2 80.6 85.8

Net enrolment ratio in primary education (%), 2014 94.5 92.6 96.5

Net enrolment ratio in secondary education (%), 2013 116.8

Ratio of girls to boys in primary education, 2014 1.06

Ratio of girls to boys in secondary education, 2014 1.08

Proportion of pupils starting Grade 1 who reached

last grade of primary (%), 2013

66.2 66.2 70.6

Sources: ADB. 2016. Basic 2016 Statistics. Manila; United Nations Children’s Fund (secondary enrolment ratio).

B. Economic Empowerment of Women

9. A 2013 report of the International Monetary Fund (IMF)11

finds that the ‘hard-core’ poor in

Bangladesh are largely women, and that the number of ultra-poor (measured by food intake of 1,600

kilocalories per person per day) and extreme poor (food intake of 1,805 kilocalories per person per day)

is higher in female-headed households than in male-headed households. In a 2011 survey, 77.9% of

urban men and 91.7% of rural men believed that a woman’s most important role is to take care of her

home and cook for her family.12

Households headed by women, who make up almost 30% of the total

in the country’s eastern provinces, are more likely to suffer extreme forms of poverty and landlessness

(footnote 11). The Social Institutions and Gender Index (SIGI), also points out that in South Asia,

Bangladesh has the highest level of inequality; this spills into the economic realm (Table 4).13

Table 4. SIGI Values in South Asia (2014)

Source: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development.

10. Gender disparity in labor force participation is high. Labor force participation rate of men is high

at almost 87%, while that of women was 23% in 2003.14

However, the last decade has seen improvement,

with women’s labor force participation estimated at 34% in 2013. Despite gender parity in education,

women’s participation in the labor force is constrained by social norms that emphasize domestic tasks

like care for children and dependents as their primary responsibility; this is compounded by the lack of

flexible work arrangements and childcare facilities. In addition, women also lack the skills and vocational

training needed to transfer to a new occupation, especially in expanding sectors of the economy which

require more education and skills;15

lack of reliable and safe transportation is cited as another reason for

lower participation rates.16

11

IMF. 2013. Bangladesh: Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper. Washington (Table 2.2: Labor Force Participation Rate by Gender).

12 Naved et al. 2011. p. 14 (http://www.genderindex.org/country/bangladesh).

13 The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) Centre’s SIGI is a cross-country measure of discrimination

against women in social institutions (formal and informal laws, social norms, and practices) across 160 countries.

14 ADB and International Labour Organization (ILO). 2016. Looking Beyond Garments: Employment Diagnostic Study. Manila.

15 For example, information technology and finance.

16 ADB. 2015. Women in the Workforce: An Unmet Potential in Asia and the Pacific. Manila.

Country SIGI Value 2014

Bhutan Low

Sri Lanka Medium

India High

Pakistan High

Nepal High

Afghanistan High

Bangladesh Very High

http://www.genderindex.org/ranking/South%20Asia?order=field_sigi_cat14_value&sort=asc

http://www.genderindex.org/ranking/South%20Asia?order=field_sigi_value14_value&sort=desc

http://www.genderindex.org/country/bhutan

http://www.genderindex.org/country/sri-lanka

http://www.genderindex.org/country/india

http://www.genderindex.org/country/pakistan

http://www.genderindex.org/country/nepal

http://www.genderindex.org/country/afghanistan

http://www.genderindex.org/country/bangladesh


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11. The nature of where women work has changed to some extent (Table 5). The percentage of

female workers in the agriculture sector decreased from 66% in 2006 to 54% in 2013, while the

percentage of the female population employed in the manufacturing sector increased from 11% in 2006

to 23% in 2013. In the service sector, the percentage of female workers employed rose from 19% in 2006

to 23% in 2013. The overall pattern of female labor force participation suggests a bifurcated labor market

for women–with higher participation rates (in traditional home production and agricultural support role

and low-wage paid jobs) among poor women with low education, and an expanding range of paid

employment that is more accessible to better-educated women.17

Table 5. Women and Employment in Bangladesh (%)

Sector

1996–2000 2005–2006 2013

Male Female Male Female Male Female

Agriculture 51.91 46.24 39.27 66.54 41.41 53.64

Manufacturing 7.50 17.63 10.88 11.51 13.78 22.52

Construction 3.21 1.22 3.94 0.92 4.76 1.00

Service 36.71 33.71 43.05 19.36 40.05 22.85

Source: Asian Development Bank and International Labour Organization (ILO). 2016. Looking Beyond Garments:

Employment Diagnostic Study. Manila.

12. The growth of small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) in the garment industry has led to

increased employment opportunities for women. Women supply nearly 90% of the labor force in this

industry (footnote 9). Business associations like Bangladesh Women Chamber of Commerce and Industry,

Chittagong Women Chamber of Commerce and Industry, and Women Entrepreneurs Association of

Bangladesh help provide strong networks for women in business. Access to microfinance has improved.

The Grameen Bank provides microcredit to the impoverished, and majority of its customers are women.

The Bangladesh Bank allocates 15% of SME refinance funds to women entrepreneurs with an interest

rate of 10% at the most.

13. Nevertheless, significant disparities remain in access to assets and resources. Data from 2006

show that less than 10% of all women and less than 3% of younger women have their name on marital

property papers (rental agreements or titles to land or a homestead).18

Women’s limited mobility affects

economic empowerment. Despite a number of initiatives to support women to actively engage in market

activities by creating specific spaces for women in markets, and including exclusive areas for women

vendors in open spaces, these initiatives have had limited impact to date because they have not overcome

the socio-cultural realities of women not coming to market in the first place.

14. As shown in Table 6, despite the increase in women’s labor market participation, their ownership

and control of enterprises is low. Percentage of firms with a top female manager or with majority female

ownership is also very low. There are nearly 1.5 million SMEs in Bangladesh, of which women own less

than 10% of the industries, with 70% of these being micro and rural industries (footnote 9). Working

conditions have improved in the garment industry but only about 8% of manufacturing establishments

in the country are reported to have separate toilets for women.19

Women remain primarily employed in

the agriculture sector, although the proportion slowly declined from 2006 to 2013 (see Table 5).

17

By level of education, women who have completed primary education have a high level of labor force participation (52.4%), with

lower levels for those with secondary (33.0%) and higher secondary (35.6%) education. Women with tertiary education have the

highest participation rates (54.2%).

18 Overseas Development Institute (ODI). 2010. Gendered risks, poverty and vulnerability in Bangladesh: Case Study of the

Challenging the Frontiers of Poverty Reduction Programme (CFPR), Specially Targeted Ultra Poor II (STUP II). London.

19 Government of Bangladesh. Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics (BBS). Ministry of Planning. 2015. Economic Census 2013. Dhaka

(p. 42).


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Table 6. Enterprise Survey Findings of the World Bank

*This indicator is computed using data from manufacturing firms only.

Source: World Bank.

C. Voice and Participation of Women in Development

15. In the political arena, women hold key positions, including that of the Prime Minister, head of

the opposition party, and the speaker of the parliament.20

In addition, 50 seats are reserved in the

parliament for women. The proportion of seats held by women in national parliaments increased from

9% in 1998 to 20% in 2015 (footnote 2).

16. Violence against women (VAW) is on the rise despite strong regulatory provisions. In 2004, 2,981

cases of dowry-related violence were reported; women are beaten or killed because their parents fail to

pay the dowry that her husband or in-laws requested as consideration for marriage; this number rose to

4,563 cases in 2012.21

The first nationally representative survey reports higher prevalence of VAW by

partners than previously available data, with 87% of currently married women reporting violence by

current husband, and 77% reporting any type of violence in the previous 12 months; psychological

violence was the most prevalent form of violence reported, followed by physical violence.22

The

government of Bangladesh has enacted several legislations to combat VAW. These are the Dowry

Prohibition Act 1980, the Prevention of Oppression of Women and Children Act 2000, Acid Crime

Prevention Act and the Acid Control Act of 2002 as well as the Domestic Violence (Prevention and

Protection) Act 2010. These legislations have helped in empowering women by clearly defining the

punishments for sexual offences and acid violence, and criminalizing domestic violence, but have been

unable to reduce VAW. The government has also established One Stop Crisis Centers to provide victims

of violence with services like health services, police and legal assistance, counseling, and shelter service.

The government also set up the National Trauma Counseling Centre to help victims of violence.

17. Bangladesh men remain decision makers at all levels on what women need to do–both in the

domestic and agricultural spaces. Women may have a role in decision making in areas related to domestic

consumption, but typically men take all decisions related to the outside world.23

The Bangladesh

Demographic and Health Survey 2014, finds that about 44% of currently married women participate in

decision making related to own health care, their child’s health care, major household purchases, and

visits to family or relatives (footnote 6). Introduction of new technology has improved access to food,

but has adversely impacted women according to some studies. Several activities, such as threshing and

20

Sheikh Hasina, who served as the Prime Minister from 1996 to 2001, has been the Prime Minister since 2009. Rowshan Ershad

of the Jantiya Party has been the Leader of the Opposition Party since 9 January 2014. Shirin Sharmin Chaudhury, the current

speaker of the Parliament is not only the first woman speaker but is also the youngest speaker to assume office.

21 http://borgenproject.org/violence-women-bangladesh/

22 BBS. 2013. Report on Violence Against Women Survey 2011. Dhaka.

23 Naved et al. 2011. A Rapid Assessment of Gender in Agriculture of Bangladesh (submitted to International Maize and Wheat

Improvement Center (CYMMIT) International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) and World Fish Center by ICDDR). Dhaka.

Indicator

Bangladesh

(2013)

India

(2014)

Sri Lanka

(2011)

South Asia

Percent of firms with female participation in

ownership

12.7 10.7 18.4 18.4

Percent of firms with a female top manager 4.8 8.9 8.8 11.0

Percent of firms with majority female

ownership

1.7 2.8 n/a 9.6

Proportion of permanent full-time workers

that are female (%)

15.8 14.7 24.0 18.3

Proportion of permanent full-time production

workers that are female (%)*

21.1 11.0 30.8 19.8

Proportion of permanent full-time non-

production workers that are female (%)*

10.7 17.1 17.4 18.4

http://www.enterprisesurveys.org/Methodology

http://borgenproject.org/violence-women-bangladesh/


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husking of rice, have shifted to the field from the home, making them male activities. Women working

in field-based work is still linked to loss of honor for the women as well as their husbands and the family.

Extension services also cater to the needs and priorities of men, and women rarely participate in seeking

information from computer-based information services.

D. Resilience to External Shocks

18. Given the high levels of inequalities in access to livelihood opportunities and economic assets,

the risks to resilience are much higher for women than men in Bangladesh. In 2000, rural Bangladesh

women owned only 8% of all productive assets.24

Women, therefore, typically lack assets, resources, and

capacity necessary to protect themselves in case of disaster or to be able to restore lives back to pre-

disaster levels. The Government of Bangladesh has several social safety nets, particularly for women,

which have helped enhance resilience to shocks. However, these have been found to result in notable

success in supporting women’s practical needs but less so in supporting progress towards gender

equalities.

19. Climate change is a critical development issue for Bangladesh. The country’s low-lying coastal

zone (consisting of 19 districts with an estimated population of 38.1 million, of which 8.6 million is

urban) is highly vulnerable to cyclones, storm surges, sea level rise, and salinity intrusion.25

Women tend

to have less knowledge of adaptation and coping strategies to protect their households from loss of

livelihoods and income. Literature also points out that failure to efficiently include women in community-

level disaster management structures around climate change mitigation and adaptation at local and

national levels not only exacerbates gender inequalities, but also undermines the effectiveness of climate

change responses.26

Some studies show that following natural disasters, the threat of physical and sexual

violence often increases.27

The absence of gender-segregated spaces in shelters contributes to delayed

action by women, even after receiving early warning.28

E. Time Poverty of Women

20. Time poverty is caused by significant gender-based responsibilities of women in Bangladesh.

These include paid work, unpaid household or agricultural work, and care work, which together results

in a huge burden on women that limits their full empowerment. There are significant problems in the

urban sector too. According to ADB’s 2010 gender case study,29

only 25% of urban households live in

dwellings with a permanent structure, and most of the rest are in housing made of temporary materials

in unplanned, informal settlements with uncertainty of tenure. Only 30% of urban households use tap

water for drinking with less than 20% having their own house connections. Arsenic contamination of

drinking water is a problem in many urban areas. No secondary town has a sewerage system, and solid

waste collection systems are very partial or nonexistent. As many as 40% of urban households have no

alternative to defecating in open spaces or unsanitary hanging latrines. Air quality is poor due to traffic,

24

International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). 2000. Intrahousehold Allocation and Gender Relations: New Empirical

Evidence from Four Developing Countries. Washington.

http://ebrary.ifpri.org/utils/getfile/collection/p15738coll2/id/125398/filename/125399.pdf

25 ADB. 2014. Report and Recommendation of the President to the Board of Directors: Proposed Loan to the People's Republic of

Bangladesh for Coastal Towns Environmental Infrastructure Project. Manila.

