Carbohydrate

CARBOHYDRATEAS A PLANT CONSTITUENT

ANUM ASLAM

CARBOHYDRATEGENERAL INTRODUCTION AND CLASSIFICATTION

CARBOHYDRATESCarbohydrates are defined as, Molecules consist of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms. It is a major food source and a key form of energy for most organisms. They are often called as saccharides.

By chemical definition….

Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy alcohols (OH) with potentially active carbonyl group, which may either be aldehyde (H C O) or ketone (C O)

general formula Cn(H2O)n.

CARBOHYDRATE CLASSIFICATION

ON THE BASIS OF FUNCTIONAL GROUP

Reducing SugarsHave at least 1

free aldo/keto gp

Non-reducing Do not have any

free active gp

ON THE BASIS OF NO. OF MOLECULES BONDED TOGETHER

DISACCHARIDESSucrose

(glucose+fructose) maltose (gucose,

glucose), lactose (glucose galactose)

OLIGOSACCHARIDES (3-10

saccharides)

(Aldo gp) Trioses, glyceraldehydeTetroses, eyrthrosePentose, riboseHexoses, glucose

POLYSACCHARIDES

(Keto gp)DHAErythruloseRibuloseFructose

FURTHER CLASSIFICATION

FUNCTIONS OF CARBOHYDRATES cell membrane

structural component.

Intracellular mediater.

significant fraction of dietary calories for most organisms.

storage form of energy in the body.

BUSHRA RUBAB

BIOCHEMICAL TESTS FOR CARBOHYDRATE DETECTION

MOLISH TEST :2ml orignal soln+2 drop of ethanol alpha napthol.mix well

+conc sulphuric acid along the sides of test tubes .     Voilet ring appear at the junction Of 2 layers CHO

PRESENT

OSAZONE TEST :3 ml original soln +3 ml phenyl hydrazine + heat

in water bath for 1 hr. Allow to cool and observe the shape of crystals 

Crystal formation glucose present   

NO Crystal formation glucose absent  

FEHLING TEST:1ml fehling sol A in test tube + drop wise

fehling sol B till the PPT of cupric hydroxide initially formed & then dissolved.Now 2 ml of originl soln + heat for few mint

 Red Ppt form reducing sugar

present Red Ppt don’t form reducing sugar

absent 

FARAH KHAN

BIOCHEMICAL TESTS FOR CARBOHYDRATE DETECTION (CONT)

RESORCINOL TEST FOR KETOSES:

Also Called Seliwanoff’s Test

•Solution + Crystal of resorcinol Heated with equal vol. Of Conc. HCl Pink colour is produced(Ketoses)..

Examples:Fructose Honey and Hydrolysed insulin

TEST FOR PENTOSES:

•Solution + Equal Vol. of HCl + Phloroglucinol------Red Colour is Formed.

KELLERS-KILIANI TEST FOR DEOXYSUGARS:

Deoxysugar is present in Cardiac glycosides.

•Deoxysugar Dissolves in Acetic Acid +• Ferric Chloride------ Transfer To The Surface Of Conc. H2SO4Reddish Brown Colour is Formed Which Turns Blue.

Furfural Test:

Sample Of CHO + Syrupy Phosphoric Acid (Heat) Furfural.

Filter Paper is Moistened With a Drop Of 10% Anilin + 10% Solution Of Acetic Acid Placed Over The Mouth Of Test Tube..

Now, Test Tube is Heated For 30-60 sec.From The Bottom.

Pink Or Red Stain is Appeared On The Reagent Paper.

JAVERIA RAHAT

EXTRACTION OF CARBOHYDRATE

DEFINITION OF EXTRACTION

The action of extracting something, especially using effort or force.

METHOD OF EXTRACTION OF CARBOHYDRATES

The methods used for isolating carbohydrates depend on the carbohydrate type, matrix, and purpose or type of analysis.

A commonly used method for extracting low molecular weight carbohydrates from foods is

to boil a sample with a 70-80% alcohol solution.

Monosaccharides and oligosaccharides are soluble in alcohol solutions; however, most proteins, polysaccharides and dietary fiber are insoluble.

The soluble components can then be separated from the insoluble components by filtering, soluble portion passes through the filter and the insoluble part retained by the filter.

The two fractions can then be dried using lyophilization.

In addition, monosaccharides and oligosaccharides and various other small molecules (e.g. organic acids, amino acids) may be present in the alcoholic extract. It is usually necessary to remove those components prior to carrying out a carbohydrate analysis, for example, with clarifying agents.

If necessary before analysis of the carbohydrates, residual alcohol (or other organic solvents) can be removed.

Najaf farooq

HONEY

Synonyms: purified honey, Mel, Clarified honey, Strained honey, Madhu (Hindi)

Biological source: honey is a sugary secretion deposited by honeybees, Apis mellifera Linn.

Family: Apidae.Habitat: Honey is produced

mainly in England, West indies, California, Canada, Chile, Africa, Australia and New zealand.

collection1

• Nectar ( aqueous solution of sucrose 25%) is mixed with salivary secretion containing enzyme invertase.

