Ritual Dynamics in the Eastern Mediterranean. Case Studies in Ancient Greece and Asia Minor

7/28/2019 Ritual Dynamics in the Eastern Mediterranean. Case Studies in Ancient Greece and Asia Minor

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Originalveröffentlichung in : W.V. Harris (ed.), Rethinking the Mediterranean, Oxford 2005,

S. 141-166

Ritual Dynam i c s in the Eastern Mediterranean: Case Studies in Anc ien t

Greece and Asia Mino r

Angelos Chaniotis

1. M E D I T E R R A N E A N R I T U A L S 1

One o f th e m a n y m o n u m e n t s th e A t h e n i a n s p r o u d l y s h o w e d

their y o u t h a n d t h e v i s i t o r s t o t he i r c i t y w a s t h e s h i p w i t h w h i c h

Theseus w a s b e l i e v e d t o h a v e sa i l ed t o C r e t e . I n t h e c o u r s e o f

the c e n t u r i e s t h e s h i p ' s w o o d e n pa r t s r o t t e d , a n d t h e A t h e n i a n s

had t o r e p l a c e t h e m , p r o v i d i n g a n c i e n t p h i l o s o p h e r s w i t h an unso lved p u z z l e d : d i d T h e s e u s ' s h i p r em a i n t h e s am e e v e n

though i ts r o t t e n c o m p o n e n t s w e r e c o n t i n u a l l y b e i n g r e p l a c e d ? 2

I c a n n o t h e l p t h i n k i n g a b o u t t h i s p u z z l e w h e n I a m c o n f r o n t e d

with d i a c h r o n i c s t u d i e s o n ' t h e ' Me d i t e r r a n e a n . C a n th e M e d i

terranean b e a s o m e h o w d i s t i n c t i v e o b j e c t o f h i s t o r i c a l a n d

cultural s t u d y , g i v e n t h e c o n t i n u a l c h a n g e o f its l i v i n g ( a n d

therefore, e p h e m e r a l ) c o m p o n e n t s ( h u m a n p o p u l a t i o n s a n d

their c u l t u r e s , a n im a l s , a n d p l an t s ) ? O r is t h e Me d i t e r r a n e a n

as a h i s t o r i c a l a n d c u l t u r a l e n t i t y j u s t a c o n s t r u c t o f t h e co l l e c t -

ive i m a g i n a t i o n o f s c h o l a r s w h o c o n t r i b u t e to j o u r n a l s , b o o k s ,

or Con f e r e n c e s t h a t h a v e t h e n a m e ' M e d i t e r r a n e a n ' i n t h e i r t i t le?

1 T h e v i ew s e x p r e s s ed here s t em f r om the pro j e c t ' R i t u a l and C o m m u n i -

cation in th e G r e e k cit ies and in R om e ' , wh i c h is par t o f th e i n terd i sc ip l inary

projects ' R i t u a l d y n am i k in t r ad i t i one l l en u n d mod e r n e n Gese l l s cha f t en '

funded b y th e M i n i s t r y o f Sc i ence o f B a d e n -W ü r t t em b e r g ( 1 9 99 - 2 000 ) a n d

'Ritualdynamik: Soz i oku l t u r e l l e Proze s s e in h i s tor i s cher u n d ku l t u r v e rg l e

ichender Pe r s p ek t i v e ' f u n d e d b y th e G e r m a n Resea r ch C o u n c i l ( 2 0 02 - 5 ) ;

references to m y o w n p r e l im i n a r y s tud ies o n re l evan t sub jec t s are , u n f o r t u -

nately, una v o i d a b l e . I ha v e pro f i t ed great ly f r om theoret ica l d i scuss ions w i t h

my co l l eagues in th is pro j ec t . 2 P l u . Theseus 23 .

142 Ritual Dynamics

T h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e u n i t y o f t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n s h o u l d b e a s k e d

not o n l y ' v e r t i c a l l y ' ( w i t h r e g a r d t o d i a c h r o n i c d e v e l o p m e n t s ) ;

it m u s t b e a s k e d ' h o r i z o n t a l l y ' as w e l l . C a n t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n

in i ts e n t i r e t y b e a m e a n i n g f u l a n d d i s t i n c t i v e o b j e c t o f s t u d y i nany g i v e n p e r i o d o f t h e a n t i q u i t y , g i v e n t h e h e t e r o g e n e i t y o f

cultures a n d e n v i r o n m e n t s i n t h is g e o g r a p h i c a l r e g i o n ? A n d l f

continuities, c o n v e r g e n c e s , a n d h o m o g e n e i t i e s c a n s o m e h o w b e

detected i n a n o n - a n t h r o p o g e n o u s f r a m e w o r k — f o r e x a m p l e

there is s u c h a t h i n g a s a M e d i t e r r a n e a n c l im a t e , w e c a n s t u d y

