TEN STEPS to ADVANCED READING SECOND EDITION Use the tab key, space bar, arrow keys, or page up/down...

TEN STEPS toADVANCED READING

SECOND EDITION

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TEN STEPS to

ADVANCEDREADING

SECOND EDITION

John Langan

RELATIONSHIPS II

Chapter 5

CHAPTER 5 Relationships II

In Chapter 4, you saw two common types of relationships:

This chapter explains four other types of relationships:

l Relationships that involve additionl Relationships that involve time

l Relationships that involve illustrationl Relationships that involve comparison and contrast

l Relationships that involve cause and effect

l Relationships that involve a problem and solution

Most of these relationships involve transitional words and phrases, which are like signs on the road that guide travelers.

1 Illustration

Words That Show Illustration

Which item below is easier to understand?

A. Some common beliefs are really myths. Getting a chill will not give you a cold.

B. Some common beliefs are really myths. For instance, getting a chill will not give you a cold.

A. Some common beliefs are really myths. Getting a chill will not give you a cold.

The second item is easier to follow. The words for instance make it clear that the belief a chill will lead to a cold is a myth.

Illustration/ Words That Show Illustration

For instance and other words and phrases like it are illustration words.

Illustration words indicate that an author will provide one or more examples to develop and clarify a given idea.

• Although they are children’s stories, famous fairy tales such as “Little Red Riding Hood” and “Snow White” are clearly filled with dark symbolic meanings.

Here are some common words that show illustration:

Examples

• A number of famous historical figures, including Beethoven, Charles Dickens, and Winston Churchill, suffered from depression.

Illustration Words

• Although they are children’s stories, famous fairy tales such as “Little Red Riding Hood” and “Snow White” are clearly filled with dark symbolic meanings.

Examples

• A number of famous historical figures, including Beethoven, Charles Dickens, and Winston Churchill, suffered from depression.

In these examples, notice how the illustration words signal that one or more examples are coming.

Illustration

The Definition and Example Pattern

The definition and example pattern of organization includes just what its name suggests: a definition and one or more examples.

Illustration/ The Definition and Example Pattern

See if you can arrange the following sentences in a logical order. Which sentence should come first? Second? Third?

A. For instance, anyone who has ever played a card game such as hearts is familiar with the heuristic to “Get rid of high cards first.”

B. Informal problems often call for a heuristic—a rule of thumb that suggests a course of action without guaranteeing an optimal solution.

C. Another example is the situation in which a student tries to decide whether to take a particular course and follows the advice to “Ask friends how they liked the instructor.”

Informal problems often call for a heuristic—a rule of thumb that suggests a course of action without guaranteeing an optimal solution. For instance, anyone who has ever played a card game such as hearts is familiar with the heuristic to “Get rid of high cards first.” Another example is the situation in which a student tries to decide whether to take a particular course and follows the advice to “Ask friends how they liked the instructor.”

The sentences should read as follows:

This paragraph begins with a definition of the word heuristic.The second sentence gives an example introduced by the words For instance. The third sentence then provides another example, introduced by the words Another example.

Definition

Example 1

Example 2

Informal problems often call for a heuristic—a rule of thumb that suggests a course of action without guaranteeing an optimal solution. For instance, anyone who has ever played a card game such as hearts is familiar with the heuristic to “Get rid of high cards first.” Another example is the situation in which a student tries to decide whether to take a particular course and follows the advice to “Ask friends how they liked the instructor.”

An important study hint:

Textbook authors often take time to include key definitions. These ideas and terms are usually set off in italic or boldface type, and the definitions are signaled by such words as is, are, is called, termed, and refers to.

• Sound bites are short snippets of information aimed at dramatizing a news story rather than explaining its meaning in a substantive way.

• A decline in attention that occurs because a stimulus has become familiar is called habituation.

• Tracking refers to the smooth movements of the eye used to follow the track of a moving object.

Examples of Definitions in Textbooks

• Sound bites are short snippets of information aimed at dramatizing a news story rather than explaining its meaning in a substantive way.

• A decline in attention that occurs because a stimulus has become familiar is called habituation.

• Tracking refers to the smooth movements of the eye used to follow the track of a moving object.

