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SUPPLEMENTARY ONLINE MATERIAL
“Amazonia through time: Andean uplift, climate change, landscape evolution and
biodiversity” by Hoorn et al. September 2010
This document includes:
METHODOLOGY
1) Andean Geology (Figures S1-5)
2) Paleontological section (Figure 2a)
3) Molecular section (Table S1)
4) Edaphic section (Figure S6C)
FIGURES S1-S7
TABLE S1
REFERENCES
2
METHODOLOGY
1) Andean Geology (Figures S1-5)
General explanation of apatite fission-track (AFT) thermochronology and its application
in the reconstruction of mountain building in the Andes
Apatite fission-track (AFT) thermochronology is used to provide an overview on mountain
building across the Andes (Fig. S1) and –in the context of this article– is used to compare
geological development in lowland Amazonia with e.g. molecular phylogenetic data. AFT
analysis is a thermochronologic method that yields the time when rock passed through the 2
to 5 km depth window or ~60°-110°C temperature window during exhumation (Fig S2), as a
result of upper crustal tectonic and/or surface processes (e.g. 1, 2). Therefore, AFT analysis
provides cooling ages and not rock formation ages in orogenic contexts. A more complete
overview of the Andean evolution, based on comparison of different geological techniques
(including zircon and helium fission tracks (AFT, ZFT and HeFT) is currently in preparation
(Bermúdez et al.)
To understand what AFT ages indicate, it is necessary to differentiate between three
important concepts: surface uplift, rock uplift and exhumation (see Figure (S2) and ref (3)):
1) Surface uplift, is the displacement of the Earth’s surface with respect to the geoid. The
geoid is defined as the “equipotential surface which would coincide exactly with mean ocean
surface of the Earth, if the oceans were in equilibrium, at rest, and extended through the
continents” (Wikipedia).
3
For example in Figure S2 the orange point at the surface changes its elevation from 0 meters
to 2000 meters with respect to the geoid. This corresponds to a surface uplift of 2000 meters.
Surface uplift is therefore closely related to the creation of topography. The difference in
surface temperature at sea level and at 2000 m elevation is about 10ºC, given a common
mountain lapse rate of 5°C/km.
2) The displacement of rock with respect to the geoid is known as rock uplift. In the same
figure (Fig. S2), the hexagon symbols correspond to the accessory mineral apatite inside the
rock column that is displaced toward the surface because of erosion at the surface and/or
tectonic processes such as normal faulting.
3) Exhumation or denudation is the difference between rock uplift and surface uplift.
Exhumation is thus equal to erosional denudation -or mass removal- from outcropping rocks.
Erosional denudation can only happen when a minimum amount of topography is created.
Thus the onset of exhumation can be used as a proxy to assess the onset of the creation of
topography during mountain building and initial uplift. AFT data in orogenic contexts
therefore provides an idea on the timing of erosional denudation.
Figure S1A corresponds to a dataset of 905 AFT ages across the Northern and Central Andes
(see references). All these ages indicate the timing of tectonic events that produce surface
uplift and exhumation in these sectors. Differences can be observed between the Northern
and Central Andes. For the Northern Andes of Venezuela, Colombia, and Ecuador age versus
elevation plots for each of the areas denoted in rectangles (Figure S3).
The differences could be related to a non-homogeneous distribution of the samples in the
Andes, different degrees of incision on both areas, or an actual trend in the uplift history. It is
4
worth noting that no clear trends in the uplift history have been reported in the Andes based
on other geological data, therefore this interpretation should be viewed with caution.
However, as seen in Figure S1B the peaks in the histogram coincide with the main tectonic
events reported in the literature all along the Andes (4).
The histogram shown in Figure S1B indicates the frequency of AFT ages determined in the
Northern and Central Andes and is based on published AFT data. The AFT ages were
discriminated using cluster analysis for the whole dataset. The histogram was made taking
into account two facts: 1) areas with high sample densities (denoted as rectangles in Figure
S1A) and 2) areas where vertical profiles were sampled in order to estimate age-elevation
relationships at specific locations. Figure S1B shows in general terms the various stages of
exhumation found throughout the Northern and Central Andes. Note that the faster
topographic growth and deformation rates in the Andes reported in the literature (4)
correspond with the peaks in the histograms. Subsequently, in Figure S3 we show a
comparison between the age-elevation relationships and histograms for each of the areas
denoted in rectangles, this in order to discriminate differences in terms of exhumation rates.
The main objective of Figure S1B, however, is to identify different phases of surface uplift
and exhumation and relate these with the landscape evolution and biotic developments in
lowland Amazonia.
5
Data collection and methods concerning the apatite fission track ages represented in the
interpolation map and the age/elevation relationship for different sectors of the Central
and Northern Andes.
Apatite fission-track data were compiled from studies all across the Northern and Central
Andes, Amazonas Basin, Caribbean Mountains, Trinidad, Tobago and Dutch Antilles (5-39).
