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The International Journal of Online Pedagogy and Course Design is indexed or listed in the following: ACM Digital Library; Bacon’s Media Directory; Cabell’s Directories; DBLP; Google Scholar; INSPEC; JournalTOCs; MediaFinder; ProQuest Advanced Technologies & Aerospace Journals; ProQuest Computer Science Journals; ProQuest Education Journals; ProQuest Illustrata: Technology; ProQuest SciTech Journals; ProQuest Technology Journals; The Index of Information Systems Journals; The Standard Periodical Directory; Ulrich’s Periodicals Directory
Research Articles
1 ATestSheetOptimizationApproachtoSupportingWeb-basedLearningDiagnosisUsingGroupTestingMethods;
Chu-Fu Wang, National Pingtung University, Department of Computer Science, Pingtung, Taiwan
Chih-Lung Lin, National Pingtung University, Department of Computer Science, Pingtung, Taiwan
Gwo-Jen Hwang, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Graduate Institute of Digital Learning and Education, Taipei City, Taiwan
Sheng-Pin Kung, National Pingtung University, Department of Computer Science, Pingtung, Taiwan
Shin-Feng Chen, National Pingtung University, Department of Education, Pingtung, Taiwan
24 ALearningTheoryRubricforEvaluatingMobileLearningActivities;
David Parsons, The Mind Lab by Unitec, Auckland, New Zealand
Kathryn MacCallum, Eastern Institute of Technology, Napier, New Zealand
39 TheCustomizedxLearningEnvironmentModel:MeetingtheNeedsandExpectationsofStudents;
Anabela Mesquita, Polytechnic Institute of Porto, Porto, Portugal & Algorithm RC, Portugal
Fernando Moreira, IJP, REMIT, University Portucalense, Porto, Portugal & IEETA, University Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal
Paula Peres, CICE-ISCAP / IPP, Porto, Portugal
53 CollaborativeGame-BasedLearningwithMotion-SensingTechnology:AnalyzingStudents’Motivation,Attention,andRelaxationLevels;
Cheng-Yu Hung, National Chiao Tung University, Institute of Education, Hsinchu, Taiwan
Yu-Ren Lin, Central China Normal University, School of Educational Information Technology, Wuhan, China
Kai-Yi Huang, National Chiao Tung University, Institute of Education, Hsinchu, Taiwan
Pao-Ta Yu, National Chung Cheng University, Department of Computer Science and Information Engineering, Chiayi, Taiwan
Jerry Chih-Yuan Sun, National Chiao Tung University, Institute of Education, Hsinchu, Taiwan
65 ImplementingService-LearningThroughanOnlineGraduateCourseinInstructionalDesign;
Jesús H. Trespalacios, Boise State University, Boise, ID, USA
Tera Armstrong, Boise State University, Boise, ID, USA
Cynthia Goodwill, Boise State University, Boise, ID, USA
CopyRightThe International Journal of Online Pedagogy and Course Design (IJOPCD) (ISSN 2155-6873; eISSN 2155-6881), Copyright © 2017 IGI Global. All rights, including translation into other languages reserved by the publisher. No part of this journal may be reproduced or used in any form or by any means without written permission from the publisher, except for noncommercial, educational use including classroom teaching purposes. Product or company names used in this journal are for identification purposes only. Inclusion of the names of the products or companies does not indicate a claim of ownership by IGI Global of the trademark or registered trademark. The views expressed in this journal are those of the authors but not necessarily of IGI Global.
Volume 7 • Issue 4 • October-December-2017 • ISSN: 2155-6873 • eISSN: 2155-6881An official publication of the Information Resources Management Association
InternationalJournalofOnlinePedagogyandCourseDesign
TableofContents
DOI: 10.4018/IJOPCD.2017100102
International Journal of Online Pedagogy and Course DesignVolume 7 • Issue 4 • October-December 2017
Copyright©2017,IGIGlobal.CopyingordistributinginprintorelectronicformswithoutwrittenpermissionofIGIGlobalisprohibited.
A Learning Theory Rubric for Evaluating Mobile Learning ActivitiesDavid Parsons, The Mind Lab by Unitec, Auckland, New Zealand
Kathryn MacCallum, Eastern Institute of Technology, Napier, New Zealand
ABSTRACT
Learningtheoriesunderpintheexpectationsofmeaningfuloutcomesthatanygivenlearningtaskshouldhave.However,educators’understandingandapplicationofsuchtheoriesislikelytovarywiththeirownexperienceandcontext.Inthisarticle,weexplorethepotentialvalueofarubricforthedesignofmobilelearningactivitiesthatisbasedonacoresetofsixlearningtheories,whichwehaveidentifiedfromtheliteratureasbeinghighlyrelevanttothecontextofmobilelearning.Thekeyconceptsofthesetheorieshavebeenusedtocreatetheevaluationrubric,whichsupportstheanalysisoflearningactivitydesignfromtheperspectiveofeachofthechosenlearningtheories.Theapplicationofthisrubricisexploredfromtwoperspectives.First,weapplyittoanexistingmobilelearningactivitytoevaluatetowhatextenttheactivityembodiesthetheorieswithintherubric.Thenweproposearedesignedactivitybyusingtherubricasaguidingframeworkforimprovingthetaskdesign.Thisprocessdemonstratesthepotentialvalueofapplyingsucharubrictodesigningmobilelearningactivities,toensurethattheyadequatelyleveragethecomponentsofoneormorerelevanttheories.
KEywORDSLearning Activity Design, Learning Theory, Learning Theory and Mobile Learning, Mobile Learning, Rubric
INTRODUCTION
A learning theory can be described as a conceptual framework used to understand and framehow information is absorbed, processed, and retainedduring learning (Luis&D’Cunha, 2014).Consideringhowrelevant theoryunderpins learningactivities is important toensureappropriatepedagogicalpractice.Thisisespeciallyimportantwhenadoptingemergingtechnologies,suchasmobiletechnology,toensurethatthelearning,notthetool,isthedriveroftheactivity.Sincemobilelearningisprimarilya21stcenturyphenomenon,therehasbeenconsiderabledebateaboutwhetheritissignificantlydifferentfrommoretraditionalformsoflearningtowarrantitsownuniquetheory,orwhetheritissimplyunderpinnedbyarangeofexistingtheories.Harasim(2012)notesthehistoricalcontextof20thcenturylearningtheoriesandquestionswhethernewcontextsandtechnologiesrequirenewlearningtheories.Inaddressingwhetherweneedanewtheoryoflearningforthemobileage,Sharples,TaylorandVavoula(2010) identified thecriteria thatshouldunderpinmobile learningtheoryanddifferentiateitfromotherexistinglearningtheories.Mostcruciallytheystatedthatatheoryofmobilelearningshouldaccountforthemobilityoflearnersandshouldanalyselearningasapersonalandsituatedactivitymediatedbytechnology.Itisnotthefocusofthisarticletoconsideranynew theoryofmobile learning.Rather, it considerswhichpre-existing learning theoriesareimportantforthedesignofmobilelearningactivities,sincewebelievethatmanytheoriesthatpre-
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datemobilelearningareneverthelesscongruentwiththecriteriaabove.AsHarasim(2012)notes,thereisanintrinsiclinkbetweentheoryandteachingpracticeevenifthisisimplicit,thustheory,oldornew,iswhatweoperationaliseinourpedagogy.Theassertionofthisarticleisthatconsciouslymappingappropriatelearningtheoriestoagivenactivitycanhelpeducatorstounderstandandapplyappropriatemobilelearningandteachingpractices.
