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Statistical Investigation into
the Authorial Meaning in "Lois the Witch"
Tatsuhiro OHNO
1. Purpose and Method
The purpose of this paper is to elucidate Elizabeth Gaskell's
meaning for her characters in her novella "Lois the Witch" (1859)
through the statistical analysis of their appearance rate and of their
involvement in the storyline.
2. Appearance Rate
According to the development of the plot, the story can be divided
into six-Part 1: Boston Pier (105-09; Scs. 1-3), \ Part 2: Widow
Smith's Inn (109-17; Scs. 4-7), Part 3: Hickson Family (117-48; Scs. 8-
44), Part 4: Hota's Hanging (148-68; Scs. 45-60), Part 5: Lois's Hang
ing (168-90; Scs. 61-75), and Part 6: Aftermath (190-93; Scs. 76-77).
Part 1 depicts Lois's arrival at Boston, her meditation on her past,
and Captain Holdernesse's practical advice about how to survive in
New England. Part 2 centres on the horrifying ambience of New
England which the heroine learns at Widow Smith's inn. Part 3
covers her intermingling with the Hicksons. In the next two Parts,
the topic moves on to witch trials, first Hota's prosecution and execu
tion, then Lois's. Part 6 describes Hugh Ralph Lucy's visit to Salem,
his inconsolable grief, and his decision to forgive the repentant
twenty-one years after the tragedy.
156 Tatsuhiro OHNO
Part
Pages
Percent
1. Boston
Pier
4.5
4.9
2. Smith's
Inn
8.5
9.1
3. the
Hicksons
32.5
34.5
4. Hota's
execution
22
23.5
5. Lois's
execution
23
24.6
6. After
math
3
3.2
Table 1. Page Allocation2
The investigation into page allocation to each Part is one of the
most effective methods for understanding the author's formal scheme.
"Table 1. Page Allocation," composed on the data in the scene
percentage column of "The Comprehensive Chronology for 'Lois the
Witch,'"3 illustrates 82.6% of the total pages are given to Parts 3-5,
and 48.1% to Parts 4-5 dealing with the witch tumult. This outcome
suggests the fiction's focal point is placed on Lois's interaction with
the Hickson family and on the. delineation of the two alleged witches'
misfortunes.4 Further analyses of the story's design throw Gaskell's
meaning into sharper relief.
Part
1
2
3
4
5
Total
Active
Referred
subtotal
%
Active
Referred
subtotal
. %
Active
Referred
subtotal
%
active
referred
subtotal
%
active
referred
subtotal
%
active
referred
total
%
Lois Barclay
3
0
3
42.9
4
0
4
100
32
2
34
25
25
0
25
27.2
0
2
2
50
64
4
68
28
Grace
0
1
1
14.3
0
0
0
0
14
12
26
19.1
13
6
19
20.7
0
1
1
25
27
20
47
19.3
Manasseh
0
1
1
14.3
0
0
0
0
13
12
25
18.4
10
4
14
15.2
0
0
0
0
23
17
40
16.5
Faith
0
1 .
1
14.3
0
0
0
0
17
12
29
21.3
14
4
18
19.6
0
0
0
0
31
17
48
19.8
Prudence
0
1
1
14.3
0
0
0
0
10
12
22
16.2
12
4
16
17.4
0
1
1
25
22
18
40
16.5
Table 2. Protagonists Focused
Statistical Investigation into the Authorial Meaning in "Lois the Witch" 157
iBadivearefeiredl
Fig. 1. Characters' Frequency of Appearance
"Table 2. Protagonists Focused," a device prepared according to
the data in the "Main Characters" column of the Comprehensive
Chronology, displays the appearance rate of one leading character in
comparison with the other four. "Fig. 1. Characters' Frequency of
Appearance" is the illustration of the data in the total boxes of the
Chronology. Table 2 and Fig. 1 show three distinctive features of this
tale's structure. First, Lois appears most often not merely in the
whole narrative but also in every Part. Second, the Hickson family—
Grace, Manasseh, Faith, and Prudence — follow the heroine in the
appearance rate. Third, the frequency of reference to God and Satan
(including Indians, wizards, witches, and devils)5 comes after that to
the Hicksons. These three formal aspects, in conjunction with the
development of the plot, make us assume Lois's intermingling with
four Hicksons under the satanic circumstances is the pivot of the
structure, and that the heroine's triumph over the five threats —
158 Tatsuhiro OHNO
Grace, Manasseh, Faith, Prudence, and Satan/Indian — is the theme
Gaskell intends to convey. The following survey of Lois's goodness
should be helpful to examine the correctness of this assumption.
