View
72
Download
0
Category
Tags:
Preview:
DESCRIPTION
Victor Hess. - PowerPoint PPT Presentation
Citation preview
Victor HessBefore making balloon ascents himself, he determined the height at which ground radiation would stop producing ionization (about 500 meters) and designed instruments that would not be damaged by temperatures and pressure changes. He then made ten ascents (five at night) - two in 1911, seven in 1912, and one in 1913 - and found that ionization soon ceased to fall off with height and began to increase rapidly, so that at a height of several miles it was many times greater than at the earth's surface. He concluded, therefore, that "a radiation of very high penetrating power enters our atmosphere from above."
On one ascent, during an almost total eclipse of the sun, the radiation was not diminished. Hess therefore concluded that the rays could not be emitted by the sun.
Hess was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1936 for this work (along with the discoverer of the Muon, Anderson).
PARTICLES!
Primary Cosmic “Rays”
Largely protons (H, hydrogen nucleus)
Energies peak ~ 300 MeV (0.3 GeV)
Come from all directions
From the galaxy, not the sun so much
~ 5000 particles /meter2/second
Only the faster ones make “good” muons ~500 protons/meter2/second
ENERGY
NU
MB
ER
Energy & eV, MeV, GeV stuff
1 eV 1 KeV 1 MeV 1 GeV 1 TeV
e p
1000 million billion trillion
Ion
ize
Ato
m
p M
ost
Po
wer
ful
Acc
eler
ato
r
e i
n T
V p
ictu
re t
ub
e C
RT
Ch
arg
ing
Sn
ail
Gam
ma
Ray
s
Vis
ible
Lig
ht
Ph
oto
n
Fas
t-is
h C
osm
ic “
Ray
s”
Mass energy
Cosmic Ray Essentialsp (cosmic “ray”)
Encounters airN or O nucleus around 15 km altitude
stuff
other stuff
Gently slows down knocking off many (~million) air molecule’s electrons
Muon may hit your sensor unless decays first
e
e
e
e
e
pionproduced
piondecays into muon
Muon Flux at Surface (above some Energy)
Muon Energy (GeV)
Mu
on
s /c
m2/s
ec
0.01
Less than1 per minuteIn a square centimeter
# Muons Change with AngleR
elat
ive
Nu
mb
er
Angle off Vertical
Muon Rate vs Altitude(ft)
Count Rate Increases ~ 100% over 10000 ft.So IF a straight line – expect 10 % increase in 1000 ft
Feet
Ct/min
How can this be?
~ 30% Difference from close locations
Muon Counting Headachesdue to Statistics
What is your best estimate of the average result if you did it a zillion times?
How confident are you with the estimate?
EXAMPLE:Count random “hits” over 30 seconds, multiple times - when the TRUE average rate is 1 per second.
One 30 Second Trial
Another 30 Second Trial
10X 30 Second Trials
Average -> TRUE with Trials
15
20
25
30
35
40
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
30 sec Trail#
HitsIn30
AveafterTrials
HitsIn30sec
TRUE
Uncertainty Reduced with Trials
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
0 2 4 6 8 10 1230 sec Trail# (accumulated)
HitsIn30sec
Best Estimate of Average # Hitsin 30 sec and an estimateof Uncertainty after 300 sec
Distribution for 1000 Trials
1000 Trials Distibution
0
20
40
60
80
100
1 9 17 25 33 41 49 57 65 73 81 89 97
Hits in 30 Sec
# o
f T
ime
s f
rom
10
00
Average 30.03stdev=5.02
Is Result More for Test 1 or Test 2?
0
2
4
6
8
10
0 1 2 3
0
2
4
6
8
10
0 1 2 3
0
2
4
6
8
10
0 1 2 3
A Note of Caution from Professor Hess
… discovered that up to about 700 meters the ionization rate decreased but then increased with altitude …
Get Beyond Flapping
Recommended