Seizing the Signals. CSCE 727 - Farkas2 Reading List This class – Carr, Chs. 3, 4 – Introduction...

Seizing the SignalsSeizing the Signals

CSCE 727 - Farkas 2

Reading ListReading List This class

– Carr, Chs. 3, 4– Introduction to TEMPEST, The Complete and unofficial

TEMPEST Information Place http://www.eskimo.com/~joelm/tempestintro.html

– NSA, TEMPEST endorsement program, http://www.nsa.gov/ia/industry/tempest.cfm

– Federal Computer Intrusion Laws, http://www.usdoj.gov/criminal/cybercrime/cclaws.html

Signal IntelligenceSignal Intelligence

Deriving intelligence from intercepted electromagnetic waves

Types of intelligence:– Communication intelligence (COMINT)– Electronic intelligence (ELINT)– Imagery intelligence (IMINT)

CSCE 727 - Farkas 3

ELECTRONIC VISUAL SURVEILLANCE ELECTRONIC VISUAL SURVEILLANCE AND THE REASONABLE AND THE REASONABLE

EXPECTATION OF PRIVACYEXPECTATION OF PRIVACY By Max Guirguis, Journal of Technology Law & Policy,

2004, http://grove.ufl.edu/~techlaw/vol9/issue2/guirguis.html

Positive results: reduced crime, efficient work place, etc.

Negative results: potential misuse of recording, incorrect results, constitutional rights

Surveillance of public vs. private (or reasonably expected to be private) places

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EchelonEchelon

Goal: – intercept large quantities of communication– Analyze (semi-automated) gathered data– Identify and extract messages of interest

What messages are retained?– Key words – categories– Human verification

Who has access to them?

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The Positive AspectsThe Positive AspectsIncreased national securityPreventive measuresGlobal effects

– Global commerce– Communication infrastructure

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Negative AspectsNegative Aspects Global (in)balance Privacy issues Misuse Law Error of analysis

– Large amount of data– Sophistication of analysis– Use of results

Other Surveillance IssuesOther Surveillance Issues

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EavesdroppingEavesdropping

Sender RecipientTools: microphone receivers, Tape recorder, phone “bugs”, scanners,Radio receivers, satellite receivers, spy satellites,Network sniffing, etc.

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Computer CommunicationsComputer CommunicationsTCP/IP Protocol StackTCP/IP Protocol Stack

Application Layer

Transport Layer

Internetwork Layer

Network Access Layer

• Each layer interacts with neighboring layers above and below• Each layer can be defined independently• Complexity of the networking is hidden from the application

At what layer should we support security?

Security NeedsSecurity Needs

Basic services that need to be implemented:Key managementConfidentialityNonrepudiationIntegrity/authenticationAuthorization

Network Access Layer SecurityNetwork Access Layer Security Dedicated link between hosts/routers hardware

devices for encryption Advantages:

– Speed Disadvantages:

– Not scalable– Works well only on dedicates links– Two hardware devices need to be physically

connected

InternInternetwork Layer Securityetwork Layer Security

IP Security (IPSec) Advantages:

– Overhead involved with key negotiation decreases <-- multiple protocols can share the same key management infrastructure

– Ability to build VPN and intranet

Disadvantages:– Difficult to handle low granularity security, e.g.,

nonrepudation, user-based security,

Transport Layer SecurityTransport Layer Security

Advantages:– Does not require enhancement to each

application

Disadvantages:– Difficult to obtain user context– Implemented on an end system– Protocol specific implemented for each

protocol

Application Layer SecurityApplication Layer Security Advantages:

– Executing in the context of the user --> easy access to user’s credentials– Complete access to data --> easier to ensure nonrepudation– Application can be extended to provide security (do not depend on the

operating system)– Application understand data --> fine tune security

Disadvantages:– Implemented in end hosts– Security mechanisms have to be implemented for each application -->

– expensive

– greated probability of making mistake

Surveillance DifficultiesSurveillance Difficulties

New Technologies– 1994: U.S. Congress: Communication

Assistance or Law Enforcement Act (digital telephony bill”

EncryptionData authenticity and integrity

TEMPESTTEMPEST

U.S. government code : classified set of standards for limiting electric and magnetic radiation emanations from electronic equipments.

Investigations and studies of compromising emanations.

Compromising EmanationsCompromising Emanations

Unintentional intelligence-bearing signals that if intercepted and analyzed can disclose classified information.