26 Institute of Development Studies. Information Brief. 2008. Climate Change and Gender In Bangladesh. Gender and climate

change: mapping the linkages, A scoping study on knowledge and gaps. Brighton.

http://www.bridge.ids.ac.uk/reports/Climate_Change_DFID.pdf

27 UN Women. IMF. 2013. Bangladesh: Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper. Washington (Table 2.2: Labor Force Participation Rate by

Gender. Disaster management in Bangladesh: What women need).

28 In recognition of the consequences of climate change in Bangladesh and these gender differences, the government prepared a

Bangladesh Climate Change Strategy and Action Plan (BCCSAP) in 2008, updated in 2009. Gender equality is considered a

crosscutting issue. BCCSAP built on adaptation and disaster risk reduction; it also addresses low carbon development, mitigation,

technology transfer, and provision of funding.

29 IED. 2010. Gender Equality Results Case Studies: Bangladesh. Manila: ADB.


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brickfields, and industry; and water quality is compromised by domestic and industrial wastewater

discharges. All these result in increasing time spent on household chores, and reducing the time women

have for productive activities.

21. Overall, significant progress has been made in Bangladesh. This said, as in other countries in

South Asia, gender disparities are pronounced in the areas of economic empowerment and voice and

participation, resulting in severe inequities in terms of time poverty and resilience to risk. There is a lot

more to be accomplished. In South Asia, embedded and entrenched social and cultural institutions and

mindsets are not easy to change. Social change will take time, and will need concerted attention,

innovative ideas, and synergistic and inter-sector responses, grounded in the reality of Bangladesh.

III. Government Strategy on Gender Equality

22. Gender equality is a declared crosscutting priority of the Government of Bangladesh in the 7th

Five Year Plan (FYP) 2016–2020,30

and the previous 6th Five Year Plan.31

The 7th FYP is aligned with the

Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), and gender equality is mainstreamed in the 13 sector

development strategies. The 7th FYP lists key unfinished agenda items on gender equality from the 6th

FYP which need attention: (i) for economic empowerment—continued low female labor force

participation, wage discrimination against women, inadequate representation of women in senior civil

service positions, and inadequate female managerial jobs in the private sector; and (ii) for social

empowerment—adequate legal framework, but weak implementation.

23. Recognizing the importance of monitoring and evaluation (M&E), the 7th FYP takes specific steps

to move towards a results-based M&E framework. At least 12 of the nearly 90 indicators in the

development results framework (DRF) of the 7th FYP are specific gender equality indicators, compared

to 1 in the 6th FYP. Strengthening the capacity and scope of line ministries and the Bangladesh Bureau

of Statistics (BBS) to generate high quality and timely data needed for M&E is a stated priority of the 7th

FYP. Under the mandate of the Statistical Act 2013, and in response to the National Strategy for the

Development of Statistics, BBS has identified gaps in data for the SDGs and M&E indicators in the DRF of

the 7th FYP, and proposed a list of projects (with estimated costs) in the short-, medium-, and long-term

to fill these gaps. As of 2016, BBS reports gender-disaggregated data on 43 of the 52 gender statistics

recommended by the United Nations Statistical Commission.

24. Bangladesh is a signatory to the UN Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination

Against Women (CEDAW), agreeing to the Optional Protocol in 2000. However, it has stated reservations

on articles 2 and 16 pertaining to marriage, divorce and inheritance. The Constitution of Bangladesh

grants equal rights to women and men in all spheres of public life. A number of Acts and Ordinances

safeguard women’s equal rights such as the Dowry Prohibition Act of 1980, the Child Marriage Restraint

Act (amended in 1984), and the Family Courts Ordinance of 1985. The Citizenship Act, which only allowed

citizenship by father to child, was amended by the national parliament to permit equal rights for mothers.

Several laws aimed to protect women from violence.32

However, as in other South Asian countries, these

well-intentioned laws are not effectively implemented. Entrenched traditions and customs create a

dichotomy between the publicly conferred rights and those within which the role of women is

emphasized in the domestic space.

25. The Ministry of Women and Children Affairs (MoWCA) was established in 1978 and is headed by

a Minister. MWCA consists of three implementing agencies—the Department of Women’s Affairs (DWA),

Jatiya Mohila Sangstha (JMS) and the Bangladesh Shishu (Children’s) Academy. DWA provides technical

30

Government of Bangladesh. 2015. Seventh Five Year Plan FY2016–FY2020: Accelerating Growth, Empowering Citizens. Dhaka.

31 Government of Bangladesh. 2011. Sixth Five Year Plan FY2011–FY2015: Accelerating Growth and Reducing Poverty. Dhaka.

32 See National Policy 2011 at http://faolex.fao.org/docs/pdf/bgd149160.pdf.


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and administrative support and advice to the Ministry and has 64 district and 394 subdistrict offices.

Gender focal points were appointed in all central government ministries and committees as early as 1990.

Over and above, a 50-member National Council for Women and Child Development has been formed

with the Prime Minister in the Chair for review of the socioeconomic development of women at national

level, policy making, and implementation of development programs. An inter-ministerial women and

child abuse prevention committee has been formed to establish rights and resist abuse of women.

26. The National Policy for Women’s Advancement, formulated in 1997, provides an important

general statement of commitments of the Government of Bangladesh to equality of women and men. A

National Gender Action Plan was prepared as early as 1998. The Bangladesh Poverty Reduction Strategy

Paper (PRSP) entitled Bangladesh-Unlocking the Potential. National Strategy for Accelerated Poverty

Reduction (October 2005), enunciates the government’s approach to addressing poverty reduction in the

country.33

The PRSP, which spans from 2005–2015, begins with an analysis of the dimensions and

principal determinants of poverty in Bangladesh as well as trends in income poverty, human poverty, and

inequality. This document stresses the importance of addressing gender issues for development

effectiveness.

27. In 2011, the MoWCA issued a National Women Development Policy which has 17 objectives and

aims to ensure that men and women enjoy equal rights in Bangladesh in all matters. The Policy supports

Gender Responsive Budgeting (GRB) and states that GRB will continue in the state budget process under

the medium-term budget framework (MTBF). The implementation and monitoring framework shall be

strengthened to ensure best and proper use of budget money. The policy also requires that a Women

Development Implementation and Evaluation Committee be formed comprising representatives of the

focal point ministry, government organizations, and nongovernment organization (NGO) women

development organizations to review, coordinate, and evaluate women development related programs.

The committee is also expected to provide advice for the accelerated implementation of the future

program by identifying implementation problems.

28. NGOs in Bangladesh are highly organized, and several of them work on issues related to gender

equality. The National Women Development Policy specifically noted that the government would take an

approach of coordination and cooperation between the government and NGOs. The NGO sector, for

example, plays an important role in the design and implementation of the overall gender equality

program in Bangladesh.34

29. The government has initiated several programs to empower women. For example, JOYEETA, an

initiative of MoWCA, has an overarching goal of economic empowerment of women. JOYEETA, with

membership of 18,000, supports the marketing of products and services produced by small women

entrepreneurs throughout the country. The government also has a wide social safety net in place, and

the majority of the beneficiaries are women.35

30. In sum, there has been progress in supporting women’s empowerment within the country over

the past few decades. There is a relatively equitable policy, regulatory, and administrative framework in

Bangladesh for the implementation of programs that aim to reduce barriers to gender equality. Financial

allocation is also made to union parishad, upazilla parishad, and zilla parishad at the grassroots level for

women’s development. Above all, there is strong political will to address these inequality issues,

something that is evident from the variety of actions taken by the government in a variety of spheres.

33

Typically, these are updated and available on the IMF webpage.

34 Bangladesh Education Sector Review Report No. 3. 2006. NGOs as Deliverers of Basic Education Prepared by: GroundWork, Inc

for USAID. Dhaka.

35 http://www.mof.gov.bd/en/budget/15_16/gender_budget/en/Introduction_Eng_Final_May_28_2015.pdf.

http://www.mof.gov.bd/en/budget/15_16/gender_budget/en/Introduction_Eng_Final_May_28_2015.pdf


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IV. ADB Support for Gender Equality in Bangladesh

31. To better understand ADB’s approach to addressing gender equality in Bangladesh, the study

reviewed country partnership strategies (CPSs) and country operational business plans (COBPs) for

Bangladesh during the study period.36

32. The CPSs discussed gender issues in terms of overall objectives, discussion of measures to address

identified issues, and some gender-related indicators in the overall monitoring framework but the general

approach varied considerably. The CPS, 2006–2010 included monitorable and gender related indicators,

perhaps because it was a joint initiative of multiple donors.37

The CPS, 2011–2015 set targets only for

human development and water sector indicators, and this could be a justifiable approach, if specific

targets could be set at the project level.

33. CPS, 2006–2010 notes that ADB’s approach of gender mainstreaming through strategic

interventions in policy, program, and institutional development continues to be relevant. But there are

still gender gaps in development indices linked to social discrimination that distort the impact of policies

and targeted interventions. ADB, therefore, will continue to seek better-quality and more accessible

education, urban health care, water supply, and sanitation services for these groups, and make gender

concerns a central part of all its operations. The CPS, 2006–2010 took a gender mainstreaming approach

but proceeded to explain the results that such gender mainstreaming would aim to achieve (see Table

7).

Table 7. Gender Strategies in CPSs for Bangladesh

CPS, 2006–2010 CPS, 2011–2015

Promoting women’s participation in ADB-

sponsored projects at the planning,

implementation, and monitoring stages, in line

with project-specific gender action plans;

Reducing gender-based wage gaps in ADB-

supported activities;

Building capacity of local government

institutions and other partners in gender-

sensitive policy and program planning;

Providing support for sector studies to identify

opportunities to close gender gaps;

Helping the government to mainstream gender

considerations in activities of various

ministries/agencies; and

Developing detailed monitoring mechanisms

involving women’s groups to track and report

on progress in overcoming gender

discrimination.

Gender-related indicators in Results Framework:

Adult literacy from 50% to 90% by 2015;

Eliminated gender disparity in schooling

opportunities, achieving the MDG in this area

by 2008;

Gender mainstreaming;

Increased proportion of projects with gender-

equity outcomes; and

Strengthen gender capacity

Gender-related Indicators in Results Framework:

Grade 5 completion rate increased from 57%

for girls and 53% for boys in 2010 to 75% with

gender parity in 2015;

Net enrolment rate in secondary education

increased from 50.8% for girls and 39.5% for

boys in 2009 to 75% with gender parity in

2015;

Births attended by skilled health personnel

increased from 26% in 2010 to 50% in 2015;

Urban and rural population using sanitary

facilities from 55% and 50% to 100% and 90%

by 2015, respectively; and

Urban and rural population using improved

drinking water sources increased from 85% in

2008 to 100% in 2015 & rural population from

78% to 96.5%.

36

These are CPSs, 2011–2015 (footnote 5) and 2006–2010 (ADB. 2005. Country Strategy and Program [CSP], 2006–2010:

Bangladesh. Manila).

37 CSP, 2006–2010 has been developed as a joint initiative with the Department for International Development (DFID) of the United

Kingdom, Government of Japan, and World Bank, which together provide about 80% of development assistance to Bangladesh.

This harmonization initiative follows the commitments made at the Paris High-Level Forum on Aid Effectiveness in 2005 by a

number of developing country governments including the Government of Bangladesh and development partners.


10

Secondary enrolment from 36% to 95% by

2015;

Maternal mortality from 320 to 179 per

thousand live births by 2015;

Reduced risk of violence against women and

trafficking of women and children;

Increased access to urban primary health care

through 15 NGO partnership agreements and

completed 143 health centres; and

Increased provision of credit to the poor,

specifically women.

ADB = Asian Development Bank, CPS = Country Partnership Strategy, NGO = nongovernment organization.

Sources: Asian Development Bank Country Strategy and Program, 2006-2010 and Country Partnership Strategy, 2011–2015.

34. The CPS, 2011–2015 changed its approach slightly. It summarized the findings of the Bangladesh

country diagnostic in an appendix. Its overall program focused mainly on six sectors: energy, transport,

education, urban development, agriculture and natural resources, and finance. Unlike CPS, 2006–2010,

this CPS did not include monitorable progress indicators in the results framework, perhaps because it

was not a joint initiative of multiple donors. It sets out a plan that aimed to mainstream gender equity

in ADB operations and increase the proportion of projects with specific gender-equity outcomes. It noted

that broader gender impacts will be achieved by (i) helping build government capacity in gender-focused

policy development, project implementation, and monitoring results related to gender equality and

empowering women; and (ii) engaging with other development partners in delivering gender equity

knowledge products and in setting national gender equality targets and indicators. In terms of the results

framework, gender specific indicators were mostly in the human development sectors, and for activities

related to drinking water sources and sanitation.

