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Voiceesilence• Twocommonusageofvoice:
• Thevoicesupportingmeaning(let’sgofighting)• Thevoicesupportingestheticalexperience(let’sgototheOpera)
• Thevoicesupportinginteractionandrelationships• Speakingmachines…thinkingmachines
• Voice,languageandthoughtßàhumanity• Voiceandlife• Silenceanddeath
Always‘somethingmore’• Voicepointstomeaning(creatinganexpectationofmeaning)
BUT• Voiceisanevanescentmedium(FredricJameson):makesmeaningpossiblebutdisappearsoncemeaninghasbeenproduced(wegetusedto)
• Phonology/Semantics/Meaning• VoiceAnalysisàMeaningextraction/AestheticsDimension…livingvoiceisalwaysSOMETHINGMORE
• àProsodyindiscourseanddialogue,….
Always‘somethingmore’• Accent(voiceandsingingactivity).Dominant/Officialspeech
• IntonationandOppositemeaning:irony,sarcasm…• Tone–thevoiceasa‘fingerprint’immediatelyrecognizedandidentified
Articulation:fromno-articulationtoiper-articulationà ThevoiceasENUNCIATIONPROCESSà Thevoiceas(need?)desireof…others
VoiceandSpeech/NLP• WearenotinterestedonPhonetics(onphonemesandtheirproduction,theirphysicalquality,theirphysicalandphysiologicalproperties)• WeareinterestedonPhonology:theirrelationalnature,theirpositionsintoutterancescontributetomeaning.Theirattitudeto‘takeaplace’helpsustogroupanddistinguishmeaningfulutterancesubparts(Jakobson,DeSaussure,…)• WeareinterestedonProsody…
Prosody:introduction• Prosodyisageneraltermencompassingintonation,rhythm,tempo,loudness,andpausesastheseinteractwithsyntax,lexicalmeaning,andsegmentalphonologyinspokentexts.
• Inthefieldofdiscourseanalysistherehasbeenanincreasingawarenessofthecentralroleoftheseaspectsoflanguage.
Prosody:introduction• BUTProsodystillhasasidelinestatusindiscourseanalysisbecause:• Withtheexceptionofpunctuationandcertainoccasionalspecialfonts,prosodicfeaturesarenotreadilyavailableinEnglishortography• ASRàlossofprosodicdetails.ConversationAnalystshaveincludedprosodiccomponentsintheirtranscriptioncodingsystemsbutnotalltranscribersconsistentlyusethecodes• Muchofthecurrentworkonprosody(particularlyonintonationandrhythm)iswrittenbyandforphonologistsandphoneticiansàlimitationsforthediscourseanalyst.
Prosody:introduction• Limitationsfordiscourseanalysts:
• Constructedexamplestendtobesingleutterances,leavingtheroleofprosodyinextendeddiscourseinaccessible• Presupposedcontextsmayinfluencetheintonationof“out-of-the-blue”utterances(citationform)• Ironicallytherecentdevelopmentofcomputerizedspeechtechnologyintroducedanewsetofmethodologicaldecisionsabouthottoproceed
Prosody:introduction• Wewillpresentareferencemodelforprosodicanalysis–fornonphonologists–discourseoriented–whichencouragesalsomixedprocessing
• DiscourseßàProsody
• Prosodyisnotanaddedflourishorasuperimposedfeature
DiscourseFunctionandIntonation
• Themodelthatweadopt:theA.Wennerstrom’smodel:• ToBI–Pierrehumbert(1980)ANDPierrehumbert,Hirshberg(1990)• Key–Brazil(1985,1997)• Paratone–Brown(1077),Yule(1980)
PITCHACCENTS1)multisyllabicwords:thestressismarkedwithaccentsymbolsonthevowels.(e=primarystress;e=secondarystress)2)H*pitchaccent:indicatesinformationbeingaddedtothediscourseasnew3)L+H*pitchaccent:underlinedtext,indicatesinformationcontrastingwithaprioritemorideainthediscourse3)L*pitchaccent:insubscriptedcapitalletters,indicatesinformationthatisnottobeaddedtothediscourseasnew,eitherbecauseitisalreadybelievedtobeaccessible,orbecauseitisExtra-propositional4)L*+Hpitchaccent:insubscriptedandunderlinedcapitallettersindicatesthattherelevanceofanitemtothediscourseisquestionedincontrasttosomeotheritem
FromMES-Wennerstrom
TheIntonationalPhrase• TheIntonationalPhraseisamoreorlessacontinuouspitchcontourwith,atminimum,aninitialKey,anumberofpitchaccents,andapitchboundary
FromMES-Wennerstrom
