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7/31/2019 The Worlds 25 Most Endangered Primates
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Contents
Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................................. ii
The Worlds 25 Most Endangered Primates: 201 2 2014 ................................................................. 1
Africa ................................................................................................................................................... 4
Rondo dwarf galago ( Galagoides rondoensis ) .................................................................................. 5
Roloway monkey ( Cercopithecus roloway ) ...................................................................................... 6
Bioko red colobus ( Piliocolobus pennantii pennantii ) ...................................................................... 7
Tana River red colobus ( Piliocolobus rufomitratus ) ......................................................................... 8
Grauers gorilla ( Gorilla beringei graueri ) ....................................................................................... 9
Madagascar ........................................................................................................................................10
Madame Berthes mouse lemur ( Microcebus berthae ) ....................................................................11
Sclaters black lemur or Blue -eyed black lemur ( Eulemur flavifrons ) .............................................12
Red ruffed lemur ( Varecia rubra ) ....................................................................................................13
Northern sportive lemur ( Lepilemur septentrionalis ) .......................................................................14
Silky sifaka ( Propithecus candidus ).................................................................................................15
Indri ( Indri indri ) .............................................................................................................................16
Asia .....................................................................................................................................................17
Pygmy tarsier ( Tarsius pumilus ) ......................................................................................................18Javan slow loris ( Nycticebus javanicus ) ...........................................................................................19
Simakobu or Pig-tailed snub-nosed langur ( Nasalis concolor ) ........................................................20
Delacour s l angur ( Trachypithecus delacouri ) .................................................................................21
Golden-headed langur or Cat Ba langur ( Trachypithecus poliocephalus poliocephalus ) .................22
Western purple-faced langur ( Semnopithecus vetulus nestor ) ..........................................................23
Grey-shanked douc monkey ( Pygathrix cinerea ) .............................................................................24
Tonkin snub-nosed monkey ( Rhinopithecus avunculus ) ..................................................................25
Cao-Vit or Eastern black-crested gibbon ( Nomascus nasutus ) ............................. .......................... ..26
Neotropics ...........................................................................................................................................27
Variegated or Brown spider monkey ( Ateles hybridus ) ......................... ............................ ...............28
Ecuadorian brown-headed spider monkey ( Ateles fusciceps fusciceps ) ...........................................29
Kaapor capuchin monkey ( Cebus kaapori ) .....................................................................................30
San Martn titi monkey ( Callicebus oenanthe ) ............................. ........................... .........................31
Northern brown howler monkey ( Alouatta guariba guariba ) ..........................................................32
References........................................................................................................................................33Editors addresses ............................................................................................................................39
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Acknowledgements
The 2012 2014 edition of the Worlds 25 Most Endangered Primates is, for the second time,presented in the form of species fact sheets. For this edition, we have summarized and updated the
species profiles from the 2008 2010 and 2010 2012 editions of the Worlds 25 Most EndangeredPrimates for those species remaining on the list, and added additional profiles for the new species.
We would like to thank all of the contributing authors to the 2008 2010 version for their work, whichforms the basis of the fact sheets in the new edition. Each profile from the 2008 2010 edition is citedon the fact sheets:
Simon K. Bearder, Thomas M. Butynski, Liliana Corts Ortiz, Dong Thanh Hai, Jrg U. Ganzhorn,Ha Thang Long, Paul E. Honess, M. Ceclia M. Kierulff, Le Khac Quyet, Andrs Link, KarmeleLlano Sanchez, Long Yongcheng, David N. M. Mbora, W. Scott McGraw, Pierre Moisson, AlbaLucia Morales-Jimnez, Tilo Nadler, K. Anne-Isola Nekaris, Vincent Nijman, John F. Oates, Lisa M.Paciulli, Erwin Palacios, Erik R. Patel, Andrew Perkin, Phan Duy Thuc, Clment J. Rabarivola,Martina Raffel, Guy H. Randriatahina, Iary B. Ravaorimanana, Christian Roos, Rasanayagam Rudran,Yves Rumpler, Daniela Schrudde, Nora Schwitzer, James S. Thorn, Bernardo Urbani, Sylviane N. M.Volampeno, Janette Wallis, Ananda Wanasinghe, Kanchana Weerakoon, Indah Winarti and AlphonseZaramody.
We would also like to express our thanks for the additional contributions by Stuart Nixon, on Grauersgorilla, and Ross Fuller, for help with literature accumulation and proof reading.
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The Worlds 25 Most Endanger ed Primates: 2012 2014
Here we report the seventh iteration of the biennial listing of a consensus of the 25 primate speciesconsidered to be among the most endangered worldwide and the most in need of conservationmeasures. The 2012 2014 list was drawn up during an open meeting held during the XXIV Congress
of the International Primatological Society (IPS), Cancn, 14 August 2012. It is a joint effort by theIUCN/SSC Primate Specialist Group, the International Primatological Society, ConservationInternational, and the Bristol Conservation and Science Foundation.
The 2012 2014 list of the worlds 25 most endangered primates has five species from Africa, six fromMadagascar, nine from Asia, and five from the Neotropics (Table 1). In terms of individual countries,Madagascar tops the list with six species. Vietnam has five, Indonesia three, Brazil two, and China,Colombia, Cte dIvoire, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Ecuador, Equatorial Guinea, Ghana,Kenya, Peru, Sri Lanka, Tanzania and Venezuela each have one.
The changes made in this list compared to the previous iteration (2010 2012) were not because thesituation of the nine species that were dropped (Table 2) has improved. In some cases, such as, for
example, Varecia variegata , the situation has in fact worsened. By making these changes we intendrather to highlight other, closely related species enduring equally bleak prospects for their futuresurvival. An exception may be the greater bamboo lemur, Prolemur simus , for which recent studieshave confirmed a considerably larger distribution range and larger estimated population size thanpreviously assumed. The severe threats to this species in eastern Madagascar remain, though.
Table 1. The Worlds 25 Most Endangered Primates 201 2 2014Africa Galagoides rondoensis Rondo dwarf galago TanzaniaCercopithecus roloway Roloway monkey Cte dIvoire, Ghana Piliocolobus pennantii
pennantii Bioko red colobus Equatorial Guinea (Bioko Is.)
