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Astronomy - State of the Art is a course on the hottest topics in astronomy. It starts with large new telescopes and the detectors behind them.
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Telescopes
How do telescopes help us learn about the universe?
• Telescopes collect vastly more light flux than our eyes light-collecting area, proportional to D2
• Telescopes can see much more detail than our eyes angular resolution, proportional to 1/D
• Telescopes/instruments can detect radiation that is invisible to our eyes (e.g., infrared, ultraviolet)
• Bigger is better! More light collected and the images are sharper with larger telescopes, but subject to the limitation imposed by the atmosphere for telescopes at high-altitude ground-based observing sites.
A telescope is characterized by its diameter, D
Hale Keck1 Keck2 MMT HET Gemini (x2) VLT (x4) Magellan SALT LBT (x2) GTC LSST GMT CELT E-ELT
HST Spitzer JWST
1949 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020
Ground-based Space-based
Planned 21st century 20-60 meter telescopes will cost about $1 billion, not out of line with the most ambitious 19th and 20th century projects.
• Plot of largest optical/infrared telescope size vs. time reveals an exponential growth rate.
– Remarkable given all the various social, economic, and technical factors.
• Extrapolating from Keck 10 m:
• 10 m 1993
• 25 m 2034
• 50 m 2065
• 100 m 2097
– History doesn’t explain how future gains will be made. Technical innovation is still essential for progress.
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Courtesy J. Nelson
Angular Resolution
• This is the minimum angular separation that the telescope can distinguish.
• For the naked eye it is about 1 minute of arc, 1/60 of degree.
• The normal limit due to turbulence in the atmosphere is 0.5-1 seconds of arc.
• Diffraction limit isn’t realized for D > 0.3m.
Telescope Resolution
Resolution is improved with a larger mirror (up to the limit imposed by the atmosphere) and also by observing shorter wavelengths of light/radiation.
Rule of Thumb:
Imaging angular resolution of 0.1“ Diffraction limit of 1.3m telescope Can resolve size of 100 AU at 10 l.y.
Basic Telescope Design
• Refracting: lenses
• Limited by chromatic aberration and sagging
Refracting telescope Yerkes 1-m refractor
Basic Telescope Design
• Reflecting: mirrors
• Most research telescopes today are reflecting designs
Reflecting telescope Gemini North 8-m
Keck I and Keck II, Mauna Kea, Hawaii
Limitations
Observing problems due to Earth environment
1. Light Pollution
8.4-m LSST 2018 6x8.4-m GMT 2019
Major Observatory Sites
Star imaged with a 2m ground-based telescope
2. Turbulence causes twinkling blurs images.
A CCD image from the Hubble Space Telescope
3. Atmosphere absorbs most of EM spectrum, including all the UV and X-ray, and most infrared wavelengths
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Telescopes also follow a cost “scaling law”
Recent history: Cost ~ D2.3
This is because a mirror scales according to area or D2 while the building scales as volume or D3. Other complex issues are vibrations, flexure, and the increasing size and cost of instruments.
Solutions
Frontier Technology
The data rate for the Large Synoptic Survey Telescope is 1 Gb/s, or 20 Tb a night, all of which will be reduced in real time and put out on the Web
The spun-cast 8.4m LSST mirror is so accurate that if it were the size of the US the biggest bumps on it would be one inch high
Steward Observatory Mirror Lab
MMT 6.5 m telescope Mt. Hopkins, Arizona
Magellan 6.5 m telescopes Las Campanas, Chile
Large Binocular Telescope Mt. Graham, Arizona
Currently this is the world’s most powerful telescope; two 8.4 meter mirrors, equivalent to a 12 m telescope
Bird’s Eye View of LBT
This is the largest mirror ever made. So is this.
Giant Magellan Telescope
Honeycomb Sandwich Mirrors
top view
side view (section)
Honeycomb sandwich structure makes the mirror stiff yet light, and it can follow changing night-time air temperature.