Therearemanylearningtheories,mostofwhichhavebeendevelopedoverthelastcenturyorso.Therearealsomanycategorizationsthatmaybeappliedtothesetheories,butwemightmakeadistinctionbetweenthosethatlookatintrinsicfactors,suchasthecognitiveprocessingthatgoesoninsidethebrain,andthosethatlookatextrinsicfactors,suchascontext,socialinteractionand(increasinglydigital)learningtools.Sometheoriesaregroundedinexperimentalmethods,suchasclassicalandinstrumentalconditioning,whileothersarelessrigorouslyvalidatedandopentomoreinterpretation(e.gconnectivism).Somefamiliesoftheoryaresobroadastoembracetheworkofmanyresearchersandincludeamultiplicityofconcepts(e.g.constructivism).
HerringtonandHerrington(2007)statethatguidelinesforlearningwithmobiletechnologiesshouldbetheory-informed.Aclearunderstandingwhatlearningtheoriesunderpinalearningactivitywillhelpinformandensureeffectivepedagogy.Laurillard(2009),havingearliermappedmobilelearning toherconversational framework(Laurillard,2007),outlinedhowanumberofdifferenttheoriesunderlietheframework,emphasisinginstructionism(i.e.behaviourism),constructionism,socialconstructivismandcollaborativelearning(or‘socialconstructionism’).However,thefocusandcontextofalearningactivitywillleadtodifferentlevelsofeachelementaseachoneisappropriatelyapplied.Mobiletechnologieslendthemselvestocertainactivities,andtheymightbeonlyoneelementofalargerlearningexperience;mobileactivitiesareoftenintegratedaspartofblendedlearningcontexts,includingfacetofaceclassroominteractions.Therefore,itisimportanttoclearlyunderstandhowagivenlearningactivityinteractsbothwithitscontextandwithrelevanttheory.
Whichtheoriesapplymostdirectlytomobilelearningmay,perhaps,beanalysedthroughthelensofaffordances.Inanearlierarticle(MacCallum&Parsons,2016)weusedananalysisofaffordancestoselectasubsetofsixtheoriesthatwebelievearefundamentaltomobilelearning,namely;behaviorism,constructivism,experientiallearning,situatedcognition,communitiesofpracticeandconnectivism.Theseareoutlinedinthefollowingsection.Ineachcase,thereisabriefoutlineofhowtheuseofmobiledevicescansupporteachtypeoflearning.
Six Theories of Mobile LearningEarly learning theories tended to focusonaspectsofbehaviouralconditioning, suchasPavlov’sclassicalconditioning,wherestimulusleadstoresponse,andSkinner’sinstrumentalconditioning,wherebehaviourleadstoreinforcement(Olsen&Hergenhahn,2013).Whilesuchapproachesmightseemsomewhatmechanistic,theconceptsofrapidfeedbackembodiedwithinthemareimportantinhelpinglearnerstoworkattheirownpace.TheideaofpositivereinforcementwasoutlinedbyThorndike,whoemphasisedhow‘satisfaction’couldreinforcepositivebehaviours(Tapp,1969),whileSkinner(citedinSobel,1990)notedthattheidealofbehaviorismistoeliminatecoercion,toapplycontrolsbychangingtheenvironmentinsuchawayastoreinforcethekindofbehaviorthatbenefitseveryone.Behavioristprinciplesarecommonlyseeninmobilelearningtoolsthatenablequizzes,in-classpolling,discussion,andquestionandanswer,aswellasforskills-basedlearningsuchasmobileassisted language learning.Reinforcement through immediate feedback isacorefeatureofthesetypesoftools.
Notalloftheearlylearningtheoristswereexperimentalbehaviorists.Dewey(1933)stressedthevalueofoutdooreducationandhands-on,experientiallearning,whileVygotsky(1978)emphasized
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thesocialroleoflearning,withthehelpof‘moreknowledgeableothers’(whichmightthesedaysincludedigital sources) in thezoneofproximaldevelopment.Other theorists also lookedat thelearner’sinteractionwiththeirenvironment,forexamplePiaget,whostatedthatknowledgewasbuilt,nottransferred(Glaserfeld,1982),andBruner(1961),whobelievedthateducationalenvironmentsshouldprovidetheopportunityfordiscoverylearning.Thesetheoristsaregenerallyreferredtoasconstructivists,sincetheyfocusonthelearnerbeingabletoconstructtheirownknowledge.Mobiledevicesoffermanyopportunities forworkingwithphysicalor conceptualmaterials toconstructnewartefactsandknowledge,suchastoolsforrecording,mixinganddisseminatingvarioustypesofmultimediacontent.
Experientiallearningisdevelopedfrommanyotherlearningtheories,inparticularDewey’sworkonexperience(Beard&Wilson,2013).Thekeyaspectofthistheoryisthatknowledgeiscreatedthroughthetransformationofexperience(Kolb,1984).Thevalueofmobiledevicesforexperientiallearningisthattheycanassistinthecaptureofexperienceandprovidethematerialsforlaterreflection,andtransformationintoknowledge.Devicescanbeusedtocaptureevidencefromanexperienceandsubsequentlytocommunicate,analyseandvisualisetheknowledgegainedfromthatevidence.
