Photography and Digital

Manipulation

Robbie Hickman

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Darkroom Processand Camera Guide

Darkroom ProcessHow does photographic film work?Photographic film is a thin, flexible strip of transparent plastic material that is coated with a light-sensitive gelatin emulsion; this emulsion contains silver halide crystals which are light sensitive and microscopically small, consisting of silver and one or more halogens e.g. bromide and iodide. If two halogens are used at the same time, the crystals will react quickly upon being mixed with silver. A daguerreotype is a good example of how photographic film has been used; it involves forming an image on a polished silver surface whilst using iodide.

What is the darkroom process?The darkroom process is a method which involves the processing of light sensitive photographic materials within a room that is made completely dark to allow the process to go smoothly. Images are first taken via camera on photographic film, which is then developed within a tank. The following chemicals: developer, stopper, fixer and hypo clear are all used on the film, after which the negatives are taken to an enlarger. The enlarger, which is a specialized transparency projector, projects light onto the photo-sensitive paper (usually for 20-30 seconds). The overall image is then developed using the chemicals, developer, stopper and fixer before being left to dry.

Darkroom ChemicalsDeveloper

A developer is the chemical substance used to make images appear on photographic film. It accomplishes this by activating the silver halide crystals which form part of the emulsion on photographic material. When the halide crystals come into contact with the developer, some of them will turn a shade of black due to exposure to light; this happens because the crystals are highly sensitive to light.

Stop Bath

A stop bath is defined as an acid or rinse which stops the action of a developer in activating the crystals; the acid halts the developing process as the print is placed into it. It then ‘fixes’ the print, preventing any additional dark areas from forming on it. These dark areas would most likely ruin the overall quality of the image.

FixerThe fixer is a chemical preservative which ‘fixes’ the print by removing silver halide crystals that are unexposed from the emulsion on the paper. This effectively ensures that the paper becomes ‘light safe’, meaning that no more dark areas will form on the paper due to light after it has been fixed. However, if the paper is not fixed properly, the image can turn into a shade of yellow over time thus ruining the look of the overall image.

Hypo Clear‘Hypo clear’ is an agent used to reduce the level of water that is present on the film. It helps with the drying process of the images because it causes the water to drain off the film without leaving any small droplets or streaks of water behind which would potentially cause marks or spots to become present on the paper. It is not always necessarily used, though it can help with the overall look of the print.

Darkroom EquipmentTanks

Also referred to as a ‘developing tank’, this light-tight container is made out of either plastic or steel and is used for developing reels of film into negatives. Because photographic film cannot be exposed to light during processing, the developing tank is to be used in darkness. The rolls of film are held in a spiral shape by a spool (which is placed inside the tank).

Spools

The spool is to be placed inside the developing tank so that the film can be loaded onto it. The spool is also referred to as a ‘film reel’. It holds the photographic film in a spiral shape easily due to the presence of grooves; these ensure that the film is smoothly loaded ono the spool. The grooves also allow for the chemicals in the developing tank to reach all of the film.

Measuring Cylinders

Measuring cylinders are used with the purpose of obtaining accurate measurements regarding the amount of chemicals that are placed within the developing tank. These tend to be calibrated with metrics and are resistant to most photographic chemicals; this is beneficial because measurements can be carried out without any concerns regarding the sides of the cylinder getting burned.

Thermometers

Thermometers are a vital aspect of the darkroom process because they help to identify the temperature of the chemicals within the developing tank. Chemicals are to be used at specific temperatures otherwise they can have a negative impact on the process in terms of time and quality. Thermometers tend to offer clear and coherent temperature readings.

Darkroom EquipmentEnlarger

Also referred to as a projection printer, this device allows ‘enlargement’ of a negative to a larger point and is mainly used with the purpose of producing a photographic print. Negatives are placed within the carrier and the lamp/light source shines through the negative, thus light is projected onto the exposed and sensitive emulsion based paper. The enlarger features a height adjustment level and a focusing knob; these are mainly used with the purpose of resizing the prints and ensuring sharp projection of the image respectively. This ensures that a successful print is created.

Safe Light

The safe light is suitable for a photographic darkroom because it does well to provide a great deal of illumination from parts of the visible spectrum that has a minimal effect on the light sensitive paper. It is strongly recommended that safelights are kept at a fair distance from the working area because the light is still able to ruin the paper if it is too close. Some papers require total darkness.