Piliocolobus rufomitratus Tana River red colobus KenyaGorilla beringei graueri Grauers gorilla DRCMadagascar
Microcebus berthae Madame Berthes mouse lemur Madagascar Eulemur flavifrons Sclaters black lemur MadagascarVarecia rubra Red ruffed lemur Madagascar
Lepilemur septentrionalis Northern sportive lemur MadagascarPropithecus candidus Silky sifaka Madagascar
Indri indri Indri MadagascarAsia Tarsius pumilus Pygmy tarsier Indonesia (Sulawesi)
Nycticebus javanicus Javan slow loris Indonesia (Java) Nasalis concolor Pig-tailed langur Indonesia (Mentawai Is.)Trachypithecus delacouri Delacours langur VietnamTrachypithecus poliocephalus Golden-headed or Cat Ba langur VietnamSemnopithecus vetulus nestor Western purple-faced langur Sri LankaPygathrix cinerea Grey-shanked douc monkey Vietnam
Rhinopithecus avunculus Tonkin snub-nosed monkey Vietnam Nomascus nasutus Cao-Vit or Eastern black-crested
gibbonChina, Vietnam
Neotropics Ateles hybridus Variegated spider monkey Colombia, Venezuela Ateles fusciceps fusciceps Ecuadorian brown-headed spider
monkeyEcuador
Cebus kaapori Kaapor capuchin monkey Brazil
Callicebus oenanthe San Martn titi monkey Peru Alouatta guariba guariba Northern brown howler monkey Brazil
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Nine primate species were added to the 2012 2014 list (Table 3). Seven of them were placed on thelist of the worlds 25 most endangered primates for the first time. The Tana River red colobus and theEcuadorian brown-headed spider monkey had already been on previous iterations of the list, but weresubsequently removed in favor of other highly threatened species of the same genera. The 2012 2014list now contains two members each of these genera, thus particularly highlighting the severe threatsthey are facing.
During the discussion of the 2012 2014 list at the XXIV Congress of IPS in Cancn in 2012, anumber of other highly threatened primate species were considered for inclusion (Table 4). For all of these, the situation in the wild is as precarious as it is for those species that finally made it on the list.
Table 2. Primate species included on the 2010 2012 list that were removed from the 2012 2014 list. AfricaPiliocolobus epieni Niger Delta red colobus Nigeria
Madagascar Prolemur simus Greater bamboo lemur MadagascarVarecia variegata Black-and-white ruffed lemur MadagascarAsia Tarsius tumpara Siau Island tarsier Indonesia (Siau Is.)
Macaca silenus Lion-tailed macaque IndiaPongo pygmaeus pygmaeus Northwest Bornean orangutan Indonesia (West Kalimantan, Borneo),
Malaysia (Sarawak)Neotropics Cebus flavius Blond capuchin monkey BrazilCallicebus barbarabrownae Barbara B rowns titi monkey BrazilOreonax flavicauda Peruvian yellow-tailed woolly
monkeyPeru
Table 3. Primate species that were added to the 2012 2014 list. The Tana River red colobus and the Ecuadorian brown-headed spider monkey were added to the list after previously being removed, andthe other seven species are new to the list. AfricaPiliocolobus rufomitratus Tana River red colobus KenyaMadagascar
Microcebus berthae Madame Berthes mouse lemur MadagascarVarecia rubra Red ruffed lemur Madagascar
Indri indri Indri MadagascarAsia Tarsius pumilus Pygmy tarsier Indonesia (Sulawesi)Neotropics
Ateles fusciceps fusciceps Ecuadorian brown-headed spidermonkey
Ecuador
Cebus kaapori Kaapor capuchin mo nkey BrazilCallicebus oenanthe San Martin titi monkey Peru
Alouatta guariba guariba Northern brown howler monkey Brazil
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Table 4. Primate species considered during the discussion of the 2012 2014 list at the IPS Congressin Cancun that did not make it onto the list, but are equally highly threatened. AfricaPiliocolobus preussi Preuss's red colobus Cameroon, NigeriaGorilla gorilla diehli Cross River gorilla Nigeria, CameroonPan troglodytes ellioti Nigeria-Cameroon chimpanzee Nigeria, CameroonMadagascar Cheirogaleus sibreei Sibrees dwarf lemur Madagascar
Hapalemur alaotrensis Lac Alaotra bamboo lemur Madagascar Eulemur cinereiceps White-collared brown lemur MadagascarPropithecus perrieri Perriers sifaka MadagascarAsia
Nasalis larvatus Proboscis monkey Indonesia (Borneo)Presbytis comata Grizzled leaf monkey Indonesia
Rhinopithecus strykeri Myanmar snub-nosed monkey Myanmar, China Nomascus hainanus Hainan black-crested gibbon China (Hainan) Nomascus leucogenys Northern white-cheeked black-
crested gibbonLaos, Vietnam, China
Neotropics Chiropotes satanas Black bearded saki Brazil
Leontopithecus caissara Black-headed lion tamarin BrazilSaguinus bicolor Brazilian bare-faced tamarin BrazilCallicebus caquetensis Caquet titi monkey Colombia
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Rondo dwarf galago
Galagoides rondoensis (Honess in Kingdon, 1997)TanzaniaTop 25: 2006, 2008, 2010, 2012
Biology 1: Weighs ~60g 2 Distinct from other dwarf galagos in
its bottle-brush-shaped tail, itsreproductive anatomy, and itsdistinctive double unit rolling call 2-4
Mixed diet of insects and fruit Often feed close to the ground and
move by vertical clinging and leapingin the shrubby understory
Build daytime sleeping nests 5 Predation from owls and other
nocturnal predators 2 Emerging evidence that the northern
and southern populations may bephylogenetically distinct
Sympatric with a number of othergalagos
Range 1: Extremely limited and fragmented Range in a number of remnant patches
of Eastern African Coastal Dry Forestin Tanzania 2, 6
o Zaraninge forest (0608'S,3838'E) in Sadaani NationalPark
o Pande Game Reserve (GR)(0642'S, 3905'E),
o Pugu/Kazimzumbwi (0654'S,3905'E),
o Rondo (1008'S, 3912'E),o Litipo (1002'S, 3929'E)o Ziwani (1020'S, 4018'E)
forest reserves (FR)o Chitoa FR (0957'S, 3927'E)o Ruawa FR (0944'S, 3933'E)
Total area known to occur does notexceed 101.6 km 1, 7, 8
o Pande GR: 2.4 km,o Rondo FR: 25 km,o Ziwani FR: 7.7 km,o Pugu/Kazimzumbwi FR: 33.5
km,o Litipo FR: 4 kmo Zaraninge forest: 20 km,
Chitoa FR: 5 km
o Ruawa FR 4
k m
Estimated population 1: Unknown Estimated density:
o 3 6/ha at Pande GameReserve 9
o 8/ha at Pugu Forest Reserve 10 Relative abundance from encounter
rateso 3 10/hr at Pande Game
Reserve and Pugu/ Kazimzumbwi ForestReserve 9, 10
o 3.94/hr at Rondo ForestReserve 2
Threats1
: Very small and fragmented range inremnant forest patches
Forest losso Agricultural encroachmento Charcoal productiono Logging
Justification for the Top 25: Highly threatened by the logging of
remaining small forest fragments
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Roloway monkey Cercopithecus roloway (Schreber,1774)Ghana and Cte dIvoire Top 25: 2002, 2006, 2010, 2012
Biology 11: Closely related to
Cercophithecus diana 12 Distinguished from C.
