Unit 3 chapter 2,3,4

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY- SAN CARLOS CITY CAMPUS SAN CARLOS CITY PANGASINAN

AA Lecture in

Principles of Teaching 1

Unit III: Chapter 2

Selection and Organization of Content

Presented by: REA R. TIANGSON

Something to ponder:

There are dull teachers, dull textbooks, dull films, but no dull subjects.

Motive questions:

What knowledge is truly esssential?

What is worth teaching and learning?

What guiding principles must be observed in the selection and organization of content?

Guiding Principles in the Selection and Organization of Content

1. Observe the following qualities in the selection and organization of the content

Significance

Validity

Balance

Self-sufficiency

Feasibilit

y

Utility

Interest

2. At the base of the structure of cognitive subject matter content is facts.

Take Note:

We can’t do away with facts but be sure to go beyond facts by constructing an increasingly richer and more sophisticated knowledge base and working out a process of conceptual understanding.

Few ways cited by Ormrod (2000) to help students

Providing opportunities for experimentation

Presenting the ideas of others Emphasizing conceptual understanding

(conceptual teaching: less is more)Working out a process of conceptual understanding means teaching and learning beyond facts. This can be done by the use of the thematic or the integrated approach.

Specific Strategies that can help Develop Coceptual Understanding

Organize units around a few core ideas and themes

Explore each topic in depth Explain how ideas relate to students’ own

experiences and to things they have previously learned

Show students Ask students to teach to others what they

have learned Promoting dialogue Using authentic activities

3. Subject matter content is an integration of cognitive, skill, and affective elements

Subject matter content is an integration of facts, concepts, hypotheses, theories, and laws, thinking skills, manipulative skills, values and attitudes

The Structure of Subject Matter Content

SUBJECT MATTER INCLUDES:

Cognitive- facts, concepts, principles, hypotheses, theories, and laws

Skills- Thinking and manipulative skills

Affective component- realm of values and attitudes

Cognitive Fact- an idea or action that can be verified Concept- a categorization of events,

places, people. Ideas, tables, beds, and desks

Principle- relationships between and among facts and concepts

Hypotheses-educated guesses about relationships

Theories- set of facts, concepts and principles that describe possible underlying unobservable mechanisms that regulate human learning, development and behavior

Personal Theories – learners’ general belief systems

Laws- firmly established, thoroughly tested principle or theory

Examples:Thorndike’s law of effect; law on the

conservation of matter and energy; law of supply and demand.

Skills Thinking skills- skills beyond recall

and comprehension- skills concerned with the application

of what was learned, synthesis, evaluation and critical and creative thinking.

- Divergent Thinking is FFOE: Fluent, flexible, original and elaborative thinking

Divergent Thinking

Original = thinking

that differs from

what’s gone

before

Fluent =generation of lots of

ideas

Flexible = variety of

thoughts in the kind of

ideas generatedElaborative

= embellishe

s on previous ideas or

plans

Convergent thinking- narrowing down from many possible thoughts to end up on a single best thought or answer to a problem

Problem-solving- is made easier when the problem is well-defined

“ The proper definition of a problem is already half the solution.”

What are some techniques to better define a problem?

Ormrod (2000) suggests:

Break large problems into well- defined ones

Distinguish information needed

Identify techniques to find needed information

How can problems be solved?

Question:

Problems can be solved by using algorithms or a heuristic strategy.

Answer:

What is algorithm and heuristics?

Follows specific, step-by-step instructions

General strategyfor problem-solving, for a solution

Informal, intuitive, speculative strategies that sometimes lead to an effective solution

Algorithm Heuristics

Metaphoric thinking/ Analogic Thinking

Uses analogic thinking, a figure of speech where a word is used in a manner different from its ordinary designation to suggest or imply parallelism or similarity

Example: Teaching is lighting a candle.