Timer

The purpose of the timer is to control, as well as highlight the length of an exposure within the darkroom. The timer can be connected directly to the enlarger and safe light. As soon as a desired time is reached, the enlarger’s light will switch off as the safelight turns on. Timers can either be analogue (old-fashioned) or digital. Analogue timers sometimes have glow in the dark numbers, therefore these are ideal for use in the darkroom.

Darkroom PracticeHealth and Safety in the Darkroom (COSHH)There are general rules regarding how to safely manage and handle the chemicals that are used in the darkroom. These rules ensure that the working environment is safe and that there is a reduced stress of getting injured for those working within the room.

1) Access to the darkroom should be limited; only authorized persons are allowed to work in here.

2) The work area needs to be kept clean. Objects, especially glass bottles should not be left cluttered on the floor as they can result in a tripping hazard and therefore injury.

3) The wet and dry areas should be kept separated and chemicals need to be segregated.

4) People must not eat, drink or smoke within the darkroom.

5) It is important to ensure that the darkroom is well-ventilated.

6) Protective equipment e.g. gloves and/or goggles should be worn when needed.

7) All chemicals should be labelled and all trays and containers closed/covered.

8) No chemicals must be washed down the sink, but disposed of within an appropriate waste container.

9) All chemicals must be stored in locations that will minimize the chances of breakage and splashing.

10) Paper towels and saw dust must not be used to clean up acid spills on the floor/on surfaces because this may cause a fire.

General common sense should be used in the darkroom due to the lack of light.

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Anatomy of the 600D

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1. LCD Screen 2. Capture Button 3. View Finder 4. Mode Dial 5. On/Off Switch 6. Exposure Button (changes aperture in manual)

7. Set

8. Delete Button 9. Playback Button 10. Focal Length11. F-Stop (maximum aperture value)

12. Lens Release Button13. Lens14. Filter Size

Storage DevicesThere are two different types of storage device. These are cards that are graded on the read, as well as write speed; these are important aspects of the cards and they can have an impact on how many images are taken in quick succession and whether or not HD recording can be used. The cards guarantee sustained consistent write speeds of up to 2, 4, 6 or 10 mbs (megabytes per second) and can allow for up to 130GB – 16GB storage of memory. High class cards are required for HD pictures and for shooting photos rapidly.

SD (Secure Digital)Card An SD card is a flash memory card that is designed to provide high-capacity memory in small sizes. They are used in a variety of portable devices including camcorders, digital cameras, hand-held computers, car navigation systems and mobile phones. An SD card features a high data transfer rate and utilizes flash memory to store and retain data; no power source is required for the card.

CF (Compact Flash) Card A CF memory card is highly popular; it utilizes flash memory technology to store data and has no moving mechanical parts. It does not require power to retain any data e.g. using a battery. People who use CF cards will be able to add data to a wide range of computing devices.

Both types of storage device are quite similar in comparison. They do not require power to store data and are able to retain fairly large amounts of memory in a small card. However, an SD card has the ability to provide encryption capabilities, thus ensuring secure distribution of material such as music, video and E-Books despite its small size. When it comes to CF cards, flash is non-volatile memory; this means that data can be stored for extended periods of time in a continued and uninterrupted manner.

Lighting a SubjectPop-up Flash This form of artificial lighting is a common form of lighting on most cameras. It utilizes the power from the camera’s battery and the flash gives off a harsh and direct light which can always be softened by diffusing, bouncing or changing the compensation. Softening the light would be beneficial because the bright light could potentially produce harsh and unattractive results regarding the look of the image.

Studio Light These can come in two different forms: strobe lights or continuous lights. Strobe lights produce a high amount of light; these are often used with the purpose of allowing a great deal of light to fall onto the subject. The photographer will be able to identify this. Continuous lights tend to produce a lot less light than strobes. Both types of studio light are often used in conjunction with soft boxes with the purpose of diffusing the light i.e. dispersing it over a wide area.