Examples of Definitions in Textbooks

If an author defines a term, you can assume that it is important enough to learn. So when reading and taking notes on a textbook, always do two things:

1) Write down key definitions.

2) Write down helpful examples of definitions.

(1)The planning fallacy refers to the fact that people consistently overestimate how quickly and easily they will achieve a goal and underestimate the amount of time or effort that will be required to reach that goal. (2)In a study that examined the planning fallacy, college students were asked to list an academic project that had to be completed within the next week and to estimate when they intended to begin the project, when they expected to complete the project, and how many hours they expected to put into it. (3)A week later, the students were asked if they had completed the project and when. (4)Although all the students had estimated that they would complete the project comfortably in the time indicated, one week later more than half the projects remained incomplete. (5)Those that had been completed had typically taken, on average, nearly five days longer than had been estimated. (6)So much for planning!

The following paragraph defines a word and gives an example of it.

What term is being defined?

planning fallacy

Which sentence contains the definition?

Definition

In which sentence does the example begin?

The example begins in sentence 2 and continues through sentence 5.

In which sentence does the example begin?

Comparison and Contrast

2 Comparison and Contrast

Words That Show Comparison

Which item below is easier to understand? A. As a fish swims, it moves its tail, applying force

against the water. The water, in turn, propels the fish forward. In a rocket motor, forces are exerted by hot gases that accelerate out the tail end, propelling the rocket forward.

B. As a fish swims, it moves its tail, applying force against the water. The water, in turn, propels the fish forward. Similarly, in a rocket motor, forces are exerted by hot gases that accelerate out the tail end, propelling the rocket forward.

/ Words That Show ComparisonComparison and Contrast

In the second item, the transition word similarly makes it clear that the author is comparing two forces.

A. As a fish swims, it moves its tail, applying force against the water. The water, in turn, propels the fish forward. In a rocket motor, forces are exerted by hot gases that accelerate out the tail end, propelling the rocket forward.

Similarly and words like it are comparison words.

Comparison words signal similarities. Authors use a comparison transition to show that a second idea is like the first one in some way.

• Very young and very old people resemble one another in their dependence upon those around them.

Here are some common words that show comparison:

Examples

• Car manufacturers often show beautiful women with their products, as if to suggest that owning the car will bring social rewards. In the same way, alcohol ads typically show people in fun or romantic settings.

Comparison Words

• Very young and very old people resemble one another in their dependence upon those around them.

Examples

• Car manufacturers often show beautiful women with their products, as if to suggest that owning the car will bring social rewards. In the same way, alcohol ads typically show people in fun or romantic settings.

Notice how these comparison words show that things are alike in some way.

Words That Show Contrast

Which item below is easier to understand? A. The movie was boring and pointless. It featured a

talented cast and an award-winning screenwriter.B. The movie was boring and pointless even though it

featured a talented cast and an award-winning screenwriter.

A. The movie was boring and pointless. It featured a talented cast and an award-winning screenwriter.

B. The movie was boring and pointless even though it featured a talented cast and an award-winning screenwriter.

The first item is puzzling. What connection does the writer intend between the first and second sentences? The words even though in the second item make it clear that the writer is disappointed that the movie fell short despite its cast and screenwriter.

/ Words That Show Contrast

Contrast words also inform us that something is going to differ from what we might expect.

B. The movie was boring and pointless even though it featured a talented cast and an award-winning screenwriter.

/ Words That Show ContrastComparison and Contrast

Even though and words and phrases like it are contrast words.

Contrast words signal that an author is pointing out differences between subjects. A contrast word shows that two things differ in one or more ways.

• While mammals have internal mechanisms that regulate body temperature, cold-blooded animals such as lizards must regulate their temperature by external means, such as basking on warm sunny rocks.

Here are some common words that show contrast:

Examples

• Corporate executives urged employees to buy the company’s stock despite the fact that they were selling it themselves.

Contrast Words

• While mammals have internal mechanisms that regulate body temperature, cold-blooded animals such as lizards must regulate their temperature by external means, such as basking on warm sunny rocks.

Examples

• Corporate executives urged employees to buy the company’s stock despite the fact that they were selling it themselves.

Notice how these contrast words signal that one idea is different from another idea.

The Comparison and/or Contrast Pattern

Authors use a comparison pattern to show how two things are alike.