diana by its broad whitebrow line, long white beardand yellow thighs
C. roloway is more seriouslythreatened with extinction
Largely arboreal species 13 Occurs in canopy of primary and old
secondary lowland moist forest, andriverine and gallery forest 13
Rare in degraded forest, but cansurvive in lightly logged forest wherethe canopy remains 13
Range 11 : Found to the east of the Sassandra
River in Cte dIvoire to the Pra Riverin Ghana 13
Considerable amount of primaryhabitat loss over the past ~30 years 14
Ghana o Steadily extirpated from both
protected and unprotectedareas and is nearing extinction
o Several surveys have failed tofind this species in anywestern reserves
o Possibly exists in the AnkasaConservation area 15
Cte dIvoire o Not known in any protected
areas
o 14 years ago found in the
Yaya Forest Reserve, theTano Forest adjacent to theEhy Lagoon and the ParcNational des Iles Ehotil 16-18
o Now only found in the Tanoforest 18, 19
Estimated population 11: Unknown Decline exceeding 50% (potentially
exceeding 80%) 14
Numerous local extinctions
Threats 11 : Hunting for the bushmeat trade
o Relatively large size and valueof its meat and skin makes it apreferred game species 13
Forest losso Loggingo Agricultureo Charcoal production 20
Population fragmentation and isolation
Justification for the Top 25 : Extirpation and continuing decline
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Tana River red colobusPiliocolobus rufomitratus (Peters, 1879)KenyaTop 25: 2002, 2004, 2006, 2008, 2012
Biology 30, 31 : Previously Procolobus rufomitratus
rufomitratus Piliocolobus separated from
Procolobus 32 Elevated to species level 32 Inhabits gallery forest dominated by
Pachystela and Barringtonia Not observed moving between habitat
patches during the day Some movement at night which
appears to be helping to ensure thecontinued survival of the groups in theseemingly isolated patches
Broadly sympatric with Cercocebusgaleritus and Cercopithecus mitisalbotorquatus , and narrowlysympatric on the forest edges withPapio cynocephalus ibeanus andCercopithecus pygerythrus
Range 30, 31 : Found only on the levees of the lower
Tana River in Kenya Total known range is 60 km from
Kipende in the north to Mitipani in thesouth, where the Lamu Garsen roadenters the Tana River floodplain
Restricted to ca. 34 patches of fragmented gallery forest, notablyGuru South, Sifa East, Baomo South,Mnazini East, Bubesa West 1, HewaniSouth 2 forests 33
All of these forests are small, rangingin size from
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Madame Berthes mouse lemur Microcebus berthae (Rasoloarison, Goodman& Ganzhorn, 2000)MadagascarTop 25: 2012
Biology 53: Worlds sm allest primate (average
31g 54) Inhabits dry deciduous forest 0 150m asl Solitary forager characterized by
extensively overlapping ranges 55 Male ranges larger than females and
more prone to seasonal fluctuation 55 Daily torpor, but no prolonged torpor
during the dry season Sympatric with the larger Microcebus
murinus across some of the range 56, 57 Avoids interspecific competition by
spatial segregation, makingdistributions of both species patchy 57
Feeds on fruit and gum 58 Relies on sugary excretions from
insects during the harsh dry season 58
Range 53: Menabe region in southwest
Madagascar, south of the TsiribihinaRiver 56, 57
Area 900km 2 Kirindy/CFPF forests and Ambadira Believed to also occur in the forests of
Analabe, but the forest has beenheavily degraded, so it is uncertain if it still occurs there 59
Formerly occurred in theAndranomena Special Reserve, but itis not known if it still occurs there 57
Range is severely fragmented Decline in the area and quality of
habitat
Estimated population53
:
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Sclaters black lemur orBlue-eyed black lemur
Eulemur flavifrons (Gray, 1867)MadagascarTop 25: 2008, 2010, 2012
Biology 60: Rediscovered in 1983 61, 62 Initially regarded as a subspecies
of E. macaco Elevated to species level because
of consistent morphologicaldifferences and pairwise geneticdistances comparable to other
Eulemur species pairs 63, 64 Inhabits primary and secondary
forest fragments 61, 65-67 Home range size and use differs
between primary and secondary forestfragments, indicating secondary forestis less suitable 68
E. flavifrons has been recorded toconsume 72 different plant speciesfrom 35 families, of which 52.3%were fruits and 47.7% were leaves
Also feeds on flowers, insects, insectexudates and fungi 69
Bimodal activity pattern 70 Multi-male multi-female groups,
ranging in size from 6 to 10individuals, including 4 to 7 adults
Both sexes disperse, but only maleshave been seen moving into a foreignsocial group
The sex ratio at birth varies stronglybetween years and could be male-biased
Births occur between late August andOctober, at the end of the dry season.
During two successive birth seasons,infant mortality was 22.7%.