35. Both CPSs 2006–2010 and CPS 2011–2015 supported strengthening of institutional,

organizational, and human resources capacity at the local government level to systematically prepare,

implement, and monitor Gender Action Plans (GAPs). This was mainly through higher level of resources

allocated to local government bodies for planning and implementing pro-poor and gender-aware

programs, linked to performance.

36. The new CPS, 2016–202038

reflects the sector priorities of the 7th FYP, with the CPS results

framework closely aligned with that of the FYP. Although gender equality is subsumed under the inclusive

and sustainable growth assessment in the revised ADB CPS process, a gender equality diagnostic of

selected sectors was prepared for Bangladesh to inform the CPS.39

37. COBPs were helpful in pointing out the consistency of the country program with the gender

strategy in CPSs. Five COBPs were examined for this case study.40

Assessments were made to find out

whether indicative resources allocated to gender had declined or changed. The COBP for 2009–2011

stands out in that it monitored achievement of targets, but only in the education sector. It noted that

the “targets for gender equality in primary and secondary education have been achieved, and those for

net enrolment ratio in primary education are on track”. It confirmed a 2008 skill development loan with

a gender and development thematic priority.

38. The most recent COBP for 2016–2018 reiterated that ADB would continue to take a gender

mainstreaming approach. The indicative pipeline suggests that ADB will provide a strong focus on gender

in its portfolio, with the majority of the projects having gender equity and gender mainstreaming

38

ADB. 2016. Country Partnership Strategy: Bangladesh 2016–2010. Manila.

39 The 2016 gender equality diagnostic focused on urban development, transport, energy, and education sectors.

40 COBPs for 2016–2018, 2014–2016, 2012–2014, 2009–2011, and 2008–2010.


11

markers. The COBP introduced gender into the energy sector through a capacity development technical

assistance (TA) for $500,000 for Enabling Poor Women's Benefits from Enhanced Access to Energy in

Hatiya Island (financed by the Government of Korea e-Asia Partnership and Knowledge Fund).41

The COBP

noted that gender mainstreaming in the transport sector increased, while it stayed the same in other key

sectors such as education, water supply, and finance.

39. In 1999, ADB created a local gender consultant position in Bangladesh under a regional TA.42

In

2002, the position was converted into that of a Social Development (Gender) officer responsible for

social/gender and development. A national implementation consultant provides additional support to

the national officer in the implementation of gender mainstreamed projects, and capacity development

initiatives.

A. Lessons from previous IED evaluations

40. IED’s Country Assistance Program Evaluation (CAPE) of ADB support in Bangladesh for period

1999–2008 found ADB’s program to be generally consistent with government priorities and country

strategies.43

The overall performance of ADB’s assistance program was assessed as satisfactory, with

ADB’s strongest contributions in energy and education. It found that ADB had also contributed

significantly to disaster risk management, urban development, and water supply and sanitation.

41. In the area of gender, the CAPE relied for the most part on the 2009 case study on Bangladesh,

conducted as part of IED’s 2010 Gender Evaluation.44

Together, these evaluations found gender

mainstreaming to have produced three results: (i) higher participation by women in projects, particularly

through community-based organizations; (ii) more equitable access to resources, including skills training,

technology, and government services; and (iii) higher income, greater financial security, and more

livelihood options for women. The case study also found that infrastructure initiatives offer a range of

important opportunities to support women’s empowerment and provides many ways of challenging

stereotypes in a country such as Bangladesh.

V. Assessment of ADB’s Support for Gender Equality

A. Relevance of ADB Support

42. Relevance was assessed using the following criteria: (i) extent of sound analysis of gender

strategies in CPSs; (ii) consistency with ADB institutional strategies of inclusive growth and poverty

reduction; (iii) consistency with ADB gender strategies; (iv) results orientation of CPSs; and (v)

appropriateness of ADB strategy with government strategy and program.

1. Role of the Country Partnership Strategies and Gender Diagnostics or Assessments

43. The Operational Manual on Gender and Development 2010 requires that “gender issues must be

systematically addressed in the main text, sector road maps, and the results framework of the CPS.”45

Specifically, it requires that a country gender assessment (CGA) be prepared or updated; and an

appropriate gender strategy be formulated, which specifies how ADB intends to promote and implement

41

ADB. 2015. Technical Assistance to the People’s Republic of Bangladesh for Enabling Poor Women's Benefits from Enhanced

Access to Energy in Hatiya Island. Manila.

42 The TA funded local gender consultant positions in five other DMCs (Indonesia, Nepal, Pakistan, Viet Nam and Uzbekistan). ADB.

1999. Regional Technical Assistance for Enhancing Gender and Development Capacity in Developing Member Countries. Manila

(financed by the Government of Denmark).

43 IED. 2009. Bangladesh Country Assistance Program Evaluation. Manila: ADB.

44 IED. 2009. Special Evaluation Study on the Asian Development Bank’s Support to Gender and Development Phase 1: Relevance,

Responsiveness, and Results to Date. Manila: ADB.

45 ADB. 2010. Gender and Development in ADB Operations. Manila (OM Section C2/BP).


12

its overall gender and development objectives in a country, and discusses how ADB assistance will address

gender equality and women’s empowerment issues.

44. CGAs have been prepared for Bangladesh in 2001,46

2004,47

and 2010.48

The CGAs prepared in

2004 and 2010 were assessed to understand the extent to which the two CGAs influenced the 2005 and

2010 CPSs. The assessment finds that both CGAs have significantly influenced the shaping of the gender

strategy in subsequent CPSs, and provided important entry points to articulate gender strategies for the

country.

45. The 2004 gender diagnostic for CPS 2006–2010 was a rapid update of the 1999 country profile.

The primary purpose was to provide information on gender and development to assist ADB staff in the

formulation of country strategy and program and in project design and implementation. It recommended

that women participate in the planning, implementation, and monitoring of projects; ensure that gender

gaps in wages in ADB-supported activities are reduced over time to parity and that monitoring

mechanisms are developed to assist contractors and other agencies to assess progress in this area; build

the capacity of local government institutions and other partners in gender-sensitive policy and program

planning, implementation, and monitoring; and provide scope for promoting and sustaining gender

mainstreaming beyond ADB’s direct partnership, and support studies to broaden understanding of

gender gaps to identify potential entry points and practical policy levers to encourage female-led SMEs.

46. The gender analysis for CPS 2011–2015 was even more relevant for ADB operations. It aimed to

directly contribute to the 2011–2015 CPS and to serve as a resource for sector staff and consultants

planning and managing projects under the strategy. The 2010 CGA included an analysis of gender

constraints in major sectors, and proposes approaches and entry points to address them. The analysis

was summarized and added as an appendix in the CPS.

47. The gender diagnostic was organized around the major sectors in which ADB worked in

Bangladesh. Each chapter identified the key gender equality issues in the sector, noted ADB approaches

to integrating those issues in sector initiatives, and highlighted challenges, opportunities, and entry

points. The diagnostic was most helpful in demonstrating the diverse ways of integrating gender

considerations into infrastructure. It dispelled the notion that it was challenging to integrate gender into

hardcore infrastructure and provided significant guidance to project designers in ADB and in the country

that gender was a matter of effectiveness even in infrastructure projects. As will be discussed later, the

quality of gender integration improved after 2011, and CGAs likely contributed to this.

2. Consistency with ADB Institutional Strategies of Inclusive Growth and Poverty

Reduction

48. ADB support for gender equality was relevant for inclusive growth. Its support aimed to increase

economic growth, increase economic opportunities for low-income households, and strengthen policy

and institutional support for safety nets for the poor. 49

46

ADB. 2001. Women in Bangladesh: Country Briefing Paper. Manila

47 ADB. 2004. Bangladesh: Gender, Poverty and the MDGs. Manila.

48 ADB. 2010. Bangladesh Country Gender Assessment 2010. Dhaka.

49 ADB's framework for inclusive growth has three main pillars: (i) promoting high, sustained economic growth; (ii) broadening

inclusiveness through greater access to opportunities; and (iii) strengthening social protection.


13

Table 8. Relevance of ADB Portfolio for Gender Equality

Gender

Outcomes

ADB Activities that Contributed to Stated Outcomes

Improved

Human

Development

Urban primary health-care and environmental-health programs have focused

on the health of women and children

Improved access for girls and increased number of women teachers in

primary and secondary education programs as well as improved

responsiveness of secondary education to the needs of the labor markets.

Improved access to roads to facilitate access to health and education facilities

Increased access to electricity to improve welfare of households

Improved facilities for women in public and private spaces

Increased

Economic

Empowerment

New income opportunities for women through increased availability of

microfinance and other technical support

Increasing access to rural markets and through initiatives that provide

agricultural training; facilitate crop diversification; and support livestock

enterprises, SMEs, and agribusiness

Enhanced

Voice and

Participation

Strengthened governance in urban governments to ensure voices of women

are included and that services respond to women’s needs

Participation of women in project-level decision making committees

Infrastructure

to Address

Time Poverty

Infrastructure services to improve water collection and family hygiene

Increased connection of households to energy sources to reduce time poverty

Transport systems to improve access to markets

Reduced

Vulnerability

to Shocks

Temporary employment opportunities in project-funded construction with

equal wages for equal work and more conducive and safe working

environment

Improved coping and management skills in face of natural disasters

Better social safety nets for women

ADB = Asian Development Bank, SME = small and medium enterprise.

Source: Independent Evaluation Department.

49. About half of the support was in the infrastructure sector, with significant potential to support

economic growth in rural, peri-urban areas, and urban slums. Improved connectivity through better

transport, or household connections to affordable and regular electricity, could significantly improve

women’s welfare, and economically empower women provided gender was meaningfully mainstreamed

into the support, with suitable targeting mechanism.50

About 11% of the total resources during 2005–

2015 aimed to connect households to water supply, thereby proposing to improve health and increase

women’s time for more productive activities. IED’s inclusive growth evaluation finds that urban inequality

in Bangladesh has been consistently higher than in rural areas, suggesting that ADB’s focus on urban

development in Bangladesh was appropriate for pro-poor growth. ADB support over the evaluation

period did balance its support between urban and peri-urban areas as well as rural areas.

50. Several interventions aimed to increase economic opportunities for women. Strengthening small-

scale enterprises could support women to move up the supply value chain, and is a good example of

Pillar 2 interventions that could promote inclusiveness. Agriculture projects aimed to improve women’s

access to assets and resources, and if well implemented, could lead to their greater productivity and

improved economic opportunities.51

Loan projects such as the South Asia Tourism Infrastructure

Development Project also sought to generate employment and income opportunities through earthwork

and construction during the project and ongoing maintenance, promote equal pay for women employed,

and provide training and support for income generation and provide safety nets. The majority were not

50

See IED. 2014. Thematic Evaluation Study. ADB’s Support for Inclusive Growth. Manila: ADB, which notes that the share of ADB

resources accruing to Pillar 1 between 2000 and 2012 accounted for 51% in Bangladesh (pg. vii).

51 United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO). 2013. Agribusiness development -Transforming rural life to create

wealth. Vienna.


14

permanent jobs, but of importance in countries like Bangladesh, which has high levels of poverty and

where populations in vulnerable employment are high.

51. There was timely support for strengthening social safety nets. ADB budget support during the

2008 food crisis aimed to strengthen social security, particularly for women. The project completion

report (PCR) notes that it was the only development partner that supported the country at that point in

protecting the most vulnerable.52

The program loan also led to strengthening several social safety nets

for women, which was taken up, sustained, and strengthened through World Bank support.

52. ADB’s overall support was relevant for poverty reduction. To meet poverty reduction objectives,

the 2013 IMF report (footnote 10) noted that it would be important to reduce the access gap of the

poor, especially in the under-developed or lagging regions of the country. The CPSs do not give specific

attention to targeting the poorest or the lagging regions53

but CPS, 2006–2010 did include a focus on

sustainable economic growth by connecting the southwest region to the rest of the country, and linking

national and regional economics by supporting construction of the Padma Bridge. The inclusive growth

pillar in CPS, 2011–2015 may imply a focus on lagging areas, but this is not explicitly stated in the

document.

53. Nevertheless, ADB gender mainstreamed projects, namely projects categorized GEN (with gender

theme) and EGM (effective gender mainstreaming) did contribute to many areas highly relevant for

poverty reduction.54

ADB’s promotion of small enterprises in rural areas through its support for SMEs

also sought to reduce poverty by targeting the poor in the country.55

Connections to all-weather roads

and to electricity helped enhance the overall welfare of low-income households, and raised the possibility

of better access to markets and other economic services, as well as improved inter-generational benefits

to young women since such infrastructure has a high possibility of providing easier access to schools and

health facilities. Finally, a number of projects that aimed to improve gender and governance at the local

government level were an important illustration of introducing gender equity into Pillar 3 related to

governance.56

3. Consistency with ADB Gender Policy

54. While ADB’s 2009 Gender and Development Policy adopted mainstreaming as a key strategy in

promoting gender equity, the 2013 Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment Operational Plan

endorses a two-track approach to address gender concerns through ADB’s loan and TA operations: (i)

increase the number of projects that directly address gender disparities, and (ii) mainstream gender

analysis and gender-responsive approaches in all ADB financed projects and programs.57

While this

subsection looks at the first track from a sector point of view, paras 68–84 discuss the quantity and

quality of mainstreaming at the project level.