Authors use a contrast pattern to show how two things are different.

Comparison and Contrast/ The Comparison and/or Contrast Pattern

Sometimes an author will compare and contrast in the same paragraph, pointing out both similarities and differences between two things.

/ The Comparison and/or Contrast PatternComparison and Contrast

A. However, gender differences remain in career choice and development.

B. Women’s labor force participation is approaching that of men’s, with 60 percent of adult women (versus 74 percent of men) in the labor force.

C. At present, married women still subordinate their career goals to their husbands’, especially when children are involved.

Women’s labor force participation is approaching that of men’s, with 60 percent of adult women (versus 74 percent of men) in the labor force. However, gender differences remain in career choice and development. At present, married women still subordinate their career goals to their husbands’, especially when children are involved.

The paragraph begins with an introductory statement—that women’s labor force participation is becoming comparable to that of men’s. The main idea, that gender differences remain, is then presented in the sentence beginning with the contrast word However.The sentence that starts with At present gives an example of a significant gender difference—that women will subordinate their career choices to their husbands’.

The following paragraph will give you a better sense of the compare and/or contrast pattern. Men and women, of course, often have different concerns, so we might

expect the content of their dreams to differ—and until recently, at least, that has been true. Typically, women have been more likely than men to dream about children, family members, familiar characters, friendly interactions, household objects, clothes, and indoor events. In contrast, men have been more likely than women to dream about strangers, weapons, violence, sexual activity, achievement, and outdoor events. But as the lives and concerns of the two sexes have become more similar, so have their dreams. In one recent study, the content of men’s and women’s dreams bore a close resemblance. Only two differences showed up: Men were more likely to dream about behaving aggressively, while women were more likely to dream about their anxieties.

The main idea is stated in the first sentence.As is often the case, the main idea suggests a paragraph’s pattern of organization. Here the transition different is a hint that the paragraph may be organized as comparison or contrast (or both).

different

Men and women, of course, often have different concerns, so we might expect the content of their dreams to differ—and until recently, at least, that has been true. Typically, women have been more likely than men to dream about children, family members, familiar characters, friendly interactions, household objects, clothes, and indoor events. In contrast, men have been more likely than women to dream about strangers, weapons, violence, sexual activity, achievement, and outdoor events. But as the lives and concerns of the two sexes have become more similar, so have their dreams. In one recent study, the content of men’s and women’s dreams bore a close resemblance. Only two differences showed up: Men were more likely to dream about behaving aggressively, while women were more likely to dream about their anxieties.

Is the paragraphA. comparing?B. contrasting?C. comparing and contrasting?

Is the paragraphA. comparing?B. contrasting?C. comparing and contrasting?3

What two things are being compared and contrasted?

Men’s dreams and women’s dreams. 3

How many comparison and/or contrast signal words are used in this paragraph?

Eight comparison and/or contrast words are used.

3Two comparison transitions are used.

similarresemblance

Six contrast transitions are used.

different differ

In contrast

differenceswhile

3 Cause and Effect

Words That Show Cause and Effect

Which item below is easier to understand? A. The best time to buy a car is near the end of the

month. Car dealers often have a monthly quota of cars to sell.

B. The best time to buy a car is near the end of the month because car dealers often have a monthly quota of cars to sell.

Cause and Effect

/ Words That Show Cause and EffectCause and Effect

In the second item, the word because makes very clear just why the end of the month is the best time to buy a car.

A. The best time to buy a car is near the end of the month. Car dealers often have a monthly quota of cars to sell.

Because and words like it are cause and effect words.

Cause and effect words signal that the author is explaining the reason that something happened or the result of something happening.

• Young babies have weak necks and relatively heavy heads. Consequently, it is important to support the baby’s head firmly when you hold him or her.

Here are some common words that show cause and effect:

Examples

• Do not refrigerate potatoes. The reason is that a potato’s starch will turn to sugar at low temperatures, making the vegetable taste odd.

Cause and Effect Words

• Young babies have weak necks and relatively heavy heads. Consequently, it is important to support the baby’s head firmly when you hold him or her.

Examples

• Do not refrigerate potatoes. The reason is that a potato’s starch will turn to sugar at low temperatures, making the vegetable taste odd.