Range 60: Very small area of 2,700km in
northwest Madagascar, south of theAndranomalaza, north of theMaevarano, and west of theSandrakota rivers 61, 65-67
Transition zone between the humidSambirano region in the north and the
western dry deciduous forest region inthe south
Largest remaining population in forestfragments on and adjacent to theSahamalaza Peninsula 71
Estimated population 60: In 1999, the estimated population of
the Sahamalaza Peninsula was 450 2,300 wild individuals and haddeclined by 35.3% in three years 72
Estimated total population,extrapolated from density 73, 74 and areaestimates, of 2,780 6,950 severelyfragmented wild individuals
80% wild population reductionestimated and predicted over 35 years
30 captive individuals 75
Threats 60: Very small range Forest loss
o Slash-and-burn agricultureo Selective logging Hunting and trappingo Bushmeato Live capture for the pet
trade 72, 76 o Trap density of up to 570
traps/ km 2 73
Justification for the Top 25 : Highly fragmented population in very
small range that is almost totallydeforested
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Red ruffed lemurVarecia rubra (E. Geoffroy, 1812)MadagascarTop 25: 2012
Biology 59, 77 : Diurnal Inhabits tropical moist lowland forests Apparent need for tall primary forest
o Primarily inhabiting primaryforest
o Prefers high forest and is oftenobserved in the crowns of large feeding trees
Sea level to 1,200m asl Moves quadrupedally through the
canopy, leaping occasionally Largely frugivorous (75 90%), with
flowers, nectar and leaves Home range size: 23 58ha 78 Multi-male, multi-female communities
of 5 31 individuals 78 Mating season May July Births from September early
November Gestation period: 102 days
Inter-birth interval: 2 years Mean litter size:o Wild: 2.11 79 o Captivity: 2.22 80
Range 77: Very restricted range Masoala Peninsula and the region
immediately north of the Bay of Antongil in northeastern Madagascar 81
4000km 2 Antainambalana River appears to
separate this species from V.variegata , but the western andnorthern limits of the red ruffedlemurs range remain unclear 59
Westernmost distribution near theconfluence of the Antainambalana andSahantaha rivers 82
Estimated population 59, 77 : Density estimates:
o 31 53 individuals/km 2 inAndranobe 83
o 21 23 individuals/km
2
inAmbatonakolahy 84 Captive population of 590 in 2009
Threats 77: Habitat loss
o Slash-and-burn agricultureo Human encroachmento Illegal loggingo First lemur to disappear from
degraded forest Hunting
o Heavily hunted in its entirerange
Justification for the Top 25 : Small distribution range that is under
severe threats of hunting and habitatloss
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Northern sportive lemur
Lepilemur septentrionalis (Rumpler and Albignac, 1975)Madagascar Top 25: 2008, 2010, 2012
Biology 85: Originally described based on
cytogenetic and morphometriccharacteristics 86
Supported by more detailed studiessince, especially molecular data 87-89
Small grayish-brown sportive lemurwith not very prominent ears 90
Nocturnal Sleeps in tree holes during the day Little known about its ecology and
behavior
Range 59, 85 : Strictly limited to a few small patches
of dry forest in extreme northeasternMadagascar, just to the south of Antsiranana on the east coast
Very small remnant forest patches:o Near the villages of Madirobe
and Ankarongana in theSahafary regiono In the immediate vicinity of
Andrahona, a small mountainabout 30 km south of Antsiranana, east of RouteNationale 6
Estimated population 59, 85 : Total population unknown, but very
small
A survey in 2007 provided thefollowing estimates:
o Andrahona (forest patches andgallery forests of Andrahona,Analajanana, andAnalanjavavy) - 20individuals
o Ankarakataova (forests of Ankarakataova Be andAnkarakataova kely) - nonefound
o Sahafary (degraded forest patchesin Western Sahafary, SahafaryEast, Sahafary North, Andravina,Sahandrano, Andranomadiro, andAnalalava) - about 100 individuals
In 2012 probably only 19 individualsremaining in total
Threats 59, 85 : Very small fragmented range
o Most habitat already goneo Does not occur in protected
areaso Uncertain if remaining
fragments are of sufficientsize to warrant protection
Habitat destructiono For Eucalyptus plantations
o Firewood collectiono Charcoal burning
Hunting Most restricted and least protected
lemur
Justification for the Top 25 : Combination of small population,
small range and rapidly decreasingsuitable habitat, with high pressurefrom hunting
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Silky sifaka Propithecus candidus (Grandidier, 1871)MadagascarTop 25: 2000, 2002, 2004, 2006, 2008, 2010, 2012
Biology 91: Large, white sifaka from northeastern
Madagascar Recently raised to full species level 59,
92, 93 This species does not occur with other
sifakas and cannot be confused withother lemurs
Found mainly in tropical montaneforest
Group size: 2 9 Home ranges 34 47ha 94, 95 Quarter of time travelling between
foraging sites Folivorous and granivorous,
consuming fruits, seeds and leavesfrom a large number of plant groups
Mating occurs just a few days a yearin November and January
Young born in June or July 94 Well-developed olfactory
communication
Scent-marking of territory Males gouge trees prior to scent-marking
Range 91: Restricted range in northeastern
Madagascar Includes the humid forest belt
extending from Maroantsetra to theAndapa Basin and the MarojejyMassif
Precise limits unknown Marojejy National Park is the northern
limit of its known distribution and theforests of Makira and theAntainambalana River are regarded asthe southern limit 96
300 1,875m elevation Patchy distribution and low densities Majority of the remaining population
found in two protected areas: MarojejyNational Park and Anjanaharibe-Sud
Special Reserve
A few groups have been found in theMakira Forest Protected Area at twosites: Andaparaty (central-eastMakira) and Manandriana, 44 km tothe northwest, adjacent to theAnjanaharibe-Sud Special Reserve).