How Light Can Be Diffused: Diffusing light can be beneficial for the overall image because it reduces glare and shadows, minimizing blemishes and replicating ambient lighting. There are a variety of ways to diffuse light in an image, however this would depend primarily on the style of image the photographer desires to capture. If the image is staged and taking place within a studio of some kind, a soft box i.e. a photographic lighting device can be used. A soft box ensures that light is projected over a wide area because it has a large opening at the front that spreads the light. To diffuse the light even further, a diffusion screen could be fitted onto the front.

Focal LengthThe focal length is defined as the gap between the lens and the image sensor of a camera. This applies to when a subject/location is in focus. Focal length tends to be stated in millimetres and is a general measure regarding how strongly light is either converged or diverged by the camera. If the gap is large, the camera will zoom in more. However, if the gap is quite short there will be less zoom.

There are two main types of lenses: zoom and prime.

Prime: The prime lenses tend to have a fixed focal length so they can be used in film and photography. They are also measured at up to 85mm in length. Prime lenses have a high aperture value, meaning that it lets more light in and enables sharpness which can have a positive impact on image quality. This can be considered an advantage of using the prime lens. A disadvantage of using the prime lens would be that the camera could shoot an alternate image to the one given. This can result in the image looking degraded, thus losing quality.

Zoom: As opposed to prime lenses, zoom lenses have variable focal lengths. This means that the camera can change smoothly from a long, far-away shot to an up-close shot of the same subject if the photographer changes the focal length. An advantage of using the zoom lens would be increased versatility i.e. the ability to change. Photographers can rapidly frame a subject and alter the focal length to capture a wide range of different framings. However, it can be fairly time consuming to remove and change the lens; doing so can also allow for dust to get to the sensor.

There are four different types of lenses that can be used with zoom and prime lenses. They are:

Wide angle lenses (10-34mm): these are ideal for capturing large objects or scenes in great detail.

Standard Lens (43-80mm): these are are ideal for general snaps of subjects and/or locations.

Telephoto Lens (85-200mm): these lenses are great for producing portraits, and capturing products and subjects from far away.

Long Telephoto Lens (200mm and above): this lens can shoot a subject from a distance e.g. wildlife, sport and journalism and still retain good detail.

35mm Compared to the previous image, the 35mm focal length enables the camera to zoom in closer to the calendar. Despite being focused on closely, the calendar is still established in strong relation to its surroundings. The detail is even greater within the image, especially regarding the calendar. There is another difference; the outlines of the wall and blinds seem slightly ‘tilted’ in some way to the right.

18mm This focal length has allowed the camera to provide focus on the calendar on the wall from some distance away. Despite the fact that the photographer is positioned further from the image, the calendar is in fact the most visually attractive aspect of the image; unlike the rest of the room, the calendar appears to be far more detailed. The outlines of the blinds, wall and paper as well as computer screens are all straight within the image, therefore the photo is a fully accurate presentation of real life.

55mm The 55mm setting ensures that the focus is closer still. The calendar takes up much of this photo and specific aspects (the word ‘the’ and the numbers) are made much more clear and the outlines of all aspects of the image (the paper and the corner of the computer screen) seem to be tilted even further to the right, therefore giving the illusion that the room seems to be ‘falling over’ somehow.

LensesTilt-Shift A tilt-shift lens simulates a shallow depth of field and enables photographers to transcend the normal restrictions of the camera. It is normally used with the purpose of adding ‘miniature effect to an image’. When this happens, the aspects of a far-away location seem very small in comparison to their size in real life e.g. a landmark or a building. It almost creates the illusion of a miniature model when in actuality it is an image taken from a high angle e.g. a helicopter.

Fisheye

A ‘fisheye’ is an extremely wide angle lens which produces a strong sense of visual distortion, most often with the intention of creating a panoramic image. The field of vision for a fisheye lens covers up to 180 degrees of the scene taken; this scale is reduced towards the edges of the image.

Macro Lens

The micro lens is suitable for capturing images that are highly up-close to the subject (as shown in the image on the left). These objects tend to be very small and the focus is more nearer; this ensures that the object is the most easily recognizable feature. In essence, the macro lens produces a life-sized depiction of a small object and it can also be considered the opposite of the tilt-shift lens.