The database consists of 905 AFT ages, with 592 ages from the Andes. Sample locations,
AFT ages and a 250 m resolution Digital Elevation Model (DEM) (SRTM, NASA) were used
in ArcGIS to generate Figure S1A. We used the method of natural neighbour interpolation
(40), only for samples from the Andes, in order to determine patterns of regional exhumation.
This map should be considered as a first-order approximation. The interpretation, however, is
focused on areas with high sample densities (denoted as rectangles in Figure S1A). The data
inside these rectangles were used for generating age-elevation relationships (Figure S3 and
S4). From the age elevation profiles different exhumation and deformation events can be
inferred in different areas of the Andes. Those events cover the entire range of deformation
events (4), but their areal extension does not necessarily mean they were exclusive of that
precise part of the Andes. However, the plots do reinforce the idea of an ubiquitous more
important Late Miocene-Pliocene deformation event with associated higher exhumation rates
(steeper slopes in the plots). The lesser representation of those late Miocene higher
exhumation rates in the Ecuadorian and Peruvian Andes appear to be biased by the presence
of more samples to the west, were deformation in the Andes is expected to be older.
6
In Figure S1B, we show a histogram and Probability Density Function (PDF) for the entire
AFT age database of the Andes. We used cluster analysis (k-means algorithm of ref (41); and
MClust of ref (42, 43)) in order to determine major exhumation events. For this, the number
of components (age populations) was selected using the BIC (Bayes Information Criteria,
(44)).
2) Paleontological section (Figure 2a)
The diversity data depicted in Figure 2a are derived from various published sources (see
caption), but also include some additional data that are outlined here. Global temperature
from (45); global sea level curve from (46).
Pollen
The Paleogene-early Miocene pollen data and methodology for computing diversity counts
have been published in ref (47). Additional samples spanning the Neogene have been
incorporated (48). They have been processed in the same way as those in ref (47).
Roman numbers I-III in figure 2a denote three successive pollen floras (and by implication
different rainforest types) during the Paleogene.
Crocodilians
The Neogene crocodilian occurrences as well as the caimanine cladogram have been
published in ref (49). Additional data used to construct the occurrences of tropical South
7
American crocodilian records are given below. these include Paleogene southern South
American taxa but not the marine crocodyliforms Dyrosauridae (Cretaceous-Eocene).
Paleogene crocodilian occurrences.
Early Paleocene (Danian), El Molino Formation (upper part), Bolivia, and Yacoraite
Formation (upper part), Argentina: Dolichochampsa minima (non-eusuchian crocodyliform)
(50).
Early Paleocene (Danian), Santa Lucia Formation, Bolivia: Zulmasuchus querejazui (=
Sebecus querejazus) (Sebecidae, non-eusuchian crocodyliform) (51).
Late Paleocene (Thanetian or Riochican), Maiz Gordo Formation, Argentina: Bretesuchus
bonapartei (Sebecidae, non-eusuchian crocodyliform) (52).
Late Paleocene (Thanetian or Itaboraian), unnamed beds, Itaborai Basin, Brazil: three yet
undescribed sebecid species (Sebecidae, non-eusuchian crocodyliforms) (52) and
unpublished material.
Middle-Late Eocene, Lumbrera Formation (“Casamayoran”), Argentina: Ayllusuchus
fernandezi (Sebecidae, non-eusuchian crocodyliform) (53).
Middle-Late Eocene, Divisadero Formation, Argentina: Ilchunaia parca (Sebecidae, non-
eusuchian crocodyliform) (54).
Late Oligocene (Chattian or Deseadean), Tremembé Formation, Brazil: Caiman
tremembensis (Caimaninae). (55).
Southern records (two Paleocene and two Eocene records from Chubut Province (Argentina)):
8
Early Paleocene (early Selandian or Peligrense), Salamanca Formation: Necrosuchus ionensis
and Eocaiman palaeocenicus (basal Caimaninae) (56, 57).
Late Eocene (early Priabonian or Barrancan), upper Sarmiento (“Casamayor”) Formation:
Eocaiman cavernensis (basal Caimaninae) (58).
Middle to Upper Eocene (Vacan), lower Sarmiento (“Casamayor”) Formation: Sebecus
icaeorhinus (Sebecidae, non-eusuchia crocodyliform) (56).
Additional information on figure 2a: Left column number of species from fossil record,
right column number of caimanine species from fossil record versus nr of lineages: orange
non-eusuchian crocodyliforms, green Caimaninae, black Gavialoidea and blue Crocodylidae.
Species numbers derived from the caimanine fossil record depict only a small part of
diversity development as reconstructed from a phylogenetic framework in ref (49).
Mollusks
The Miocene Pebasian diversity curve was derived from a rarefaction analyses of distribution
data explained in ref (59). The freshwater mollusk faunas comprise raw species numbers for
three mid-large size shelled groups with a good fossil record that are usually associated with
fluvial and lacustrine environments, viz. pearly freshwater mussels (Hyriidae and
Mycetopodidae), apple snails (Ampullariidae) and freshwater cerithoideans (Pachychylidae
and Thiaridae) (60). Only fossil faunas that have been studied by the authors or that have
received treatment in several papers are included. All faunas lived in freshwater
environments, fed by Andean derived waters.