Brown,CollinsandDuguid(1989)assertedthatlearningisembeddedintheactivity,contextandcultureinwhichitislearned.Theirconceptofsituatedcognitionresonateswellwithexperientiallearning,butgoesfurthertostresstheintegralnatureofthesituationinwhichthelearningactivitytakesplace,thus“situationsmightbesaidtoco-produceknowledgethroughactivity”(Brown,Collins&Duguid,1989,p.32).Thevalueofmobiledevicesinrelationtothistheoryisthattheirportabilityenablesthemtobetakenintodifferentcontexts.Learningactivitiescantakeplaceoutsidetheclassroomandacrossmultiplespaces.Mobiledevicefeaturessuchaslocationawareness,communicationtoolsandsensorscanbeveryvaluableinthistypeoflearningexperience.
Theimportanceoflearningwithothersiscentraltothecommunityofpractice(Wenger,2000)whichsimilarlyemphasizescontextandculturebutalsoregardstheauthenticdomainofthelearningcommunityasimportant.Acommunityofpracticeisasociallearningsystem,whichcanusefullybesupportedbymobiledevices.Therichsetofmessagingandsocialmediatoolsthatareavailableonmobiledevicesprovidearangeofoptionsforlearnersinanycontexttocollaborateandlearnwiththeircommunity.
Whilemostlearningtheoriesaregroundedin20thcenturythinking,inthe21stcenturywehaveseentheriseofnewtheoriessuchasconnectivism(Siemens,2004),whichhasbeenproposedas‘alearningtheoryforthedigitalage.’TheconceptofconnectivismisbasedontheideathatInternettechnologieshavecreatednewopportunitiesforpeopletolearnandshareinformationacrossnetworks.Theconnectivistapproachtolearningisthat“theconnectionsthatenableustolearnmorearemoreimportantthanourcurrentstateofknowing.”(Siemens,2004,para21).Connectivistlearnerswillshareandcommunicatedynamicknowledgecreationthroughnetworkedinteractionwithmachinesandotherpeople.Thecommunicationtoolsinmobiledevices,coupledwiththeresourcesavailablethroughInternetconnectivity,makeconnectivismanimportanttheoryformobilelearning.
In the next section, we take these six learning theories and use them as the basis for thedevelopmentofanevaluationrubricformobilelearningactivities.
An Evaluation Rubric for Mobile Learning ActivitiesWhendesigningamobilelearningactivity,itisimportanttounderstandhowtheoryunderpinsthelearningdesign.Anappropriateandconsideredpedagogicalapproachwillhelpensurethatlearningistheprimaryandmainconcernandthatthetechnologyisnotusedfortechnology’ssake.Multiplelearningapproachesmaybeadoptedwithinoneextendedactivity,soitisimportanttoconceptuallyframethelearningwithinthetargetedlearningoutcomesthatonewouldexpectfromoperationalisingoneormore learning theories.Wehaveaddressed thisneed tobeable toassess therelationshipbetweentheoryanddesignbycreatinganevaluationrubric.Thisrubricisbasedonthesixpreviously
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identifiedlearningtheories;behaviorism,constructivism,experientiallearning,situatedcognition,communitiesofpracticeandconnectivism.
Thecreationoftherubricwasunderpinnedbyasetofcriteriaidentifiedinapreviouspaperby the authors (MacCallum & Parsons, 2016), where an analysis of the literature identified theprincipleswhichframelearningdesignwithinthesixidentifiedlearningtheories.Fromlearningdesignliterature,fivecriteriaweredrawnoutthatoperationalisedeachlearningtheory.Withinthepreviouspaperthesecriteriawerethenusedtomapandanalysetwodifferentlearningactivities.Therubricoutlinedinthisarticleexpandsontheoriginalconcepttofurtherrefineandclarifytherolethateachcriterionplayswithintherelevantlearningtheory.Itacknowledgesthatthereareimportantcoreaspectsthatarefundamentalandthusoperationalisetheessenceofeachlearningtheory.Thesekeyfeaturesthereforeshouldbepresentwhenleveragingaparticulartheory.Sincethisprioritisationmaybeoverlookedwhensimplyusingachecklistofcriteriainisolation,ascaledrubrichasbeendeveloped,whichisusedinthisarticle.
This latest version refines the original criteria, identified in the earlier paper, and includesadditionalkeysourceswhichwereusedtodeveloptherubricforthefollowingtheories;Behaviourism(Ertmer&Newby,2013;Ally,2004),constructivism(Ally,2004),experiential learning(Weller,2006;Beard&Wilson,2013)situatedcognition(Brown,Collins&Duguid,1989;Herrington&Oliver,1995),communitiesofpractice(Wenger,2000;Lai,Pratt,Anderson&Stigter,2006)andconnectivism(Siemens,2004;Armatas,Spratt&Vincent,2013;Kizito,2016).
Table1showstherubricforallsixlearningtheories,therubrichas6levels,wherelevelzeroindicatesacompleteabsenceofanyevidenceofthislearningtheoryinagivenactivity,whilelevel5indicatesthattheactivityfullyoperationalisesthatparticularlearningtheory.Levels4and5bothindicateadesignintent,whereaslevels1,2and3suggestthatcertaincomponentsoflearningtheoriesmaybepresentbutmaynotbeanintegralpartofthelearningdesign.Therubrichassynthesizedandassimilatedthemajoraspectsofeachidentifiedcriteriatoembodythekeyaspectsofeachtheoryintoaformthatgivesevaluativestructuretoobservations(Brookhart,2013).
Itshouldbenotedthatthisisnotintendedasacumulativerubricofperformanceskills,asisevidentinsomerubricssuchasthosepublishedbyITLResearch(2012).Inthosecases,individualcriteriaareidentifiedthataccumulateinaspecificsequence,makingitpossibletocreatealogicalflowchartofeachevaluationstep.Weacknowledgethatthecomponentsofagivenlearningtheoryaregenerallytoodiverseandinterdependentforsuchadiscreteseparationofstagestobeidentified.Nevertheless,wehaveattemptedtobeconsistentinourapproachtotherubricsuchthateachtheoryisexpressedinasimilarway.Indoingsowehaveattemptedtoidentifythemostfundamentalcomponentsofeachlearningtheorysothateventhelowestlevelsoftherubricabovezeroacknowledgethesefundamentals.Forexample,level1ofexperientiallearningrequiresacycleofexperience,sincethisisfundamentaltoallotheraspectsofexperientiallearning.Wealsoacknowledgethatthecomponentsofvariouslearningtheoriesarenotnecessarilyexclusive.Forexample,fouroftheselearningtheoriesincludeanacknowledgementofcollaborationasanimportantpartoflearning.Similarly,thecreationofknowledgeisexplicitlynotedinmorethanonelearningtheory.Thus,anygivenlearningactivitywouldbeexpectedtoexhibitarangeoffeaturesthatcouldleadtothatactivitybeingassociatedwithaspectsofmultiplelearningtheories.