Critical Thinking- evaluating information or arguments in terms of their accuracy and worth

Verbal reasoning

Argument Analysis

Hypothesis testing

Decision making

Creative thinking-producing something that is both original and wortwhile

“ACIFFOEP” Awareness-notice attributes of things Curiosity-inclination to wonder Imagination-ability to speculate things Fluency- produce large quantity of ideas Flexibility- look at things from several

perspectives Originality-produce new one Elaboration-add on to an idea Perseverance-keep trying to find answer

Manipulative Skills

Manipulative skills begin with naïve manipulation and ends up in expert and precise manipulation.

Examples: Focusing the microscopeMounting specimens on the slideOperating simple machines and other gadgets

Mixing chemicals

What are other manipulative skills that you can think of?

Interactive attitudes and values

Values are the apex of the triangle in the three-level approach to teaching.

This is because it is in teaching of values that the teaching of facts, skills, concepts become connected to the life of the students, thus acquiring meaning.

Shall we teach values?

Yes! Values are taught and caught! I think, because of the belief that values cannot be taught, many teachers relegate in the background. Values can be taught, because like any subject matter,they too have a cognitive dimension,in addition to the affective and behavioral dimension. (Aquino, 1990)

How do we teach cognitive dimension, affective dimension and behavioral dimension?

Here is how:

Cognitive Dimension: When we teach the value of honesty we ask the following questions: What is meant by honesty ? Why do I have to be honest? Affective Dimension

You have to feel something towards honesty.

You have to be moved towards honesty as preferable to dishonesty.Behavioral Dimension

You lead an honest life.

How can we teach values?

By deutero-learning – Your student learns by being exposed to the situation, by acquainting himself with a setting, by following models, pursuing inspirations and copying behavior.

Your critical role as models in and outside the classroom cannot be overemphasized.

By positively reinforcing behavior By teaching the cognitive component

of values in the classroom

Unit III Chapter 3

Selection and Use

of Teaching Strategie

s

Something to ponder:

“Different folks, different strokes.”

Focus Questions:

What principles should guide us in the selection and use of teaching strategies?

What are the implications of these principles to the teaching-learning process?

Guiding Principles in the Selection and Use of Teaching Strategies

1.Learning is an active process.This means that we have to actively engage

the learners in the learning activities if we want them to learn what we intend to teach. 2. The more senses that are involved in learning, the more and the better the learning.

Humans are intensely visual animals. The eyes contain nearly 70 % of the body’s recceptore and send millions of signals along the optic nerves to the visual processing centers of the brain... We take in more information visually than through any of the other senses” (Wolfe, 2001)

The Contribution of Senses to Learning

75% 13% 3%6% 3%

Sight

Hearing Touc

h Taste

Smell

3. A non-threatening atmosphere enhances learning.

A non-threatening and conducive classroom is not only a function of the physical condition of the classroom but more a function of the psychological climate that prevails in the classroom.

The Classroom Atmosphere

Proper lighting Ventilation Order Tidiness Painting of the

room

Offshoot of our personality as a teacher

Rapport between us and our students/pupils

Relationship between and among us teachers and among our students

Physical Condition Psychological Climate

How do we create a positive,supportive and healthy classroom atmosphere/ environment?

The Answer:

1. Cultivate a culture of respect in our schools

2. Believe in our student’s capacity (TRUST)

3. Create a sense of belongingness (COMFORT)

4. Give allowance for mistakes

Pine and Horne (1994) state:

The learning process requires the challenge of new and different experiences, the trying of the unknown, and therefore, necessarily must involve the making of mistakes. In order for people to learn, they need the opportunity to explore new ideas wthout being penalized or punished for mistakes which are integral to the activity of learning.

Harvey Silver (2000)says:

Building comfort into learning is essential if we expect students to respond positively and constructively to their education.

Our own experience validates that we remember for a longer time events that elicit emotion in us.- Wolfe,2001

4. Emotion has the power to increase retention and learning.

We tend to remember and learn more those that strike our hearts!

For meaning, connect your teaching to your students’ everyday life.