9
Freshwater mollusk species numbers in Neogene northwest South American deposits. Age of
Pebas zones in ref (61).
Pacaya-Samiria fauna (Recent, Marañon Basin, Peru, fluvio-lacustrine ref (62): Cerithoidea
(Pachychilidae + Thiaridae) 0; Ampullariidae 1, Unionoidea (Hyriidae + Mycetopodidae) 4.
La Llanera fauna (Pliocene, Las Piedras Formation, East Venezuela Basin, Venezuela, fluvio-
lacustrine, refs (63, 64): Cerithoidea 0; Ampullariidae 1, Unionoidea 4.
Acre fauna (Late Miocene, Solimões Formation, Acre-Madre de Dios Basin, Brazil, fluvio-
lacustrine, ref (65): Cerithoidea 1; Ampullariidae 1, Unionoidea 7.
Pebas-3 fauna (Grimsdalea zone) (late Middle – early late Miocene, Pebas Formation,
Solimões Basin, Peru-Colombia, fluvial to long-lived lake) ref (61): Cerithoidea 6;
Ampullariidae 1, Unionoidea 4.
Pebas-2 fauna (Crassoretitriletes zone) (middle Miocene, Pebas Formation, Solimões Basin,
Peru, fluvial to long-lived lake, ref (61): Cerithoidea 4; Ampullariidae 1, Unionoidea 3.
Loyola fauna (middle Miocene, Loyola Formation, Cuenca Basin, Ecuador, fluvio-lacustrine,
refs (65, 66): Cerithoidea 4; Ampullariidae 1, Unionoidea 7.
Pebas-1 fauna (Retitricolporites zone) (late Early – early Middle Miocene, Pebas Formation,
Solimões Basin, Peru and Putumayo Basin, Colombia, fluvial to long-lived lake) ref (60):
Cerithoidea 5; Ampullariidae 1, Unionoidea 2.
La Cira/ Santa Teresa fauna (early Miocene, Santa Teresa Formation and Colorado series,
Magdalena Basin, Colombia, fluvial to lacustrine, refs 6, 11): Cerithoidea 3; Ampullariidae 0,
Unionoidea 4.
10
Mammals – from ref (67)
South American mammal data from Marshall & Cifelli (1990; ref (67) (I) groups derived
from taxa present in South America during the onset of the Cenozoic, (II) platyrrhine
monkeys and caviomorph rodents first appearing in the fossil record during the Oligocene,
(III) North American immigrants and their descendants. RM fam = running means for
families from (67). Since the latter publication major new faunas have been published (e.g.
(68-70)) and updated analyses are wanted.
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3) Molecular section (Table S1)
We attempted to select genera (or equivalent clades) that i) were mainly distributed in
northern South America (tropical Andes, Amazonia and the Guiana Shield); ii) had a
reasonable taxon sampling to allow reliable estimation of crown ages; in cases with poor
taxon sampling, we kept only studies designed to cover the morphologic and geographic
range of the taxon in order to ensure a non-random, over dispersed sampling that is likely to
approximate the age of the crown node of the group;; iii) were directly or indirectly dated by
calibration with fossils or known rates of nucleotide substitution (but not geologic events
such as the closure of the Panama Isthmus or the Andean uplift). Elevation and distribution
ranges were taken from the original publications, personal communications with the authors
and other sources. We stress, however, that i) this is a comprehensive but not complete list;
and ii) there is variation in the confidence of age estimates depending on several factors (e.g.
dating method used, taxon sampling, phylogenetic uncertainty, and calibration issues). This
survey synthesizes a great deal of present knowledge, but we recommend examining the cited
references for further information on particular clades.
Elevation zones in which the clades listed mainly occur, although single species in larger
genera may be exceptions: lowland (0-500 m), including lowland rainforest in Amazonia and
the Chocó in western Colombia and Ecuador; pre-montane (500-1,500 m), including
rainforest in the flanking lowland and pre-montane areas along the eastern side of the Andes;
montane (1,500-3,000 m), including mid-elevation montane forests (e.g., cloud and elfin
forests); alpine (3,000-4,800 m), including highland-altitude grasslands (páramo); mixed
category includes lineages which show a mixed preference between lowland, pre-montane
and montane.
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4) Edaphic section (Figure S6C)
In the humid Tropics, main soil forming processes are weathering and leaching of all soluble
compounds, whether present in the parent material or released upon weathering (71). Main
compounds that accumulate include residual quartz, and newly formed kaolinite (clay
mineral) and sesquioxides, which comprise secondary minerals such as gibbsite and hematite.
Over time, soils in fresh sediment or rock develop towards Ferralsols (high in Fe or Al) or
Podzols (high in quartz), depending on the composition of the parent material (highly
siliceous or not). While developing, the content of weatherable minerals and related nutrient
status of the soils declines to ultimately very low levels. In Ferralsols, phosphorus deficiency
often becomes extreme, due to its fixation by sesquioxides. In late stages of soil development,
atmospheric inputs and cycling by the vegetation largely control contents of basic cations
(72).