Making a GMT Mirror: Mold Assembly
Machine and install
1681 ceramic fiber
boxes inside a silicon
carbide tub.
Tops of boxes follow
shape of mirror surface;
no two are identical.
Loading Glass
Close furnace, prepare
to melt and spin.
Inspect, weigh, and load
18 tons of borosilicate
glass in ~5 kg blocks.
UV cameras mounted in
the furnace lid monitor the
casting.
Glass Melting
Heat to 1160˚C, spin at 4.9 rpm, hold four hours to
allow glass to fill mold. Cool rapidly to 900˚C then
slowly for 3 months, 2.4˚C/day through annealing.
First GMT segment. The others are off-axis parabaloids (challenging!)
The stress-lap polishing of the surface is accurate to one millionth of an inch.
The mirror forms images so sharp you could read a newspaper from 5 miles.
Second LBT mirror on
its way up Mt. Graham
Mirror being installed in
support cell at the telescope
Adaptive Optics
Adaptive Optics • Rapid changes in mirror shape compensate for atmospheric turbulence and allow telescopes to approach diffraction limit.
How is technology revolutionizing astronomy?
Without adaptive optics With adaptive optics
View of convex rear surface of the first LBT secondary shell, showing aluminum coating for capacitive sensors and magnets for actuators.
To gain the diffraction-limited imaging potential of a large telescope a light secondary mirror must have its shape adjusted at 50-100 Hz to take out wave-front variations caused by atmospheric turbulence.
Figuring of the Optical Surface
Figuring is done with a 30 cm diameter stressed lap. Stressed lap bends actively to follow curvature variations over aspheric surface. A stiff lap smoothes out small-scale surface errors as if the mirror were spherical.
Binary Star: AO on (left), and off (right), where the active control gives more than an order of magnitude improvement in angular resolution.
M92: HST (left) and AO on the ground (right), with exposure times scaled to control for the larger telescope used for ground-based data.
The Sharpest Image Ever Made
Interferometers
Interferometers give big gains in resolution more than sensitivity.
Signals have to be combined in phase, or coherently, requiring registration to a fraction of the wavelength. This is much harder for light than for radio waves.
Interferometry • Coherently combine waves from separate telescopes to reach the resolution equivalent to the largest separation.
Radio Interferometer
Atacama Large Millimeter Array
Completion due in 2016, with 66 antennas of 12m and 7m diameter at an altitude of 5000m in Chile’s Atacama Desert.
Optical Interferometer
Detectors In the late 1970’s Charge-Coupled Detectors (CCDs) began to be used in astronomy, taking over from photographic plates and image tubes. By the 1990’s, all major research telescopes in the world were using nitrogen-cooled CCDs.
How a CCD Works
Like a “bucket brigade,” a CCD collects light like rain then passes it along each row where is gets measured, then along the columns. But CCDs actually turn incoming light into electrons and store electrical charge in “wells” that are read out in two dimensions and then converted into a digital signal.
CCDs Large and Small
2 million pixels 3 billion pixels
Research-grade CCDs have more pixels than digital cameras and are operated at liquid nitrogen temperatures. They’re virtually perfect, with (1) almost no blemishes, (2) nearly 100% quantum efficiency, (3) large dynamic range, and (4) a few electrons read noise.
The camera on the LSST will enable “celestial cinematography,” taking an image of the entire northern sky every three days to Hubble depth.
The Ubiquitous CCD
In 1969, Willard Boyle and George Smith were facing the closure of their Bell Labs operation, so they came up with the idea in one hour.
Now, there are 200m digital cameras and 500m cellphones with CCDs sold every year.
Experiments & Instruments
Simulations
answers
questions
• Data ingest (1 GB per second)
• Managing a petabyte
• Common data schemas
• How to organize it?
• How to mine/explore it?
• How to coexist with others
• Query and Visualization tools
• Support and Training
• Real-Time Performance – Execute queries in a minute
– Batch query scheduling
? A Big Data Problem
Literature
Other Archives facts
facts
CCD Data Issues
Space Astronomy
Space Astronomy • Highly successful NASA “Great Observatories” and planetary probes have revolutionized our view of the universe, although they cost 10-20x more than same size telescope on the ground.