55. During the study period, ADB provided $9.1 billion through loans and grants to support 75

programs and projects. As shown in Figure 1, ADB’s support in Bangladesh was in diverse sectors to

52

ADB, 2009. Report and Recommendation of the President to the Board of Directors: Proposed Program Loans to the People's

Republic of Bangladesh for the Public Expenditure Support Facility Program and Countercyclical Support Facility Support

Program. Manila.

53 Rangpur, Barisal, Khulna and Rajshahi.

54 ADB’s enhanced strategy for poverty reduction has three pillars: pro-poor sustainable economic growth; inclusive social

development; and good governance, which also includes the crosscutting priorities of environmental sustainability, gender

equity, private sector development, and regional cooperation.

55 IMF. 2013. IMF Country Report No. 13/63. Bangladesh: Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper. The IMF report also highlights that the

role of small enterprises is particularly important to provide the employment base in Bangladesh. See also ADB. 2013. Asia Small

and Medium-sized Enterprise (SME) Finance Monitor. Manila.

56 These include the Second and Third Urban Governance and Infrastructure Improvement (Sector) Projects.

57 ADB. 1999. Gender and Development. Manila; and ADB. 2013. Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment Operational Plan,

2013–2020. Manila.


15

ensure that the projects could contribute to all dimensions of the results framework for gender equality.

While infrastructure remained a sizeable chunk, other sectors such as agriculture, education, and health,

which are of particular importance to women, constituted about 28% of the portfolio in terms of number

of projects (Figure 2), and 21% in terms of amount. Among infrastructure sector, support to improve

water supply and sanitation is important for reducing time poverty of women.

Figure 1. Sector Distribution of Loans and Grants to Bangladesh,

2005–2015 (Amount in $ million)

ANR = agriculture and natural resources, EDU = education, ENE = energy, FIN =

finance, HSP = health and social protection, ICT = information and communication

technology, IND = industry and trade, PSM = public sector management, TRA =

transport, WUS = water and other urban infrastructure and services.

Source: Independent Evaluation Department gender study database.

Figure 2. Sector Distribution of Loans and Grants to Bangladesh, 2005–2015

(Number of Loans and Grants)

ANR = agriculture and natural resources, EDU = education, ENE = energy, FIN

= finance, HSP = health and social protection, ICT = information and

communication technology, IND = industry and trade, PSM = public sector

management, TRA = transport, WUS = water and other urban infrastructure

and services.


56. About 7% of the portfolio by value was in agriculture, a sector on which the majority of

Bangladesh women depend on for their livelihood. Strategic management of agribusiness development,

and reduction of inefficiencies and improved governance in the sector, was therefore, of utmost

relevance for women in Bangladesh in terms of poverty reduction and inclusive growth. Education and

health covered another 14%; its relevance for girls’ education and women’s health is evident. Education

sector support aimed to improve the quality of primary and secondary education, and skills development

through technical and vocational education. Health sector support aimed to improve access and

efficiency of primary health and reproductive care services delivered through public private partnerships,

especially for women and children in urban areas of Bangladesh. Finance projects, about 11% of the

share, included a few highly relevant projects such as Small and Medium-Sized Enterprise Development

Project, which could contribute to employment generation and poverty reduction for women. Multisector

ANR,

605.42, 7%

EDU,

1,171.00,

13%

ENE,

2,194.44,

24%

FIN, 994.52,

11%

HSP,

91.40,

1%ICT, 2.87,

0%

IND, 47.67,

0%

PSM,

1,195.52,

13%

TRA,

1,621.66,

18%

WUS,

1,165.87,

13%

ANR, 11, 14%

EDU, 8, 11%

ENE, 11,

15%

FIN, 10, 13%

HSP, 2, 3%ICT, 1, 1%

IND, 1, 1%

PSM, 5, 7%

TRA, 15,

20%

WUS, 11, 15%


16

projects included three emergency projects, which contributed to disaster management and had the

potential to strengthen women’s coping and adaptation strategies for disaster management. Support to

water and other urban infrastructure and services comprised urban flood protection, urban water supply

and sanitation, and policy and institutional capacity development; these are relevant for reducing time

poverty of women and increasing their participation in local governance.

4. Results Orientation of CPSs

57. Results orientation of the two CPSs varied. CPS, 2006–2010 had a significant focus on gender

equality outcomes (see Table 7 for areas and indicators). By CPS, 2011–2015, ADB’s approach had

changed. It shifted from a focus on outcomes for gender equality to a focus on improving the quality of

its portfolio through improving gender mainstreaming, developing capacity to design and implement

ADB operations, and generating knowledge products. Consequently, the focus of monitoring also shifted

from outcomes to outputs in all except the human development sectors. More recent projects, such as

the Skills for Employment Investment Program (2014), propose a baseline survey in the first year to define

the baseline for all indicators and targets.58

5. Appropriateness of ADB Strategy with Government Strategy and Program

58. The gender objectives and approach of ADB’s country strategies were closely aligned with the

government’s National Poverty Reduction Strategy (NPRS). The NPRS had three main pillars: (i) sustainable

economic growth, (ii) social development, and (iii) good governance. Private sector development,

environment, disaster mitigation, gender, capacity building, and regional cooperation were defined as

crosscutting themes for all operations. The desired results noted in the CPS that ADB projects would aim

for (see Table 8) were well-aligned with this approach and were fully consistent with those of the

Bangladesh Government.

59. The National Women Development Policy 2011 (para. 27) aims to eliminate all forms of

discrimination against women and ensure their rights and equal partnership in development. The second

National Strategy for Accelerated Poverty Reduction along with the Government’s 6th FYP (FY 2011–

FY2015) and the 7th FYP (FY2016–FY2020) aim to establish equal opportunities for women in all sections

of the society with an objective of integrating them into social and economic spheres, and identified

several barriers to women’s advancement. These include the feminization of poverty, discrimination,

women’s limited economic participation despite economic growth, gender-based violence, the trafficking

of women and children, early marriage and dowries, and climate change threats.

60. One of the seven-point strategic agenda of the NPRS is water and sanitation. ADB’s portfolio of

water supply projects helped reduce the number of people who do not have access to safe water and

reduce water pollution. The NPRS also recognized the potential contribution of TVET to poverty reduction,

and ADB’s projects in secondary education and skills training aimed to respond to these needs.59

ADB’s

program of support also had the potential to contribute to gender issues identified in Section II of this

study.

61. As a result of the dramatic decline in fertility and mortality during the last 4 decades in

Bangladesh, the country today has a demographic youth bulge. This has created a window of economic

opportunity that needs to be converted into a demographic dividend. Growing landlessness has reduced

58

ADB. 2014. Proposed Multi-Tranche Financing Facility: Skills for Employment Investment Program. Manila.

59 Of the over 241,000 students enrolled in TVET in 2005, 26% were girls, mostly enrolled in secondary school certificate (vocational)

and higher secondary certificate (vocational) programs; data for enrolment in short-term training programs is not available. Of

the more than 200 operating government institutions, only 1 is for women. More recently, the government established four

polytechnics for women in four divisional districts and initiated the establishment of two more in another two divisional districts

(Skills Development RRP, pg. 56).


17

the need for family labor, and driven by rural poverty and the possibility of better opportunities especially

for women in areas like the garment sector, the urban population is increasing. The focus on addressing

gender inequalities among urban populations was also relevant for Bangladesh.

62. ADB is supporting women’s engagement in the labor market, through the ongoing Skills

Development Project to strengthen capacity of the TVET system to provide market-responsive, short-term,

relevant skills training to more Bangladesh nationals, and the Skills for Employment Investment Program

to support government reforms in skills development. Although employment of women in construction

of ADB supported infrastructure projects is a temporary source of income for low-income families, it

reflects slow but important and ongoing changes in gender norms that women should not work outside

the house, making such involvement relevant. SMEs are a key means of reducing poverty in the country

since they generate non-farm activities that provide more than 50% of the rural population’s employment

and income,60

and ADB’s support for this sector was very relevant for the country and women in

particular.

B. Responsiveness of ADB Program

63. The responsiveness of ADB program was assessed based on three criteria: (i) sufficiency and

flexibility of tools and instruments to address gender strategy in the CPS; (ii) quantity of gender

mainstreaming in ADB’s portfolio; and (iii) quality of gender mainstreaming.

1. Sufficiency and Flexibility of Tools and Instruments to Address Gender Equality

64. The structure of ADB-financed support has gradually become more complex, with a number of

sector development programs, which combines an investment (project or sector) loan, policy-based

(program) loan, and TA, when needed. Several sector development programs have been categorized as

GEN or EGM. As the Public Expenditure Support Facility Program and Countercyclical Support Facility

Program demonstrated, policy-based loans (PBLs) can contribute to gender mainstreaming. The loan

helped to strengthen reforms in gender, particularly in the Ministry of Finance, and created a sustainable

form of gender planning. ADB support strengthened the capacity of the Ministry to mainstream and

monitor gender into the work of different ministries and processes. A TA project aimed to identify

strategies and operational approaches to strengthen on-going efforts in the area of GRB in Bangladesh.

These examples suggest that different financing modalities have the potential to initiate or strengthen

policy and institutional reform. At the same time, the policy matrix of the Secondary Education Sector

Development Program, a PBL which uses the multitranche financing facility modality did not contain a

single gender-related condition, but the project had a GAP.61

65. Two of the three emergency projects were gender neutral. However, the Emergency Disaster

Damage Rehabilitation Project demonstrated that even emergency instruments were amenable to gender

mainstreaming.62

The project sought assurance from the government that it would be designed and

implemented consistent with ADB’s gender policy. The project also encouraged and provided for the

engagement of women in terms of equal wages for equal work in rehabilitation works of rural and

municipal infrastructure. To encourage the participation of communities and local residents, especially

women, and provide them with employment opportunities, small earthworks with an estimated cost of

$8,000 could be awarded to labour-contracting societies in accordance with procedures acceptable to

60

ADB. 2009. Report and Recommendation of the President to the Board of Directors: Proposed Loan to the People’s Republic of

Bangladesh for the Small and Medium-Sized Enterprise Development Project. Manila.

61 The project is classified GEN.

62 The policy requires that knowledge related to gender should form the analytical basis for designing such projects. See ADB. 2004.

Disaster and Emergency Assistance Policy. Manila.


18

ADB.63

Gender was mainstreamed in this project through employment in the infrastructure components,

and there were no project components to involve women in community-based disaster preparedness.

66. In 2013, ADB introduced results-based lending (RBL) as a financing modality on a pilot-basis.64

RBLs were intended to support government-owned sector programs, and link disbursements directly to

the achievement of program results. ADB introduced RBLs in Bangladesh through the Third Primary

Education Development Project (PEDP3).65

67. Discussions during the IEM indicate that government officials in the Directorate of Primary

Education found disbursement-linked indicators (DLIs) for the PEDP3 to be relevant and achievable.66

This

suggests that appropriate, realistic, and attainable DLIs can be designed for programs and projects in

sectors like education, health, and agriculture which have a direct link to gender-disaggregated outcomes

at the beneficiary level. However, designing gender-responsive DLIs for support in infrastructure sectors

like transport and energy could pose more of a challenge, since in most instances the link to beneficiary-

level outcomes is indirect and potentially more difficult to measure and monitor.

2. Quantity of Gender Mainstreaming

68. This section specifically reviews the quantity and quality of gender mainstreaming by first

determining the extent of gender mainstreaming (GEN and EGM) in the portfolio compared to agreed

benchmarks in the 2008–2020 Gender Operational Plan, and then assesses the quality of gender

mainstreaming.67

69. The extent of gender mainstreaming during the study period exceeded the agreed benchmarks.

About 54% of support to Bangladesh by value (Table 9), and 53% by number was categorized as gender

mainstreamed (GEN or EGM) during the study period. This was higher than the 50% target (by number)

set for Asian Development Fund (ADF) projects in the 2008 Operational Plan.

Table 9. Loans and Grants by Modality and Gender Classification, 2005–2015

(Amount in $ Million)

Modality EGM GEN NGE SGE Total

% Gender

Mainstreaming

Credit Line (Project) 165.0 165.0 0.0%

DFI - Project 110.0 110.0 0.0%

Program 398.0 1,119.9 1,381.9 678.3 3,578.0 42.4%

Project 1,799.3 1,568.0 1,028.8 843.0 5,239.1 64.3%

Total 2,197.3 2,687.9 2,575.7 1,631.3 9,092.1 53.7%

DFI = Development Finance Institution, EGM = effective gender mainstreaming, GEN = gender equity theme, NGE = no gender

elements, SGE = some gender elements.


70. By number, only 25% of the projects were categorized as not including any gender element

(NGE). Thus, if projects categorized as SGE (some gender elements) were included, 75% of the projects

had gender elements in the design (Figure 3).