Time spans required for Ferralsols or Podzols to develop largely depend on parent material
composition and its related resistance against weathering (e.g. (73)). They are in the order of
several hundred thousand years, implying that Ferralsols and Podzols are already found on
Middle Pleistocene terraces. Stages in soil development have been described as characteristic
soil successions, such as those for the Colombian Amazon by ref (74). They range from
Fluvisols and Regosols, through Luvisols, Acrisols and Arenosols, to Ferralsols and Podzols.
It should be emphasized, however, that saprolite depth in soils of such Pleistocene age is
limited to several meters only, since saprolite develops at a much slower pace. For the often
extremely deep and highly weathered saprolite of the craton (more than 100 meters) much
longer periods of time were required, which are at the scale of tenths of millions of years.
Thus, in more recent soils slight erosion is sufficient to expose fresh or slightly weathered
13
material, whereas deep saprolite requires serious denudation and dissection for such material
to be exposed.
The map in Figure S6C was produced using FAO/IIASA/ISRIC/ISSCAS/JRC, Harmonized
World Soil Database (version 1.1) (75). Based on the extent, nature and pattern of soil
formation (successional stages) and the thickness of the saprolite, which relates to the longer-
term geological history, a number of edaphic macro-units were defined (see also ref 76).
1, Extremely old and nutrient poor soils with dominantly very thick saprolite (Ferralsols and
Podzols), developed since Early Cretaceous under continuously humid tropical conditions
and typical for the Amazon Craton and Paleozoic formations.
2, Extremely nutrient poor soils (mostly Podzols) in complex of highly weathered deposits
derived from the Amazon Craton (mostly reworked saprolite), or in localized outcrops of
Craton and associated Paleozoic formations. Outcrops of fresh rocks other than extremely
resistant highly siliceous rocks (quartzites) are rare.
3, Various soils (Ferralsols/Podzols through Acrisols to Fluvisols), reflecting a wide range in
age (Neogene to recent), weathering, and nutrient status. The landscape is a large-scale
mosaic of dissected Cenozoic and Quaternary alluvial deposits (floodplains, terraces and
fans) with mostly thin saprolite.
3b, as unit 3, but strongly dissected with relatively small-scale mosaic, probably resulting
from glacio-eustatic incision of the Amazon River system.
4, ‘Old’ (Early Neogene?) and nutrient poor soils (Ferralsols) in slightly dissected Cenozoic
formations (and minor Quaternary alluvial deposits) with moderately thick saprolite mostly.
5, Recent soils (mostly Gleysols) in poorly drained Late Quaternary deposits with initial
weathering only.
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6, Andean soils, mostly poorly to moderately developed in highly variable substrates, with
slight weathering only due to more or less continuous denudation and/or deposition of
pyroclastics.
15
FIGURES S1-S7
Figure S1. A) Mountain building in the Northern and the Central Andes of South
America based on apatite fission-track (AFT) data. Apatite fission-track (AFT) and
interpolated AFT ages map across the Andes and lowland Amazonia (see supplementary data
for references). These ages indicate the time when rock passed through the 2 to 5 km depth
window or ~60°-110°C (Fig S2) as a result of tectonic and/or surface processes. AFT ages
16
can be used as a proxy for the age of surface uplift and for estimating denudation rates. B)
Histogram and Probability Density Function (PDF) for the whole dataset of the Andes,
red lines correspond to populations of AFT ages, which were determined using cluster
analysis (see supplementary data). These populations provide an indication of the different
exhumation phases across the Northern and Central Andes.
Figure S2. Underlying concepts for the interpretation of apatite fission-track (AFT) ages.
Surface uplift is the displacement of the Earth’s surface with respect to the geoid. The
displacement of the rock column with respect to the geoid is known as rock uplift. The
difference between surface uplift and bedrock uplift is known as exhumation (3). The AFT
age indicates when a rock passed through the ~60°-110°C temperature zone.
17
Figure S3. Distribution of AFT ages in relation to elevation across the Andes for areas
shown as rectangles in Figure S1A. The spatial distribution of the data and the sampling
philosophies prevent that age-elevation relationships can be translated in terms of exhumation
rates. Only in some particular cases (Sierra Nevada and Sierra La Culata in Venezuelan
Andes; Quetame and Garzon Massif at the Eastern Cordillera in Colombia; Real Cordillera at
the Bolivian Andes) can exhumation rates be derived (see references for more detail).
18
Figure S4. Comparison between age-elevation relationships and histogram for A)
Venezuelan Andes; B) Eastern Cordillera, Colombian Andes; C) Ecuadorian Andes; D)
Peruvian Andes and E) Bolivian Andes.
19
Figure S5. The sedimentary record of Amazonia and the Amazon submarine Fan
indicates response to the tectonic evolution of the Andes.
Mean Elevation Central Andes (black line; (77)), Northern Andes (pink line; (4)) and the
Central Venezuelan (Mérida) Andes (green line; (35)). Sedimentation rates Central Andes
(red line; (78)); Amazon Fan (grey line; (79)). Shortening rates Central Andes (80) and refs
therein. Abbreviations: Andes (AND); Western Amazonia (WAM); Central and Eastern
Amazonia (CAM and EAM); Amazon Submarine Fan (FAN); Marginal Marine Embayment
(MME); Southern Subandes (SSA); lac = lacustrine. Sea level curve according to (46) but see
for alternative curves (81).