Intercepted when transmitted, handled, or processed

Tempest equipment: remotely mirror what is being done on a remote device, e.g., video monitor, cable wire, processing unit, etc.

Unintentional EmanationsUnintentional Emanations Normal operation of system Deliberate or accidental exposure to unusual

environment Software induced Security Considerations: Traditional

– Unauthorized access to the system – requires knowledge about the system, applications, configuration, can be detected, limited time frame, etc.

Upcoming – Exploitation of compromising signals

TEMPEST HistoryTEMPEST History U.S. government concern about capture and reconstruction of emanations

from high-security devices used to process, transmit, store sensitive data– 1950s: Introduce standards to limit “leakage” – NAG1A– 1960s: revise NAG1A to FS222 and FS222A– 1970s: revise standards – National Communications Security Information

memorandum 5100 (NACSIM)– 1974: revise NACSIM 5100– 1981: National Communications Security Committee Directive 4. – MACSIM

5100A (classified) – 1984: National Communications Security Instructions – NACSI 5400 (secret)– 1984: National Security Directive 145. by NSA

NSA: Tempest: a signal problem, (http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/cryptologic_spectrum/tempest.pdf

NSA: History of US Communications security, http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/cryptologic_histories/history_comsec.pdf

Military applicationMilitary application

WWII Enemy communications– German army eavesdropped on enemy

communication while already implementing protection measures against the same attacks against German communications

1960: MI5 tempest attack on cipher machines

Limited publications

Non-military ApplicationNon-military Application

1966: open publication on the risk of tempest attacks

19821984: Swedish government publication on the business risk of tempest attacks

1985: van ECK – screen content disclosure1985: Bank ATM – card info and PIN1990: tamper resistant hardware – smart

Electromagnetic EmissionsElectromagnetic Emissions

Simplest form of electromagnetic fields: transmission and distribution lines, wall socket power: steady 60 hertz (U.S.), sinusoidal wave

Electric devices: alter characteristics of electromagnetic waves (frequency, power level, wave form) – E.g., wave forms: sinusoidal, sawtooth, spike, square

Capture and interpret: complex waves can be captured, interpreted, and replayed on similar device to create exact replica of the original device

Field strength – Reduced with the distance from the electric device– Depends on the emanating device, e.g., type of screen, CPU,

COMSECCOMSEC

Four main parts:– Physical security – Emission security– Transmission security – Cryptographic security

Red equipment: handles plain text information with national security value

Black equipment: protected (encrypted) information

Unintentional emission: from Red systems

TEMPEST AttackTEMPEST Attack

Requires:– High level of expertise and equipment to

decode captured waves– Proximity to the target– Long collection time

Processing device: $5,000-$250,000

Tempest ProtectionTempest Protection

Physical separation– Exclude unauthorized individuals from areas

near the source of emanation

Electromagnetic separation– Shielding, filtering, etc. to remove the leak

Signal level minimization– Lowest feasible power-level use

TEMPEST ShieldingTEMPEST Shielding

NSA specifications – Ferrites, other frequency interference products – Shield equipment, cables, room, building, etc. – NSA standards, endorsed devices and

contractors – Expensive – TEMPEST protected PC about

double the price– Shielding and distance together

Threat-Based SystemThreat-Based System

Reduce the cost of TEMPEST efforts– Evaluation: sensitivity of information, risk of

TEMPEST attack, etc.– Personnel control: physical control,

unauthorized access– Compartmentalization: each sensitivity level is

isolated from the others– Physical control of emanation: shield, power,

noise, etc.

Tempest ProceduresTempest Procedures

Government and organizational restrictionsProducts, installation, maintenanceReporting needsCertified TEMPEST technical authority

(CTTA)

Need for TEMPESTNeed for TEMPEST

Little public data on TEMPEST casesGovernment focus and funding

– National security intelligence– Economic espionage

Decoding device: hard to obtainBandwidth of human intelligence vs.

TEMPESTTEMPEST threat within U.S. – minimal??

CSCE 727CSCE 727

Cyber AttacksCyber Attacks

(Brief Overview)(Brief Overview)

AttackAttack

RFC 2828:

“ An assault on system security that derives from an intelligent threat, i.e., an intelligent act that is a deliberate attempt (especially in the sense of a method or technique) to evade security services and violate the security policy of the system.”

