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Where’s the Impact?Proposing the Future of Instructional Technology
Research
Barbara LockeeVirginia Tech
Why this topic?Great interest in the use of technology for
learning across all disciplines
Much research has been done inside and outside of the field of Ed Tech
Overview of trends in Ed Tech’s evolution and research
The next generation? Believing and Hoping…
Educational Technology Past
The streams or threads that comprise ET
100,000 years ago?
30,000 years ago?
3,500 BCE
2000 BCE
1000 BCE
1150 CE
600 CE
MEDIA
Drawing in the dirt?
Cave drawings?
Written languages
First Alphabet
Paper invented
Lead pencils in England
100 CE
Writing on bone, tablets, etc.
First books printed (China)
Moveable steel type (Korea)
1500 CE
1500 CE Camera obscura
Educational Technology Past
The streams or threads that comprise ET
MEDIA
Magic Lantern
1888
Multiple images – Magic Lantern1700’s
1600’s
Kodak – Box camera
Phonograph1877
1888 First movie
First “talkie”1890
1900 First radio broadcasts
First television broadcast1925
Educational Technology Past
COMPUTING/CALCULATING
Abacus3000 BCE
1600 Calculators (Pascaline)
Punched cards (Jacquard)1801
Punched cards (Hollerith)1880’s
First electronic computers1940’s
Mainframes (1st Gen - tubes)1950’s
Mainframes (2nd Gen – transistors)1960’s
1965 -1971 Mainframes (3rd Gen–Integrated Circuits)
1972 –present Microcomputers
1990’s Internet
The streams or threads that comprise ET
Educational Technology Past
The streams or threads that comprise ET
Military training needs 1940’s
Skinner’s “Technology of Teaching”Programmed
Instruction
1950’s
Gagne’s “Conditions of Learning”1960’s
Height of Programmed InstructionRise of Cognitive Psychology
1970’s
Rise of CBI (big systems)1980’s
1990’s Rise of Constructivism
INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN
Educational Technology Past
The “streams” or “threads” that comprise ET
MEDIA COMPUTING/CALCULATING
INSTRUCTIONALDESIGN
EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY
Educational Technology Past
Educational Technology is at the nexus of Psychology, Media, and Computer Science
With the exception of a brief flurry of design activity around programmed instruction, the focus from the educational community and society has been on technology and its promise to solve educational problems…
In Other Words…
Technology is The Answer!!!
…but what was the question?
Why should we care about history?
"All this has happened before. All this will happen again.”
Educational Technology Past
Beginning in 1850 with the invention of the “Magic Lantern” (flame produced light and transparent slides), the educational value of media has been proclaimed.
Educational Technology Past
With motion pictures, recorded sound, “talkies”, etc. it appeared that books, and teachers(!) would become obsolete
“…books will soon be obsolete in schools. It is possible to teach every branch of human knowledge with the motion picture.”
(Thomas Edison, 1913)
Educational Technology Past
Then radio would save education, then television…
“Radio broadcast is one of the greatest educational tools which has ever been placed at the disposal of civilized man.”
(G.T. Buswell, 1935 - The Phi Delta Kappan)
Educational Technology Past
“The results of the studies outlined above give substantial evidence that television does an adequate, and perhaps superior, job of teaching”
(Williams, The School Review, 1956)
Educational Technology Past
Video discs
Personal computers
Tablet computers
Mobile devices
The next innovation…
Educational Technology Present
In U.S., IT spending in education reached $47.7 billion by the end of 2008 and is exceeded $56 billion by 2012.
According to “Education Snapshot: Learning with Technology,” most education IT spending is occurring in higher education–about 64% versus 36% in K-12.
(Nagel, THE Journal, 2008)
Educational Technology Present
Over 60% of the funding is in telecommunications, wireless, security, etc. (hardware and personnel).
The rest is what pays for computers and other technology and software.
Educational Technology Present
Distance learning in K- 12 and Higher Education
Virtual Worlds
Games
Tablets & iPads
MOOCs
Flipped classrooms
Educational Technology Research
Lots of money, time, and effort
Does it work?
What do we even mean when we ask “does it work?”
Research vs. Evaluation
Research Began EarlyAs audio-visual innovations emerged, each was
“researched” by comparing it to “traditional” instruction
Known as media comparison studies
Distance education produced some of the first documented studies in ET
The Problem with Comparisons
Lack theoretical basis
Confounding variables
Most result in “no significant difference” outcomes
Hundreds of studies over decades of research
Every innovation becomes focus of comparison
Even meta-analyses of NSD studies
However…
GI = GO
To make matters worse…NSD results are misinterpreted to mean “as
good as”
This causal leap was unjustified, only indicating the treatment had no effect
Analyses revealed confounding variables of media features and instructional strategy
So What Are Good Questions?