• It is hydrolyzed into invert sugar

2

• The worker bees deposit the content of the honey sac in to prepared cell of honey comb.

• The filled cell is sealed by wax

3• The honey is collected by

drainage. • To get purified honey, it is

heated at 80C and impurities are removed.

characteristicsHoney is: Thick. syrupy. Translucent liquid. The color is pale yellow or reddish

brown . Has pleasant odor And sweet taste.

Honey bees filling the honey comb

Chemical constituents

Glucose (30-40%) Fructose (40-50%) Sucrose (0.1-10%) Dextrin Formic acid Volatile oil Pollen grains Traces of gums, vitamin, proteins and

coloring matter.

Uses

Laxative bactericidal

Sedative antiseptic

Cold, constipation,

cough

Fever, sore throat and eye

Tb, ulcer, scurvy,

excipients

Insomnia, wound,

vermicide

Adulterants

Honey is adulterated with cane sugar, corn syrup and artificial invert sugar.

Chemical tests: Fiehe’s test for artificial invert sugar. Reduction of fehling’s solution. Limit test.

Nameera ahmed

starch

SYNONYM: Amylum

BIOLOGICAL SOURCE:

Roots/tuber:PotatoesArrowroot Cereal:CornWheatRice

GEOGRAPHICAL SOURCE:Commercially starch is produced in: U.S.A Argentina India China JapanOther Tropical & sub tropical countries.

PREARATION:Various procedures are used to

prepare a particular starch.

PREPARATION

RICE STARCH

WHEAT STARCH

POTATO STARCH

MAIZE STARCH

PREPARATION OF MAIZE STARCH: Grains are softened by soaking in

an aq.soln of sulphurous acid(0.2%) at 50c for 2-3 days.

Softened grain is crushed in rollers to separate germs.

The milky liquid is filtered through sieves to remove cell-debris.

Remaining protein may be separated when the heavier starch deposits first.

In modified procedure, the traces of proteins are separated by treating starch with dilute alkali to dissolve the former.

Then starch is dried by flash dryers.

PREPARATION OF RICE STARCH:

Broken rice(pieces)are softened

(macerating) in NaOH soln (Aq)(0.4%)

& then crushed. Ground material is mixed with

water. Starch is separated by standing.

Washed.dried at 50-60C & powdered.

PREPARATION OF WHEAT STARCH;

Water(added) to the wheat flour

to prepare dough. Then kept for 1 hr. Dough(balls) are shaken with

water. Liquid containing starch falls below

from which it is separated by centrifuation,washed & dried.

PREPARATION OF POTATO STARCH:

Potatoes(washed),crushed (rasping machine) & cell-debris is removed from the pulp by rotary sieves after water(addition). The liquid contains starch,soluble

proteins,salts & some cellular tissues. On standing,the starch separates more

rapidly. Now,washed starch is dried.

CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS:

Starches are generally mixtures of 2 types of polymers:

Amylose Amylopectin

AMYLOSE:

• Linear component of starch• Contains 1,4-alpha-

glucosidic bonds• Molecular weight: less than

0.5 million• Can form coils which will

trap iodine and turn blue

AMYLOPECTIN:

Branched component of starch

Contains 1,4-alpha-glucosidic as well as 1,6-alpha-glucosidic bonds

Molecular weight: 50-500 million

Limited coiling causes purplish-red color when iodine added

STARCH GRANULES:

Made in the cytoplasm of plant cells The granule swells when heated in water Insoluble in water oval or round shape

USES:Mild

astringent

Nutritive

Demulcent

Protective

Absorbent

Anti dote

BinderFiller

Emollient

TESTS FOR IDENTIFICATION: Dissolve starch(1 g)in water(15

ml)by heating on a water bath.a viscous transluscent jelly is formed on cooling.

Fehlings soln test is positive Solution of starch(1ml)forms a

deep blue colour on addition of iodine soln(1 drop).on warming the colour disappears & re-appears on cooling.

Nida ashraf

SCIENTIFIC NAME: Plantago ovata

Synonyms:

Psyllium seed Flea seedPlantain seedIshabgul Spogel seed

Biological Source:

Ispaghula consists of:cleaned, dried, ripe seed of Plantago psyrium Linn, or of Plantago indica Linn. known as Spanish or French Psyllium seed.

Family Name: Plantaginaceae

Cultivation and Collection: The plant is a stem less or sub-coalescent, soft, hairy

annual herb. Cultivated by spreading seeds in November in well drained

loamy soil. To the fields ammonium sulphate fertilizer is added and

they are irrigated at an interval of 8-10 days for about 8 times.

Habitat: P Psyllium Linn, is indigenous to the Mediterranean

region and west. Asia, presently cultivated in France. P. ovata is found in Punjab hills and other parts of

north-west India, Sind and Baluchistan.

Characters :

The seeds of P. ovata are 2.0-3.3 mm in length

1-16 mm in breadth dull, pinkish grey-brown; long to elliptical

in outline, boat shaped

the dorsal surface is convex

while the ventral surface is concave with a deep furrow

a hilum is present which is covered by a thin membrane and appears as a red spot in the center.