Itisnotourcontentionthatasuccessfullearningactivitydesignshouldmeetthehighestlevelsoftherubricforeachlearningtheory.Indeed,attemptingtodosowouldseemtobelikelytoleadtoacontrivedandover-complexlearningactivity.Ontheotherhand,itwouldseemtobealmostimpossibletocreateanykindoflearningactivitythatscoredzeroforallsixtheories.Anydesignthatregisteredatthislevelwouldhardlydeservetobecalledalearningactivity.Wesuggest,however,thatforalearningactivitytobewelldesigneditshouldscorehighly(level4or5)onatleastoneofthesectionsoftherubric.Ourargumentforthisproposalisthatiflearningtheorieshavevalue(whichwebelievethattheydo)thenweshouldendeavouraseducatorstofullyunderstandandutilisethesetheoriesin
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Table 1. Learning theory rubric
Learning Theory: Behaviourism
Level0 Themobileactivitydoes not involvemeasurableoutcomes,testing,sequencedmaterials,feedbackorreinforcement.
Level1 Themobileactivityinvolves at least one componentofmeasurableoutcomes,testing,sequencedmaterials,feedbackorreinforcement.
Level2 Themobileactivityinvolves measurable outcomes and sequenced materials,andinclude aspectsoftesting,feedbackorreinforcement.
Level3 Themobileactivityinvolves measurable outcomes and sequenced materials,andalsoincludes significant aspectsoftesting,feedbackorreinforcement.
Level4 Themobileactivityislargely designedaroundmeasurableoutcomes,testing,sequencedmaterials,feedbackand/orreinforcement.
Level5 Themobileactivityiswholly designedaroundmeasurableoutcomes,testing,sequencedmaterials,feedbackandreinforcement.
Learning Theory: Constructivism
Level0 Themobileactivitydoes not involve(inter)activeconstructionofknowledgebylearners.Learnersdonothavecontrolofthelearningprocessnortimeoropportunitytoreflectanddeveloppersonalmeaning
Level1 Themobileactivityinvolves (inter)active construction of knowledgebylearners.Itmayincludeat least one componentofcollaborationandcooperation,learnershavingcontrolofthelearningprocess,andtimeandopportunitytoreflectanddeveloppersonalmeaning.
Level2 Themobileactivityinvolves (inter)active construction of knowledgebylearners.Itincludes aspectsofcollaborationandcooperation,learnershavingcontrolofthelearningprocess,andtimeandopportunitytoreflectanddeveloppersonalmeaning.
Level3 Themobileactivityinvolves (inter)active construction of knowledgebylearnersusingcollaborationandcooperation,andalsoincludes significant aspectsoflearnershavingcontrolofthelearningprocess,andtimeandopportunitytoreflectanddeveloppersonalmeaning.
Level4 Themobileactivityislargely designedaround(inter)activeconstructionofknowledgebylearnersusingcollaborationandcooperation.Learnershavecontrolofthelearningprocessandtimeandopportunitytoreflectanddeveloppersonalmeaning
Level5 Themobileactivityiswholly designedaround(inter)activeconstructionofknowledgebylearnersusingcollaborationandcooperation.Learnershavecontrolofthelearningprocessandtimeandopportunitytoreflectanddeveloppersonalmeaning
Learning Theory: Experiential Learning
Level0 Themobileactivitydoes not involveanycycleofexperience,observation,conceptualizationorexperimentation.Thereisnotransformationthroughreflectionintonewknowledge
Level1 Themobileactivityinvolves a cycle of experience.Itmayincludeat least one componentofobservation,conceptualization,and/orexperimentation.
Level2 Themobileactivityinvolves a cycle of experience.Itincludes aspectsofobservation,conceptualization,and/orexperimentation,withsubsequentreflection.
Level3 Themobileactivityinvolves a cycle of experience.Itincludes significant aspects ofobservation,conceptualization,andexperimentation,withsubsequentreflection.
Level4 Themobileactivityislargely designedaroundacycleofexperience,observation,conceptualization,andexperimentation,transformedthroughreflectionintonewknowledge
Level5 Themobileactivityiswholly designedaroundacycleofexperience,observation,conceptualization,andexperimentation,transformedthroughreflectionintonewknowledge
Learning Theory: Situated Cognition
Level0 Themobileactivitydoes not involveanauthenticcontextoractivitiesthatreflectreal-lifeapplication.Thereisnocollaborativeknowledgeconstructionthroughcoaching,expertperformances,processmodellingorreflection
continued on following page
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ourteachingandlearningdesign.Toonlyhalf-heartedlyembraceaparticularlearningtheorywouldseemtobedeliberatelymissingoutonitspotentialvaluetoourstudents.Wewouldalsosuggestthattheexerciseofassessinglearningactivitydesignsagainstthisrubricwouldbeanopportunitytoreflectonpotentialmodificationsthatcouldbemadetotheseactivitiestomorefullyleveragethemostrelevantlearningtheoriesandconsiderwhatotheraspectsofotherlearningtheoriescouldbe
Level1 Themobileactivityinvolves an authentic context.Itmayincludeat least one componentofreal-lifeapplicationorcollaborativeknowledgeconstructionthroughcoaching,expertperformances,processmodellingandreflection.
Level2 Themobileactivityinvolves an authentic contextandactivitiesthatreflectreal-lifeapplication.Itincludes aspectsofcollaborativeknowledgeconstructionthroughcoaching,expertperformances,processmodellingandreflection.
Level3 Themobileactivityinvolves an authentic contextandactivitiesthatreflectreal-lifeapplication.Italsoincludes significant aspectsofcollaborativeknowledgeconstructionthroughcoaching,expertperformances,processmodellingandreflection.
Level4 Themobileactivityislargely designedaroundanauthenticcontextandactivitiesthatreflectreal-lifeapplicationandsupportcollaborativeknowledgeconstructionthroughcoaching,expertperformances,processmodellingandreflection.
Level5 Themobileactivityiswholly designedaroundanauthenticcontextandactivitiesthatreflectreal-lifeapplicationandsupportcollaborativeknowledgeconstructionthroughcoaching,expertperformances,processmodellingandreflection.
Learning Theory: Communities of Practice
Level0 Themobileactivitydoes not involveacommunityofpractice.Thereisnosharedlearningandnosocialprocessofinformationexchangeandknowledgecreation
Level1 Themobileactivityinvolves a unifying community of practice.Itmayincludeat least one componentofsharedlearningaccompanyingasocialprocessofinformationexchangeandknowledgecreation.