Micro level issuesMedia attributes Instructional strategiesLearner characteristics
Macro level issuesAnalysis & design of systemsExploration of contextual factorsExamination of socio-cultural issues
3M’s of Technology Mediated Learning
Delivery Mode
Media attribute
Instructional Method
Realism and AbstractionAmount of detail
Line drawings--photographs--3-DRealism can cause interference
Color vs. Black & WhiteNo difference in learningPreferred by learnersColor can provide visual cues
Media AttributesMotion
Sequence
Interaction/Communication
Feedback
Instructional Strategies
Demonstration
Problem-based learning
Collaborative strategies
Individualized instruction
Learner CharacteristicsCognitive style
Motivation
Self-efficacy
Cultural influences
Two Examples
Starting a skip loader grader
Personal protective equipment
Current Research Trends
Movement from lab to applied settings
From single method to mixed approaches
Design-based research Iterative process of manipulating variables in the
learning environment until it “works”Nelson, W. (2013). Design, research, and design
research: Synergies and contradictions. Educational Technology (53), 1, 3-11.
The Design ProcessAnalyze
Design
Develop
Implement
Evaluate
Synchronous Distributed Systems
Conferencing Systems
Features Supports real-time communication for learning Various modalities Low development overhead
What the Evidence Says Can be very effective in support of outcomes related to
procedural knowledge or social interaction skills Instructor and student preferences related to social
presence Some negative feedback from learners regarding “being
on the spot”, hesitance to participate
Synchronous Distributed Systems
Multi-Player Games
Features Social interaction Competition and collaboration Rules and goals Players take on roles, can be team-based or individual Environments can vary from simplistic graphics to virtual reality
What the Evidence Says Game accessibility and ease of use is critical to learning Not great for direct instruction, action is emergent and focused on
interactions and player choices More appropriate for open-ended learning, gaining insights,
triggering questions Debriefing upon completion can provide important feedback for both
instructor and students
Synchronous Distributed Systems
Augmented Reality Systems: mediated view of real world environment enhanced with digital information
Features Information can be displayed through a variety of technologies
including head-mounted displays, handheld devices (including smartphones & iPads), and spatial, projected displays
Can support a variety of tasks including mechanical processes, navigation, surgery, military exercises, language translation
Can support individual instructional activities or collaborative endeavors
Digital enhancements are possible through a variety of media, including text, video, graphics, etc.
What the Evidence Says Engagement and motivation of learners with prior challenges related to
behavior and participation
Development of distributed knowledge and positive interdependence
Some learners experience cognitive overload
Can be remedied with effective design decisions
Google Glass
Asynchronous Distributed Systems
Asynchronous E-Learning
Features Flexibility in time and pace of coursework completion
Depending on delivery system, can support wide range of media features (text, audio, video, animations, etc.)
High overhead in initial development, but payoff related to ease of modifications and maintenance
What the Evidence Says Learners appreciate independence and convenience Struggles with completion and attrition Can be remedied with firm deadlines and regular communication from
instructor Some negative perspectives related to perceived decreased social
presence Can be addressed with provision of feedback and communication flow
Asynchronous Distributed Systems
Adaptive Learning Systems: computer-based instruction, content based on student input and performance
Features Individualized instruction Customized to learner needs Mastery-learning Can support variety of delivery modes and media features
What the Evidence Says Can enhance learner performance, as instruction is targeted to
specific needs Heavy front-end design needs can present barriers Evaluated through comparison conditions, demonstrate system
effectiveness
Asynchronous Distributed Systems
Mobile Learning: the use of mobile technologies to deliver instruction
Features Supports a variety of content and instructional approaches Often used to provide scaffolded support in field work or clinical instruction Can capture and deliver learner information in many forms (text, photos,
voice) Device variance can be problematic Internet access necessary Can use a variety of media features, but small display and text input can pose
challenges
What the Evidence Says Content should be delivered in simplest possible form Same issues of procrastination as e-Learning, can be addressed through
pushed email reminders, phone communication, quizzes and questions Learner preferences indicate an appreciation for flexibility. When compared to
standard e-Learning, learners preferred non-mobile option.
The Next Generation?Believing…more of the same?
US DOE 2010 National Ed Technology Plan
“Identify and validate design principles for efficient and effective online learning systems and combined online and offline learning systems that produce content expertise and competencies equal to or better than those produced by the best conventional instruction in half the time at half the cost.”
The Next Generation?Believing…more of the same?
“Design and validate an integrated system that provides real-time access to learning experiences tuned to the levels of difficulty and assistance that optimize learning for all learners and that incorporates self-improving features that enable it to become increasingly effective through interaction with learners.”
Personalized Learning Environments
Sound familiar??
The Next Generation?Hoping…
Research related to technological innovations and systems to engage learners
Increase interest in and excitement about learningVirtual humans to engage learners in science
Access information through innovation attributesAugmented reality to teach history
The Next Generation?Hoping…
To echo Tom Reeves call for more “socially responsible research”
Technology-enhanced learning environments to address real world problems
Preserving language and cultureDistance education to develop
human capacityUsing game-based instruction to increase girls’
awareness of IT careers
The Next Generation?In closing, let’s be hopeful that…
Instructional technology research will be informed by the pastexplore meaningful issues that address real world
problemsMake a difference in the future!
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