3. Lois's Goodness vs Five Threats
| B Lois ■ Satan/Indian ® Grace B Maoassch □ Faith IB Prudence |
level
Fig. 2. Lois's Christian Fortitude
"Fig. 2. Lois's Christian Fortitude" exhibits the rise and fall of
her Christian integrity along with the increase and decrease of her
five menaces. One day in May 1691, Lois arrives at Boston Pier (105-
09; Scs. 1-3). She decides to leave her home village in England, not
merely to obey her mother's wish, but also to avoid becoming a cause
of quarrel between Hugh Ralph Lucy, her fianc§, and his father, a
rich miller, who opposes his son's marriage to the destitute daughter
of a minister. She fears that his love may cool during their separa
tion, but determines to leave "all in God's hands" (108). Because of
this discretion, let us put the level of her goodness at the second
Statistical Investigation into the Authorial Meaning in "Lois the Witch" 159
degree for convenience's sake. There is no specific allusion to Satan
except allusions to strange "forests" where Indians lurk (107, 117) and
to the "French colonists" in league with Indians (109, 114). Hence,
Level 1 is given to the perils of Satan. No reference is made to other
four menaces; accordingly, their levels are set at zero. .
In Widow Smith's Inn (109-17; Scs. 4-7), Lois's goodness is hinted
at in the kind and friendly welcome from the proprietor, who has a
sure "instinct" for selecting customers (109). There is no substantial
change, therefore, in her goodness level. Red Indians' danger and New
England's peculiarities discussed at the supper table aggravate the
sinister atmosphere surrounding Lois; thus, the Satan/Indian threat
goes up one point. The Hickson family have yet to appear; hence,
their menaces are still -at the lowest level.
A couple of days later, the scene shifts from Boston to Salem
(117-24; Scs. 8-14). Soon after their first meeting, momentary animos
ity arises between Lois and her aunt. Lois's defence against Grace's
"implied insult to her father" (119-20) is approved by Captain
Holdernesse, one of the most rational and sensible characters in the
story, or "a healthy norm against which Puritan aberrations can be
judged" (J. G. Sharps 322). Another conflict takes place between them
in the scene where Lois has the first interview with her uncle. At her
aunt's open criticism of his weakened force of spirit, Lois expresses
transitory indignation, and incurs a stern reprimand from Grace.
Although it is righteous anger, Lois tries to be humble enough to
think of the trouble her aunt must have suffered until then, and
hopes that "this little misunderstanding would soon pass away" (122).
Accordingly, the level of Grace's threat shall be raised to the first
degree; that of Lois's virtue kept at the second. Although Manasseh
protects his English cousin from his mother's intimidation (120), his
"deep-set eyes furtively watching her" makes Lois "uncomfortable"
160 Tatsuhiro OHNO
(121),6 so that the level of his threat rises to the first degree.
Prudence's potential danger is suggested by her "impish antics" (120),
for imps are generally believed to be under witches7 control (Upham
48); so, his threat is set at Level 1. Manasseh's prayer for "strength
to combat Satan" (123) implies the prevalence of the external danger
of Satan/Indian; their threat thus stays at the previous level. No
mention is made for Faith's peril; hence, it is still at Level 0.