Focusing can be used with the purpose of applying artistic effects to an image or capturing scenes, objects, locations etc. in significant detail. If a photographer desires to create something professional and quite unique in comparison to existing images, he/she will be able to do so by choosing one of these lenses. Alternatively, the photographer could experiment with these techniques and identify which one bests suits their own idea of an image they hope to create.

Filters

A polarizing filter gives much deeper blues for both water and sky and cuts reflections and glare; this means that it is suitable for paparazzi and landscape photographers. The filter, in essence, changes the way a camera sees and treats light within an image. The filter does well to improve contrast within an image, as well as for managing reflections (of the camera in windows).

Neutral Density Filters are mostly used with the purpose of decreasing the amount of light which enters the camera through the lens. If a photographer desires to capture instances of motion within their image(s) e.g. within photos of vehicles on a highway. This is usually accomplished through use of high shutter speeds. ND filters (for short) can also be utilized to maintain shutter speed, keeping it consistent in each image taken by a photographer. The filter manages things like wavelengths, colours and light within the image; thus resulting in a completely different expression of the way the image looks in real life e.g. black and white.

UV Filters are used to protect the front glass element of a lens. They were traditionally used on older cameras to cut back on UV light (from the sun) which would continue to expose film after the initial image had been taken. UV filters prevent ultraviolet (UV) light from getting into the camera; this would have obviously been beneficial for traditional cameras and photographic film as film reels were very sensitive to light and could be ruined if exposed to it. UV filters eliminate the chances of this occurring with the highly sensitive photographic film.

ExposureExposure is defined as the amount of light that reaches photographic film or an electronic image sensor. If too little light reaches the film, it will be underexposed. This means that the image will appear inadequate in regard to how it looks in real-life at the time the photo was taken. As shown in the image below, the scene does not appear to be influenced by light at all. The primary light source within the image will have been light from the sun. However, because of the underexposure an impression is created of a cloud having passed over the sun at the time of the shoot.

If too much light reaches the film, the photo will be overexposed. This means that the aspects of the image are influenced by too much light; this has an impact on the image because it makes some aspects a lot less clear. Therefore, the image loses quality and a strong sense of clumsiness is implied. As shown below, the sky no longer appears blue compared to the other images; instead it appears white due to the increased brightness. If the correct amount of light reaches the film (as controlled by the photographer), the overall image should appear in the same way as it does in real-life (as shown below) because the exposure is correct.

Exposure is controlled by the following settings: aperture, shutter speed and film speed.

Aperture (AV mode)Aperture refers to the hole within the lens which controls depth of field, whilst simultaneously controlling the amount of light that is allowed to expose the image sensor. Aperture can be controlled through use of two different functions. These are:

AV (Aperture Value): this regulates the degree of exposure to light in regard to the film and/or image sensor.

MV (Manual Value): the aperture can be controlled by pressing the up/down buttons on the camera.

These can be changed using the mode dial. The size of the hole can vary; these sizes can be measured through use of F numbers (or F-Stops). Low umbers such as 5.6 indicates a larger opening which will allow a high amount of light into the sensor. It also reduces the depth of field. A high F-number e.g. 16 means that the aperture opening will be smaller. This decreases the amount of light that will pass through the hole whilst increasing the depth of field.

The image pane is influenced by the depth of field. For example, a small aperture is necessary for focus on objects in the foreground, middle-ground, background etc. so that they are reasonably sharp. A large aperture can be used to throw the background out of focus, thus making it less distracting and allowing for increased focus on the subject/object. A large aperture can be used within portrait and product photography.

Large Aperture (f/19)

This high aperture (as shown in this image) ensures that the subject is shown very clearly in the same way as his surroundings e.g. the pictures on the wall and the light above him. The whole image is clear as a high amount of light has been enabled to enter the camera.

Medium Aperture (f/9)

As I decreased the aperture slightly, less light was allowed to enter the camera. Although the subject still looks fairly clear, his surroundings appear blurred. The overall quality of the image has been reduced.

Small Aperture (f/3) I decreased the aperture even further within the image. As only a small amount of light was allowed to enter the camera, the quality of the image decreased. The surroundings are now completely out of focus and the subject appears quite blurred.

Shutter Speed (TV mode)Shutter Speed is the length of time in which the shutter is open when the button is pressed to capture a photograph.