20
Figure S6 A) Pauji Yuyo, at the edge of Madidi National Park, Bolivia (altitude ca. 1,300 m,
a biodiversity hotspot, image courtesy of Michael Kessler, University of Zürich,
Switzerland). B) The geologic units of Neogene Andean origin (in light blue) occur in most
of Western Amazonia. On the Atlantic side contemporary units (in light green) do not extend
beyond the Gurupa (G) Arch. In Eastern Amazonia the Amazon (Proterozoic) craton (pink) is
exposed; it is subdivided into the Guiana Shield (GS) and the Brazilian Shield (BS). An old
rift (Proterozoic) rift divides the craton and stores some Paleozoic units (dark green & light
brown). The fluvial (Cretaceous-Paleogene) Alter do Chão Formation (yellow) is exposed in
Central Amazonia, but extends in the subsurface further to the west in up to the Caravari (C)
Arch. Other codes used in this figure are: MB Marajó Basin; FdA: Foz do Amazonas Basin;
I: “Iquitos Arch” (but see 59); P: Purus Arch; Altitude: yellow 500-1500m; orange 1500-
21
4000m, red > 4000m. C) The Amazonian edaphic units represent a combination of habitats,
in terms of scale and type of mosaic (modified after 75). The soils are labeled from 1-
relatively ‘old cratonic’ (1) to ‘Andean young’ (6), with the exception of unit 4 (see
‘Methodology’ for further details). Unit 3 relates to Andean Neogene sediments, whereas unit
1 is linked to the Amazon Craton. Unit 4 coincides with the limits of the Amazon drainage
and may date back to the late Miocene partitioning of the tropical lowland. Unit 5 is
associated with areas of high denudation rates. D) Seasonality as indicated by the average
yearly number of months < 100 mm of rain in 10 year (Data: Tropical Rainfall Measuring
Mission, http://trmm.gsfc.nasa.gov/). The white polygon indicates the wettest, least seasonal
area and also includes information on the amount of rain in the driest 3 month and 6 month
period in 10 years.
22
Figure S7 Additional maps of diversity
Figure S7.A, S7.B. Maps of species richness in birds and amphibians. Source ref (82).
Figure S7.C. Map of biomass productivity ((83), based on data of ref (84) ).
23
Table S1. Survey over approximate ages of living taxa (mainly genera or equivalent)
reported from published molecular phylogenies, together with main elevation range and
source publication. Records sorted as in Fig. 3B (arranged by major taxonomic category,
then sorted by elevation range and decreasing age).
# Category Taxon Crown Age
Elevation range**
Reference
1 Insecta : Coleoptera : Chrysomelidae [beetles]
Cephaloleia 68.2
lowland (85)
2 Insecta : Lepidoptera : Nymphalidae : Satyrinae [butterflies]
Hermeuptychia clade 21
lowland (86)
3 Insecta : Lepidoptera : Nymphalidae : Satyrinae [butterflies]
Paraeuptychia clade 19
lowland (86)
4 Insecta : Coleoptera : Copelatinae [beetles]
Copelatus & Aglymbus clade
16.4 lowland (87)
5 Insecta : Hymenoptera : Apidae [bees]
Melipona 15.4 lowland (88)
6 Insecta : Lepidoptera : Nymphalidae : Satyrinae [butterflies]
Taygetis clade 15
lowland (86)
7 Insecta : Lepidoptera : Nymphalidae : Phycoidina [butterflies]
Tegosa 16
montane (89)
8 Insecta : Hymenoptera : Apidae [bees]
Bombus clade 1 7.2 highland (90)
9 Insecta : Hymenoptera : Apidae [bees]
Bombus clade 2 3.2 highland (90)
10 Insecta : Lepidoptera : Nymphalidae : Phycoidina [butterflies]
Eresia sensu latu 21
mixed (89)
11 Insecta : Lepidoptera : Nympalidae : Ithomiini [butterflies]
Ithomia 14.4
mixed (91)
12 Insecta : Lepidoptera : Nympalidae : Ithomiini
Napogenes 12.7 mixed (91)
24
[butterflies]
13 Arachnida : Buthidae [scorpion]
Tityus 10.2
montane (92)
14 Pisces: Teleostei : Cichlasomatini [cichlids]
Cichlasoma + Aequidens 26
lowland (93)