During the first few months after her arrival (124-30; Scs. 15-23),
that is, about from June to September of 1691, Grace and Manasseh,
both Puritans, are critical of Lois's Anglicanism: Grace is sarcastic
and contemptuous, while Manasseh is simply angry about his cousin's
ideas and more friendly towards her than his mother is (125-26). It
should be reasonable, therefore, to suppose their threats keep the pre
vious levels. The narrator's reference to the old forest "full of dreaded
and mysterious beasts, and [. . .] dreaded Indians" and Nattee's tales
of the Indian wizards that make "Lois's blood run cold" (126) indicate
the threat of Satan/Indian still prevails around the heroine. So, it
remains at the previous point. Nattee's arms, "all pinched black and
blue by the impish child," make Lois fear Prudence "as of one
possessed" (127); besides, she is "deceitful, mocking, and so indifferent
to the pain or sorrows of others" as to be called "almost inhuman"
(129). These passages imply her potential hazardousness as' well as
foreshadow her subsequent downfall to devilish possession. Prudence's
peril, accordingly, is set on the former level. As Faith is the person
with whom Lois is "the most intimately associated in her uncle's
house" (128), her threat is still at zero point. Lois tries "in her sweet,
simple fashion to cheer her cousin up" when Faith is depressed in
gloomy silence (128). Her kindness is stressed in the scene where Faith
declares her hatred against Tappau, the first minister of the Salem
church: "Lois was sorry for this strong bad feeling; instinctively
Statistical Investigation into the Authorial Meaning in "Lois the Witch" 161
sorry, for she was loving herself, delighted in being loved, and felt a
jar run through her at every sign of want of love in others" (129).
Her goodness hence remains at Level 2.
The danger surrounding her continues td increase during the
autumn and winter of 1691-92 (131-48; Scs. 19-44). On the night of 31
October, Lois, "in her instinctive, well-intentioned efforts to bring
some life and cheerfulness into the monotonous household," tells
Faith English girls' innocent Halloween tricks (131) which put Pru
dence in extreme horror. In response to her scream, Grace comes into
the girls' bedroom, where Prudence implores her mother to take Lois
away. Faith pinches her sister severely to calm her, but Lois "more
tenderly" tries "to soothe" her, and says "I will stay by thee till thou
hast gone off into slumber" (132). Despite her tenderness, Prudence
calls her "wicked English witch!" (132). In this scene, Lois's merciful
ness is contrasted with Prudence's maliciousness. The former is as
good as ever, so her goodness remains at Level 2;7 the latter's threat
shall be elevated to the same level. After the death of Ralph Hickson
on the early morning of 1 November,8 Manasseh's menace to Lois
starts to exhibit substantial increase: in spite of her categorical rejec
tion, he repeatedly tries to persuade her to accept his proposal, insist
ing it is "Lord's will" (134-37, 139-40, 144-48). His threat level, hence,
rises to Level 2. Perilousness and supernaturalism in Salem are still
common: "there was much to tell upon the imagination in those days,
in that place, and time. [. . .] [A]t the beginning of the long winter
season, such whispered tales, such old temptations and hauntings, and
devilish terrors, were supposed to be peculiarly rife" (138). The Satan
/Indian threat, therefore, is kept at the second level.
One day after "Christmas 1691" (140), Grace's threat, together
with her son's, is hinted at in the sketch of delightful Lois, who
succeeds in leaving Faith and Nolan alone in the keeping-room* "her
162 Tatsuhiro OHNO
growing dread of Manasseh's wild ominous persistence in his suit,
her aunt's coldness, her own loneliness, were all forgotten, and she
could almost have danced with joy" (142). Furthermore, Grace's threat
is suggested in her "supreme contempt" (146) for her niece-in-law as
well as in her insult, "I value thee not, save as a medicine for
Manasseh" (147). At the same time, however, her accusation of
Manasseh of his proposal to Lois relieves his English cousin from
much distress (147). Hence, the levels of Grace's peril and of
Manasseh's remain at the previous points. Faith, who has had "a
warm heart, hidden away somewhere under her moody exterior" (133),
begins to feel jealous of Lois, who attracts more attention from
Nolan than she does (144, 147). Her "vehemence of unrequited love"
(147) is somewhat a symptom of her mental problem. The degree of
her threat rises to Level 1 here.
The peril of Satan/Indian jumps up to the top level in one day
towards the end of February 1692 (148-51; Scs. 45-46) when Grace
brings to her family the news that Tappau's two daughters have been
possessed (149). Nolan's evening talk about an elder's experience of
kicking a mouse into crying out "like a human creature in pain" (151)
is introduced to heighten the terror. Indeed, "all the family" huddles
"together in silent fear" on that night (151). Faith's harbouring jeal
ousy is intimated in the passage: "Faith and Lois sat with arms
entwined, as in days before the former had become jealous of the
latter" (151). Prudence's acute interest in "the creatures that were
abroad, and the ways in which they afflicted others" (151) portends
her possession which takes place in the ensuing month. No specific
reference is made to Lois's goodness and the threats of Grace and
Manasseh. Accordingly, there is no alternation to the levels of other
five factors than the Satan/Indian threat's.