Shutter Priority Mode: (TV) lets one choose how long the shutter will be open. The camera will then adjust to other settings e.g. 1/2 a second and 1/250 a second so that the photographer will be able to obtain the desired exposure.

The wide range of shutter speeds determines how fast a photographer can capture an image. A 1/1000th of a second or 500th of a second is an example of a fast shutter speed, whereas 5 seconds is an example of a slow shutter speed when it comes to taking photos. The maximum shutter speed a HD camera can go through is 1/4000th of a second which is really fast. The slowest shutter speed for a camera is 30 seconds. Some cameras offer an option for a shutter speed of 1-2 minutes.

Shutter speeds are shown in fractions or parts of a second. The smaller the number the quicker the shutter opens and closes, therefore the faster images can be taken. As exposures get longer, the shutter speeds will be measured in whole seconds rather than fractions of seconds.

Slower shutter speeds can be used to depict movement within a photograph. When a slower shutter speed is used, a longer time passes from the moment the shutter opens until the moment it closes. This means that there is more time for movement to be recorded by the camera, and it also allows for an increased amount of light to enter the camera which is beneficial when it comes to shooting in dark conditions, however the subject needs to be still and a tripod is required if one wants to avoid camera shake.

Faster shutter speeds freeze movement in a photograph. A shorter time passes from the moment the shutter opens until the moment it closes. This results in less time for movement to be recorded by the camera and also ensures that a sharp image that captures moments the human eye cannot is created. Fast shutter speeds require a lot of light to get the correct exposure, and therefore an intriguing image.

Fast Shutter Speed (1/500 seconds)

This fast shutter speed does not appear to influence the aspects of the image because it is too fast to record movement. The vehicles within the image appear to be stationary i.e. not moving and there is no illusion of movement within the image.

Medium Shutter Speed (1/60 seconds) This shutter speed has a noticeable effect on the aspects of the image; as I decreased the shutter speed, the vehicles I was able to capture on-camera appear to be moving (when studied closely) and not stationary like the vehicles in the previous one. The vehicles appear slightly blurred and this creates the impression of movement.

Slow Shutter Speed (1/2 seconds)

The slow shutter speed used within the image has clearly recorded the movement of the vehicles, highlighting their speed. The blurriness within the image creates a strong sense of movement. The slower shutter speed ensured that there was more time for movement to be recorded within the image and I was able to accomplish this by altering the shutter speed.

ISO (Film Speed)ISO stands for International Standards Organization. The ISO of a camera changes how sensitive an image sensor is to light. The reason why this setting has its name is to differentiate it from other settings on the camera e.g. shutter speed.

The ASA (Advertising Standards Authority) number would inform a photographer how sensitive the film is to light. The bigger the number the more sensitive or ‘faster’ the film or sensor is. A ‘faster’ film or sensor requires additional light to produce an image than a slow one.

When capturing images in low light conditions e.g. a dark room without a tripod or other form of support such as a flash, increasing the ISO speed or using a faster film will let the photographer to obtain the images he/she needs. For example, if the ISO is increased to 100, 200, 300, 400…800 the image will get steadily brighter.

As ISO speeds increase, the chances of seeing ‘noise’ within the photographs also increases. ‘Noise’ refers to sections of the image that aren’t captured well, therefore distortion can appear. Image noise can be considered a disadvantage of ISO film speed because it can significantly decrease the quality of photographs. In particular ‘image noise’ is most noticeable in the shadows of an image and in larger areas of a similar colour such as the sky. When image quality needs to be very high, a low ISO speed is required to avoid noise within the picture.

ISO300

The alteration of film speed within the camera has enabled the image taken to retain its natural look; the aspects of the image are quite sharp and therefore fully visible. The correct exposure has been achieved and the image is of a high quality as the low speed ensures noise has been avoided.

ISO800

As the film speed has been increased, it has become difficult for the camera to maintain the same quality as in the previous film speed. This is due to the presence of noise which affects the detail of the image and has altered its sharpness in a negative way. This shows how changing film speed can be a negative thing.

ISO1600

I have increased the shutter speed to the point where the level of sharpness and detail has been decreased; the writing on the poster shown on the wall is not clear i.e. hard to read. The general quality of the image has been reduced completely and its aspects have been decreased in regard to detail. This is due to lots of noise which is caused by the high film speed.