Notice how these cause and effect words introduce a reason for something or the results of something.

Cause and Effect

The Cause and Effect Pattern

Information in a cause-effect pattern addresses the questions “Why does a behavior or event happen?” and/or “What are the results of a behavior or event?” An author may then discuss causes, or effects, or both causes and effects.

/ The Cause and Effect PatternCause and Effect

A. Also, unemployment leads to an increased rate of attempted and completed suicides.

B. Not only can it cause economic distress; it can result in health problems and psychological difficulties as well.

C. Losing one’s job is difficult at best and devastating at worst.

Cause and Effect

Losing one’s job is difficult at best and devastating at worst. Not only can it cause economic distress; it can result in health problems and psychological difficulties as well. Also, unemployment leads to an increased rate of attempted and completed suicides.

As the words cause, result in, and leads to suggest, this paragraph is organized in a cause and effect pattern.

cause result inleads to

/ The Cause and Effect Pattern

Cause and Effect

As the words cause, result in, and leads to suggest, this paragraph is organized in a cause and effect pattern. The paragraph begins with the general idea: “Losing one’s job is difficult at best and devastating at worst.” “Losing one’s job” is the cause. The next two sentences give a detailed explanation of the results of losing one’s job: economic distress, health problems, psychological difficulties, increased suicide rate.

Cause and Effect

Cause: Losing one’s job

Effect: Economic distress

Effect: Health problems

Effect: Psychological difficulties

Effect: Increased suicide rate

Cause and Effect

Cause: Losing one’s job

Effect: Economic distress

Effect: Health problems

Effect: Psychological difficulties

Effect: Increased suicide rate

Cause and Effect

The following paragraph describes one effect that is supported by three causes.

During the 1950s and 1960s, airports, bus terminals, and train stations often charged patrons to use the toilet. People would have to pay a ten- to twenty-five-cent fee before they entered a stall. Owners hoped that the fee would help pay for the cost of keeping the restrooms clean. But for several reasons, pay toilets failed miserably. For one thing, they angered patrons. People accustomed to accessing a restroom for free became upset when they discovered they had to pay. Many outraged bathroom-users vandalized the stalls and trashed the rooms in response, making cleanup even more expensive. In addition, pay toilets caused more trouble than they were worth. Employees had to be called in so often to fix broken locks that companies gradually realized the extra work wasn’t worth a few more dollars. A final explanation why pay toilets failed is that they triggered lawsuits from women’s groups who claimed the toilets were unfair because females were forced to pay regardless while males could use the urinals for free. Rather than spending money on high maintenance and lawsuits, companies opened the bathrooms for free use.

Cause and Effect/ The Cause and Effect Pattern

What is the single effect being discussed in the paragraph?

Cause and Effect

What is the single effect being discussed in the paragraph?

The failure of pay toilets3

The effect is stated as the paragraph’s main idea. The word reasons suggests a cause and effect pattern.

reasons

Cause and Effect

What are the three causes discussed?

Cause and Effect

What are the three causes discussed?

They angered patrons.

They caused more trouble than they were worth. They triggered lawsuits from women’s groups.

Cause and Effect

What three cause and effect transitions are used in the paragraph?

Cause and Effect

What three cause and effect transitions are used in the paragraph?

reasons

caused

explanation

Effect: The failure of pay toilets

Cause:They angeredpatrons.

Cause:They caused more trouble than they were worth.

Cause:They triggered lawsuits from women’s groups.

Effect: The failure of pay toilets

Cause:They angeredpatrons.

Cause:They caused more trouble than they were worth.

Cause:They triggered lawsuits from women’s groups.

4 Problem and Solution

What is the relationship between these two sentences? Speaking in front of a class is something that terrifies many students.

Practicing in front of friends or with a video camera may prevent you from freezing up on the day of the presentation.

Problem and Solution

What is the relationship between these two sentences? Speaking in front of a class is something that terrifies many students.

Practicing in front of friends or with a video camera may prevent you from freezing up on the day of the presentation.

Problem and Solution3

Problem

Solution

Unlike the relationship patterns we have studied so far, the relationship of problem to solution does not involve transitional words or phrases. Rather, the relationship usually involves an action that is taken to correct or resolve a negative situation.