Also found in the Betaolana Corridorthat connects Anjanaharibe-Sud andMarojejy, and the unprotectedTsaratanana Corridor to the northwest
Estimated population 91: Less than 250 individuals 96 Marojejy: 40 inidviduals/km 2 and 90
individuals/km 2 97
Threats 91: Habitat destruction
o Slash-and-burn agricultureo Illegal logging of preciouswoods, including rosewood 96 o Firewoodo Occurs in and adjacent to
protected areas they are foundin98-100
Hunted throughout range
Justification for the Top 25 : Small fragmented population under
extensive pressure from habitatdestruction and hunting
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Indri Indri indri (Gmelin, 1788)MadagascarTop 25: 2012
Biology 59, 101 : Largest extant species of lemur Vertical clinger and leaper, with
long hind limbs Identified by its eerie wailing
song Male indri are slightly larger than
females Males and females can also be
distinguished by song Inhabits tropical moist lowland
and montane forests Usually found at low elevations,
but ranges up to 1,800m 102 Lives in groups of 2 6
individuals, usually consisting of a monogamous adult pair
Groups in fragmented habitats tend tobe larger 103, 104
Primarily feeds on immature leaves,with flowers, fruit, seeds and bark alsoconsumed 105
Descends from canopy every day toconsume soil, which may helpdetoxify seeds consumed 105, 106
Home range size 18ha in fragmentedforest, up to ~40ha in pristine forest
Reproduction is highly seasonal, witha single offspring born in May or June
Birth interval: 2 3 years Reproductive maturity: 7 9 years 107
Range 59, 101 : Eastern rainforests from
Anjanaharibe-Sud in the north toAnosibe Anala Classified Forest inthe south
Not found on the Masoala Peninsulaor in the Marojejy National Park
Subfossil evidence indicates that indriwere once widespread acrossMadagascar
Estimated population 101: Low population density 5.2 22.9 individuals/km 2 106 50% reduction over the past 36 years
Threats 101 : Habitat loss
o Forest loss for fuel and timbero Slash-and-burn agriculture
Huntingo Previously considered a taboo,
but now significant in someareas
o Hunted for skins and meato Unsustainable 108
Justification for the Top 25 : High rate of habitat destruction and
unsustainable hunting
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Pygmy tarsierTarsius pumilus (Miller and Hollister, 1921)Indonesia (Sulawesi)Top 25: 2012
Biology 109, 110 : Largely data-deficient Prior to 2008, known only from three
specimens from 1916, 1930 and2000 111, 112
Thought to be extinct until the 2000specimen was found dead in a rat trap
In 2008, 3 individuals were capturedand 1 additional individual wasobserved 110
Mean body mass: 50g, less than half of adult lowland tarsiers 110
Nocturnal Largely arboreal Lives in small groups Returns to the same sleeping tree each
morning 110 Unlike lowland tarsiers, pygmy tarsier
groups contain multiple adult males,and they rarely vocalize or scent-mark 110
Found at high altitudes (~1,800
2,200m asl) Adapted to colder, montane cloudforests 112
Arthropod based insectivorous diet
Range 109: Southern and central Sulawesi,
Indonesia Specimen 1 (1916): 1,800 m from
Rano Rano, in the mountains betweenPalu and Poso
Specimen 2 (1930): 2,200 m on MountRantemario in South Sulawesi
Specimen 3 (2000): 2,200 m on theflank of Mount Rorekatimbu 111
2008 capture: Lore Lindu NationalPark, Central Sulawesi 110
Estimated population 109: Unknown 3 museum specimens 3 captured and 1 additional
observation in 2008 110
Threats 109 : Habitat encroachment and destruction
o Expanding human population Human conflict
o Some areas of CentralSulawesi near known sites are
conflict zoneso Factional fighting has seen the
dislocation of large humanpopulations that are thenresettled in refugee camps
Justification for the Top 25 : Highly fragmented and isolated
populations threatened by humanencroachment and conflict
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Javan slow loris Nycticebus javanicus (Geoffroy, 1812) Indonesia Top 25: 2008, 2010, 2012
Biology 113 : Recognized as a species in 2006 Nocturnal and arboreal Found in both primary and secondary
forest 114 Requires arboreal connectivity
between trees, via vines and lianas Feeds on sap, floral florescence, gum
and insects 114 Found at elevations of 0 1,600m but
more common at higher elevations 114
Range 113 : Western and central Java, Indonesia Less than 10% of the original forest
remains, most covering the higher
slopes of the central mountains Less than 20% of suitable habitatremains
17% of the potential distribution isprotected
Estimated population 113 : Unknown Very low population densities (0.02
0.20 animals/km 2 113 5 10 km must be walked to see a
single loris Small population of confiscated
animals in rescue centers but 95% 100% mortality has been reported dueto health conditions associated withcaptivity
Threats 113 : Habitat loss
o Deforestationo After an area is cleared,
lorises are collected as theyremain clinging to the trees 115
Huntingo Traditional medicineso Pet trade 116, 117 o Not always the intended target
but are picked up when foundo Numbers in animal markets
exceed the ability forpopulation numbers to recover
o Front teeth removed atmarkets
o Most lorises die of dentalabscesses, pneumonia ormalnutrition
o Unable to eat preferred gumand exhibit important socialbehavior 118
o Confiscated animals unlikelyto survive in the wild
Roads and human disturbance 119, 120 Intrinsic risk: slow-reproducing 121
Justification for the Top 25 : Intensive hunting pressure
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Simakobu or Pig-tailedsnub-nosed langur
Nasalis concolor (Miller, 1903) IndonesiaTop 25: 2002, 2004, 2006, 2008,
2010, 2012
Biology 122: Two subspecies:
o Nasalis concolor concolor (Millar,1903)
o Nasalis c. siberu (Chasen and Kloss,1927)
Very little published on behavior andecology
Found in swamp forests and lowlandrainforests and primary forests onhillsides 123-125
Diurnal 124 Semi-terrestrial 124 Almost equal time resting (46%) and
feeding (44%) and less time moving(7%) 126
Primarily folivorous 124 Birth season from June to July 125
Range 122: Endemic to Indonesia Confined to the Mentawai Islands off
the western coast of Sumatra 124 N. c. concolor
o Inhabits Sipora, North Pagai,and South Pagai Islands andseveral small islets off SouthPagai
o Remaining forest cover on the
Pagai islands ~826km2
127
N. c. siberu o Only on Siberut Islando 190,500ha Siberut National
Park covers 47% of SiberutIsland
o Remaining 53% outside of protected areas
Estimated population 122: N. c. concolor two estimates: ~3,347
individuals on the Pagai islands127
and700 1,800 total population 128