Level2 Themobileactivityinvolves a diverse, unifying community of practice.Itincludes aspectsofsharedlearningaccompanyingasocialprocessofinformationexchangeandknowledgecreation.
Level3 Themobileactivityinvolves a diverse, unifying community of practiceandalsoincludes significant aspectsofsharedlearningaccompanyingasocialprocessofinformationexchangeandknowledgecreation.
Level4 Themobileactivityislargely designedaroundadiverse,unifyingcommunityofpracticewheresharedlearningaccompaniesasocialprocessofinformationexchangeandknowledgecreation
Level5 Themobileactivityiswholly designedaroundadiverse,unifyingcommunityofpracticewheresharedlearningaccompaniesasocialprocessofinformationexchangeandknowledgecreation
Learning Theory: Connectivism
Level0 Themobileactivitydoes not involvethecreationorcriticalevaluationofartefactsinlearningnetworks.Itusesnocollaborativetechnologies,diverseinformationsourcesortransferablesocialmediaskills
Level1 Themobileactivityinvolves at least one componentofcreationorcriticalevaluationofartefactsinlearningnetworks,collaborativetechnologies,diverseinformationsourcesortransferablesocialmediaskills
Level2 Themobileactivityinvolves the creation and critical evaluation of artefactsinlearningnetworks,andincludes aspectsofusingcollaborativetechnologies,diverseinformationsourcesandtransferablesocialmediaskills
Level3 Themobileactivityinvolves the creation and critical evaluation of artefactsinlearningnetworks,andalsoincludes significant aspectsofusingcollaborativetechnologies,diverseinformationsourcesandtransferablesocialmediaskills
Level4 Themobileactivityislargely designedaroundthecreationandcriticalevaluationofartefactsinlearningnetworksusingcollaborativetechnologies,diverseinformationsourcesandtransferablesocialmediaskills
Level5 Themobileactivityiswholly designedaroundthecreationandcriticalevaluationofartefactsinlearningnetworksusingcollaborativetechnologies,diverseinformationsourcesandtransferablesocialmediaskills
Table 1. Continued
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integratedtomakeamoreenrichedlearningactivity.Thiscouldsuggestalternativestrategiesthatcouldmodifytheactivity,ortheneedtoincorporateadditionalfeaturesthatcouldfurtherenhancetheactivity,forexampleonemightconsiderenablingstudentstotestideas(behaviourism)orhavemorecontroloverthelearningprocess(constructivism).
Mapping the Rubric to an Indicative Mobile Learning ActivityToexploretherelationshipbetweenactivitydesignandtheidentifiedcriteriaofappropriatelearningtheories,wetakeanexampleofamobilelearningactivitythatwasoriginallydesignedforaprofessionaldevelopmentworkshoptoberunforteacherstoexploresomespecificaspectsofmobiledeviceuseforlearning.Thisparticularactivitywassomewhattechnologycentric,asitsoriginalintentwastoexposeagroupofteacherstothepotentialofcertainhardwareandsoftwarefeaturesofmobiledevices.
Thereasonforchoosingthisparticularactivityforanalysiswasthatitwasdesignedwithgoodpedagogyinmindandageneralawarenessoflearningtheory,butwasnotexplicitlydesignedusingthedetailedanalysisoflearningtheorythatweapplyinthispaper.Thus,webelieveitprovidesahelpfulexampleofthetypeoflearningactivitythateducatorsmightdevelopwithgeneralideasaboutwhatconstituteseffectivelearning,butonethatisinherentlyweakduetoalackofexplicitanalysisintermsofthetheoreticalunderpinningsoftheactivity.
First,weanalysethislearningactivityfromtheperspectiveofitsembodiedlearningtheories.Next,wereconsiderthedesignofthelearningactivityfromtheperspectiveoflearningtheory,andexploresomeoptionsfortaskredesignthatwouldmaximisethepedagogicalrichnessoftheactivity.
Original Task DesignTheactivitywhichisthefocusofthisarticlewasbasedonalargegroupofteachersinvolvedinatwo-hourprofessionaldevelopmentworkshoprunacrossanumberofdifferentsitesoverseveraldays.Theactivityfocusedontheteachersexploringthepotentialaffordancesofmobiletechnologyandhowitcouldbeincorporatedintotheirownclasses.Theactivitywastoundertakeageolocatedoutdoor learning task where the specific application to be used was created in advance by theworkshopfacilitator.ThetoolusedinthisworkshopwasARIS(https://arisgames.org/),whichallowsthecreationofgeolocatedactivitiesusingawebbaseddesigntool,withthecreatedappsdeployabletoiOSdevices.Theapplicationincludedaseriesofoutdoorwaypoints,towhichthestudentsweredirected in teamsby themobileapp.Ateach location, the teamswereasked to recordwhateverenvironmentalreadingstheywereabletogatherusingtheirmobiledevices.Theseweremeasurescommonlyavailablethroughdevicesensors,suchaslightlevel,soundlevel,elevation,humidityetc.Duringtheactivity,theywereaskedtorecordthesereadingsonasharedcloud-basedspreadsheet,andattheendoftheactivitytheywereaskedtotaketheshareddatasourceandanalyseittolookforanyinterestingsimilaritiesordifferencesthatmightoccuracrossvarioustimesandlocationsacrossthecountry.FurtherdetailaboutthisactivitycanbefoundinParsons,Thomas&Inkila(2016).
Analysing the Original Task Against the RubricWhenanalysingthislearningactivitywiththelearningtheoryrubric,wenotedthatitresonatedwithseveraltheoriesbutdidnoteffectivelyaddressanysingleoneinadequatedepth.Despiteitsobviousaffinitywithsituatedcognition(beingawaypointbasedactivityinspecificoutdoorlocations)andwithexperientiallearning(giventheexposuretonewmobilelearningexperiences),theactivityfailedtoachieveahighlevelofalignmentwiththerubriceveninthesetwoareasoftheory.Thefollowingsectionsaddresseachofthelearningtheoriesinturn,assessingthelearningactivityagainsttherubric.
Theactivityrevealedfewbehaviouristcharacteristics.Giventheopen-endednatureofthetasktherewasnospecificreinforcement.Theonlyevidentfeaturesthatrelatedtobehavioristlearningtheorywere thesequencingofactivities through theapplication(which led thestudents throughaseriesofwaypointsandgaveinstructionsateachstep)andsomelimitedfeedback(e.g.theapp
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indicatedwhensufficientreadingshadbeentaken).Asaresult,weassessedtheactivityatlevel1againstthebehaviourismrubric.