TheIntonationalPhrase• TheIntonationalPhraseisamoreorlesscontinuouspitchcontourwith,atminimum,aninitialKey,anumberofpitchaccents,andapitchboundary
• The“ideal”IntonationalPhrasecoincideswithaclusteroflinguisticfeatures,anyofwhichmaybeusefulinitsidentification.Itcanbeutteredinonebreath:itisoftensetoffbypauses;itgraduallydeclinesinpitchthroughoutitsduration;itendswithfinallength-ending,slowertempo,andpossiblechangesinvoicequality;itformsthedomainofcertainphonologicalrules;anditmaycoincidewithsyntacticconstituents(MES–pag.31)
TheIntonationalPhrase
• NaturalDiscourse/Alteredbaseline
• AccordingtothePierrehumbert’s“compositional”modelofintonationalmeaning:eachcomponentor“tone”addsasmallelementsofmeaningtothediscourseasawhole
IntonationSystemandothersystemsofprosody• Theintonationsysteminteractswithothersystemsofprosody:• Tempoandvolumeinwhichasentenceisdeliveredcanhaveconsequencesforitsinterpretation• Aparalinguisticvariationofpitchcanbeusedtohighlightparticularconstituents,exaggeratingtheirbasicintonationpatterns• Changesinvoiceequalitycanoccurinmimicryorintheuseofstereotypicalvoicestoachieveinteractionalgoals• àtheirroleintheanalysisofconversation• àtheirroleonnarratives
StressandRhythm• Rhythmisanorganizingforceinlanguage• RhythmprovidesanunderlininghierarchicalstructureuponwhichStressisbuilt,whileIntonationcomponentsareassociatedwiththehighpointsoftheserhythmichierarchies• Rhythmismaintainedacrossintonationboundariesandfromonespeakertothenext.
StressandRhythm• StressisnotIntonation• Theybothusepitch,volumeandlengthchangesinspeechproductionBUT• Stressisaphonologicalcharacteristicoflexicalitemsandislargelyfixedandpredictable,whereasintonationcanbealtereddependingonthediscourseroleplayedbytheconstituentswithwhichtonesareassociated• àIntonationhasthegreaterpotentialtoinfluencediscoursemeaning
StressandRhythm• Abasicstresspattern(includingprimarystress,secondarystress,nostressandcompoundstress)isaphonologicalpropertyoflexicalitemsandcompounds,dependingontheirhistory,morphology,andsyllablestructure• Intonationisasystemofmeaningindiscourse,whichassociateswithtextbymappingontotherhythmicstresspatternsofwords
RhythmUnderliesSpokenLanguage• Asenseofrhythmisauniversalhumantrait
• “Thefactthatspeech,verseandmusicallhavehierarchicallyorganizedmetricalstructureimplies…acommoncognitiveorigin.Notonlyarethetheprinciplesoforganizationsurprisinglysimilarforallthreefaculties,buttheyalsoallowthesameplay-offbetweenabstractconstructorunderlyingstructureandactualrealization”(Couper-Kuhlen,1993)
RhythmUnderliesSpokenLanguage• Feetandtheenergyoftherhythmicbeats.Where?
• Atthebeginningofthefoot,usuallyonthestressedsyllableofthefirstcontentword?• Englishistrochaic(energyatthebeginningofthefoot)• Englishisoftenreferredasa‘stressedtime’language• “Innaturalspeechisnotasregularasincountingorinchildren’srhymesNEVERLESSthereisastrongtendencyinEnglishforthesalientsyllablestooccuratregularintervals;speakersofEnglishliketheirfeettobeallroughlythesamelength”(Halliday,1994)
RhythmUnderliesSpokenLanguage
• Inactualmeasurementsofbeatduration• Theintervalsbetweenbeatsareneverexact.Howeveraregularrhythmscanstillbeperceivedbecauseaseriesofbeatsisprocessedasan“auditorygestalt”• Witha‘constructiveprocess’thesedatabecomepartsofanholisticschemewhichisthenabletoincorporatefurtherdetailsfromtheincomingsignals• Silentbeatsaretimefillersinnaturalspeech
RhythmicHierarchies• Anhandyformalismtoshowhowwordstressinteractswithintonation• Thesourceofpitchaccentliesoutsidethemetricalstructure,dependingonaspeaker’sintentionandassessmentsaboutthediscourse
• Rulesof‘eurhythmy’arephonologicalrulesthatrestructurepatternsofrhythmicweightsothatstressisdistributedmoreevenlyandtheoverallstructurewillbebalanced.