Mediterranean s e i s m i c a c t iv i t i e s, a n d w e k n o w f r o m p e r s o n a l

Observation t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n k a rs ti c l a n d s c a p e s — c a n w e

characterize c u l tu r a l p h e n o m e n a as ' M e d i t e r r a n e a n p h e n o m -

ena'? I s t h e r e s u c h a t h i n g as a M e d i t e r r a n e a n m e n t a l i t y , a

Medi terranean w a y o f l i f e , t y p i c a l M e d i t e r r a n e a n c u l t ic p r a c -

tices o r r i t u a ls , o r e v e n M e d i t e r r a n e a n v a l u e s ? 3 T h e s e q u e s t i o n s

sound r h e t o r i c a l . M o s t o f u s w o u l d s p o n t a n e o u s l y d e n y t h e

existence o f a M e d i t e r r a n e a n c u l t u re , a M e d i t e r r a n e a n r e l ig i o n

or a M e d i t e r r a n e a n w a y o f l if e , p e r h a p s o n l y m a k i n g a l lo w a n c e s

for c e r t a i n h i s t o r i c a l p e r i o d s o r c e r t a i n l i m i t e d a s p e c t s . I t i s

necessary t o r e t h i n k w h a t is s p e c i f i c a l ly ' M e d i t e r r a n e a n ' i n

Medi terranean s t u d i e s , t o d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n o b j e c t s a n d O b

servation a n d c o n s t r u c t s — b u t a ls o t o a sk o u r s e l v e s if t h e r e is

any l e g i t i m a c y fo r M e d i t e r r a n e a n s t u d ie s o t h e r t h a n t h e n a t u r a l

geographical l i m i t s o f t h i s c l o s e d s e a , a n d i f y e s , w h i c h P a r a m

eters w e s h o u l d t a k e i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n .

I h a v e c h o s e n t o e x p l o r e t h i s i s s u e b y t r e a t i n g a c u l t u r a l

p h e n o m e n o n f o r w h i c h g e o g r a p h i c a l f a c t o r s d o n o t s e e m t o b edeterminant: r it u a ls . A d m i t t e d l y , r e l ig i o u s r e s p o n s e s t o s p a c e

and l a n d s c a p e h a v e o f t e n b e e n o b s e r v e d , a n d P . H o r d e n a n d N .

Purcel l h a v e v e r y a p t l y i n c l u d e d i n t h e ir Corrupting Sea a

chapter o n t e r r i t o r i e s o f g r a c e . 4 T h i s c h a p t e r d e a ls w i t h a

great v a r i e t y o f s u b j e c t s p e r t a i n i n g t o t h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n r e l i

gion a n d t h e p h y s i c a l e n v i r o n m e n t a n d t o g e o g r a p h i c a l p a r a m -

eters, s u c h a s t h e t o p o g r a p h i c a l f e a t u r e s o f c u l t p l a c e s ( h o l y

waters, h i g h p l a c e s , w o o d s a n d g r o v e s , n a t u r a l c a t a s t r o p h e s

such a s b a d w e a t h e r , e a r t h q u a k e s a n d v u l c a n i c a c t i v i t y ) , t h e

3 Se e e . g . J . G . P e r i s t i an y ( ed . ) , Honour and Sham e. The Values of Mediter

ranean Society ( L o n d o n , 1 9 65 ).4 CS 4 0 1 - 6 0 .

Ritual Dynamics 143

sacralized e c o n o m y , a n d t h e m o b i l i t y o f r e l i g io u s p r a c t ic e s . T h e

questions o f c o n t i n u i t i e s , s u r v i v a l s , a n d c h a n g e s , c o n v e r g e n c e s

and d i v e r g e n c e s n a t u r a l l y o c c u p y a n i m p o r t a n t p o s i t i o n i n t h e ir

discussion. A l t h o u g h n o c l a i m is m a d e i n t h i s b o o k ( o r h a s e v e rbeen m a d e , a t l e a st t o t h e b e s t o f m y k n o w l e d g e ) t h a t t h e r e is a

'Mediterranean' r e l i g i o n o r t h a t t h e r e is a n y t h i n g s p e c i f i c a l l y

Mediterranean i n t h e r e l i g i o n s o f t h e a n c i e n t M e d i t e r r a n e a n ,

still c o n t i n u i t i e s i n w o r s h i p a r e d e t e c t e d i n c e r t a i n s i t e s — t h e