Intermsofconstructivism,theconstructionofknowledgewaspresenttosomeextentbutwasinsufficientlyscaffoldedtoadequatelycreateazoneofproximaldevelopment.Thelearningwasactive,butperhapsthemeaningwasnotmadeexplicitenoughtoguidethelearnersinconstructingknowledge.Theactivitywasteambased,andalsoinvolvedthesharingofgathereddata,sowascollaborativeandcooperative.Inparticular,studentswouldbesharingdevicestofindlocationsandcollectthedataandwouldthenbeworkingtogetheronthedatasheets.Learnersweregivensomecontrolofthelearningprocess,butonthewholetheprocesswasdictatedbytheapp,anddatagatheringoptionswereconstrainedbythedevicesthatthelearnershadavailabletothem.Anopportunitytoreflectwasprovidedinthedataanalysisphase,butwastootimeconstrainedandinsufficientlyguidedtoreachmeaningfuloutcomes.Interactiontookplacebutwassporadicandvariablebetweengroupsbecausetheactivitydidnotprovideenoughcuestotriggerinteractionsexplicitly.Giventhesevariousweaknessesintheactivitydesign,weassesseditatlevel1againsttheconstructivismrubric.
Perhapsthemostimportantlearningtheorythatappliestothistypeofopen-endeddiscoveryactivity is experiential learning. The learning context was designed to provide an experience ofusingmobiledevicesinunfamiliarwaysandthereforetoprovidenewlearningexperiencesforthestudents.Thetaskdesignwas,atleastinprinciple,basedonacycleofconcreteexperience,reflectiveobservation,abstractconceptualizationandactiveexperimentation.However,thelackofopportunityfortruereflectionlimitedthescopeforthecreationofnewknowledgethroughthetransformationof experience. Nevertheless, because the activity did involve observation, conceptualization andexperimentation,withsubsequentreflection,weassesseditatlevel3intherubric.Unfortunately,there was insufficient evidence gathered from the activity to assert with any certainty that thisreflectiontransformedtheexperienceintonewknowledge(level4),thoughitmayhavedoneforsomeparticipants.
Inprinciple,situatedcognitionwouldalsoseemtobeahighlyrelevanttheoryinthiscontext,sincethekeypremiseofusingthemobileappwasthatenvironmentalmeasureswouldbetakenfromspecificsituatedcontexts,andthattheseconceptswouldbeimportantincollaborativelyanalysingthedata.However,whenanalysingtheactivityfromtheperspectiveofthistheoryitwasclearthatonlytheauthenticcontextwasdirectlysupportiveofthelearningand,asnotedabove,therewasinsufficientcoachingandscaffolding.Again,asnotedearlier,therewasalsoinsufficientopportunityforreflection.Nevertheless,sincethecontextualactivitiesreflectedreal-lifeapplication,andfosteredcollaborativeknowledgeconstructionandatleastsomereflection,weassessedthisactivityatlevel2onthesituatedcognitionrubric.
Intermsofcommunityofpractice,thiswaspresentbutmostlybecausetheparticipantswerealreadymembersofacommunityofpracticeandthisactivityoperatedinsidethislargercommunity.Ifweconsidertheactivityonitsown,itdidnotcreateanyfurthercomponentsofacommunityofpractice.Therewassomeinformationexchangeandknowledgecreation,andsharedlearning,astheteamsdiscussedtheirdevicesandtheenvironmentalsensorsthattheyhadavailable,andanalysedtheshareddataset.Itwasalsohopedthatlearningwouldbeanincidentaloutcomeofthesocialprocessembeddedintheactivity.Unfortunately,thiswasnotparticularlyevidentinpractice.Giventhattheactivityleveragedanexistingcommunityofpractice,butdidnoteffectivelydevelopitfurther,weassesseditatlevel1ontherubric.
Therewerealsosomeelementsofconnectivismintheactivitythroughtheuseofashareddataset.However,interactionsthroughthedatasetwerelimited.Althoughitwasintendedthattheactivitywouldbeastimulatingandmotivatinglearningactivity,thesingleartefactthatwascreatedwasnotlinkedtobroadersocialnetworks,someaningfuldialogueandcollaborationwasnotencouragedbythetoolsused,toolswhichalsofailedtoprovidemuchinthewayoftransferableskillsacrosslearningnetworks.Thelearnersdidusediverseinformationsourcesofflineandonline(forexampleonhowtousetheirdevicestocaptureandinterpretthedata),butperhapsthelackofscaffoldingherelimitedtheirscope.
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Onceagain,theactivityfailedtoprovideadequateopportunityforcriticalevaluationandsynthesisofconcepts,opinionsandperspectives.Nevertheless,despitetheselimitations,weassessedtheactivityatlevel2ontheconnectivismrubric,sinceanartefactwascreatedandcriticallyevaluated(atleasttosomeextent)andthestudentsusedcollaborativetechnologiesanddiverseinformationsources.
Figure1showsaradarchartoftheactivity,asevaluatedagainsttherubric.Itcanbeseenfromthisfigurethatthelearningactivityfailedtocomprehensivelyaddressanyofthesixlearningtheoriesrepresentedintherubric.Theareasofrelativestrengthareexperientiallearningandsituatedcognition,buteveninthesemeasuresimportantcomponentsoflearningasoutlinedinthesetheoriesaremissing,soinneithercasecouldweassessthemasreachingthelevelofdesignintent(4or5).Overall,then,thisparticularlearningactivitydesignisseentobesomewhatlackinginitsoperationalisationoflearningtheory.
Applying the Rubric to Task DesignIn this sectionof the articlewemoveon fromanalysinganexistingmobile learningactivity toconsideringthedesignofamodifiedlearningexperience.Thissectionattemptstotakeintoaccountthetheoreticalweaknessesoftheoriginaltaskdesignandthepotentialforchangesuggestedbythecomponentsoftheevaluationrubric.Asindicatedearlier,therearesomevaluableaspectsoflearningtheoryalreadyembeddedintheoriginaltask,soitwasimportantthattheseshouldberetainedandbuiltuponwherepossible,whileatthesametimeconsideringamajortaskredesigntoensurethattherewassometheory-baseddesignintent,basedontherubric.