RhythminInteraction• TheimportanceofRhythmasanorganizingforceinphonologyhasfurtherimplicationsfortheanalysisofinteractionaldiscourse
• Rhythmicspeechiseasytoprocess• Hearersareabletoperceiveandprocessthediscourseinregularbeat-sizedcycles
• Turn-taking• SynchronizedOverlapping• Agreementon“awkward”pauses• SynchronizedRhythmoftalksacrossturnboundaries• Uncomfortablemoments:whentherhythmicstructureofthediscoursebreaksdownandthecontentalsoreflectssomeawkwardnessordisagreement
RhythminInteraction• Rhythmicstabilityisglobal• Speechwithregularrhythmisoptimalforprocessing.However,fromtheidealizedbalance,speakersalsohavetheoptiontomanipulaterhythmforinteractionalpurposes.
FromMES-Wennerstrom
ParalanguageUsage• OralNarrativeàprosodyofnarrative
• Storytellersenrichwithgestures,mimicry,volume,variationofpitch(performancefeatures)• Quotedspeechismarkedbyparalinguisticshifts–tempo,pitchrange,volumeandotheraspectsofvoicequalitychangeduringthequotedportion
• EmotionRecognition• Developmentofindividualspeechstyle• Crossculturalcommunicationstyleanalysis
Intention,MentalRepresentation,Coherence• Coherence:cohesionandconnectionamongideasbehindadiscourse
• Intonationplaysaroleincohesionand,thereby,coherence• Examples:• thatapitchboundaryattheendofaphrasecananticipatethenextconstituenttocompleteitsinterpretation
• ThataL*pitchaccentcanbeassociatedwithlexicalitemsthatthespeakerbelievesshouldalreadybeaccessibletothehearer
• ThatL+H*pitchaccentcansignalacontrastrelationshipwithitemsthathavecomebefore
• Otherpitchmorphemeshelphearerstodrawconnectionsbetweenwhatisutteredandwhatisalreadyrepresentedintheirmindsduringtheinteraction
Acooperativeprocess• Thecollaborativenatureofcomprehension• Twoparticipantsreadjusttheirmentalmodeltoincorporateeachnewideainacoherentmanner
• It’simportanttonotethecontributionofintonationtothecohesionofatextand(indirectly)tocoherence
• Intonationcanprovidemoreinformationthancanthelexicogrammaticalstructurealone
• Thelexicogrammaticalstructurecombineswithothersourcesofinputtocreateamentalrepresentationofdiscourse
• A.WennerstromàL*associatedtowhataspeakerassumestobeaccessibletohearersàstudiescommunitymembership,socialaffiliationbutalsoprofessor’sassumptionaboutwhatiscommonknowledgeandwhatstudentsneedtolearn.
MentalRepresentationandDiscourse• Aspeoplecommunicate,eachbuildsamentalrepresentationofthediscourseasitprogresses.
• Newcontributionsinvolveaspeaker’sassessmentofhoeothersarelikelytohaveconstructedtheirmentalrepresentationsandwhatcommonknowledgetheymayalreadyshare
• However,despiteourbesteffortsatcollaboration,comprehensionisnotanall-or-nothingstateofaffairsthateithersucceedsoffails.Speakersandlistenershaveindependentanddifferentgoals,…
• àacooperativeprocess…aninterestinggame
Coherencefromthelistener’sperspective• Coherenceisarelativenotionàwecandefineacoherentdiscoursefromalistener’sperspectiveifwesupporttheconstructionofamentalrepresentationthatisadeguateaspossibleornecessary
• A.Wennerstromunderlines3importantsourcesofinputtothementalrepresentationoddiscourse:
• 1)LinguisticInput(Anaphora-AntecedentRelationships,Conjunctions,…)• 2)previousKnowledge• 3)Perceptionofthephysicalenvironment
Coherencefromthelistener’sperspective• 1)LinguisticInput(Anaphora-AntecedentRelationships,Conjunctions,…)–Prosodyplaysanimportantrole:Speakersassociateparticularintonationalmorphemeswiththelexicogrammaticalstructureofthetextworkingthelistener’smentalmodel(theitemisnew,alreadyaccessible,contrastive?):pitchaccent,pitchboundaries,keyandpauses.SpeakersandlistenersorganizetheirtopicssupportingalsoRE-FOREGROUNDING
Coherencefromthelistener’sperspective• 2)PreviousKnowledge:• H*pitchaccentsdirectlisteners’attentiontomaterialthathastobeaddedtotheirmentalrepresentation,• L*pitchaccentsassociatewiththosedetailsassumedbythespeakertobeaccessibleInthementalrepresentationoflistenersthroughmemoryschemata.• L+H*pitchaccentsassociatewithitemswhosetiestothementalrepresentationareincontrasttowhatisalreadyaccessibleviatheschemata,evenifadirectantonymhasnotbeenverbalizedinthetext.
• …..