N. c. siberu ~6,000 15,000 in SiberutNational Park
Total population down from 26,000 in1980
Maximum decline of 75% in 20years 124
Population densities also reduced,indicating a 73 90% decline in 10years 128-130
Threats 122 : Hunting
o
Preferred game species insome areas 130, 131 o Hunting pressure increased
with improved access andreplacement of bows with airrifles 128
o In 1987, estimated that twiceas many individuals werehunted as were born in thePagai islands 123
o Pet trade Forest loss
o Commercial logging 124, 128 particularly sensitive 130
o Conversion to palm oilplantations and cash crops 124,128
o Human encroachmento Forest clearing and extraction
by local people 124, 128
Justification for the Top 25 : Heavy hunting and commercial
logging
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Delacours l angurTrachypithecus delacouri (Osgood,1932) VietnamTop 25: 2000, 2002, 2004, 2006,
2008, 2010. 2012
Biology 132: Restricted to limestone
karst forest habitat, withadditional records of secondary forest inlimestone areas 133, 134
Up to 1,000m asl 135 Caves thought to offer protection from
predators and temperature extremes 136 Diurnal and crepuscular Degree of terrestriality is habitat-
dependent 135 60 80% of the diet consists of leaves,
with 20 40% shoots, fruit, flowers andbark 135
Range 132: Very restricted area in north Vietnam 5,000km between 20 21N and
105 106E
Distribution closely related to thelimestone mountain ranges in theprovinces Ninh Binh, Thanh Hoa, HoaBinh, and Ha Nam 133
17 isolated locations totaling less than400 450km (size estimates from 18locations) 136, 137
Estimated population 132: 1999/2000 estimated 281 317 136 320 hunted individuals over 10 years,
but actual number undoubtedly higher 60% of total population in isolated
subpopulations with less than 20individuals 133
Largest subpopulation, in the onlywell guarded forest, has increased andtotals ~68 70 individuals 133, 138, 139
Two protected areas with importantsubpopulations showed a decline of 20% in 5 years from 2000 to 2004
Four protected areas showed adramatic decline during 2009 137
Approximately 6 locations extirpated Current total population unknown, but
likely to be a maximum of 250 wildindividuals
Threats 132 : Small population size Hunting
o Traditional medicineso Meat
Fragmentationo Only the largest population of 68 70 individuals is thoughtlikely to survive 136, 137
o Inbreeding may result in lossof genetic viability
Minor threat: Forest loss anddegradation
o Illegal grazing of goatso Limestone quarrying 138, 139
Potential threat: Tourism andassociated development 135
Justification for the Top 25 : Critically small, fragmented
population under hunting pressure
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Golden-headed langur orCat Ba langurTrachypithecus poliocephalus
poliocephalus (Trouessart, 1911)Vietnam
Top 25: 2000, 2002, 2004, 2006,2008, 2010, 2012
Biology 140: Inhabits tropical moist
forest on limestone karsthills
70 100m asl, possibly 0 200m 141 Six to seven taxa of the T. francoisi
group share range Caves thought to offer protection from
predators and temperature extremes,but are accessible by human hunters 136
Diurnal Arboreal and terrestrial 142 60 80% of the diet consists of leaves,
with 20 40% shoots, fruit, flowers andbark 135
Range140
: Confined to the island of Cat Ba in theGulf of Tonkin, northeastern Vietnam
Further restricted to ~100km 2 area of occupancy 143
Mostly in Cat Ba National Park, whichcovers more than half of the mainisland 143
Wildlife protection deficient Divided into seven isolated
subpopulations due to habitatfragmentation 143
Estimated population 140: 60 70 individuals (64 in 2006 142) 3 4 all-female, non-reproducing
groups 143 Reproductive output low Stagnated at 1 2 offspring per year 143
Threats 140 : Small population size
o Fragmentation resulting ininbreeding in subpopulations,which could compromisegenetic viability
o Limited mate choiceo Susceptible to natural or
human disaster causing totalextinction 142, 143
Huntingo Traditional medicineso Bushmeato Driven by increasingly
attractive commercial gains Habitat disturbance and fragmentation
o Increasing human populationo Tourism and associated
developmento Rampant fires due to honey
collectors 142 144
Justification for the Top 25 : Critically low population size and low
reproductive output, with threats fromhunting
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Western purple-facedlangur Semnopithecus vetulus nestor (Bennett, 1833) Sri LankaTop 25: 2004, 2006, 2008, 2010,2012
Biology 145: Inhabits lowland tropical
rainforest Refugee populations
presently inhabit semi-urban and rural home
gardens, rubber plantations and areaswith adequate canopy cover 146 Highly arboreal Fragmentation forces this species to
the ground for which it is ill-adapted 147
Folivorous Fragmentation and urbanization in
most of this species range hasresulted in a diet mainly consisting of fruits from residential gardens 148
Nutritional consequences of urban dietunclear, but feeding on fruits long-term may be detrimental as they arenot adapted to a frugivorous diet andfruits tend to occur seasonally
Range 145: Western Sri Lanka, from the north of
the Kalu Ganga as far north as therainforest limit 149
Ranges up to 1,000m asl 146
Inhabits an area of high human density 81 90% of the entire historic rangedeforested and urbanized 147, 150
Only recorded as present in 43% of eastern (n=23) and 78% in the western(n=27) halves of the historical range 147
Population fragmentation and isolation Largest inhabited forests, with a total
area of 21km 2, surround two reservoirs(Kalatuwawa and Labugama) 147
Estimated population 145: Unknown Believed to have undergone a decline
of more than 80% over threegenerations 151
Extirpation 151
Threats 145 : Habitat loss and fragmentation 152, 153
o Urbanization, includinghuman settlement andinfrastructure and industry
o Agriculture, particularly cropplantations
o Deforestation Dependent on gardens for survival Dangers from power lines and
roads 147, 151, 152 Dogs 147 Occasional hunting
o Pet tradeo
Persecution for crop-raiding154
o Local trade for meat, but notsignificant 152
o Becoming more tolerant tohumans which is putting themat increased risk 153
Justification for the Top 25 : Habitat loss, fragmentation and
urbanization
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Grey-shanked douc monkeyPygathrix cinerea (Nadler, 1997)VietnamTop 25: 2000, 2002, 2004, 2006, 2008, 2010,2012
Biology 155: Mostly found in primary mountain
evergreen forest 156 Altitude of 900 1,400m asl Canopy cover of 80 90% 156
Range 155: Central Vietnam between 1330' and
