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Problems with file processing systems
Inconsistent data Inflexibility Limited data sharing Poor enforcement of standards Excessive program maintenance
Character :The most basic logical element is
character.Which consists of alphabetic, numeric or other symbol.
Field : It consists of grouping of characters.For example, the grouping of alphabetic characters.For example grouping of alphabetic characters in a person’s name form a name field.
Record :Related fields of data are grouped to form a record.File :A group of related records is a data file, or table.Database :The highest level in the hierarchy is the
database.A database is an integrated collection of logically related records or files.
Levels of Data
Controlled Redundancy Ease of learning and use Data independence Accuracy and Integrity Privacy and security Shared Recovery from failure Performance
Objectives of Data Base
Operational Data Base Analytical Data Base Data Warehouse Data Base Distributed Data Base End User Data Base External Data Base
Types of Data Bases
Data Bases store detailed data needed to support
operations of entire organization They are also called Subject Area Databases ,transaction
database and production database A customer database, inventory database, and other
database containing data generated by business operations
Operational Database
Databases store data extracted from selected operational
and external databases Consists of data mostly needed by an organization’s
managers and other end users They are also called management databases or information
databases They are the databases accessed by the online analytical
processing (OLAP) systems, decision support systems and executive information systems
Analytical Database
Stores data from current and previous years that has been
extracted from various operational and analytical databases of an organization
It is a central source of data that has been standardized and integrated so it can be used by managers and other end user professionals throughout an organization
Data Warehouse Databases
Databases of local work groups and departments at
regional offices, branch offices, manufacturing plants and other work sites
Can include segments of common operational and common user databases as well as data generated and used only at a user’s own site
Ensuring that all the data in distributed databases are consistently and concurrently updated
Distributed Database
These databases consist of a variety of data files
developed by end users at their workstations For example, users may have their own electronic copies
of documents they generated with word processing packages or received by electronic mail.
End User Database
Access to external online databases or data banks is
available for a fee from commercial information services , or for free of price from many sources on the internet
For example, data are available in the form of statistics on economic and demographic activity from statistical data banks
Abstracts from newspapers, magazines, and other periodicals from bibliographic data banks
External Database
DBMS is the software that permits an organization to
centralize data, manage them efficiently, and provide access to the stored data by application programs .
DBMS acts as an interface between the application program and the physical data files
DBMS has three components A data definition language A data manipulation language A data dictionary
Database Management System
The data definition language is the formal language used
by the programmers to specify the content and structure of database
It defines each data element as it appears in the database before that data element is translated into the forms required by application programs
Data Definition Language
This language contains commands that permits end users
and programmers to extract data from the database to satisfy information requests and develop applications
The most prominent data manipulation language today is structured query language (SQL)
Data Manipulation Language
This is an automated or manual file that stores definitions
of data elements and data characteristics such as usage, physical representation, ownership, authorization and security
Many data dictionaries can produce lists and reports of data utilization, groupings, program location and so on
Data Dictionary
Organizes data Integrates data Separates data Controls data Retrieves data Protects data
Functions of DBMS
Reduced programming costs Reduced development and implementation time Reduced program and file maintenance costs Reduced data Redundancy Increase flexibility
Benefits of DBMS
Data is not stored in a random fashion. It is organized for
efficient retrieval. Sequential organization Indexed Sequential Organization Inverted List Organization Direct Access Organization
Data Storage and Retrieval
It simply means storing and sorting in physical,
contiguous blocks within files on tape or disk Records are also in sequence within each block It is best suited in reading one record after another without
a search delay The records can be added only at the end of the file
Sequential Organization
Data is stored in physically contiguous blocks and uses
indexes to locate records Indexed Sequential Organization reduces the magnitude of
the sequential search and provides quick access for sequential and direct processing
The drawback is the extra storage space required for the index. It also takes long to search the index for data access or retrieval
Indexed Sequential Organization
It differ from the previous in the index level and record
storage The indexed sequential method has a multiple index for a
given key, whereas the inverted list method has a single index for each key type
In inverted list records are not needed to be stored in a particular sequence. They are placed in data storage area but indexes are updated for the record keys and location
Inverted lists are best for applications that request specific data on multiple keys
Inverted List Organization
In direct access file organization, records are placed
randomly throughout the file New records are added at the end of the file or inserted in
specific locations based on software commands Records are accessed by addresses that specify their disk
locations. An address is required for locating a record, for linking records , or for establishing relationships
Direct Access Organization
Hierarchical Data Model
Employee
Job assignments BenefitsCompensation
Performance Salary hist Pension Life insurance Health
Network Data Model
Course 2Course 1 Course 3
Student 1 Student 2 Student 3 Student 4 Student 5 Student 6
Relational Data Model
Dept .no
D name
D loc
Emp no
Dep. A
Dep. B
Dep. C
Emp. no
E name
E title
E sal
Dep. no
E1 D A
E2 D A
E3 D B
E4 D B
E5 D C
E6 D A
The schemes (schema) define categories of data and their
properties . External Schema or user schema is the user’s view of a
part of the database Conceptual Schema is the overall logical view of the
database Internal Schema or data storage definition is the way the
data is physically organized in storage
Data Schemes
External Schemas
General Model
User View
User View
User View
Conceptual Schema
InternalSchema
StoredDatabase
Each user of the database (an application program or a
person formulating a query ) is concerned with only a small portion of the database
Each user is interested in only a part of the entities in the database, only part of the attributes of those entities, and certain relationships among the entities
External schema consists basically of definitions of each of the various external record types in the external view
The external schema is written using the DDL portion of the user’s data sub language
External Schema
The conceptual schema is the logical view of the entire
database . It represents as closely as possible the real entities and their relationships .
It contains integrity rules and authorization rules, but it does not contain information about how the data items are stored
Conceptual Schema
The internal schema or physical data model describes how
the database is organized for physical storage and access
The internal schema includes information on ordering of records, block sizes, storage indexes, use of pointers and access strategies being used
Internal Schema
A mapping is a transaction of one schema to another In order for a user to access data, the user view of the data
as reflected in the external schema must be translated into the overall conceptual schema
In the same way, the conceptual/internal mapping translates logical descriptions of data in the conceptual schema to physical locations and access paths in the internal scheme
Mapping