White BalanceWhite Balance is used with the purpose of allowing for the camera to understand the colour white, or colour balance in general. The photographer will want to utilize this setting to alter the colour within a photograph.

White Balance is measured in Kelvins and it is used to neutralize colour temperature which could blue to the image unnecessarily (this could reduce the quality of the image. In studios, lights that are 5000 Kelvin are used. Where there are tungsten or fluorescent lights, white balance needs to be used. The camera assumes the image is being shot within a warm environment, therefore it will add blue to an image. This should usually be avoided if the photographer desires to obtain a visually appealing image. Photographers will most likely utilize white balance to ensure their image(s) look natural; this is generally accomplished through the adjustment of colour in regard to a variety of lighting situations.

There are four different types of white balance that can be chosen:

Tungsten: the colour temperature with this setting is highly ‘warm’. A strong blue colour cast can appear within images taken in this setting if it isn’t taken under a light source.

Daylight: this camera setting should be used outside in the daylight (hence the name of the setting). The sun would generally shine on the subject to make the image look intriguing and images should not be taken in an interior location with no light otherwise the wrong image will be created.

Cloudy: this setting provides the image with a warmer appearance, adding an orange tint to the image. The images should be captured with the subject on a cloudy day or in the shade when this setting is used. If the setting is used anywhere else, it will not work.

Fluorescent: this camera setting will fix the image, especially if the image has a green tint under the fluorescent lighting within the scene or if the image looks ‘too green’ in general.

Each camera setting has influenced these images in different ways. All four images contrast in regard to visual quality and lighting; this is due to the alteration of the white balance setting

in between each photo of the exact same ‘Fire Exit’ sign which is clearly in an interior location. The tungsten setting is usually ideal for capturing images where a light bulb is

present as a light source; however there were no light bulbs present in the location I chose. The result is that the overall image looks very dark; shadows are the predominating

elements. The ‘Cloudy’ setting has had little effect on the image, however the image looks blurred. The reason for this would be that the corridor has lights which could almost amount to daylight (as shown in the ‘daylight’ setting on the bottom left in which the image retains a high quality as well as all of its colours due to exposure to light). The ‘Cloudy’ setting needs to be shot in a dark place for the image to work. The ‘White Fluorescent Light’ makes the

image look blurred.

Cloudy 6000K Tungsten Light

3200K

White Fluorescent Light 4000K

Daylight 5200K

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Flatbed ScannerA scanner is a device that is used to scan things like printed documents, images, objects and pictures. The scanner converts these to digital images e.g. JPEGs which can be viewed easily on a digital device e.g. PC, tablet or mobile phone. It records light and converts it into digital information. A full colour image can be created.

Advantages: Scanners are simple and easy to use. They are able to produce high-resolution images.

Disadvantages: The scanner is quite large, therefore it would be difficult to carry around.

WebcamA webcam is a camera that is often used as a method of video telephony, surveillance, computer vision, broadcasting and video making. They can be used for photography and the creation of time lapses, as well as to record multiple pictures via computer.

Advantages: These are fairly straightforward to operate. It is already built-in, therefore there is no need to pay for it.

Disadvantages: The lens is smaller, therefore images can be of a low quality due to less light being allowed to enter the sensor.

Mobile PhoneA mobile phone is a camera device that has the ability to capture images and video whilst being carried around. Camera phones are straightforward to use as opposed to digital cameras. They have fixed sensors and focal lenses which ensures no extra costs needed. Some phones use larger sensors as a USP (Unique Selling Point) e.g. Nokia Lumia 1020 with a 41 megapixel sensor which would enable greater image quality.

Advantages: Mobile phones are portable, and therefore easy to carry. It can be quick to take photos.

Disadvantages: The size of the sensor is smaller; therefore image quality would be lower compared to a DLSR camera because less light can reach the sensor.

Original image Levels (CTRL/CMD + L)

Colour Adjustments (CTRL/CMD + U)

Dodging and Burning (O)

Photoshop Adjustments

Sharpening (CTRL/CMD + ALT + SHIFT + F)

Filter:Blur, Noise, Sharpen

Dark Strokes

Monochrome (CTRL/CMD + SHIFT + U)

Photoshop Adjustments

Cropping(C)