From early March 1692 to the moment of Hota's execution on
Statistical Investigation into the Authorial Meaning in "Lois the Witch" 163
one Sunday morning of the same month (151-68; Scs. 47-60), the levels
of all four menaces go up. One of the most succinct descriptions of
the prevalence of Satan's peril appears in Lois's following remark to
Faith: "this country is worse than ever England was, even in the
days of Master Matthew Hopkinson, the witch-finder. I grow fright
ened of every one" (153). Thus, the menace of Satan/Indian keeps the
top level. In this period, more detailed delineation than ever is given
to Lois's Christian faith. For example, she criticizes Faith's defence of
Nattee's retaliatory use of supernatural powers by alluding to Matt.
5.44: "we are told to pray for them that despitefully use us, and to
do good to them that persecute us" (154). It echoes the biblical verse
about "charity for enemies," one of the story's key subjects: "forgive
us our debts, as we forgive our debtors" (Matt. 6.12). Her Christian
humbleness is underlined also: "I often do very wrong, but, perhaps,
I might have done worse, if the holy form had not been observed"
(154). So is her sympathy towards Hota, Satan's supposed accomplice:
"she remembered the tender spirit of the Saviour, and allowed herself
to fall into pity" (159). In reply to Nolan's request to pray for the
Indian servant, Lois confesses she has been doing so since the previ
ous night, and adds her Christian belief: "I would not have her
entirely God-forsaken" (164). Her "pure, grave face" soothes the
pastor's disquieted soul (164-65). She expresses her compassion even
towards hazardous Manasseh by grieving "for his depressed state of
mind, anxious to soothe and comfort him" (161). These instances of
Lois's Christian virtue keep her goodness at Level 2. The increase of
Prudence's threat is hinted at when Lois shrinks from "the cruel,
eager face of the young girl" who wishes to see Hota hanged (160),
and also when she shudders at the shout of the impish American
cousin: "Witch Lois! Witch Lois! [. . .] I'm afeard of her in very
truth" (168). The menace of paroxysmal Manasseh is brought to light
164 Tatsuhiro OHNO
in the scenes where Lois runs away from him "like a panting, hunted
creature" (162) and where it is disclosed that his mental illness is the
cause for his prophetic revelations (161, 162, 166). The danger of
Prudence and Manasseh is serious enough to keep them at the second
level. Out of burning jealousy, Faith calls Lois a "witch" for the first
time (168), when her threat reaches Level 2. Grace's hazardousness
rises to Level 2, since she shows a sign of reconciling herself gradu
ally to the idea of marrying her son to Lois (161).
During five days after Hota's execution, the story centres on
Lois's prosecution and execution (168-90; Scs. 61-75). Prudence is
possessed by the devilish spirit in the midst of Cotton Mather's
sermon, and names her English cousin as her torturer (171-73). Lois,
astounded and tongue-tied, attempts to defend herself by asking her
aunt for help. The "stern, harsh, unloving" Grace, however, returns a
cold reply: "It is for God to judge whether thou are a witch, or not.
Not for me" (173). Lois then looks at Faith for assistance, but learns
immediately that "no good word" is "to be expected from her gloomy
face and averted eyes" (173). As Ehrenpreis correctly states, "a
complex blend of fear, jealousy, and spite drives the members of her
foster family to accuse" and "abandon" Lois (99). Here the threats of
the mother and her daughters reach the top level. Manasseh's
perilousness is retained at Level 2, because he tries to protect Lois by
arguing against Cotton Mather (175). To save him and her family
from disgrace, Grace hides his perennial insanity and suicide attempt
from the congregation, and comes to endorse their view that
Manasseh, as well as Prudence, has fallen prey to Lois's witchcraft
(176-77). His mental disorder, accordingly, is used to intensify Grace's
threat to our heroine. The Hicksons as a menace is articulated by
Lois in her passing recollection in the dungeon: "every angry thought
against her neighbour, against the impertinences of Prudence, against
Statistical Investigation into the Authorial Meaning in "Lois the Witch" 165
the overbearing authority of her aunt, against persevering crazy suit
of Manasseh, the indignation [. . .] at Faith's injustice" (178).