• Every year, tens of millions of trees have to be cut down to provide the paper that goes into book manufacturing.

Examples

• During the War of 1812, the British burned Washington, D.C., destroying the Library of Congress.

Problem

Solution

Problem

Solution

Electronic readers such as the Kindle, Nook, and iPad have decreased the need for paper in the book publishing industry.

Thomas Jefferson immediately offered his entire library of 6,487 books to create a new national library.

Notice how the second sentence offers a solution to the negative situation (problem) stated in the first sentence.

The Problem and Solution Pattern

Information in a problem-solution pattern addresses the questions “What problem is occurring or has occurred?” and “What action or actions have been taken to solve the problem?”

Problem and Solution/ The Problem and Solution Pattern

A. Most try to quit “cold turkey”—that is, they decide simply not to smoke again.

B. Smokers who decide to quit must break through both physical addiction to nicotine and the habit of lighting up at certain times of day.

C. Others use nicotine replacement products such as nicotine chewing gum and the nicotine patch.

The first sentence introduces the problem—that it is difficult to quit smoking.

The sentences should read as follows: Smokers who decide to quit must break through both physical

addiction to nicotine and the habit of lighting up at certain times of day. Most try to quit “cold turkey”—that is, they decide simply not to smoke again. Others use nicotine replacement products such as nicotine chewing gum and the nicotine patch.

The second sentence offers one solution to the problem of quitting smoking. The third sentence offers another solution to the problem.

Problem

Solution 1

Solution 2

During major earthquakes, most casualties occur when buildings collapse. There are two ways to keep buildings from collapsing during earthquakes. One way is to make them stronger, using higher-grade building materials. Another way is to make them more flexible, so they sway and slide above the shaking ground rather than crumbling. The latter technology employs an idea called “base isolation.” With base isolation, buildings don’t sit directly on the ground, but rather float on systems of ball bearings, springs, and padded cylinders. In the event of a major earthquake, they sway up to a few feet rather than collapse. The buildings are surrounded by “moats,” or buffer zones, so they don’t swing into other structures. Earthquake-resistant buildings save lives. When an 8.8-magnitude earthquake struck Chile in February 2010, it killed far fewer people (about 700) than a 7.0-magnitude earthquake that struck Haiti a month earlier. The reason was that Chile, a richer and more industrialized nation, had far more buildings that were built to withstand earthquakes than did Haiti.

The following paragraph uses the problem-solution pattern.

What is problem being discussed in the paragraph?

The fact that buildings collapse during earthquakes, causing casualties.

The problem is stated in the first sentence.

Problem

What are the two solutions to the problem?

Constructing buildings out of higher-grade materials

3Making buildings more flexible3

Solution 1

Solution 2

The rest of the paragraph elaborates on the second method of making buildings earthquake-resistant. It also provides an example of how buildings that were constructed to withstand earthquakes saved lives in Chile, while buildings that were not built to withstand earthquakes led to great loss of life in Haiti.

A Final Point

Keep in mind that a paragraph or passage may often be made up of more than one pattern of organization.

A Final Point

For instance, consider the following passage:

The gestation period (length of pregnancy) of mammals depends on twofactors. The first is the mammal’s size. In general, smaller animals experience shorter pregnancies. For example, a female rat gives birth only twenty-one days after becoming pregnant; a hamster’s gestation period is only sixteen days; a horse, however, is pregnant for about forty-eight weeks. The second factor that determines the gestation period is life span—longer-lived animals have longer pregnancies. The gestation period of a lion, which can live up to twenty-eight years, is fifteen weeks. Dolphins, which have lived as long as forty years, are pregnant for thirty-nine weeks. You can see the relationship between gestation period and life span when you compare a possum to a cat. Although the possumis slightly larger than a cat, it has a much shorter gestation period (thirteen days to the cat’s sixty-two days). But cats can live up to twenty years, while possums are elderly at 3.

The paragraph uses a cause-effect pattern: The length of pregnancy of mammals is caused by two factors.

depends on Effect

Cause 1

Cause 2

A Final Point

It also uses a list of items pattern (the two factors).

There is also a bit of comparison and contrast.

A Final Point

compare

however

Although

It also uses a list of items pattern (the two factors).

A Final Point

compare

however

Although

depends on

Continued on next slide

Continued

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