63

ADB. 2008. Report and Recommendation of the President to the Board of Directors: Proposed Loan to the People’s Republic of

Bangladesh for Emergency Disaster Damage Rehabilitation Project. Manila (approved for $120 million equivalent on 31 January).

64 ADB. Policy Paper. 2013. Piloting Results-based Lending for Programs. Manila.

65 ADB. 2011. Report and Recommendation of the President to the Board of Directors: Proposed Loan to the People’s Republic of

Bangladesh for the Third Primary Education Development Project. Manila.

66 Including ADB, PEDP3 classified as GEN is supported by nine development partners. The joint midterm review (MTR) of PEDP3

conducted from June 2013 to September 2014 confirmed that 24 of 27 DLIs have been achieved at the closing of the MTR.

67 A similar approach was taken in the previous ADB evaluation on Gender and Development.


19

Figure 3. Gender Mainstreaming by Category, 2005–2015

(Number of Loans and Grants, %)

EGM = effective gender mainstreaming; GEN = gender equity theme; NGE = no

gender elements; SGE = some gender elements


71. As shown in Figure 4, although the extent of gender mainstreaming each year varied

considerably, there was little difference in averages before and after 2010. There were 19 gender

mainstreamed projects during 2005–2010, and 21 projects during 2011–2015.

Figure 4. Gender Mainstreaming by Year

(Number of loans and grants, %)


72. Projects in agriculture and natural resources, education, health and social protection, and water

and other urban infrastructure and services sectors had high levels of gender mainstreaming with at least

70% of the projects classified as EGM or GEN (Figure 5).

EGM

22%

GEN

32%

NGE

25%

SGE

21%

0.0%

10.0%

20.0%

30.0%

40.0%

50.0%

60.0%

70.0%

80.0%

90.0%

100.0%

2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015


20

Figure 5. Gender Mainstreaming by Sector, 2005–2015

(Number of Loans and Grants, %)

ANR = agriculture and natural resources, EDU = education, ENE = energy, FIN

= finance, HSP = health and social protection, ICT = information and

communication technology, IND = industry and trade, PSM = public sector

management, TRA = transport, WUS = water and other urban infrastructure and

services.


73. The low levels of gender mainstreaming in the energy and transport sectors during the first half

of the evaluation period improved by 2011 (Figure 6). None of the energy sector projects approved in

2005 and 2007 had gender elements (all three approved projects were classified no gender element).

Projects during 2010–2013 included some gender elements, with one energy project in 2011 (Power

System Efficiency Improvement Project) categorised as EGM. A pilot intervention for $500,000, restricted

to a small island, was attached to the main project of more than $600 million, albeit focusing on

transmission. A better evolution is seen in the transport sector, which before 2010 had only one project

with some gender elements. In 2011, the sector had one GEN and one SGE project;68

and two EGM and

two SGE projects in 2012.69

By 2014, even the railway subsector through the South Asia Subregional

Economic Cooperation Railway Connectivity: Akhaura-Laksam Double Track Project, with a cross-country

focus, had better gender mainstreaming.70

74. During the latter half of the study period, the number of infrastructure projects (energy,

transport, and water and other urban infrastructure and services [WUS]) increased by 67%, while projects

in a few sectors including public sector management (PSM), finance and information and communication

technology (ICT) declined. However, the average levels of gender mainstreaming remained broadly

constant because of the increase in gender mainstreaming in the infrastructure sectors in the latter half

of the study period. The CGA prepared in 2010 to contribute to CPS, 2011-2015 identified key gender

equality issues in the major sectors in which ADB works in Bangladesh, noted ADB approaches to

integrating those issues in sectoral initiatives, and highlighted challenges, opportunities, and entry

points.71

The specific guidance provided in the CGA could explain the increase in gender mainstreaming

in the infrastructure sectors in the latter half of the study period.

68

Second Chittagong Hill Tracts Rural Development Project was classified GEN and the Railway Sector Investment Program - Tranche

2 was classified SGE.

69 The two projects classified EGM are Coastal Climate-Resilient Infrastructure Project and Greater Dhaka Sustainable Urban

Transport Project; Dhaka-Chittagong Expressway Public-Private Partnership Design Project and South Asia Subregional Economic

Cooperation Road Connectivity Project were categorized SGE.

70 ADB. 2015. South Asia Subregional Economic Cooperation Railway Connectivity: Akhaura-Laksam Double Track Project. Manila.

71 The CGA covers agriculture and rural development, urban development, SMEs and private sector development, transport, energy,

education, and governance.

0.0%

10.0%

20.0%

30.0%

40.0%

50.0%

60.0%

70.0%

80.0%

90.0%

100.0%

ANR EDU ENE FIN HLT ICT IND PSM TRA WUS


21

Figure 6. Gender Mainstreaming by Sector, before and after 2010


ANR = agriculture and natural resources, EDU = education, ENE = energy, FIN =

finance, HSP = health and social protection, ICT = information and communication

technology, IND = industry and trade, PSM = public sector management, TRA =

transport, WUS = water and other urban infrastructure and services.


75. Support for Gender Mainstreaming through Technical Assistance. The ADB loan and grant

portfolio in Bangladesh was complemented by TA. During 2005–2015, ADB supported 49 TAs amounting

to $20.9 million. Nearly one-third of TA projects by number (25% by value) were categorized as gender

mainstreamed. By number of projects, agriculture and natural resources, education, health, and water

sectors accounted for 45%, infrastructure sectors (energy and transport) constituted 24%, and public

sector management constituted 16% of the TA portfolio. Similar to the loans and grants, gender

mainstreaming in agriculture and natural resources, education, health and water sectors was high, with

at least 50% of TAs classified GEN or EGM.

3. Quality of Gender Mainstreaming

76. In assessing quality of gender mainstreaming, the study reviewed 37 gender mainstreamed (GEN

and EGM) projects and 35 gender action plans. Two loans in such categories (one PBL and one emergency

loan) did not have GAPs. For PBLs, gender integration into the tranche conditions was examined. In the

case of emergency loans, integration into the overall project design was reviewed. GAPs were divided

into ‘Strong’ and ‘Not as Strong.’ A GAP was considered strong if it largely met at least three of the

following four criteria:

Addressed barriers to women’s empowerment within a clear results framework for gender equality;

Provided time-bound guidance and specified responsibilities to guide implementers;

Engaged women in project management and decision making; and

Included indicators and targets (output indicators were considered sufficient) with integration into

the project’s overall design and monitoring framework (DMF).72

72

The Guidelines for Gender Mainstreaming Categories of ADB projects require indicators in both GEN and EGM projects. A project

is assigned a GEN category if “the project outcome directly addresses gender equality and/or women's empowerment by

narrowing gender disparities.” A project is assigned EGM “if the project outcome is not gender equality or women's

empowerment, but project outputs are designed to directly improve women’s access to social services, and/or economic and

financial resources and opportunities, and/or basic rural and urban infrastructure, and/or enhancing voices and rights, which

contribute to gender equality and women's empowerment.” Thus, indicators must assess contributions to final results of gender

equality and women’s empowerment.

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

ANR EDU ENE FIN HLT ICT IND PSM TRA WUS

2005-2010 2011-2015


22

Figure 7. Quality of Gender Action Plans



77. Overall, while the quantity of gender mainstreaming was high, the quality was mixed. About

two-thirds of the 35 GAPs reviewed were assessed strong based on the above criteria (Figure 7). Typically,

these GAPs provided better guidance to project implementers on how to achieve gender-related

objectives of the project than those assessed to be less than strong. As Figure 8 shows, the share of

strong GAPs more than doubled in the second half of the evaluation period, while the quality of “Not So

Strong” GAPs declined by half. After 2011, perhaps due to better institutional guidance, all GAPs included

time-bound actions, specified responsibilities, and greater use of baselines and targets.

Figure 8. GAP Quality (Number of Loans and Grants)


78. There are several areas where GAPs can be improved. GAPs, such as that of the Skills Development

and the Agribusiness Development projects (latter considered strong overall), contained a long list of

more than 50 (60 in the case of Skills Development) action points linked to the different components,

but without any prioritization, timeframe, or assigned responsibilities. Allocation of resources was not

common in GAPs, although there were some projects, which had attached TA projects or grants to

support the implementation of gender activities such as the Power System Efficiency Improvement

Project, or in the Small and Medium-Sized Enterprise Development Project to build capacity of women

to avail of the services provided.

79. GAPs were relatively standard in their approach. A typical GAP focused on participation of women

in community or other decision-making committees, training of women in sector-related or life skill

activities, community awareness raising programs, and monitoring participation of women in project-

generated labour with equal wages for equal work. More than 90% of GAPs noted the need to ensure

that women participate in project monitoring units. In water sector projects, they included an

information and education campaign program on health issues for communities. Less typical, some

projects included training or support for livelihood or income generating activities.73

73

For example, the Participatory Small-Scale Water Resources Sector Project (2010) or the Power System Efficiency Improvement

Project (2011).

Strong, 22,

63%

Not strong,

13, 37%

0

5

10

15

2005-2010 2011-2015

Strong Not Strong


23

80. Most GAPs included some indicators, which specified targets. The most common indicator was

on participation of women in community or project related committees and those specifying the

percentage of women who should be trained. Monitoring indicators stated in the GAP were always

integrated into the DMF, although the extent varied considerably. Only two projects did not integrate

gender-specific indicators into the DMF: Dhaka Water Supply Sector Development Program and the

Emergency Disaster Damage Rehabilitation (Sector) Project. Another common characteristic was that they

focused on outputs. The Small and Medium Sized Development Project is atypical in that it specified a

set of outcomes towards which the GAP aimed to contribute, and included indicators in the DMF to

assess intermediate outcomes and linked outputs (Box 1).

Box 1. Assessing Results in Small and Medium Sized Development Project

Specified Outcomes of the GAP Indicators in the DMF

The GAP aims to (i) reduce poverty among

women, (ii) increase women’s participation as

stakeholders in agribusiness development, (iii)

increase women’s economic and social benefits

from the Project, (iv) develop women as

contributors to the country’s economic growth,

and (v) support women’s empowerment in

decision-making and public life.

Outcome: 10% increase in women-led SMEs

in three pilot sites (2009 baseline)

Outputs: A minimum of 15% of the credit

facility is disbursed to women entrepreneurs

in 2009–2012

Number of successful applications by women

entrepreneurs at scheduled commercial

banks increased (20% annual increase

compared with 2009 baseline)

DMF = design and monitoring framework, GAP = Gender Action Plan, SME = small and medium enterprise.

Source: Asian Development Bank.

81. Some infrastructure projects in Bangladesh have measured time savings for women, thereby

increasing the focus of the project on these issues. The Khulna Water Supply Project (2011) and the

Second Chittagong Hill Tracts Rural Development Project (2011) are two that have integrated measures

to assess reduction in time poverty. The first project assesses whether the average time to fetch water

per day per household has been reduced; and the second project assesses whether average time taken

for women to fetch water has been reduced from 1.5 hrs to 30 minutes, and travel time to markets for

women reduced by on average 1 hour (2010 baseline is 4 hours). The Second Rural Infrastructure

Improvement Project expected to decrease the average time for project households’ access to their

preferred agricultural market by 75% by the end of the project. However, while these are important

indicators, the impact on women’s empowerment cannot be understood unless the assessments better

understand what women do with the time saved from not having to do these tedious chores.

82. GAPs did not frame the actions within a common results framework for gender equality or

women’s empowerment. Less than half (45%) of the GAPs linked outputs to outcomes for gender

equality. In the majority, they were framed around outcomes related to the sector such as better sector

efficiency, better sector governance, and improved management. GAPs monitored the results of the

activities for project outputs, with the gender-related outcomes most often reflected in overall project

DMFs. For example, increasing women’s participation through the GAP was expected to lead to their

improved role in decision-making, and greater access to roads for women was expected to result in

gender equities. The risks and assumptions between the generation of the GAP outputs and achievement

of intended outcomes were not analyzed.

83. Achievement of Gender Indicators and Targets. During the IEM, key informants expressed the

view that while indicators and targets in GAPs are good for monitoring and tracking progress, shifting

the emphasis from outputs to outcomes could be more fruitful for achieving gender equality. Moreover,

some stakeholders opined that some indicators may be challenging to achieve in some geographic areas

of the country (e.g., 30% women participation including in civil works), and suggested that the focus

could shift to important issues like institutional change or changing mindsets. Mechanical targets (e.g.,


24

30% women participation in civil works) may need to be revisited in some contexts. Instead of having

women do construction work, it may be better to train them to do skilled work in areas where they tend

to perform better than men (e.g., welding).

84. Overall, therefore, while GAPs are relevant tools for mainstreaming gender, their responsiveness

to local contexts can be improved and strengthened with better analysis and clarity of gender outcomes.