Note: This timeline from 6 years ago shows some missions that are slipping at a rate of ~1 year/year!
The Moon would be a great spot for an observatory (but at what price?) Hubble has cost about $8 billion, and counting.
The Electromagnetic Spectrum
NASA Great Observatories
Gamma X-Ray Optical IR
NASA’s flagships are the “Great Observatories,” which are all currently in operation, though Spitzer is in “warm mode” after exhausting its helium. All of them can make images and do spectroscopy, and are used to study planets, stars and galaxies. They’re all $1 billion plus missions
The Electromagnetic Spectrum
NASA Great Observatories WMAP
Gamma X-Ray Optical IR Microwaves
Special purpose missions such as WMAP cost less (about $300m), which is 5 to 6x less than a Great Observatory and can also answer major scientific questions.
The Electromagnetic Spectrum and Beyond
NASA Great Observatories WMAP LISA
Gamma X-Ray Optical IR Microwaves Gravity Waves
Across the EM Spectrum
far-IR mid-IR near-IR opt UV far-UV X-ray gamma
Spitzer
Hubble
Chandra and XMM
GALEX
FUSE INTEGRAL
Planck
Herschel
Swift
SIM, TPF?
JWST
SOFIA
Galileo Updated
The International Year of Astronomy saw the launch of the “Galileoscope,” a version of his best instrument made with modern materials. Only $25, including the tripod!
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History of Optical Telescopes
On the Earth:
13 of 8 meters
or over since
the mid 90s
Hubble Space Telescope
• An orbiting telescope that collects light from celestial objects at visible, UV, and near-infrared wavelengths
• Launched 24 April, 1990, aboard the Space Shuttle Discovery
• Dimensions: Cylindrical 24,500 lb (11,110-kg), 43 ft long (13.1 m ) and 14.1 ft (4.3m) wide
• Orbital period: 96 minutes
• Primarily powered by the sunlight collected by its two solar arrays
• The telescope’s primary mirror is 2.4 m (8 ft) in diameter
• Was created by NASA with substantial and continuing participation by ESA
• Operated by the Space Telescope Science Institute (STSI) in Baltimore
• Named for Edwin Powell Hubble
"The Hubble Space Telescope is the most productive telescope since Galileo's"
- Robert Kirshner, President of the American Astronomical Society
HST Overview
Guy at Sears told us it would work.
“Top 10 excuses for the HST”
Some kid on Earth is playing with the garage door opener.
Whatchamacallit is jammed against the doohickey that looks like a cowboy hat.
See if you can think straight after 12 straight days of drinking Tang.
Bum with squeegee smeared lens at traffic light.
Blueprints drawn up by that “Hey Vern” guy.
“Top 10 excuses for the HST”
Those darn raccoons.
Should not have used GE parts.
Ran out of quarters.
Race of super-evolved galactic beings is screwing with us.
• Corrective Optics Space Telescope Axial Replacement (COSTAR).
• Designed to correct spherical aberration due to mis-calibration of primary mirror before launch.
• Added as part of another instrument and inserted into the light path of all instruments during the 1st Shuttle servicing mission.
COSTAR
Grunsfeld from orbit
Top 10: Science Impact
Dark energy
Eg
First stars
• Creation of galaxies (HDF, UDF)
• Acceleration of the universe: SN Ia
• Distance scale of the universe: H0
• Giant black holes in galaxies
• Emission lines in active galaxies
• Intergalactic medium (QAL)
• Interstellar medium chemistry
• Gamma Ray Burst sources
• Protoplanetary disks
• Extrasolar planets
Mplanet
Young planetary systems
Aurorae on Jupiter
• Original budget: $475 million
• OTA: $69.4 million
• Actual cost: In 1986, when it was first assembled for launch, it cost $1.6 billion, and had several technical problems. Four years of tinkering and improvements later, it finally launched – at $2.2 billion (not counting $0.5 billion launch!)