The outer surface is smooth, hard and translucent.

seeds are odorless and taste is bland but mucilaginous.

Chemical Constituents:The seeds contain: Hydro colloidal polysaccharide (mucilage)

in the outer seed coat (20-30%), fixed oils, tannin, aucubin glycoside,

sugars, sterols and protein. Also contains mucilage One fraction is soluble in cold water Ispaghula seeds hydrolysis xylose

(46%). The other fraction in soluble in hot water

forming a highly viscous solution Ispaghula seeds hydrolysis xylose

(80%).

Uses:Seeds are used as: Demulcent, Cooling, diuretic used in inflammatory conditions They are used to cure chronic dysentery

and diarrhea.

duodenal ulcer, gonorrhea, constipation and piles.

to assist the production of smooth solid faecal mass.

The seeds are used in febrile conditions and the affections of kidneys, bladder and urethra.

Prescribed in cough and cold.

• The crushed seeds made into poultice are applied to rheumatic and glandular swellings.

Recently anticancer Antitoxic Antiatherosclerosis

Other uses are: Hypocholesteremic Hypo-glycemic Hypotensive Cardiac depressant Cholinergic and cervical activities have

been reported.

RABIA KHALID NADEEM

Bael

Synonyms

Golden apple

Bengal quince

Fructus belae

Bael fruit

Family

Rutaceae

Habitat

Collection The unripe or half-ripe fruits are collected

Epicarp is removed

Cut into transverse slices or irregular pieces

Morphology

shape : Sub-spherical

Epicarp : hard , woody, smooth about 2mm thick, slightly granular

Endocarp reddish brown Pulpy Mesocarp 10-15 capsules , each containing

several hairy Oblong, multicellular seeds surrounded

by reddish mucilage.

Odour : faint and

aromatic Taste : mucilaginous

and sweet.

CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS

CARBOHYDRATES11-15%

VITAMIN A & CTANNINS

20%PROTEINS

1%

VOLATILE OILS

ALKALOIDS

Galactose,Arabinose,

D-galacturoni

c acidRhamnose

Hydrolysis

2%water-

soluble GUM

uses

Astringent

Digestive

Demulcent

Nutritive

Antipyretic

Cathartic

UROOBA IQBAL

PECTIN Group of polysaccharides found in

the primary cell walls of all seed bearing plants & located in the middle lamella.

It was first isolated and described in 1825 by Henri Braconnot.

Function in combination with cellulose as an intercellular cementing substance.

One of the richest sources of pectin is lemon or orange rind which contains about 30% of this polysaccharide.

CHARACTERISTICS: Appearance : Coarse or fine-

powder Colour : Yellowish white Odour : Odourless Taste : Mucilaginous taste

•Solubility : Completely soluble in 20 parts of water. Dissolves more swiftly in water, if previously moistened with sugar syrup, alcohol, glycerol or if first mixed with 3 or more parts of sucrose.•pH: The optimal pH for pectin is between 2.8 and 4.7.•Gel Formation: Pectin shows gel forming, thickening and stabilizing properties if it is properly dissolved in water and if it is stored in a cool and dry place.

BIOLOGICAL SOURCES:

Citrus limon (or Lemon) and Citrus aurantium (family: Rutaceae), or from apple pomace (family: Rosaceae), Guavas, plums, quince, gooseberries, etc.

GEOGRAPHICAL SOURCES:•Lemon & oranges (India, Africa & other tropical countries). •Apple (Himalayas, California, many European countries & the countries located in the Mediterranean climatic zone).

PREPARATIONstep 1

• lemon peels are gently boiled with approx. 20x its wt. of fresh water maintained at 90ºC for a duration of 30 min.

• pH of 3.5 to 4.0 must be maintained.

step 2• After boiling, the peels are mildly squeezed to

obtain the liquid portion which is then subjected to centrifugation to result into a clear solution.

step 3

• From this resulting solution both proteins and starch contents are suitably removed by enzymatic hydrolysis.

• The remaining solution is warmed to deactivate the added enzymes.

• The slightly colored solution is decolorized with activated carbon.

step 4 • Finally, the pectin in its purest form is obtained by precipitation with water-miscible organic solvents (e.g., methanol, ethanol, acetone), washed with small quantities of solvent and dried in a vacuum oven and stored in air-tight containers..

CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS: partial methyl ester of a (1→4) linked D-galacturonate sequence

interrupted with (1–2) L-rhamnose residues. The side chain maker neutral sugars are: D-galactose, L-arabinose, D-xylose, and L-fructose. Schneider and Bock (1938) put forward the following probable structure for pectin:

USES:

Intestinal demulcent, Reduces blood cholesterol levels, Anti-diabetic, Used with kaolin in diarrhea. Treats indolent ulcers & deep wounds, As an emulsifying agent and gelling agent, In the preparation of jellies and similar food

products e.g., jams, sauces, ketchups. A combination of pectin and gelatin is used as an

encapsulating agent in various pharmaceutical formulations.

CARBOHYDRATES ARE ESSENTIAL FOR CARRYING OUT PROCESSES OF LIFE.

CONCLUSION