In analysing the weaknesses of the original activity, a number of elements were clearlyproblematic.Oneofthesewasthelackoftimeallowedforreflection,whichhadnotbeenadequatelycateredforintheoriginalactivity.Yettimeconstraintsareanunavoidableaspectofmostlearningenvironments,soweneedtodesignwiththeseconstraintsinmind.Anotherlimitationwasalackofevidenceofoutcomes,alongwithalackofuseofappropriatesocialmediachannelsfordisseminationoflearning.Anotherevidentlimitationtotheactivitywasthatalthoughtherewassomeconstructivistactivityinthecreationofthedataartefact,thiswasminimal.Theapplicationusedwascreatedby
Figure 1. Radar chart of the first learning activity
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theteachingstaff,aswasthedesignofthedataspreadsheet.Thus,opportunitiesforstudentagencyintheconstructionofartefactswereverylimited.Withtheselimitationsinmind,andguidedbytherubric,weundertookamajorredesignofthelearningactivityinanattempttorenderitamorevaluablelearningexperienceforthestudents.
Asindicatedearlierinthisarticle,itisnotourcontentionthatlearningactivitydesignshouldbebasedonattemptingtoreachthemaximumlevelofeverypartoftherubric,sincethiswouldbetousetherubricassomekindofoverallmetricwhere‘moreisbetter’,whichitisnotintendedtobe.Theroleoftherubricis,firstofall,toenableustohighlightthemostrelevantlearningtheoriesinanactivity,andthentopotentiallyfocusonthosepartsoftherubricwhererelevantimprovementscouldbemade.Aswehavenotedpreviously,therearesomecomponentsthatappearinmultiplepartsoftherubric,soaddressingtheseparticularfeaturesmayimpactonmorethanoneelementoftheoverallprocess.However,webelieveitishelpfultoaddresseachlearningtheoryinturnandmakeajudgementastowhichpartsoftherubricaremostappropriatetopayattentiontofromadesignperspective.
Identifying Potential Improvements to the Original TaskOuroriginaldesignscoredlowonthebehaviourismrubric.However,wedidnotperceivethistobeaproblem,sincewehadnotintendedtodesignanactivitythatfocusedonbehaviouristprinciples.Rather,thisparticularlearningprocesswasbasedaroundanopenendedexploratoryexperienceforthestudents.Therefore,wedidnotfeelitnecessarytoaddressthebehaviouristaspectoftherubricintheredesign.However,fromaconstructivistperspectiveitwasclearthatouroriginaltaskdidnotprovidethestudentswithanopportunitytoconstructtheirownartefactsandknowledge,nordiditgivethemenoughtimetoadequatelyreflect,ormaketheactivitypersonallymeaningful.Wethereforefelttheneedtolookforopportunitiestoaddresstheconstructivistrubrictoagreaterdegree.
Althoughouroriginalactivityscoredreasonablywellontheexperientiallearningcomponentoftherubric,itwaslackinginthefacilityforthestudentstoclearlydemonstratethattheyhadtransformedtheirexperiencethroughreflectionintonewknowledge.Therefore,intheredesignedactivitywehopedtoaddressthisshortcoming,atleasttosomedegree.Theoriginalactivityalsoscoredreasonablywellintermsofsituatedcognition,butwasnotstructuredeffectivelytoallowcollaborativeknowledgeconstructionthroughcoaching,expertperformances,processmodellingandreflection.Itwashopethattheredesignmightaddressthisparticularaspectoftherubricmoreeffectively.
Althoughouractivitywasleveraginganexistingcommunityofpractice,therewerealsoareaswherewecouldimprovethevalueofthiscontext.Inparticular,weneededtoensurethattherewasasocialprocessofinformationexchangeandknowledgecreation.Finally,inlookingattheconnectivistaspectoftherubric,itwasclearthatthestudentscouldbenefitfromthecreationofnetworkedartefactsandexerciseandbuildsocialmediaskills.
Insummary,itwasfeltthattherewereanumberofareaswheretheactivitycouldbeimproved.Inthenextsection,wedescribehowtheredesignedtaskwascreatedandanalysedagainsttherubric.
The Redesigned TaskGiven the issues identified above, the redesigned task was intended to address a number ofshortcomingsintheoriginaldesignsuchthatanumberofaspectsofappropriatelearningtheoriescouldbebetterintegratedintothelearningprocess.Onesignificantissueidentifiedwasthelackoftimeforreflection.Giventhatthereweretimeconstraintsintheoriginalactivity,itwasfeltthatthetaskshouldbecompletelyrescheduledbyreducingthenumberofactivities,andmaximizingtheopportunitiesforreflection.Inaddition,itwasclearthattheoriginaltaskgavelittleopportunityfortheconstructivistbuildingofartefactsandrelatedknowledge.Asaresult,thereviseddesignallowedthestudentstocreatetheirownmobilelearningactivityratherthansimplyparticipateinonethatwasalreadybuilt.Itwasalsoclearthatwewerenottakingenoughadvantageofanexistingcommunity
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ofpractice,whichwasalreadyenabledonlineusingsocialmediatools,sothenewactivityaimedtoembracetheseopportunities.
Theredesignedtaskrequiredthestudents tocreatetheirownGPSenabledoutdoorlearningactivityusingasuitabletool.Thismeantwehadtore-thinkouruseofARIS,sinceitsrichfeaturesetmakesithardertocreateanactivitywithoutpreviousexperience.Asaresult,wechoseActionBound(https://en.actionbound.com/). Although there are a number of other similar tools available, weselectedthistoolbasedontheeaseandspeedwithwhichamobilelearningactivitycanbecreatedanddeployed.
Thestudentschosetheirownauthenticcontextwithinwhichtocreatetheirownmobilelearningimplementations, and were initially given appropriate modelling through an instructional video,whichtheyworkedthroughattheirownpace.Theythencollaborativelydesignedtheirownlearningactivitiesandimplementedthemusingtherecommendedtool.Oncethedesignshadbeenimplemented,theywereabletotesttheseoutinpractice,thensharetheirartefactsandreflectionsonsocialmedia,usingtheonlinecommunityalreadyestablishedwithinthegroup.Toensurethattherewasadequatetimeforeachstageofthetask,itwasnecessarytoremovesomefeaturesfromtheoriginalactivity,inparticulartheuseofsensorsandthepoolingandanalysisofshareddata.Wechosetomakethisanentirelyseparateactivityatadifferenttimetoensurethatthestudentswereabletoreflectontheconstructivistprocessofdesigning,building,testing,andevaluatingameaningfulproductinasuitableexperientiallearningcycle.