In spite of "the open accusation of Prudence and the withheld
justification of her aunt and Faith," however, Lois feels she can still
love them (179). In the examination scene, she follows her justices'
directions with "the wondering docility of a child" (180), and forbears
physical tortures by murmuring "verses of the Psalms" which are
"expressive of trust in God" (181). Her "indomitable spirit" (Saracino
213) is expressed in her reply to the elders' encouragement to admit
her guilt so that they can spare her life: "I must choose death with
a quiet conscience, rather than life to be gained by a life" (184). Her
kindness is contrasted with Grace's cold-heartedness in the scene of
her aunt's unexpected call at her cell: "Grace did not know how often
her want of loving-kindness had pierced the tender heart of the
stranger under her roof; nor did Lois remember it against her now.
Instead, Lois's memory was filled with grateful thoughts of how
much that might have been left undone, by a less conscientious
person, her aunt had done for her" (186-87). Her Christian fortitude
is enunciated when she comforts Nattee, her inmate, by telling her
"the marvellous and sorrowful story of one who died on the cross for
us and for our sakes" (189). The repeated emphasis on Lois's Chris
tian virtue indicates the elevation of her goodness to Level 3.
In the final phase depicting the aftermath of the Salem witch
panic (190-93; Scs. 76-77), the witchcraft terror is proved to be a delu
sion: Prudence and Grace express their deep regret for the roles they
played in persecuting the innocent girl. Hence, their threats drop to
Level 0. Only Lois's goodness preserves the top level, because it is her
pious Christian faith that leads Hugh Ralph Lucy to forgive the
repentant.
166 Tatsuhiro OHNO
4. Authorial Meaning
Some may claim that there is a tinge of subjectivity in my
tracing Lois's Christian fortitude against her five threats through the
survey of the plot development, and that the rise and fall of each bar
in Fig. 2. may show minor variations depending on investigators. I
admit the inevitability of such a possibility. However, I must insist
that the fundamental shapes of the six elements—the gradual ascent
to the climax-should become similar, because what is illuminated in
this trace is exclusively the key structure of this short fiction. That
is, Lois is delineated as a virtuous girl of integrity, or "an ideal" like
"all of Gaskeirs good young women" (Reddy 45), from the outset of
the story, and her Christian fortitude becomes gradually emphasized
as the levels of her menaces go up. The authorial intention of making
the Hicksons a menace to Lois is echoed in the narratorial state
ments: "It was hard up-hill work for Lois to win herself a place in
this family" (124); "To him [her uncle] she could give pleasure, but
apparently to no one else in that household" (125).
Investigation into the appearance rate of characters discloses six
main protagonists. The analysis of their involvement into the plot
reveals Lois's constant faith in God against the five menaces. Accord
ingly, this outcome of the statistical examination of the structure of
fiction, or the triumph of the heroine's Christian integrity over the
threats, is probably the interpretation intended by the author of
"Lois the Witch."
MainCharacters
in"LoistheWitch"
<Barford,Warwickshire
WidowSmith
II
Prudence
ElderHawkinsHester
Elij
ah
oldNanceHickson
EliasWellcome
(errandboy)
MrLucy
(Miller)
MrsLucy
HughRalph
Captain
Holdemesse
abrother(dead)
"(ai
ooif
eito
w)
oldClemence
(servant)
oldHannah
IRalphHickson
MrBarclay
(Jacobite
mini
ster
,dead)
Henrietta
(dead)
(23/24)
PastorNolan
(30)
<Salem>
Nattee(Indianservant)
Hosea(old
out-doorservant)
PastorTappau
Grace
(pastmiddleage)
Fait
h(19?)