15 Pisces: Teleostei : Cichlasomatini [cichlids]
Aequidens 19
lowland (93)
16 Pisces: Osteichtyes : Gymnotidae [knifefishes]
Gymnotus carapo group 15.2
lowland (94)
17 Amphibia : Anura : Dendrobatidae [poison frogs]
Allobates 26.1
mixed (95)
18 Amphibia : Anura : Dendrobatidae [poison frogs]
Dendrobates 25.8
mixed (95)
19 Amphibia : Anura : Dendrobatidae [poison frogs]
Anomaloglossus 17.4
mixed (95)
20 Amphibia : Anura : Dendrobatidae [poison frogs]
Colostethus clade 2 16.3
mixed (95)
21 Amphibia : Anura : Dendrobatidae [poison frogs]
Mannophryne 16
mixed (95)
22 Amphibia : Anura : Dendrobatidae [poison frogs]
Aromobates 15.7
mixed (95)
23 Amphibia : Anura : Dendrobatidae [poison frogs]
Colostethus clade 1 12.1
mixed (95)
24 Amphibia : Bolitoglossine [salamanders]
Bolitoglossa 11
mixed (96)
25 Amphibia : Anura : Dendrobatidae [poison frogs]
Hyloxalus 9.6
mixed (95)
26 Amphibia : Anura : Dendrobatidae [poison frogs]
Phyllobates 9.6
mixed (95)
27 Amphibia : Anura : Dendrobatidae [poison frogs]
Ameerega 6
mixed (95)
25
28 Amphibia : Bolitoglossine [salamanders]
Oedipina 6
mixed (96)
29 Amphibia : Anura : Dendrobatidae [poison frogs]
Epipedobates 4
mixed (95)
30 Reptilia: Squamata : Spaerodactylidae [geckos]
Gonatodes 35
lowland (97)
31 Reptilia : Scincidae [skinks]
Mabuya 14.5 mixed (98)
32 Reptilia : Serpentes : Leptodeira [snakes]
Leptodeira 3.9 mixed (99)
33 Mammalia : Xenarthra : Pilosa [anteaters]
Vermilingua 41 lowland (100)
34 Mammalia : Xenarthra : Pilosa [sloths]
Folivora 22 lowland (100)
35 Mammalia : Primata : Cebidae [monkeys]
Saguinus 13.3 lowland (101)
36 Mammalia : Primata : Pitheciidae [monkeys]
Callicebus 12.3 lowland (101)
37 Mammalia : Chiroptera : Phyllostominae [bats]
Tonatia 12.1 lowland (102)
38 Mammalia : Chiroptera : Dicliidurini [bats]
Peropteryx 11.7 lowland (103)
39 Mammalia : Primata : Pitheciidae [monkeys]
Pithecia 10.7 lowland (101)
40 Mammalia : Chiroptera : Phyllostominae [bats]
Lophostoma 7.8 lowland (102)
41 Mammalia : Chiroptera : Dicliidurini [bats]
Saccopteryx 7.7 lowland (103)
42 Mammalia : Primata : Cebidae [monkeys]
Callithrix 7.7 lowland (101)
43 Mammalia : Chiroptera : Dicliidurini [bats]
Diclidurus 6.9 lowland (103)
44 Mammalia : Primata : Pitheciidae [monkeys]
Chiropotes 4 lowland (101)
45 Mammalia : Primata : Cebidae [monkeys]
Saimiri 3.7 lowland (101)
46 Mammalia : Primata [monkeys]
Ateles 3.6 lowland (104)
47 Mammalia : Rodentia : Echimyinae [rodents]
Isothrix 2.7 lowland (105)
48 Mammalia : Rodentia : Echimyinae [rodents]
Makalata 2.3 lowland (105)
26
49 Mammalia : Rodentia : Cricetidae [rodents]
Zygodontomys 1.2 lowland (106)
50 Mammalia : Xenarthra [armadillos]
Dasypodidae 35 pre-montane
(100)
51 Mammalia : Primata : Atelidae [monkeys]
Ateles 4.3 pre-montane
(101)
52 Mammalia : Primata : Cebidae [monkeys]
Cebus 7.3 mixed (101)
53 Mammalia : Primata : Aotidae [monkeys]
Aotus 6.7 mixed (101)
54 Mammalia : Primata [monkeys]
Alouatta 5.1 mixed (107)
55 Aves : Bucconidae [puffbirds]
Nonnula 16 lowland (108)
56 Aves : Tyrannidae Myiopagis 9.5 lowland (109)
57 Aves : Troglodytidae [wrens]
Thryothorus clade 1 8.1 lowland (110)
58 Aves : Psittacidae [parrots]
Gypopsitta 7.8 lowland (111)
59 Aves : Troglodytidae [wrens]
Thryothorus clade 2 7 lowland (110)
60 Aves : Psittacidae [parrots]
Amazona 6.7 lowland (112)
61 Aves : Cardinalidae [cardinals]
Cardinalis 5.7 lowland (113)
62 Aves : Ramphastidae [toucans]
Ramphastos 4.8 lowland (114)
63 Aves : Accipitridae [birds of prey]
Buteogallus 4.3 lowland (115)
64 Aves : Accipitridae [birds of prey]
Leucopternis 3.5 lowland (115)
65 Aves : Bucconidae [puffbirds]
Notharchus tectus complex
3.1 lowland (108)
66 Aves : Bucconidae [puffbirds]