Coherencefromthelistener’sperspective
• 3)Perceptionofthephysicalenvironment• DeicticLanguage(deicticpronouns:this,that,…I,orYou,…)• Pointinggesture• Directionofgazearebringingcertainfeaturesintheimmediateenvironmenttotheforegroundofattention,whileotherfeaturesremaininthebackgroundWESUPPORTàGESTALTHEORYOFPERCEPTION
Pitchaccentscanbeassociatedwithlexicalitemswhosereferentsareperceivableinthesurroundingenvironmenttoeitherforgroundthem(H*),contrastthem(L+H*),indicatethattheyarealreadybelievedtopresentinthementalrepresentationofthediscourse(L*)ortoquestiontheirrelevance(L*+H)
ResearchTopics• WhatistherelationshipbetweenReferenceandIntonation?• WhatistherelationshipbetweenIntonationandContrast?• HowdoesIntonationreflectCommunityMembershipinCross-CulturalInteraction?
• HowdoChildrenuseintonationastheydevelopSchematicOrganization?
• HowdoestheIntonationofClassroomDiscoursereflectthebuildingofnewschematainLearningProcess?
ProsodyasaDiscourseMarker
• DiscourseMarkersaresequentiallydependentelementswhichbracketunitsoftalk(Schiffrin,1987)
• “Sequentiallydependent”means:Theoccurrencesofamarkerdependsonthesequenceofeventsatthelevelofdiscourse,ratherthanatthelocalleveloftheclause.
• “Bracket”meansthatthediscoursemarkerstendtooccurattheperipheryofother“unitsoftalk”
• “Units”isgeneric:Discoursemarkersmayassociatewithdifferenttypesofconstituents
• Theunitmaybesyntactic(thephraseorclause);semantic(theproposition);orphonological(theintonationalphrase)
ProsodyandLexicalDiscourseMarkers• InmanysituationsdiscoursemarkersareassociatedtoL*pitchaccents(theyhaveorganizationalandinteractionalfunctionsanddonotcontributetotheinformationstructureofthediscourse).PierrehumbertandHirshberg(1990)refertothemas‘cuephrases’
• L*/H*:Youknow,like,oh,well,FromMES-Wennerstrom
TheParatoneasaDiscourseMarker• Considertherelationshipbetweenprosodyitselfandorganizationalstructure• Paratone(Fox,1973)istheprosodicequivalentofawrittenparagraph,wherebyspeakersmanipulatepitch,volume,tempoandpauseattransitionpointsbetweentopicalconstituentstoindicatetherelationshipamongthosetopics• HighParatones• LowParatones• EmbeddingParatones
ResearchTopics• WhatcanthestudyofProsodyaddtoourknowledgeofLexicalDiscourseMarkers?
• WhatistherelationshipbetweenProsodyandRhetoricalStructures?
• HowdoesProsodyinteractwithGrammaticalCorrelatesofTopics?(studyofthetriangulationeffects:RhetoricalStructure/GrammaticalCorrelatesofTopics/Paratones)
• WhatistherelationshipbetweenParatoneandKey?• WhatistherelationshipbetweenProsodyandDiscourseOrganizationinotherDiscourseGenres?
Bibliography• A.Wennertrom,TheMusicofeverydaySpeech,ProsodyandDiscourseAnalysis,OxfordUniv.Press,2001-[ref.asMES]
• J.Pierrehumbert,J.Hirshberg,Themeaningofintonationalcontoursindiscourse.InP.Cohen,J.Morgan,M.Pollack(eds),Intentionsincommunication(pp.271-311),CambridgeUniv.Press–MITPress,1990
• J.Pierrehumbert,ThephonologyandphoneticsofEnglishIntonation.UnpublishedDoctoralDissertation,MIT,1980
• A.Fox,ProsodicFeaturesandProsodicStructures,OxfordUniv.Press,2007
• D.Brazil,ThecommunicativevalueofintonationinEnglish,CambridgeUniv.Press,1997
• G.Brown,G.Yule,DiscourseAnalysis,CambridgeUniv.Press,1983
Bibliography• M.Dolar,AVoiceandnothingmore,MIT,Csmbridge,2006–DavidLeBreton,Éclatsdevoix.Uneantropologiedesvoix,Métilié,2011
• M.D’Imperio,TowardastrategyforTOBIlabelingvarietiesofItalian,inS-AJun(editor),ProsodicTypologyandTranscription:AUnifiedApproach,OxfordUniversityPress,2001
• M.Halliday,R.Hasan,CohesioninEnglish,Longman,1976• B.J.Birner,IntroductiontoPragmatics,Wiley-Blackwell,2013FromMIT:https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/electrical-engineering-and-computer-science/6-911-transcribing-prosodic-structure-of-spoken-utterances-with-tobi-january-iap-2006/
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