4. Relevant Knowledge Management within the Country Program

85. Knowledge Products and Services on Gender. ADB tools for gender mainstreaming were found

to be useful by government officials, project officers, and consultants involved with project design and

implementation. Sector gender checklists translated to Bangla were viewed as particularly helpful by

government officials and development partners. One of the development partners interviewed during

the IEM found ADB sector gender toolkits to be useful for designing and implementing its own projects.

74 While useful, sector gender checklists may need to be revisited in light of technological changes (e.g.,

more capital intensive civil works), and evolving country contexts.

C. Results of ADB Support

86. Results of ADB support for gender equality were assessed at two levels—country and project.

The country level analysis focused on whether gender-related indicators specified in the CPSs were

achieved (Table 10). Information sources for the country-level analysis were IED’s validation of CPS

performance, and other self-assessments. At the project level, sources were PCRs of eight projects and

six PCR validations (PVRs) of projects that have closed, and IED thematic or project-level evaluations to

understand if the targets set were achieved, and whether the outputs contributed to the desired

outcomes for gender equality.

Table 10. Country-Level Results of ADB Support

74

These include Combating Trafficking of Women and Children in South Asia: Guide for Integrating Trafficking Concerns into ADB

Operations; Gender Checklist: Agriculture; Gender Checklist: Education; Gender Checklist: Health; Gender Checklist:

Resettlement; Gender Checklist: Urban Development and Housing; Gender Checklist: Water Supply and Sanitation; Guidelines

for Incorporation of Social Dimensions in Bank Operations; and Gender and Development Policy.

CPS Date Stated Indicators Achievements

2006–2010 Adult literacy from 50% to 90% by

2015

Eliminated gender disparity in

schooling opportunities, achieving the

MDG in this area by 2008

- Secondary enrolment from 36% to

95% by 2015

- Maternal mortality from 320 to

179 per 100,000 live births by

2015

Reduced risk of violence against

women and trafficking of women and

children

Increased access to urban PHC through

15 NGO partnership agreements and

completed 143 health centres

Increased provision of credit to the

poor, specifically women

Not achieved. Adult literacy in 2015 stood

at 64.6%

Not achieved. Secondary enrolment at

55% for female and 50% for male in 2013

Achieved. Maternal Mortality 176.6 per

100,000 live births by 2015

PHC facilities had been constructed in

urban areas: 24 comprehensive

reproductive health care centres, one in

each partnership agreement area, 161

PHC centres, 24 VCCTCs, and 24 PECCs


25

CPS = Country Partnership Strategy, MDG = Millennium Development Goal, NGO = nongovernment organization, PHC = primary

health care, PECC = primary eye care centre, VCCTC = voluntary counselling and confidential testing centre.

Sources: Asian Development Bank Bangladesh Country Strategy and Program 2006–2010; Bangladesh Country Partnership Strategy

for 2011–2015 and 2016–2020; and Asian Development Bank Basic 2016 Statistics.

87. Country-Level Results. IED’s validation report of the CPS Final Review (CPSFR) 2011–2015

(CPSFRV) found that measuring success in this area in the CPS results framework would be difficult, as

only the human development sector contained clear gender equity results. It noted that this “reveals a

need for disaggregated indicators and targets by gender in the CPS outcomes.”75

Sector outcomes in the

CPS results framework were not consistent with the sector results frameworks. For instance, the

important dropout rate indicator in the education sector results framework did not appear in the CPS

results framework. The CPSFRV also noted that while the CPSFR found that 60% of projects approved

during the CPS period supported “enhanced gender mainstreaming—essentially referring to “gender

action plans that were implemented and monitored”, it provided no details regarding the extent to which

these action plans were implemented. It found that the evidence in project monitoring documents

showed that progress was not satisfactory. While IED found that GAP activities were on track, project

documents such as that of the Participatory Small-Scale Water Resources Sector Project noted that “some

of the more strategic goals of the project such as effectively involving women in decision making are

falling short of the expected outcomes.”76

88. Sector assessments such as those for energy and transport are notable for their silence on gender

issues, while those for urban development and agriculture and natural resources provide a few comments

on the interventions per se and their potential to address gender issues, rather than on the expected

outcomes. The gender analysis summary also provides some broad findings in a few sectors such as

health but provides little evidence of how the results in the sector are linked to ADB activities. The section

on economic participation is more a statement of current challenges rather than a summary of the results

of ADB achievement under the previous CPS. Thus, at the country-level, the results are difficult to assess.

The CPSFRV rated the impact on gender equality as less than satisfactory.

89. Project-Level Results. The evaluation assessed eight completed projects classified GEN or EGM

with PCRs to understand how ADB supported gender equality in Bangladesh (Table 11). The evaluation

does not try to aggregate these results to the country level.

75

IED. 2016. Bangladesh: Validation of the Country Partnership Strategy Final Review 2011-2015. Manila: ADB.

76 Back-to-office report of the Joint Review Mission for Loan 2542 (fielded from 7–18 December 2014).

2011–2015 Grade 5 completion rate increased

from 57% for girls and 53% for boys in

2010 to 75% with gender parity in

2015

Net enrolment rate in secondary

education increased from 50.8% for

girls and 39.5% for boys in 2009 to

75% with gender parity in 2015

Births attended by skilled health

personnel increased from 26% in 2010

to 50% in 2015

Urban and rural population using

sanitary facilities from 55% and 50% to

100% and 90% by 2015

Urban and rural population using

improved drinking water sources

increased from 85% in 2008 to 100%

in 2015 & rural from 78% to 96.5% by

2015

Proportion of pupils who start Grade 1

who reach last grade or primary, 70.6%

female; 61.9% male

Proportion of births attended by skilled

health works, 42% in 2013

Population with access to improved

sanitation, 61% in 2015

Population with access to safe water, 87%

in 2015


26

Table 11. Projects with Completion Reports

Project Name Type

Quality of

GAP

Gender

Category Sector

GE Dimensions to

which Project

Contributed

PCR/ PVR

Rating

Agribusiness

Development

Strong EGM ANR

Economic

Empowerment,

voice and

participation, and

Time Poverty

S

Second Rural

Infrastructure

Improvement Strong GEN ANR

Reduced risks to

resilience,

economic

empowerment,

voice and

participation

S

Secondary Education

Sector Development

Program

(Project/Program

Loans)

PBL Strong EGM EDU

Reduced gender

disparities through

improved efficiency

in sector

S

Small And Medium-

Sized Enterprise

Development Project Strong GEN Finance

Strengthened

female

entrepreneurship

through increased

access to credit

S

Second Urban Primary

Health Care Not as

Strong GEN HSP

Improved health

and voice and

participation

S*

Emergency Flood

Damage Rehabilitation

(Sector)

NA EGM PSM

Reduced risks to

resilience S*

Public Expenditure

Support Facility

Program And

Countercyclical

Support Facility

Program

PBL NA GEN PSM

Better planning

and allocation of

resources for

gender at the

National Level

Strengthening

Social Security

S

Secondary Towns

Integrated Flood

Protection Phase 2

Strong GEM WUIS

Better planning

and allocation of

resources for

gender at LG Level

for Improved

services for both

men and women

LS

ANR = agriculture and natural resources; EDU = education, EGM = effective gender mainstreaming, GAP = Gender Action

Plan, GE = gender equality; GEN = gender equity theme, HSP = health and social protection; LS = less than successful;

NA = not available; PCR = project completion report; PBL = policy-based loan; PSM = public sector management; PVR =

project completion report validation report; S = successful; WUS = water and other urban infrastructure and services.

* PVR rating


1. Economic Empowerment of Women

90. The GAP for the Agribusiness Development Project envisaged women’s participation and

enhancement of their technical knowledge and market access; the implementation of the GAP was


27

monitored through participating NGOs who helped borrowers prepare project proposals. The PCR for

this project77

lists achievement of several outputs but provides little evidence on whether these outputs

resulted in the desired outcome—women’s empowerment. According to the PCR, 36% of the borrowers

were women, 35% of the jobs created were filled by women, and 49% of women entrepreneurs

participated in training workshops. Additionally, it notes that women were empowered through the

earnings made from the enterprises, and a major part of family income from the enterprises was spent

for “family well-being.” A gender specialist joined the supervision mission once, at midterm review.

91. At the same time, the PCR notes that policy level outcomes were difficult to achieve “due to the

low input of the team leader and the omission of an agribusiness policy specialist.”78The financial

internal rates of return of 22 randomly selected enterprises included 12 small- and 10 medium-sized

enterprises. The outcome of the financial analysis showed poor returns in 7 of the 12 small-sized

enterprises, while all 10 of the medium-sized enterprises enjoyed satisfactory returns. The literature

suggests that women in Bangladesh typically own small-sized enterprises. The PCR mission undertook a

sample survey of 300 randomly selected agribusiness enterprises, of which 22% were owned by women

(of which 40% were managed by male members of the family). The PCR mission compared relevant data

of the survey with the benefit monitoring and evaluation (BME) data of the project (collected in March

2010) to understand impact79

. Overall, the difference in responses suggests improvements in several

areas. However, the 2013 survey does not cover Barisal—one of the two poorest divisions in the country

with a poverty rate of 38%, and its absence is likely to have improved the feedback of the second survey

positively.80

Second, the previous survey covered 104 enterprises managed by women, this survey covered

only 39. The second survey did not have any control groups either. Forty-two percent of the respondents

found that women obtained “relief from barriers and/or superstition.” However, both men and women

answered this question, and it is difficult to segregate women’s feedback. Most women found that their

social status within the family improved after utilization of the loans. A 2015 Report of the Bangladesh

Institute of Development Studies does not provide a glowing picture of the gender issues in this area,

noting that the number of women entrepreneurs is very limited in Bangladesh and there is “very limited

scope to disburse more credit.”81

92. GAP activities for the Second Rural Infrastructure Improvement Project were targeted to benefit

women economically, enhance their access to community resources including infrastructure, and increase

their participation in decision-making processes. A designated gender focal point in the project

management office monitored the GAP implementation for this project. The project contributed to

empowering women by helping to construct 40 women market sections, which included 312 shops for

women entrepreneurs, out of which 308 shops were up and functioning by project completion.82

The

majority of the women market sections (80%) have separate toilets for women. Training for women in

income generating skills, off pavement maintenance, tree planting, and shop management and trade

skills development was also conducted. Additionally, the project employed 52 women as project staff. A

final performance assessment found significant empowerment with more than 75% of the women

having improved their housing conditions or increased their assets and resources.

77

ADB. 2014. Completion Report. Agribusiness Development Project. Manila.

78 The PCR notes that: the “government and ADB downsized the consulting inputs from 628 person-months to 200 person- months

(17 person-months of international and 183 person-months of national inputs) due to time constraints. Later, inputs were further

reduced to 109 person-months (3 person-months of international and 106 person-months of national inputs)."

79 The PCR mission undertook a sample survey of 300 randomly selected agribusiness enterprises covering all divisions except

Barisal. The PCR mission compared relevant data of the survey with the BME data of the project (collected in March 2010) and

estimated changes for a number of major impact indicators where applicable.

80 See Poverty Maps of Bangladesh 2010, released in 2014. Barisal has the extremely high male-female sex ratio. See UNICEF. 2011.

A perspective on gender equality in Bangladesh from young girl to adolescent: What is lost in Transition?

http://www.unicef.org/bangladesh/Gender_paper_Final_2011_Low.pdf

81 Bangladesh Institute of Development Studies. 2015. Strategy for Development of the SME Sector in Bangladesh. Dhaka (by Dr.

Zaid Bakht and Dr. Abul Basher. Pg. 27–28).

82 ADB. 2015. Completion Report. Second Rural Infrastructure Improvement Project. Manila.

http://www.unicef.org/bangladesh/Gender_paper_Final_2011_Low.pdf


28

93. The PCR suggests that the improved road condition contributed to social benefits, such as

increased enrolment of women in schools and greater social interaction between communities.83

A final

assessment survey undertaken for the Second Rural Infrastructure Improvement Project, however,

showed that economic empowerment or changes in social norms does not happen automatically from

the construction of infrastructure. The survey indicates that rural roads enabled women to visit their

relatives’ homes. More than 60% visited marketplaces but only between 35–27% visit local government

offices. About 29% of women respondents also said they visited NGO offices for services, but only 4% of

women reported that they visit the bank.

94. Advocating the enforcement of gender-responsive regulations and policy reforms, and

strengthening the technical capacity of selected women entrepreneurs and associations were the

envisaged GAP outcomes of the Small And Medium-Sized Enterprise Development Project. No

mechanisms were specified for monitoring the GAP for this project. The project did not fully achieve its

gender-related objectives. It disbursed 6.4% of its total credit facility to women entrepreneurs, which fell

short of the targeted allocation of 15.0%. Several outputs were achieved. This included establishing a

Women Entrepreneur’s Dedicated Desk created in the SME Department.84

The Bangladesh Bank has

advised all participating banks and non-bank financial institutions (NBFIs) to create similar desks to

provide assistance to women entrepreneurs. Bangladesh Bank released its first SME credit policy, with a

specific focus on encouraging more women entrepreneurship.85

Currently, a total of 75 banks and NBFIs

are involved in providing loans to SMEs, compared to 42 as of December 2009. As required by Bangladesh

Bank, these financial institutions set loan targets for women entrepreneurs. However, the number of

actual loan applications by and disbursements to women entrepreneurs remain at less than half of the

targeted number, including the establishment of specialized SME branches to target women, special SME

loans for women entrepreneurs with lower interest rates, significant training of women entrepreneurs,

and support to NBFIs such as NGOs to provide loans for women. The PCR also notes that the “interest

rate cap at 10.0% on loans to women-led SMEs might have also eroded participating financial

institutions’ motivation for such lending, as financial institutions usually lend to general SMEs at a much

higher rate.”