Nyctastes 3.1 lowland (108)
67 Aves : Bucconidae [puffbirds]
Malacoptila 14 pre-montane
(108)
68 Aves : Furnariidae [ovenbirds]
Thripadectes-Clibanornis subclade
13 pre-montane
(116)
69 Aves : Thamnophilidae [antbirds]
Myrmotherula clade 1 including Myrmochanes
11.4 pre-montane
(110)
70 Aves : Galbulidae [jacamars]
Galbula 11 pre-montane
(108)
27
71 Aves : Thamnophilidae [antbirds]
Myrmeciza 10.5 pre-montane
(110)
72 Aves : Dendrocolaptinae [woodcreepers]
Xiphorhynchus 10.4
pre-montane
(110)
73 Aves : Rhamphastidae [toucans]
Pteroglossus 10.3 pre-montane
(117)
74 Aves : Galbulidae [jacamars]
Brachygalba 9.3 pre-montane
(108)
75 Aves : Tityridae Schiffornis 9.1 pre-montane
(118)
76 Aves : Thamnophilidae [antbirds]
Myrmotherula clade 2 9 pre-montane
(110)
77 Aves : Thraupidae [tanagers]
Cyanerpes 7.4 pre-montane
(110)
78 Aves : Dendrocolaptinae [woodcreepers]
Dendrocincla 7.3
pre-montane
(110)
79 Aves : Bucconidae [puffbirds]
Monasa 7.1 pre-montane
(108)
80 Aves : Dendrocolaptinae [woodcreepers]
Dendrocolaptes 6.4
pre-montane
(110)
81 Aves : Cardinalidae [cardinals]
Cyanocompsa 6.2 pre-montane
(119)
82 Aves : Arini Brotogeris 5.1 pre-montane
(120)
83 Aves : Gracidae [curassows]
Crax 4.5 pre-montane
(112)
84 Aves : Icteridae [blackbirds]
Agelasticus 4.3 pre-montane
(110)
85 Aves : Thamnophilidae [antbirds]
Cercomacra 4.1 pre-montane
(110)
86 Aves : Troglodytidae [wrens]
Campylorhynchus 3.8 pre-montane
(110)
87 Aves : Cardinalidae [cardinals]
Caryothraustes 3.6 pre-montane
(113)
88 Aves : Thamnophilidae [antbirds]
Terenura 3.6 pre-montane
(110)
89 Aves : Galbulidae [jacamars]
South American Jacamerops
2.7 pre-montane
(108)
90 Aves : Momotidae [motmots]
Electron 2.4 pre-montane
(108)
91 Aves : Dendrocolaptinae
Xiphocolaptes 2.2 pre-montane
(110)
28
[woodcreepers]
92 Aves : Corvidae [jays] Cyanocorax 2.1 pre-montane
(121)
93 Aves : Momotidae [motmots]
Northern South America Baryphthengus martii clade
1.6 pre-montane
(108)
94 Aves : Furnariidae [ovenbirds]
Tarphonomus-Berlepschia clade
21.8 montane (116)
95 Aves : Furnariidae [ovenbirds]
Margarornis-Premoplex clade
18.9 montane (116)
96 Aves : Rhinocryptidae [tapaculos]
Scytalopus 11 montane (110)
97 Aves : Furnariidae [ovenbirds]
Asthenes subclade 10.8 montane (116)
98 Aves : Thraupidae [tanagers]
Diglossopsis 9.1 montane (122)
99 Aves : Corvidae [jays] Cyanolyca 8 montane (123)
100 Aves : Thraupidae [tanagers]
Diglossa 7 montane (110)
101 Aves : Strigidae [owls] Aegolius 5.9 montane (119)
102 Aves : Thraupidae [tanagers]
Hemispingus clade 2 5.7 montane (110)
103 Aves : Accipitridae [birds of prey]
Geranoaetus 4.5 montane (115)
104 Aves : Emberizidae [brunch-finches/tanager]
Chlorospingus 3.7
montane (110)
105 Aves : Thraupidae [tanagers]
Piranga leucoptera/rubriceps clade
3.7 montane (124)
106 Aves : Parulidae [warblers]
Myioborus 3.6 montane (125)
107 Aves : Troglodytidae [wrens]
T. ochraceus/rufulus/ solstitialis clade
3.6 montane (119)
108 Aves : Thraupidae [tanagers]
Hemispingus clade 1 3.5 montane (110)
109 Aves : Emberizidae [brunch-finches]
Buarremon 1 montane (126)
110 Aves : Thraupidae [tanagers]
Sicalis 8 highland (110)
111 Aves : Thraupidae [tanagers]
Poospiza 5.2 highland (110)
112 Aves : Furnariidae Dendrocolaptinae- 27.7 mixed (116)
29
[ovenbirds] Xenops clade
113 Aves : Thraupidae [tanagers]
Saltator 10.7 mixed (110)
114 Aves : Picidae [woodpickers]
Veniliornis & Picoides "small" clade
9.9 mixed (127)
115 Aves : Thraupidae [tanagers]
Tangara including Thraupis
9.4 mixed (110)
116 Aves : Thraupidae [tanagers]
Tachyphonus 8.4 mixed (110)
117 Aves : Thamnophilidae [antbirds]
Drymophila 8 mixed (110)
118 Aves : Thamnophilidae [antbirds]
Thamnophilus 7.9 mixed (110)