16N Recorded in five provinces: Quang
Nam, Quang Ngai, Kon Tum, Gia Lai,and Binh Dinh 136, 156
Occurrence confirmed in eightprotected sites: Song Thanh NatureReserve, Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve,Ba To Cultural and Historical Site, AnToan Nature Reserve, Kon Cha RangNature Reserve, Kon Ka Kinh
National Park, Mom Ray NationalPark and A Yun Pa Nature Reserve
Estimated population 155: 600 700 individuals 156 Fragmented Some areas with assumed occurrence
not yet surveyed 156 Endangered Primate Rescue Center
has begun a breeding program withconfiscated animals
Threats 155 : Hunting
o Meato Traditional medicineo Pets 156 o Problem inside protected areaso Response to hunting is to hide
motionless rather than fleeing,which makes them moresusceptible 136
o Snares commono Degraded habitats increase the
risk of being caught in snareswhilst travelling
o Hundreds of traps installed intrees frequently used bymonkey groups
o Trapped animals are oftenseverely injured or mutilated
o Less than one quarter of hunted animals areconfiscated alive 155
Forest losso Agricultural expansiono Illegal loggingo
Firewood collectiono Almost 10,000ha of forest areselectively logged every yearin the central highlands 156
Justification for the Top 25 : Intensive logging and hunting
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Tonkin snub-nosed monkey Rhinopithecus avunculus (Dollman,1912)VietnamTop 25: 2000, 2002, 2004, 2006, 2008,
2010, 2012
Biology 157: Described in 1912 Collected on no more than two
occasions over the next 50 60years
Presumed extinct Rediscovered in 1989 Tropical evergreen forests
associated with karstlimestone hills andmountains 158, 159
Largely restricted to primary forest 160 200 1,200m asl 158 Selective feeder consuming young
leaves, unripe fruits and seeds 159, 160 Diurnal 161 Arboreal and terrestrial 159
Range 157: Northeastern Vietnam 149 Historically occurred east of the Red
River136
Due to widespread deforestation andintensive hunting, its distribution hasbecome severely restricted 136
Currently, five completely isolatedlocalities known
Small forest patches in Tuyen Quang,Bac Kan, Ha Giang and Thai NguyenProvinces 136
Estimated population 157: Tat Ke sector 158
o 1993: 72 individualsobserved, 80 estimated 160
o 2005: far lower densities, 17 22 estimated 158
Ban Bung sector 158 o 1993: 23 observed, 50
estimated 160 o No verifiable information for
2005 158 Cham Chu Nature Reserve
o 1992: survey with locals
estimated 20 40 individuals162
o 2001: 70 estimated 163
o 2006: No evidence, but localreports suggested 8 12
TSM conservation area, Ha GiangProvince
o 2001: estimated 30 40 basedon interviews 164
o 2006: observed about 81animals; estimated 90 158
Tung Vai Commune of Quan BaDistrict close to the border with China
o 60 individuals Total population: estimated around
200 250+ individuals throughoutrange 157, 159
Threats 157 : Hunting pressure 159
o Traditional medicines 136, 158 o High pressure 158 o Hydroelectric power project
increases number of peopleand demand for meat 136, 158
o Not shy and do not necessarily
flee when encountered161
Habitat degradationo Firewoodo Timber exploitationo Shifting cultivationo Collection of non-timber
forest products forcommercial purposes
o Roads 159
Justification for the Top 25 : Critically small fragmented population
under hunting pressure
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Gibbons in Peril: Three species of gibbon were considered for this edition: Nomascus hainanus, N. leucogenys
and N. nasutus N. hainanus was recently listed on the ZSL/IUCN list of 100 most threatened species
(Priceless or Worthless), with just 23 25 individuals remaining
For the Worlds 25 Most Endangered P rimates 2012 2014, we have selected N. nasutus as a flagship species to highlight the plight of other gibbons
Cao-Vit or Eastern black-crestedgibbon
Nomascus nasutus (Kunkel d'Herculais, 1884)China, VietnamTop 25: 2008, 2010, 2012
Biology 165: Historically one of two subspecies, but
both elevated to species level166, 167
Inhabits montane and limestoneforests in a wet tropical monsoonclimate 168
500 900m asl 168 Primarily fruivorous (86.6%), but also
consumes leaves (4.7%), animalmatter (0.5%) and undetermined foodclass (8.2%) 169, 170
Range 165: Historical range was east of the Red
River in China and Vietnam Current range very restricted Sino-Vietnam border, northeastern
Vietnam 167, 171, 172 o 48km o 2255'N 10630'E o Includes the northern Phong
Nam-Ngoc Khe forests (about30km) of Trung KhanhDistrict, Cao Bang Province,Vietnam
Jingxi County, Guangxi ZhuangAutonomous Region, southeasternChina 167, 171, 172
o Area immediately adjacent toVietnam
o ~18km
Estimated population 165: Feared extinct until a survey
rediscovered a population in thelimestone forest of Phong Nam-Ngoc
Khe Communes 171, 172
2002: estimated 26 individuals in fivegroups 171, 172
2004: 37 individuals in eight groups 173 Total population estimated at 110
individuals living in 18 groups 173
Threats 165 : Habitat loss and disturbance
o Cleared for cultivationo Pasture for livestock o Firewood collectiono Charcoal productiono Already restricted range 170
Small populationo Inbreeding effectso Poor mate choiceo Human or natural disaster 167,
170 Hunting 170
Justification for the Top 25 : Small range and population size, with
a large threat from habitat loss anddisturbance
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Variegated or Brown spidermonkey
Ateles hybridus (I. Geoffroy, 1829)Colombia, VenezuelaTop 25: 2004, 2006, 2008, 2010, 2012
Biology 174: Two subspecies:
o Ateles hybridus brunneus o A. h. hybridus 175
Large size Slow reproductive rate of a single
offspring at 3 4-year intervals Spider monkeys are generally
highly frugivorous (83%), but alsoeat young leaves and flowers 176
They form groups of up to 20 30individuals 176
Range 174: A. h. brunneus
o Restricted to Colombiao Between the lower Ros Cauca
and Magdalena in theDepartments of Bolvar,Antioquia and Caldas 177
o Small geographic range where
forest loss, degradation andfragmentation are widespread
o Surrounded by humanpopulations
o 9% of potential range remainscontinuous forest
A. h. hybridus o Right bank of the Ro
Magdalena extending intowestern Venezuela 175, 178
o Extremely fragmented, withsmall populations
Estimated population 174: Unknown Low population densities A. h. hybridus extremely fragmented
and there may be few populations of an adequate size to be viable in themid- to long-term 175, 177
Potential extirpation Held in captivity in zoos and rescue
centers in Colombia
Threats 174 :