5. Learning is meaningful when it is connected to students’ everyday life.

Abstract concepts are made understable when we give sufficient examples relating to the students’ experiences.

6. Good Teaching goes beyond recall and information

Good thinking concerns itself with higher-order-thinking skills to develop creative and crirical thinking.

Ideally, our teaching should reach the levels of application, analysis, sysnthesis, and evaluation to hone students’ thinking skills.

7. An integrated teaching approach is far more effective than teaching isolated bits of information.

Corpuz and Salandanan (2003) claim that an instructional approach is integrated when it considers the multiple intelligencces (MI) and varied learning styles.

Collecting Classroom Examples

Intelligence Examples of Classroom Activities

MasteryExercise-practice

Direct instructionDrill and repetitionDemonstrationsCompetitions

InterpersonalExperience-personalize

Team games, group investigation, Learning circlesRole-playing, peer tutoring

UnderstandingExplain-prove

Inquiry,debate, problem-solving, independent study, essays, logic problemsConcept formation

Self-expressiveExplore-produce

Divergent thinking. Open-ended discussionMetaphors, Creative art activities,imagining

An integrated approach incorporates successful, research-based and brain-based instructional strategies.

An integrated approach incorporates research findings about the brain

Some research findings about the brain ( Wolfe, 2001):

1. Without rehearsal or constant attention, information remains in working memory for only about 15-20 seconds.

2. Learning is a process of building neural works. The three levels of learning are concrete, symbolic and abstract (CSA).

3. Our brains have difficulty comprehending very large numbers because we have nothing in our experience to hook them to.

4. The eyes contain 70 % of the body’s sensory receptors and send millions of signals every second along the optic nerves to the visual processing of the brain.5. There is little doubt that when information is embeded in music or rhyme, its recall is easier than when it is in prose.

Brain-based Srategies

1. Involving students in real-life or authentic problem-solving

2.Using projects to increase meaning and motivation

3. Simulations and Role-plays

4. Classroom strategies using visual processing

5. Songs, jingles, and raps

6. Mnemonic Strategies assist students in recalling important information

7. Writing strategies-Make students write their own word problems and make them ask their classmates to solve them

8. Active review- Students are given the chance to interview

9. Hands-on-activities- “What we have to learn to do, we learn by doing.

8. There is no such thing as best teaching method. The best method is the one that works, the one that yields results.

There is no single best method.

1. Instruction

al objective

2. The nature of

the subject matter

3. The learners

4.The teacher

5. School policies

Factors to consider when choosing a strategy

Different Approaches and Methods

I. Direct/ Expositive Instruction Approah

a.Direct Instruction- teacher-directed and teacher dominated. It is meant for teaching of skills.

b. Deductive Method/approach is teacher-dominated. It begins with the abstract rule, generalization, principle and ends with specific examples.

c. Inductive Method is less teacher-directed than the deductive method. It begins with specific details, concrete data and examples and ends with an abstract generalization.

II. Guided/ Exploratory Approach

a. Inquiry Approach

b.Problem-solving Method

c. Project Method

d. Metacognitive approach

e. The Constructivist Approach

It is also called discovery or problem-solving method. The teacher guides the students as they explore and discover.

It is modeled after the investigative processes of the scientist.

It puts premium in obtaining direct experiences.

a. Inquiry Approah

It is a teaching strategy that employs the scientific method in searching for information

The five basic steps of scientific are:1.Sensing and defining a problem2. Formulating hypothesis3. Testing the likely hypothesis4.Analysis, interpretation and

evaluation of evidence5.Formulating conclusions

b.Problem-solving Method

It is a hands-on and minds-on method.

It rquires students to present in concrete form a learned concept or principle.

The project may be a task or a product.

It emphasizes “learning by doing

c. Project Method

Constructivist view learning as an active process that results from self-constructed meanings. A meaningful connection is established between prior knowledge and the present learning activity.

It is anchored on the belief that every individual constructs and reconstructs meanings depending on past experiences.

e. The Constructivist Approach