• Percentage overrun: 460%
Astronomical Telescope: Astronomical Price Tag
• Mirror had spherical aberration – only seeing ~20% of the light.
• SM-1: repaired faulty optics, next 4 rejuvenated the facility.
• Price, after 21 years: $6 billion.
Hubble Images
Making Color Images
The final color image on the left is the result of extensive processing. There are four individual images (the top right quadrant at a higher resolution) and separate images taken through different color filters.
Each color filter has two equal exposures taken (left and right); the streaks are cosmic ray hits in the CCD silicon. They arrive randomly and can be removed very efficiently by combining the two images.
The left image is the result of cosmic ray filtering. An even better result (right) comes from using images in the four different filters.
Next geometric distortions in the camera are mapped and removed (left), and the seams between the different images are eradicated.
Blue is assigned to the oxygen filter image, green to the hydrogen filter image, and red to the sulfur filter image. They are combined.
Courtesy: Jeff Hester (ASU)
3/19/2013 83
3/19/2013 84
3/19/2013 85
3/19/2013 86
3/19/2013 87
3/19/2013 89
Big Glass
JWST
6.5m
GCT
10.4m
GMT 21.5m
TMT 30m
30m Plus Adaptive Optics
OWL 100m
Invisible Waves
Arecibo 300m
Square Kilometer Array
The Square Kilometer Array is being built by 18 countries. It will have 8000 antennas spread over 3000 kilometers, with a central filled region, and sensitivity 100 x any existing radio telescope
The Cool Universe
For thermal wavelengths, space is the ideal environment. It’s almost as good at high altitudes in a plane. The Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy saw first “heat” in 2010.
SOFIA is a 747-SP with a 2.5m telescope, and it replaces the 1m KAO
X-ray telescope: “grazing incidence” optics
Due to shallow angle of collecting the radiation, X-ray telescopes need more mirror area and are more complex/expensive to build.
Beyond Vision
Ways of Seeing the Universe
The Universe as a Telescope
Gravity Waves
In General Relativity, any time a mass distribution changes it creates ripples in space-time that propagate in 3D at the speed of light. The blue lines connect red markers of space
LIGO Livingston Observatory
LIGO Hanford Observatory
LIGO Layout
Power-recycled, cavity-enhanced Michelson Interferometer
Arm Cavities: • Livingston: 4km long • Hanford: 4km and 2km long TITM = 2.7%, Finesse ~ 115
Power Recycling mirror: TPR = 2.7%, Gain ~ 50
Mirrors: • Material: Fused Silica • 25 cm diameter • 10 cm thick • Wedged (~2deg)
225W
15kW
5W
Beam Pipe and Enclosure
• Minimal Enclosure (no services)
• Beam Pipe
– 1.2m diam; 3 mm stainless
– 65 ft spiral weld sections
– 50 km of weld (NO LEAKS!)
Suspension and Optics
Single suspension 0.31mm music wire Fused Silica
Surface figure = /6000
• surface uniformity < 1nm rms
• scatter < 50 ppm
• absorption < 2 ppm
• internal Q’s > 2 x 106
BANG!
Binary systems » Neutron star – Neutron star
» Black hole – Neutron star
» Black hole – Black hole
Periodic Sources » Rotating pulsars
“Burst” Sources » Supernovae
» Gamma ray bursters
» ?????
Stochastic » Big Bang Background
» Cosmic Strings
Signal Sources
LIGO is a laser interferometer that can detect motions below the size of one proton over a span of 5km; it’s by far the most accurate experiment in physics ever, a precision of:
10-22
LIGO and LISA
Frontiers
Big Bang + 700,000,000 years
First Light and Beyond
Big Bang + 100,000,000 years
First Light and Beyond
Big Bang + 300,000 years
First Light and Beyond
Big Bang + 10-35 seconds
Beyond Einstein
• New probes of the inflationary epoch
• The possibility of hidden dimensions
• Observational tests of the multiverse
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