Habitat loss and increasingfragmentationo Agriculture and cattleo Human expansiono Land clearingo Loggingo Conversion to secondary
foresto Potential corridors at risk
Huntingo A. h. hybridus a favourite
game species in the Perij
Mountains179
Pet trade
Justification for the Top 25 : High rate of habitat loss and hunting
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Ecuadorian brown-headedspider monkey
Ateles fusciceps fusciceps (Gray, 1866)EcuadorTop 25: 2006, 2012
Biology 180: Tropical and subtropical human
forests from 100 to 1,700masl181
Diurnal Strictly arboreal, preferring the
uppermost levels of the canopy Group size of up to 35
individuals Diet consists mainly of ripe fruit
(83%), but also flowers and anumber of species of leaves 182
Slow reproductive rate of oneoffspring at up to 3-yearintervals 183
Range 22, 180 : Endemic to Ecuador in the north, west
of the Andes, in the Province of Esmeraldas, and, at least historically itwould seem, south as far as theCordillera de Colonche
Very small distribution, which ishighly fragmented
Two populations remaining:o North of the Rio Mira, in the
Reserva Etnica Aw closeto the Colombian border 22
o To the south, largely withinthe limits of the ReservaEcolgica Cotacachi-Cayapas and theneighbouring forest (north),mainly in a private reserve:Reserva Biolgica LosCedros 22
It has been suggested that A. f. fusciceps may be found in southernColombia, continuous with thepopulations in Ecuador 178, but there isstill no evidence to support this
Estimated population 22, 180 : Unknown
Population density of 1.2individuals/km 2 in Cotacachi-Cayapas 184
80% decline due to habitat loss 185
Threats 22, 180 : Habitat loss and fragmentation
o High rate due todeforestation 185
Huntingo Strong pressure 185
Justification for the Top 25 : Restricted distribution with high
fragmentation, and small populationsize
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Kaapor capuchinmonkeyCebus kaapori (Queiroz, 1992)Brazil
Top 25: 2012
Biology 186: Arboreal quadrupeds,
typically found in thelower to mid-canopy andunderstorey 187-189
Undisturbed and slightlydisturbed dense lowlandAmazonian high forest
Altitudes of 200m or less 190 Can also be found in edge habitat in
the transition with the Zona dosCocais
Frugivorous and insectivorous diet,they are manipulative and extractivescavengers
Groups observed to be 1 7individuals 191
Males disperse Both sexes take up linear hierarchies,
the top ranking male being dominant
over the top ranking female 187 Sympatric with Cebus apella, causinginter-species competition 192
Range 186: Northwest Maranho and northeast
Par in the Brazilian Amazon 190 Ranging from east of the lower Rio
Tocantins to the bank of the RioGraja where it enters the Zona dosCocais 190, 191, 193-196
Now absent east of the Rio Graja 193
Estimated population 186: Unknown Drastic decline of at least 80% over
the past three generations
Estimated density:o 0.98 individuals/km in the
Gurup Biological Reserve 192 o 0.99 groups/10 km in the
Fazenda Cauaxi inParagominas 191
Three groups in 480km walked in theGurup Biological Reserve 197
Threats 186 : Habitat loss
o Forests in southern Par andMaranho have beenextensively destroyed
o Region with the highesthuman population density andthe highest level of deforestation and habitatdegradation in the entireBrazilian Amazon 191
o Occurs in only one protectedarea, which has lost half of itsforest
o Selective logging of trees
providing fruit that are asignificant part of the diet 197 Hunting Pet trade 190
Justification for the Top 25 : Extreme threat from deforestation and
hunting causing drastic populationdecline
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San Martn titi monkeyCallicebus oenanthe (Thomas, 1924)PeruTop 25: 2012
Biology 198: Able to survive in a wide variety of
habitats including, at least in the shortterm, in forest fragments 199, 200
Monogamous Found in small family groups of two
to six Females usually give birth to one
offspring per year Diet consists primarily of insects and
fruito Liana species and fruits from
the mistletoe family areparticularly important
o Insects form a larger portionof the diet than in most othertiti monkey species 201
Range 198: Found in the upper Rio Mayo Valley,
extending to the south into the BajoMayo and Huallaga central At least 60% of the original habitat
has been lost 202 Additional surveys are required in all
potential habitats in San Martin Not found in any protected areas
Estimated population 198: Estimated density of 1.4 individuals
/ha
Remaining populations extremelyfragmented and in small groups
Groups observed in fragments as smallas 2ha 199
Estimated decline of 80% over the last25 years
Threats 198 : Habitat loss and fragmentation 200, 203
o Major agrarian program has
attracted huge numbers of immigrants to the area
o This is largely the cultivationof rice and coffee
o Cattle ranching and selectivelogging also occur
o Rapid rates of deforestationhave caused the loss of 40%of the forest over the last 20years
o Construction of a two-laneasphalt road has furtherincreased human activity inthe area
Also hunted for bushmeat 200, 202, 203 ,with pressure likely to increase asother game becomes scarce and forestfragmentation increases access.
Popular as pets 200, 202-204
Justification for the Top 25 : Massive deforestation of this species
preferred habitat resulting in a drastic
population decline
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Northern brown howlermonkey
Alouatta guariba guariba(Humboldt, 1812)Brazil
Top 25: 2012
Biology 205, 206 : Validity as a subspecies in
question Inhabits lowland,
submontane and montaneforest
Prehensile tail Communicates with howls which can
be heard up to 2km away 207 Group size is usually four or five, but
can be up to eleven Usually only one dominant male,
occasionally two Quite small and broadly overlapping
home ranges, of 5ha up to 45ha,depending on the type of habitat 208
Leaf-based diet The only New World primates to
regularly include mature leaves intheir diet, though younger leaves arepreferred
Molar teeth are particularly adaptedfor chewing leaves through shearing
Mature fruit is also an important partof the diet
Range 205, 206 : Restricted to a small area north of the
Rio Jequitinhonha
Estimated population 205, 206 : Unlikely to be more than 250 mature
individuals No subpopulation above 50 mature
individuals is thought to exist
Threats 205, 206 : Hunting Deforestation
o Hunting is a larger threat asgroups can survive in smallforest fragments if they arenot hunted
o Selective logging Disease epidemics
Justification for the Top 25 :
Very small population under a numberof threats
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