2. Strengthened Human Development

95. Reduced Gender Disparities in Education. The GAP for the Secondary Education Sector

Development Program aimed to (i) increase women’s participation as students and stakeholders in

education, (ii) increase women’s social benefits from the project, (iii) develop women as contributors to

the educational management system, and (v) support women’s empowerment in decision making and

public life. Gender indicators were not included in the DMF but were in the policy matrix. The Program

consisted of a single tranche budgetary support accompanied by project loan to help implement reforms

in the sector.86

Together with other development partners in the sector, ADB support contributed to

reducing some of the barriers to girls’ education and gender disparities in the sector in student gross

enrolment, dropouts, and pass rates. The project loan supported equity of access through providing pro-

poor stipend among 1,201,151 students (67% girls and 33% boys) in 2,823 schools who met the criteria

of attendance, unmarried status, and maintained good academic performance. The gross secondary

enrolment rates of boys and girls increased by 8.4% for boys and 8.9% for girls between 2004 and 2013

compared to the target of 15%. Gross secondary enrolment in rural areas increased by 24.9% between

83

ADB. 2011. Completion Report. Bangladesh: Emergency Disaster Damage Rehabilitation (Sector) Project. Manila.

84 ADB. 2015. Completion Report. Bangladesh Small and Medium-Sized Enterprise Development Project. Manila.

85 A condition for the second tranche of the Public Expenditure Support Facility Program and Countercyclical Support Facility

Program required “The government will have prepared an action plan to support the SME centers, women entrepreneurship,

and one-stop facility, and will have made the plan public on the MOF website.”

86 ADB. 2006. Report and Recommendation of the President to the Board of Directors: Proposed Sector Development Program

Loans to the People’s Republic of Bangladesh for the Secondary Education Sector Development Program. Manila.


29

2004 and 2013 (47.7% in 2004 and 72.7% in 2013) compared to the target of 10%. Gross secondary

enrolment rates of girls’ enrolment exceeded boys’ (boys, 47.9% and girls, 57.4% in 2013) signifying

overachievement of equity of access of girls.

96. Access of female teachers in secondary education also increased marginally from 22% in 2004 to

23.2% in 2011.87

The number of female teachers in secondary schools, particularly in rural areas, was low

due to lack of availability of qualified and interested female candidates, and partly due to the low

preference on recruiting female teachers by the school management committees of nongovernmental

secondary schools. The PCR reports that the number of female members and female education officers

and staff in the secondary level has also increased during the project period due to project interventions

under the government policy.

97. Despite these improvements, an IED study of ADB support for policy reform in secondary

education found that ADB support has been necessary to initiate policy reforms in secondary education,

but it has not always been sufficient in sustaining reforms up to and through implementation. Policy

reform success has been more limited than success in investment programs.88

98. Improved Health of Women. The GAP for the Second Urban Primary Health Care project was

developed in late 2010 and approved by ADB in April 2011, 6 years after project approval in March 2005.

The GAP aimed to ensure that women and children had improved access to effective, efficient and quality

primary health care services in project areas, which was consistent with the overall aim of the project, to

improve the health status of the urban population, especially poor women and children, in six city

corporations (Dhaka, Chittagong, Rajshahi, Khulna, Sylhet, and Barisal) and five municipalities (Bogra,

Comilla, Madhabdi, Savar, and Sirajgonj). According to the PCR, the following primary health care (PHC)

infrastructure had been constructed: 24 comprehensive reproductive health care centres (CRHCCs), 1 in

each partnership agreement area; 161 primary health care centres (PHCCs); 24 voluntary counselling and

confidential testing centres; and 24 primary eye care centres (PECCs). These centres deliver PHC services

to a significant number of the urban poor. At project completion, 47.5 million services had been provided

to 26.5 million contacts, of whom 79% were women and 21% men. About 32% of each major type of

service—especially maternal and child health services—was accessed by the poor, which exceeded the

planned target of 30% at appraisal. More than 50 sessions of in-country training were carried out

satisfactorily, covering 2,979 participants, including 180 staff trained on gender and poverty and 71 on

quality assurance and quality of care. Of the in-country trainees, 54% were women, while 46% were men.

In overseas training, 166 staff from the Local Government Division, the project management unit, partner

agreement NGOs, and urban local bodies participated; 23% were women and 77% were men. 89

The IEM

visited one health care facility in Dhaka built with support from this project and observed that more than

80% of project beneficiaries were women.

3. Improved Voice and Participation of Women in Development

99. Encouraging women to participate in all project activities was a typical feature in all projects

classified as GEN or EGM. Women were provided with a seat at the table in project-related decision

making committees, and were given significant opportunities to training in livelihood activities and other

technical areas, including decision making. Through its urban projects, ADB encouraged women to

directly work with local officials in urban towns where ADB projects were implemented. An IED evaluation

87

An ongoing ADB project, the Second Teaching Quality Improvement Project (approved in 2012), as a follow-on to the Teaching

Quality Project (approved in 2012), is supporting pre-service and in-service training for secondary education teachers. ADB. 2004.

Report and Recommendation of the President to the Board of Directors: Proposed Loan to the People's Republic of Bangladesh

for the Second Teaching Quality Improvement in Secondary Education Project. Manila.

88 IED. 2015. Policy Reform in Bangladesh’s Secondary Education (1993–2013): Tracing Causal Processes and Examining the Asian

Development Bank’s Contribution. Manila: ADB.

89 ADB. 2014. Completion Report. Second Urban Primary Health Care Project. Manila.


30

noted that even in urban sector projects, which were not integrated urban development projects,

elements of poverty targeting, gender development, and governance action plans have often been added

to make infrastructure projects more inclusive. It also confirms that implementation of GAPs in slums

helps to support women in several ways.90

100. ADB’s sustained engagement with Local Government Engineering Department (LGED) of the

Local Government Department (14 projects during 2005–2015) has resulted in institutional and

organizational capacity for gender mainstreaming within the Department and at the pourashava level.

In partnership with LGED,91

ADB supported a program to enhance gender and governance capacities in

local governments. With the introduction of a performance-based fund allocation strategy through the

Urban Governance Improvement Action Program (UGIAP); pourashavas supported under the Second

Urban Governance and Infrastructure Improvement (Sector) Project significantly improved their gender

considerations in governance.92

Major achievements under these projects include (i) establishment of

town-level coordination committees and ward-level coordination committees, which are key vehicles for

ensuring citizens’ participation. These included representation of women and the poor in all committees.

The project also required pourashavas to develop, implement, and monitor pourashava-level GAPs. As a

result of the long engagement, LGED has formulated a gender strategy, the Gender Equality Strategy of

the LGED in 2014.93

GAPs would be prepared early on during project formulation and design, with flexible

implementation to facilitate improvements as practical opportunities and challenges emerge. Progress

on GAP implementation would be expected to be reported regularly, and data collected at the district

level on a systematic basis.

101. Although there was no GAP, the Public Expenditure Support Facility Program and Countercyclical

Support Facility Program (PESF/CSF) allowed the government to strengthen its gender mainstreaming at

a national level.94

The findings on ADB contribution to gender mainstreaming in the Ministry of Finance

(MOF) and the overall government in the project’s PCR is reiterated by the government’s Gender Budget

report of 2015–2016. The PCR estimates that this program benefited 4.5 million hardcore poor in FY2010,

and it has continued to benefit more than 4 million people yearly. Each year since 2009–2010, the

government presents to the national parliament a gender budget report that explains the policies and

strategies for advancement of women, and activities of various ministries or divisions that have

implications on women development. In the first year (FY2009–2010) such analysis was done for four

ministries as required by the ADB loan. The Gender Budget report of FY2015–2016 contains an analysis

of women’s advancement in 40 ministries or divisions.

102. Since then, the Finance Division of MOF has also developed Recurrent, Capital, Gender, and

Poverty Model databases where all expenditure items are disaggregated to indicate what percentage of

allocation goes to benefit women. Although not attributable to ADB, this was clearly based on the

fundamental work strengthened by the policy-based loan. The gender and poverty proportioned

percentage data for both recurrent and development budget is estimated separately from a standard

90

IED. 2009. Urban Sector and Water Supply and Sanitation in Bangladesh: An Exploratory Evaluation of the Programs of ADB and

Other Aid Agencies. Manila: ADB. Field visits undertaken for this evaluation suggest that “women recognized that the self-help

groups empowered them, and that the physical infrastructure—drainage, footpaths, water supply, and sanitation—improved

their children’s health. They indicated that much of their income went to food and medicine, but that they were also able to

support/pay for satellite schools in their neighbourhoods. Visits to other towns corroborated that it was particularly the poverty

components and the TLCCs and WLCCs that had helped women” (page 110).

91 For a full understanding of the partnership, please see a case study in LGED in ADB. 2009. Institutionalizing Gender Equality. The

Experience of the Bangladesh Resident Mission. Manila (page 17).

92 ADB. 2002. Report and Recommendation of the President: Proposed Loan and Technical Assistance Grant to the People’s Republic

of Bangladesh for the Urban Governance and Infrastructure Improvement (Sector) Project. Manila; ADB. 2008. Report and

Recommendation of the President: Proposed Loan to the People’s Republic of Bangladesh for the Second Urban Governance

anInfrastructure Improvement (Sector) Project. Manila.

93 Available at http://www.lged.gov.bd/UploadedDocument/Gender/Publication/GenderEqualityStrategyEnglish.pdf.

94 ADB. 2012. Completion Report. BAN: Public Expenditure Support Facility Program and Countercyclical Support Facility Support

Program. Manila.

http://www.lged.gov.bd/UploadedDocument/Gender/Publication/GenderEqualityStrategyEnglish.pdf


31

defined logic incorporated in database system. The proportion of women work force serves as the basis

for computing women’s allocation in non-development budget. For the development projects, a

percentage is assigned to each indicating what proportion of total expenditure will directly benefit

women, based on the 14 standards for assessing gender impact. Allocation for women development for

both recurrent and development budgets are generated and presented in the gender budget report for

ministries and divisions. Allocation for women development was Taka 27,248 crore95

in 2009–2010 which

increased to Taka 64,087 crore in 2014–2015. Interestingly, the Ministry has classified all 40 ministries

into three categories: i) Empowering Women and Enhancing their Social Dignity, ii) Improving Women’s

Productivity and Participation in Labor Market, and iii) Widening Women’s Effective Access to General

Public Sector Services and Income Generating Activities.

103. Bangladesh has made significant progress in ensuring a gender responsive budget under the

PESF. The government rolled out the Medium Term Budgetary Framework (MTBF) across 33 ministries in

2011. The adoption of the MTBF not only enhanced the budget management capacity of line ministries,

but the framework also explicitly included poverty and gender issues in the formulation of budget. In

preparing the national budget, all ministries are required to assess the poverty and gender impact of

their respective programs and projects (as stipulated in Budget Circular, BC-1).

104. Some support was provided through the Second Urban Primary Health Care Project for training

women ward counselors, health center staff, and project communities on issues of gender-based

violence, but there are no specific outcomes reported on this aspect of gender equality.

4. Reduced Risks to Resilience

105. The Public Expenditure Support Facility Program and Countercyclical Support Facility Program96

supported two programs which shared the same macroeconomic objectives: to enhance pro-poor and

gender inclusive growth and to improve the living standards of vulnerable populations. The loans were

expected to allow the government to increase social safety net program outlays for the poor especially

women, who constitute the majority of the poor population. The policy measures were pushed through

using projects on public financial management of the World Bank and the Department for International

Development of the United Kingdom and ADB’s program on good governance.97

Despite a significant

increase in provisions for women, the PCR notes that monitoring was weak and at closing it was difficult

to estimate the exact number of beneficiaries, particularly women.

106. ADB budget support helped introduce the 100 Days Employment Generation Programme as the

largest and first attempt of its kind in Bangladesh to alleviate poverty and hunger with guaranteed

employment and income in the short run, with an allocation of Taka 2,000 crore, equivalent to 11.8% of

total safety net budget. This was mainly to respond to the issue of rise in food price in 2008. The World

Bank in its document has independently noted the “widely acknowledged success of the 100 Day

Employment Generation Program that was put in place as a just-in-time intervention in response to the

food and fuel crisis.”98

Without any administrative gender requirements, the PCR notes that 28% of the

beneficiaries in the first phase of the programme were women.99

95

A crore is a South Asian term that is used to refer to 10 million.