Normal FlowNormal Flow

Information source

Information destination

InterruptionInterruption

Information source

Asset is destroyed of becomes unavailable - AvailabilityExample: destruction of hardware, cutting communicationline, disabling file management system, etc.

InterceptionInterception

Information source

Unauthorized party gains access to the asset – ConfidentialityExample: wiretapping, unauthorized copying of files

ModificationModification

Information source

Unauthorized party tampers with the asset – IntegrityExample: changing values of data, altering programs, modify content of a message, etc.

Fabrication Fabrication

Information source

Unauthorized party insets counterfeit object into the system – AuthenticityExample: insertion of offending messages, addition of records to a file, etc.

Phases of AttackPhases of Attack Improve detection by examining which “phase” an

intruder’s behavior is identified Attack phases:

– Intelligence gathering: attacker observes the system to determine vulnerabilities

– Planning: attacker decide what resource to attack (usually least defended component)

– Attack: attacker carries out the plan– Inside the system:

Hiding: attacker covers tracks of attack Future attacks: attacker installs backdoors for future entry points

Passive AttackPassive Attack

“Attempts to learn or make use of information from the system but does not affect system resources” (RFC 2828)

Sniffer

SniffersSniffers

How easy it is to sniff on– Local wired network– Wide-area wired network– Wireless devices

What are the risks of sniffers?– Message content– Traffic flow

Passive attacks

Interception (confidentiality)

Disclosure of message contents Traffic analysis

How can we protect against How can we protect against sniffers?sniffers?

Protection against passive Protection against passive attacksattacks

Shield confidential data from sniffers: cryptography

Disturb traffic pattern: – Traffic padding – Onion routing

Modern switch technology: network traffic is directed to the destination interfaces

Detect and eliminate sniffers

Active attacksActive attacks

“Attempts to alter system resources of affect their operation” (RFC 2828)

Active attacks

Interruption Modification Fabrication(availability) (integrity) (integrity)

Give examples of attacks!

Active AttacksActive AttacksMasqueradeReplayModification of messagesDenial of serviceDegradation of serviceSpoofing attacksSession hijacking

Degradation of ServiceDegradation of Service

Do not completely block service just reduce the quality of service

Intrusion ControlIntrusion Control

It is better to prevent something than to plan for loss.

Problem: Misuse happens!

NeedNeed::

Intrusion Prevention: protect system resources

Intrusion Detection: (second line of defense) identify misuse

Intrusion Recovery and response: cost effective recovery models

Intrusion PreventionIntrusion Prevention

First line of defenseTechniques: cryptography, identification,

authentication, authorization, access control, security filters, etc.

Not good enough (prevention, reconstructions)

Intrusion Detection System Intrusion Detection System (IDS(IDS))

Looks for specific patterns (attack signatures or abnormal usage) that indicate malicious or suspicious intent

Second line of defense against both internal and external threats

Intrusion Detection SystemsIntrusion Detection SystemsDeter intrudersCatch intrudersPrevent threats to fully occur (real-time

IDS)Improve prevention techniquesIDS deployment, customisation and

management is generally not trivial

Audit-Based Intrusion Audit-Based Intrusion DetectionDetection

Intrusion Detection System

Audit DataProfiles, Rules, etc.

Decision

Need:• Audit data• Ability to characterize behavior

Audit DataAudit Data Format, granularity and completeness depend on the

collecting tool Examples

– System tools collect data (login, mail)– Additional collection of low system level– “Sniffers” as network probes– Application auditing

Honey Net Needed for

– Establishing guilt of attackers– Detecting suspicious user activities

Audit Data AccuracyAudit Data Accuracy

Collection method– System architecture and collection point– Software and hardware used for collection

Storage method– Protection of audit data

Sharing and Integration– Transmission protection and correctness– Availability

IDS CategoriesIDS Categories1. Time of data analysis

Real-time vs. off-the-line IDS2. Location where audit data was gathered

Host-based vs. network-based vs. hybrid3. Technique used for analysis

Rule-based vs. statistic-based4. Location of analysis

Centralized, distributed, network-based5. Pattern IDS looking for

Misuse vs. anomaly-based vs. hybrid

Incident ResponseIncident Response

• Federal Communications Commission: Computer Security Incident Response Guide, 2001, http://csrc.nist.gov/groups/SMA/fasp/documents/incident_response/Incident-Response-Guide.pdf•Incident Response Team, R. Nellis, http://www.rochissa.org/downloads/presentations/Incidence%20Response%20Teams.ppt •NIST special publications, http://csrc.nist.gov/publications/nistpubs/index.html

Due Care and LiabilityDue Care and Liability

Organizational liability for misuse– US Federal Sentencing Guidelines: chief executive

officer and top management are responsible for fraud, theft, and antivirus violations committed by insiders or outsiders using the company’s resources.