Whenanalysingtheredesignedactivityagainsttherubric,itwasclearthatthemodificationshadaddressedmanyoftheweaknessesofouroriginaldesign.Wedidnotchoosetoexplicitlyaddressanyaspectsofthebehaviourismrubricandtherevisedactivitywasstillassessedatlevel1.However,intermsofconstructivismweassessedtheactivityatlevel4becausethelearnershadmuchgreatercontroloverthelearningprocess,wheretheycouldcreateanartefactthatwaspersonallymeaningfulto them,and theyweregiven theopportunity to reflectwithin theircommunityofpractice.Theoriginalactivityhadbeenreasonablystronginexperientiallearning,butwebelievethattherevisedactivitywasfurtherenhancedtolevel4oftherubric,giventheopportunitiesthatstudentshadtotransformtheirreflectionsintonewknowledge,whichwereevidencedbytheirpostingsonsocialmedia.Althoughwedidnotformallyassesstheoutcomes,wenotedthatgamedesignspostedonsocialmediaduringtheclassincludedadiverserangeofimaginativeideas,includingexploringanewschool,alocalculturewalk,aninvestigationofcheckinprocessesatanairportandafamilyversionoftheTVseries“TheAmazingRace”.
Weassessedtherevisedactivityatlevel3onthesituatedcognitionrubric.Thereasonfornotassessingithigherwasthatthelevelsofcoaching,expertperformancesandprocessmodellingweresomewhatlimited,beingconfinedtoasingleinstructionalvideo.Againstthecommunityofpracticerubric,wejudgedtherevisedactivityatlevel3.Althoughsharedlearningdidaccompanyasocialprocessofinformationexchangeandknowledgecreation,itwouldbesomewhatexcessivetoclaimthattheactivityhadbeendesignedwiththisatitscore.Fromaconnectivistperspective,theactivityremainedatlevel2.Althoughitembracedtransferablesocialmediaskillsitalsolostsomeoftheconnectivistaspectsoftheoriginalactivity,sooverallremainedarelativelylowleveltaskintermsofconnectivism.
Figure2showsaradarchartof theactivity,asevaluatedagainst therubric.ComparedwithFigure1,itisclearthattherevisedactivityismuchmoretheory-informedthantheoriginalversion.
Assessing the Revised TaskEarlier in thisarticlewemadesomestatementsabout therubric,whichwewillbrieflyreiteratehere,beforeassessing theoutcomesofour redesign.Levelzero indicatesacompleteabsenceofanyevidenceofagivenlearningtheoryinanactivity,whilelevel5indicatesthattheactivityfullyoperationalisesthatparticularlearningtheory.Levels4and5bothindicateadesignintent,whereaslevels1,2and3suggestthatcertaincomponentsoflearningtheoriesmaybepresentbutmaynotbe
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anintegralpartofthelearningdesign.Itisoursuggestion,however,thatforalearningactivitytobewelldesigneditshouldscoreatthe‘designintent’levels(4or5)onatleastonesectionoftherubric.
How,then,mightweinterprettheradarchartinFigure2,whichevaluatestherevisedlearningactivityagainsttherubric?Wenotethattheactivityrevealsdesignintentforbothconstructivismandexperientiallearning,althoughneitherofthesearefullyoperationalised.Doesthismatter?Wewouldsuggestthatitdoesnot.Thevalueoftherubricisinprovidinginsightsintolearningactivitydesign,andgivingusopportunitiestorethinkhowweintegratelearningtheoriesintoourpedagogy.Likeallrubrics,itisopentointerpretation.Wesuggestthatitsvalueisdemonstratedinthisparticularexamplebygivingustheabilitytotakeamobilelearningactivity,re-evaluateitthroughthelensoflearningtheory,andbeguidedtowardsamodifiedactivitythatbetterembodiesthefeaturesofrelevantlearningtheory.Itisalsoworthbearinginmindthatrefinementoflearningactivitiesisanongoingprocess.Wewouldexpecttocontinuouslyre-thinkandredesignourpedagogyovertime.Onecycleofreflectionandrevisionisjustonestepinanongoingprocessofcontinuousimprovement.
CONCLUSION
Inthisarticle,wehavedescribedarubricforassessingthedesignofmobilelearningactivitiesthatisbasedonacoresetoflearningtheoriesthathavepreviouslybeenidentifiedasbeingparticularlyrelevant to theexperienceofmobile learning.Wehaveapplied this rubric toa learningactivitythatwasoriginallydesignedwithoutthisrubricinmind.Therubricrevealedthatthisactivitywasfailingtoincorporatethemajorcomponentsofanyparticularlearningtheory,althoughitutilisedsome components of several relevant theories. On reflection, this was partly a consequence oftryingtodotoomanythingsintooshortatime.Theanalysishelpedustorealisethatweneededtofocusmoreclearlyonfewerobjectivesinordertoimprovetheactivity.Basedonanassumptionthatoperationalisinglearningtheorycanimprovelearningexperiences,weredesignedtheactivityusingtherubricasakindofdesignframework.Wethenassessedthisrevisedactivityagainsttherubric,
Figure 2. Radar chart of the modified learning activity
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whichrevealeddesignintentbasedontwoofthelearningtheoriesandstrongerlinkstoothers.Fromthisexercise,weconcludedthatthelearningtheoryrubriccouldbeausefulguidetothedesignorredesignofmobilelearningactivities.
There are a number of limitations to this study. Not least, there is no empirical analysis ofoutcomesfromtaskredesign.Asyet,wehavenoempiricaldatatosuggestthatthemodifiedlearningactivityleadstoanygreaterlearningoutcomesthantheoriginalversion.However,rubricsingeneraldonotassessoutcomes,onlyperformance,andtheirprimaryroleistogivestructuretoobservations(Brookhart,2013).Wehavealsoconfinedthenumberoflearningtheoriesconsideredtosix,andthekeycomponentsofeachtheoryhavebeensummariseddowntoafewkeypoints.Bothofthesefactorsmightleadstoaccusationsthatwehaveoversimplifiedtheinterpretationoftheory.However,theserepresentationshavebeentheresultofaseriesofstagesofresearch,andarestronglygroundedintheliterature.
Futureworkmightinvolvefurtheruseoftherubricasadesigntool,withempiricalevaluationofoutcomesfromthesedesigns,refinementoftherubricitself,orthedevelopmentofalternativerubricsthattakeadifferentviewofwhichlearningtheoriesshouldbeincludedandhowtheyshouldberepresentedasevaluativecriteria.
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Adoption of e-learning • Best practices in computing education • Best practices in science education • Blended Learning • Computer-mediated communication • E-Learning • Emerging technologies • Evaluation of learning technology systems • Evaluation of online learning effects • Learning management systems • Multimedia and interactive learning systems • Online course design • Online learners’ behavior • Pedagogy and teaching with technology • Virtual reality environments • Web-based teaching methods
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