Prudence
(12or
above)
Abigail
Hester
Hota(I
ndia
nservant;
hanged)
CottonMather
MM
active
1
TheComprehensiveChronology,for"LoistheWilcli"(1859)
refe
rred
~||
|no
n-ap
pear
ance
|><}
dead
1B:Barford
Ruth'smeetingwithheruncle
supper
I 3' o
Ch 1 2
Y
17)3
M 3
spring
(182,
183)
4(189)
Aolomn
D
Sunday(163)
Monday
(179)
Tuesday(182)
Wednesday(188)
Thurs.(l84,189)
(190)
(190)
ACTVE
REFERRED
ACTVE
REFERRED
ACTVE
REFERRED
Times
No
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
:#
Ran
163-65
165-66
166
166-67
167-68
168-69
169-71
171
171-74
1 1 1 1 1 I!
M-77
177
77-79
9-81
ti-82
2-85
185
15-86
186
186-88
188-89
189-90
190
IQO-93
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IBriefSummary
Lois'sinterviewwithNolan
Faith'sjealousy
theplanforthemorning
Manasseh'sprophecy
Horn'sexecution
theprayermeeting
DrMather'sspeech
Prudence'sconvulsions
Lois
isprosecutedasawitch.
Manasseh
ismad!
Lois
isdragged
tothegaol.
Lois
inthecity
gaol
sentenced
tobehanged
feverishnightinthegaol
Loischoosesdeath.
historicalfacts
NoonesavesLois.
ManassehyearnsafterLois.
Grace's
visittothegaol
LoiscomfortsNattee.
Loishanged;madManasseh
HoldernesseandLucycome.
21
years
later
O O
TOTALACTVE
TOTALREFERRED
Times
TOTALAPPEARANCE
TOTALACTVE
TOTALREFERRED
TOTALAPPEARANCE
o E i
172 Tatsuhiro OHNO
Notes
1. All quotations from "Lois the Witch" are taken from the World's Classics
edition and parenthetically inserted into the text. Scene numbers correspond
to those in "The Comprehensive Chronology."
2. The total page numbers of each Part are 93.5, while the physical text's 89.
The error is owing to my method of counting pages in half-a-page units.
3. The table consists of the story's chronology and the result of the inspection
of stage shifts and major characters' activity. If a character appears in a
particular scene, the corresponding cell is coloured dark grey; if he/she is
only referred to by other characters, the cell is tinged light grey. This is a
device for taking a bird-eye view of .the story's structure.
4. Structurally, therefore, "the interim at the Boston lodging house serves as a
prologue" (Bacigalupo 322).
5. These four characters are grouped together, as it was the received notion of
the 17th century Salem that Satan appears under the disguise of an Indian
(Upham 47). Some New Englanders affirm that Indians are "in league with
Satan" (115) or "evil powers" (126). Indian themselves confess their alliance
with Satan (126).
6. The danger of his becoming a greater menace is foreshadowed in the phrase:
"His eyes thoughtfully fixed on vacancy, as if he saw a vision, or dreamed
dreams" (123).
7. Another example of Lois's goodness is her recollection of Nolan's prayer to
suppress her momentary anger against Faith (144).
8. The disappearance of Ralph Hickson, the only person in his household that
gives Lois no threat, in the early stage probably comes from Gaskell's scheme
to exclude him from the prosecution of his beloved niece, and to draw the
reader's attention to her helplessness under the increasing danger.
Works Cited
Bacigalupo, Marie D. The Short Fiction of Elizabeth Gaskell. Diss. Fordham U,
1984. Ann Arbor: UMI, 1985. 8506315.
Ehrenpreis, Anne Henry. "Elizabeth Gaskell and Nathaniel Hawthorne." The
Nathaniel Hawthorne Journal (1973): 89-119.
Gaskell, Elizabeth. "Lois the Witch." Cousin Phillis and Other Tales. Ed. Angus
Easson. World's Classics. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1981. 105-93.
Reddy, Maureen Teresa. Elizabeth GaskelVs Short Fiction. Diss. U of Minnesota,
1985. Ann Arbor: UMI, 1985. 8519340.
Saracino, Marilena. "Elizabeth Gaskell's Lois the Witch: Witchcraft and its Fic
tional Representation." Eds. Francesco Marroni and Alan Shelston. Elizabeth
Gaskell: Text and Context. Pescara: Tracce, 1999. 199-221.
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