– Fines and penalties Base fine Culpability score (95%-400%)

– Good faith efforts: written policies, procedures, security awareness program, disciplinary standards, monitoring and auditing, reporting, and cooperation with investigations

When to plan for incidents?When to plan for incidents?

Roles and ResponsibilitiesRoles and Responsibilities User:

– Vigilant for unusual behavior– Report incidents

Manager:– Awareness training– Policies and procedures

System administration:– Install safeguards– Monitor system– Respond to incidents, including preservation of evidences

Computer Incident Response Computer Incident Response TeamTeam

Assist in handling security incidents– Formal – Informal

Incident reporting and dissemination of incident information

Computer Security Officer– Coordinate computer security efforts

Others: law enforcement coordinator, investigative support, media relations, etc.

Incident Response Process 1.Incident Response Process 1.

Preparation – Baseline Protection – Planning and guidance– Roles and Responsibilities – Training – Incident response team

How to Respond?How to Respond?

How to Response?How to Response? Actions to avoid further loss from intrusion Terminate intrusion and protect against reoccurrence Law enforcement – prosecute Enhance defensive security Reconstructive methods based on:

– Time period of intrusion– Changes made by legitimate users during the effected

period– Regular backups, audit trail based detection of effected

components, semantic based recovery, minimal roll-back for recovery

Identification and assessment– Symptoms– Nature of incident

Identify perpetrator, origin and extent of attack Can be done during attack or after the attack

– Gather evidences Key stroke monitoring, honey nets, system logs, network

traffic, etc. Legislations on Monitoring!

– Report on preliminary findings

Containment– Reduce the chance of spread of incident– Determine sensitive data– Terminate suspicious connections, personnel,

applications, etc.– Move critical computing services– Handle human aspects, e.g., perception

management, panic, etc.

Why is the Human Aspect Why is the Human Aspect Important?Important?

What can we do to limit damage?What can we do to limit damage?

Are cover stories acceptable? Are cover stories acceptable?

Eradication– Determine and remove cause of incident if

economically feasible– Improve defenses, software, hardware,

middleware, physical security, etc.– Increase awareness and training– Perform vulnerability analysis

Recovery– Determine course of action– Reestablish system functionality– Reporting and notifications– Documentation of incident handling and

evidence preservation

Follow Up ProceduresFollow Up Procedures

Incident evaluation:– Quality of incident (preparation, time to

response, tools used, evaluation of response, etc.)

– Cost of incident (monetary cost, disruption, lost data, hardware damage, etc.)

Preparing reportRevise policies and procedures

Recent ConcernsRecent Concerns

Recovery or Survivability?Recovery or Survivability?

What is “Survivability”?

To decide whether a computer system is “survivable”, you must first decide what “survivable” means.

Vulnerable ComponentsVulnerable Components

1. Hardware2. Software3. Data4. Communications5. People

Effect Modeling and Vulnerability Effect Modeling and Vulnerability DetectionDetection

Cascading effects

Seriously effectedcomponents

Weaklyeffected component

Not effectedcomponents

Incorporating Human Incorporating Human Aspects?Aspects?

Traditional issues: password sharing, errors, fraud, insiders, malicious users, social engineering, etc.

New issues: perception management, psychological operations, communication media– Egypt: role of the Internet, A. Alexander,

Internet role in Egypt's protests, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-12400319

Legal AspectsLegal Aspects National law International law Legal regime to apply Gray areas of law Legal response Evidence preservation

THEMIS: Threat Evaluation Metamodel for Information Systems

Presented at the 2nd Symposium on Intelligence and Security Informatics, 2004

Csilla Farkas, Thomas Wingfield, James B. MichaelDuminda Wijesekera

Themis, Goddess of Justice

Cyber vs. Kinetic Attack Academic State-of-the-Art: Effects-Based Analysis Problem: Charter Paradigm Means-Based The Schmitt Reconciliation

– Distinguishing Military from Diplomatic and Economic Coercion

– Seven Factors

Use of Force in Cyberspace

SeverityImmediacyDirectnessInvasivenessMeasurabilityPresumptive LegitimacyResponsibility

Schmitt Factors

Severity

People Killed;Severe Property Damage

Armed attacks threaten physical injury or destruction of property to a much greater extent than other forms of coercion. Physical well-being usually occupies the [lowest, most basic level] of the human hierarchy of need.