119 Aves : Trogonidae Trogon personatus & T.
collaris/aurantiiventris clade
7.8 mixed (128)
120 Aves : Motacillidae Anthus South American clade
7.2 mixed (110)
121 Aves : Icteridae [blackbirds]
Cacicus including Clypicterus & Ocyalus
7.1 mixed (110)
122 Aves : Psittacidae [parrots]
Pionus 6.9 mixed (129)
123 Aves : Thraupidae [tanagers]
Conirostrum 5.8 mixed (110)
124 Aves : Dendrocolaptinae [woodcreepers]
Campylorhamphus 5.5
mixed (110)
125 Aves : Icteridae [blackbirds]
Psarocolius 5.2 mixed (110)
126 Aves : Thraupidae [tanagers]
Sporophila clade 2 5 mixed (110)
127 Aves : Trogonidae Pharorrachrus 4.8 mixed (128)
128 Aves : Cardinalidae [cardinals]
Amaurospiza 4.5 mixed (119)
129 Aves : Dendrocolaptinae [woodcreepers]
Lepidocolaptes 4.2
mixed (110)
130 Aves : Thraupidae [tanagers]
Sporophila clade 1 4.2 mixed (110)
131 Aves : Emberizidae [brunch-finches]
Atlapetes 3.7 mixed (119)
132 Aves : Momotidae [motmots]
Momotus 3.1 mixed (108)
30
133 Aves : Thamnophilidae [antbirds]
Thamnistes superspecies
3.1 mixed (110)
134 Aves : Thraupidae [tanagers]
Ramphocelus South American clade
2.6 mixed (110)
135 Aves : Fringillidae [finches]
Carduelis 1.6 mixed (130)
136 Plants : Annonaceae Anaxagorea 40 lowland (131)
137 Plants : Meliaceae Cedrela South American clade 3
22.6 lowland (132)
138 Plants : Arecaceae : Attaleinae [palms]
Syagrus rain forest clade
17.1 lowland (133)
139 Plants : Arecaceae : Chamaedoreeae [palms]
Chamaedorea 16.8 lowland (134)
140 Plants : Fabaceae : Papilionoideae [legumes]
Andira & Hymenolobium clade 16.3
lowland (135)
141 Plants: Annonaceae Guatteria 6.7 lowland (136)
142 Plants : Arecaceae : Ceroxyloideae [palms]
Phytelephas 6 lowland (137)
143 Plants : Fabaceae : Mimosoideae [legumes]
Mimosa Mimadenia clade
5.6 lowland (135)
144 Plants : Rubiaceae Joosia 13.7 pre-montane
(138)
145 Plants : Rubiaceae Ladenbergia 11.8 pre-montane
(138)
146 Plants : Polygonaceae Ruprechtia 10 pre-montane
(139)
147 Plants : Fabaceae : Papilionoideae [legumes]
Centrolobium 9.9
pre-montane
(140)
148 Plants : Annonaceae Malmea 9.5 pre-montane
(141)
149 Plants : Rubiaceae Cinchona 9 pre-montane
(138)
150 Plants : Annonaceae Mosannona 8.6 pre-montane
(141)
151 Plants : Anacardiaceae Loxopterygium 8 pre-montane
(139)
152 Plants : Annonaceae Klarobelia 7.7 pre-montane
(141)
153 Plants : Annonaceae Crematosperma 7.2 pre-montane
(141)
154 Plants : Rubiaceae Stilpnophyllum 6.1 pre-montane
(138)
31
155 Plants : Lejeuneaceae [liverworts]
Marchesinia 23.6 montane (142)
156 Plants : Onagraceae Fuchsia Andean radiation
22.3 montane (143)
157 Plants : Fabaceae : Papilionoideae [legumes]
Poissonia 18.1
montane (139)
157 Plants : Chloranthaceae Hedyosmum Tafalla 17.6 montane (144)
158 Plants : Fabaceae : Mimosoideae [legumes]
Mimosa Weberbaueri clade
7.6 montane (135)
159 Plants : Fabaceae : Papilionoideae [legumes]
Coursetia C. gracilis – C. grandiflora clade 7.2
montane (145)
160 Plants : Arecaceae : Ceroxyloideae [palms]
Ceroxylon 7 montane (137)
161 Plants : Fabaceae : Mimosoideae [legumes]
Mimosa Pectinatipinna clade
3.5 montane (135)
162 Plants : Valerianaceae Valeriana Paramo clade 10.6 highland (146)
163 Plants : Poaceae [grasses]
Loliinae American clade 1
4.2 highland (147)
164 Plants : Boraginaceae Lithospermum 3.8 highland (148)
165 Plants : Poaceae [grasses]
Loliinae American clade 2
3.8 highland (147)
166 Plants : Cyperaceae [sedges]
Oreobolus 3.7 highland (149)
167 Plants : Fabaceae : Papilionoideae [legumes]
Lupinus Andean clade 1.8
highland (150, 151)
168 Plants : Gentianaceae Halenia Weddeliana clade
0.8 highland (152)
32
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