96 The PESF comprised 3 loans totaling $244.85 million from ADB’s ordinary capital resources (OCR) and Special Funds resources

(both soft and hard terms). The CSF in the amount of $500 million was from ADB’s OCR. The PESF loans were disbursed in 2

tranches, while the CSF loan was disbursed in a single tranche.

97 ADB. 2007. Report and Recommendation of the President to the Board of Directors: Proposed Program Loan and Technical

Assistance Grants to the People's Republic of Bangladesh for the Good Governance Program. Manila.

98 World Bank. 2011. Project Information Document (PID) Concept Stage. Bangladesh Employment Generation Program.

Washington.

99 FAO. National Food Policy Capacity Strengthening Programme. Technical Report. 2009. Study on the first phase of the 100-Day

Employment Generation Programme. Dhaka.


32

107. Several ADB supported projects as well as those categorised as SGE aimed to ensure that women

had access to wages through employment generated by construction of infrastructure.100

Such

participation in public works can help reduce poverty through cash and in-kind transfers, and although

they are not specifically designed to address gender equality, they may offer great opportunities to

respond to women’s needs. There is also some evidence that poorer women are more likely to participate

in such wage employment, reiterating its use as a safety net, whereas the non-poor participate in self-

employment.101

5. Reduced Time Poverty

108. There is some evidence in PCRs that improved infrastructure has helped reduce women’s time

poverty. The PCR for the Second Rural Infrastructure Improvement Project reported that the project

contributed to reduced travel time by 72.46% for motorized traffic, and by 71.52% for non-motorized

traffic.

VI. Findings, Lessons, and Recommendations

A. Summary Findings

109. Overall, the evaluation finds that ADB support for gender equality in Bangladesh was relevant

given the government policies, country priorities, and ADB institutional and gender strategies. Such

response was by and large appropriate given the diversity of sectors that was covered, and the high levels

of gender mainstreaming. However, responsiveness was dictated to a great extent by the increasing

envelope of infrastructure sectors, and a shift away from other sectors. At the same time the quality of

gender mainstreaming in infrastructure sectors improved after 2010. ADB support generated results that

are likely to improve the welfare of households including women, but not necessarily contribute to

addressing or reducing barriers to gender equality.

110. Only after 2010 did GAPs include time-bound activities and specified responsibilities. For the

most part, this resulted in GAPs not always being able to provide the necessary guidance to the

implementing or executing agencies. Also, GAPs did not include the financial resources allocated for the

GAP activities and its implementation. Sometimes, where there were separate grants available, this was

specified, but most often the GAP did not discuss this very important issue.

111. Infrastructure projects have significant potential to capitalise gender equality as a driver of

change, but do not automatically by themselves lead to women’s empowerment or gender equitable

results. While improved transport and water supply services may help to increase the welfare of women,

it is not evident from any of the projects that they automatically lead to gender equality or even women’s

empowerment. GAPs do have the potential to significantly improve results for women, but they cannot

be standard cookie-cutter activities. The evaluation found that infrastructure projects work well for

gender, when accompanied by multifaceted GAPs that can contribute to enhancing women’s ability to

100

The PCR for the Emergency Disaster Damage Rehabilitation (Sector) Project notes that the project provided employment to about

3.2 million women. The PCR for the Secondary Towns Integrated Flood Protection Project (Phase 2) states that the project

employed 2.3 million labor-days—of which 28% were provided by female laborers—in civil works, and in most cases ensured

equal access to jobs with equal pay for both genders. The PCR of the Emergency Assistance for Food Security Project noted that

“of the 200 million person-days, under the 100-day employment scheme, half went to women.” The PCR for the Agribusiness

Development Project reported that 90,524 family and wage laborers were employed, including 30,172 (33.33% against the

target of 50.00%) women. The project also provided employment opportunities for a large number of female medical technicians

and other professionals who are covering a target population of 8 million. The PCR notes that 30% of the managerial andmore

than 70% of the service providers were women.

101 ILO. Asia Pacific Working Paper Series. 2013. Female labour force participation in Bangladesh: trends, drivers and barriers. New

Delhi.


33

access the services provided by infrastructure, increase their role in the labor market, and enhance their

income, such as the one in the Second Rural Infrastructure Project.

112. In Bangladesh, ADB took both a top-down and bottom-up approach to strengthen gender

equality. This worked well—policy changes at the top were accompanied by local level activities that

promoted gender equality, gave women equal opportunities to resources and assets, and helped to

introduce women into new roles and responsibilities, breaking stereotypes. At the same time, ADB was

successful in institutionalizing factors that strengthened gender mainstreaming into the LGED, a critical

stakeholder in implementing local rural infrastructure projects.

113. Budget support and program loans have shown the potential of addressing gender issues in

policy reform. The Public Expenditure Support Facility Program and Countercyclical Support Facility

Program successfully sought reform and strengthened capacity of the MOF to mainstream and to monitor

gender into the work of the different ministries and processes, which have been sustained, based on

reports from the MOF.

114. This evaluation finds that concerted and sustained engagement with the Local Government

Department, including LGED, has helped to strengthen government capacity for gender mainstreaming.

It has made government departments, particularly local governments in small towns, more accountable

to undertake gender mainstreaming and to ensure that services delivered benefit both women and men.

115. ADB correctly focused on women’s participation in all project-related committees, as well as in

training and capacity development. It should not, however, be assumed, that such participation would

be sufficient to address gender inequalities. They constitute only a first step, which for the moment

increases women’s work, but at the same time provides them a seat at the table and some visibility in

public spaces. Such participation should be supplemented with innovative GAPs that provide women

with responsibilities (not just a seat at the table) as well as appropriate channels to access economic

assets and resources.102

116. There was little focus in the Bangladesh portfolio in engaging men to support gender equality.

In South Asia in particular men are important stakeholders in making progress towards gender equality.

They need to be involved in addressing gender inequalities and supporting women’s empowerment, lest

they resort to violence in response to such empowerment. Not involving both men and women actively

in advocacy and information and education campaign efforts conducted by ADB reduces development

effectiveness.

B. Lessons

117. Addressing gender and governance issues at local government levels is a sustainable way of

building institutional and organizational capacity at the local level. However, continued efforts are

needed to convert outputs into sustainable outcomes.

118. Addressing policy and institutional issues of gender and governance must be two-pronged. They

must involve a top-down policy and strategic reform through ministries such as that of Finance and other

sectors, as well as a bottom-up approach at local government and community level.

119. Inclusion of a TA element that specifically focuses on gender issues can be helpful if attached to

a gender mainstreamed project. Such TA support for implementing the GAP in Small and Medium Sized

Enterprise Development was helpful in focusing on gender issues. This becomes particularly important

102

GAPs for the Second Urban Governance and Infrastructure Improvement Project and Participatory Small-Scale Water Resources

Sector Project offer examples where the inclusion of women in key decision-making positions was explicit.


34

given the lack of cooperation between different government sector agencies, which can be addressed

through the TA.

C. Recommendations

To improve the impact of ADB’s gender and development support to Bangladesh, the entry

points identified in the country gender diagnostics could be operationalized to increase the share

of gender mainstreamed projects in sectors such as energy and transport. These sectors

constitute the largest proportions of the country portfolio, and represent untapped opportunities

to reduce gender disparities.

Expand the use of new financing modalities like policy-based and results-based loans for gender

mainstreaming, especially for institutional, legal and regulatory reforms to address gender

disparities in the dimensions of economic empowerment and voice and participation.

Find innovative ways to design projects which include gender outcomes in DMFs, with

multifaceted and innovative GAPs that will support women to expand their access to economic

resources and assets, and increase their participation in labour markets.

Actively involve men in advocacy and information and education campaign activities on gender

Appendix 1

35

LIST OF PERSONS MET

Bangladesh Resident Mission

Kazuhiko Higuchi, Country Director

Nasheeba Selim, Social Development Officer (Gender)

Mohammad Nazrul Islam, Senior Project Officer (Transport)

S.M. Ebadur Rahman, SeniorSocial Sector Officer (Education and Health)

Rudi Loius Van Dael, Senior Social Sector Specialist

Ali Kausar Muhammad Firoz, Senior Procurement Officer

Paul Hattle, Senior Climate Change Specialist (Clean Energy)

Md. Golam Mortaza, Senior Economics Officer

Zahir U. Ahmed, Senior Water Resources Officer

Elma Morsheda, Senior Project Officer (Urban)

Gobinda Bar, Senior External Relations Officer

Rina Sen Gupta, Consultant

Ministry of Women and Children Affairs

Nasima Begum, Secretary

Dr. Md. Aminul Islam, Joint Secretary

Mohammad Rafiqul Islam, Senior Assistant Secretary

Ministry of Health and Family Affairs

Syed Monjorul Islam, Secretary

Ministry of Education, Directorate of Primary Education

Md. Anwarul Haq, Director, Policy and Operations

Ministry of Education, Directorate of Secondary and Higher Education

Dr. Mohammed Jahangir Hossain, Director of Planning and Development

S.M. Bashir Ullah, Deputy Director Planning and Development

Dil Aroz Bint-E-Azir, Assistant Director, Planning and Development

Ministry of Agriculture, Department of Agricultural Extension

Md. Manzurul Hannan

Protip Kumar Mondal

Mahbuba Moonmoon, Additional Secretary

Quamrun Nehar, Additional Deputy Director

Bangladesh Water Development Board

Md. Masud Karim, Chief Extension Officer

Engr. Md.Anisul Islam, Project Director Southwest Area Integrated Water Resources Planning and

Management Project

USAID Bangladesh

Mahmuda Rahman Khan, Sr. Program Development Specialist

Ministry of Power, Energy, and Mineral Resoures, Power Division

Md. Mahbb-ul-Alam, Additional Secretary

Comprehensive Reproductive Health Care Center, Bashbari Mohammadpur

Urban Primary Health Care Service Delivery Project

Rehana Akhtar Mita, Project Manager

Appendix 1

36

Local Government Engineering Department

Md. Abul Kalam Azad,Additional Chief Engineer

Swedish International Development Agency

Dr. Zahirul Islam, Programme Officer, Health

Planning Commission

Shamsul Alam, Senior Secretary

Ministry of Finance, Economic Relations Division

Fatima Yasmin, Joint Secretary

UN Women

Christine Hunter, Country Representative

Md. Shohel Rana, Coordinator=GRB/P

World Bank

Zahid Hussain, Lead Economist, Macroeconomic and Fiscal Management

Ferdous Jahan, World Bank Consultant/Professor, Department of Public Administration, University of

Dhaka

Ministry of Planning, Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics

Mohammad Abdul Wazed, Additional Secretary

Dipankar Roy, Project Director, Household Income and Expenditure Survey Project

S.M. Kamrul Islam, Deputy Director

Roads and Highways Department

Deleep Kumar Guha, Project Director, SASEC Road Connectivity Project

ABM Shentajur Rahman, Deputy Project Director, SASEC Road Connectivity Project

Cho Hee Nam, Team Leader, Korea Consultant International Co. Inc.

Site Visits

Urban Primary Health Care Services Delivery Project, Project Management Unit and Site Visit, Dhaka

South City Corporation

Mr Sabirul Islam, PD in Charge, UPHCSDP

Mr. Md Nurul Absar, Deputy Project Officer, Finance, UPHCSDP

Md Yunus Mia, Senior Program Officer, Coordination, UPHCSDP

Dr. Nusrat Momen, Senior Program Officer (Reproductive Health) UPHCSDP

Dr. Mohammad Arman Choudhury, P O (Clinical) UPHCSDP

Mr Ashraful Kabir, P O, (A& T) UPHCSDP

Md. Shafiul Alam, Senior Program Officer, MIS, UPHCSDP

Dr. Sanjida Islam, Program Officer, Dhaka South City Corporation, Nagar Bhaban

Mr Dhiraj Kumar Nath, Staff Consultant, Urban Health, BRM, ADB

Dr Md., Nurul Islam, Urban PHC Specialist, Individual Consultant, PMU

Second Urban Primary Health Care Project, Site Visit, Dhaka North City Corporation

Dr. Sushmita Ahmed, Team Leader (Health and Component Lead Population Health and Nutrition,

Population Services and Training Center)

Madhabendra Roy, MIS & Quality Assurance Officer

Appendix 1

37

Second Teaching Quality Improvement in Secondary Education Project, National Academy for

Educational Management, and the Government Teachers’ Training College in Dhaka

Hamidul Haque, Director General, National Academy for Educational Management, Ministry of

Education

Kalachand Shil, Deputy Director, Training and Implementation

Swapan Kumar Dhali, Principal, Government Teacher Training College, Dhaka

Rayhana Taslim, Deputy Project Director, TQI-II

Rehana Khatun, Assistant Project Director, TQI-II

John Wilson, Pre-Service Teacher Education Specialist, TQI-II

Documents

ADB Support for Gender and Development (2005–2015