How many people were killed?

How large an area was attacked? (Scope)

How much damage was done within this area? (Intensity)

People Killed;Severe Property

Damage

People Injured;Moderate

Property Damage

People Unaffected;No Discernable

Property Damage

Immediacy

Over how long a period did the action take place? (Duration)

How soon were its effects felt?

How soon until its effects abate?

Seconds to Minutes

Hours to Days

Weeks to Months

The negative consequences of armed coercion, or threat thereof, usually occur with great immediacy, while those of other forms of coercion develop more slowly.

Directness

Was the action distinctly identifiable from parallel or competing actions?

Was the action the proximate cause of the effects?

Action Sole Cause of Result

Action Identifiable as One Cause of Result, and to an Indefinite

Degree

Action Played No Identifiable Role in

Result

The consequences of armed coercion are more directly tied to the actus reus than in other forms of coercion, which often depend on numerous contributory factors to operate.

The voluntary and wrongful act or omission that constitutes the physical components of a crime. Because a person cannot be punished for bad thoughts alone, there can be no criminal liability without actus reus.

Invasiveness

Did the action involve physically crossing the target country’s borders?

Was the locus of the action within the target country?

Border Physically Crossed; Action Has

Point Locus

Border Electronically Crossed; Action Occurs

Over Diffuse Area

Border Not Crossed; Action Has No

Identifiable Locus in Target Country

In armed coercion, the act causing the harm usually crosses into the target state, whereas in economic warfare the acts generally occur beyond the target’s borders. As a result, even though armed and economic acts may have roughly similar consequences, the former represents a greater intrusion on the rights of the target state and, therefore, is more likely to disrupt international stability.

Measurability

Can the effects of the action be quantified?

Are the effects of the action distinct from the results of parallel or competing actions?

What was the level of certainty?

Effects Can Be Quantified Immediately by Traditional Means (BDA, etc.) with High Degree of Certainty

Effects Can Be Estimated by Rough Order of

Magnitude with Moderate Certainty

Effects Cannot be Separated from Those of Other Actions; Overall

Certainty is Low

While the consequences of armed coercion are usually easy to ascertain (e.g., a certain level of destruction), the actual negative consequences of other forms of coercion are harder to measure. This fact renders the appropriateness of community condemnation, and the degree of vehemence contained therein, less suspect in the case of armed force.

Presumptive Legitimacy

Has this type of action achieved a customary acceptance within the international community?

Is the means qualitatively similar to others presumed legitimate under international law?

Action Accomplished by Means of Kinetic

Attack

Action Accomplished in Cyberspace but Manifested by a

“Smoking Hole” in Physical Space

Action Accomplished in Cyberspace and Effects

Not Apparent in Physical World

In most cases, whether under domestic or international law, the application of violence is deemed illegitimate absent some specific exception such as self-defense. The cognitive approach is prohibitory. By contrast, most other forms of coercion—again in the domestic and international sphere—are presumptively lawful, absent a prohibition to the contrary. The cognitive approach is permissive.

Responsibility

Is the action directly or indirectly attributable to the acting state?

But for the acting state’s sake, would the action have occurred?

Responsibility for Action Acknowledged

by Acting State; Degree of Involvement Large

Target State Government Aware of Acting State’s

Responsibility; Public Role Unacknowledged; Degree of Involvement Moderate

Action Unattributable to Acting State; Degree

of Involvement Low

Armed coercion is the exclusive province of states; only they may generally engage in uses of force across borders, and in most cases only they have the ability to do so with any meaningful impact. By contrast, non-governmental entities are often capable of engaging in other forms of coercion (propaganda, boycotts, etc.).

Overall Analysis

Have enough of the qualities of a use of force been identified to characterize the information operation as a use of force?

Use of Force Under Article 2(4)

Arguably Use of Force or Not

Not a Use of Force Under Article 2(4)

Seizing the Signals. CSCE 727 - Farkas2 Reading List This class – Carr, Chs. 3, 4 – Introduction...

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