'classical' e x a m p l e b e i n g t h e u s e o f t h e s a m e s a c r e d s p a c e b y

pagans, C h r i s t i a n s a n d M u s l i m s ; a l so s i m i l a r it i e s i n t h e r e l i

gious u s e o f S p a c e a n d l a n d s c a p e p r a c t i c e s w i t h a w i d e g e o -

graphical d i s t r i b u t i o n i n t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n h a v e b e e n

observed . I n t e r e s t i n g l y , t h i s d i s c u s s i o n o f c o n t i n u i t i e s , s u r

vivals , a n d s i m i l a r i t i e s i n t h e s a c r e d l a n d s c a p e s o f t h e M e d i t e r

ranean re fe r s to cult, religion, w orship, o r t h e sacred; i t do e s no t

to r e f e r t o rituals. A l t h o u g h r it u a ls a r e o f t e n a l l u d e d t o b y

H o r d e n a n d P u r c e l l , t h e r e is h a r d l y a n y d i r e c t r e f e r e n c e t o t h e

term ritual o r t o i n d i v i d u a l r i tu a l s , a n d v e r y p r u d e n t l y s o , f o r

reasons t h a t w i l l b e g i v e n in a m o m e n t .

2. F R O M M E A N I N G S T O F U N C T I O N S

But d e s p i t e t h e p r u d e n c e a n d c a u t i o n t h a t s h o u l d b e s h o w n i n

the t r e a t m e n t o f r it u a l s a s o b j e c t s o f a c o m p a r a t i v e o r a d i a -

chronic s t u d y , y e t r it u a l s a r e e s s e n ti a l f o r t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f

cult, r e l i g i o n , a n d w o r s h i p , f o r t h e u s e o f s a c r e d s p a c e , b u t a ls o

for t h e c u l t u r a l p r o f i l e o f a g r o u p , i n t h e a n c i e n t M e d i t e r r a n e a nas i n a n y o t h e r r e g i o n a n d p e r i o d . I t w a s w i t h t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f

differences i n r i t u a l s ( e s p e c i a l l y b u r i a l c u s t o m s a n d t h e r i t u a l s

of d i n i n g ) t h a t m a n y a n c i e n t h i s t o r ia n s ( n o t a b l y H e r o d o t u s )

established c u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e a n d id e n t i t y b e t w e e n G r e e k s

and b a r b a r i a n s o r a m o n g t h e G r e e k c o m m u n i t i e s . 5 I n o n e o f

the l o n g e s t a n d m o s t d e t a i l e d a n c i e n t t r e a t m e n t s o f r i t u a l s , i n

Athenaeus ' d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e d i n i n g r i tu a l s o f v a r i o u s p e o p l e s ,

the p e c u l i a r it i e s o f ea c h g r o u p a re d e t e c t e d t h r o u g h a c o m p a r i -

son o f t h e r i t u a l s a t t h e d i n i n g t a b l e . 6 T h e r e is a n u n s p o k e n , b u t

5 e . g . , F . H a r t o g , The M irror of Herodo tus. The Representation of the Other

in the Writing of H istory (Ber ke ley and Lo s An ge les , 1988) ; R . B i ch ler ,

Herodots Welt ( B e r l i n , 2 0 0 0 ), e s p . 4 8 - 5 6 , 8 4 - 9 3 , 1 2 3 - 3 1 , 1 5 1 - 7 8 .6 A t h e n . 4 . 1 4 8 - 5 4 d .

144 Ritual Dynamics

relatively w i d e s p r e a d v i e w ( in G e r m a n y i n p a r t i c u la r ) , p e r h a p s

influenced b y t h e s p i r i t o f P r o t e s t a n t i s m , t h a t r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s

and d o c t r i n e s h a v e a s u p r e m a c y o v e r r i t u a ls , t h a t r i tu a l s a r e

meaningless. A n d y e t , s c h o l a r s s ti ll s e a r c h fo r t h e m e a n i n g o frituals n o l e s s t h a n s o m e a n t i q u a r i a n s d i d i n a n t i q u i t y .

Agatharchides n a r r a t e s a v e r y i n s t r u c t i v e a n e c d o t e : 7 ' T h e B o e -

otians s a c r i f i c e t o t h e g o d s t h o s e e e l s o f t h e K o p a i c L a k e w h i c h

are o f s u r p a s s i n g s i ze , p u t t i n g w r e a t h s o n t h e m , s a y i n g p r a y e r s

over t h e m , a n d C a s ti n g b a r l e y - c o r n s o n f h e m as o n a n y o t h e r

sacrificial v i c t i m ; a n d t o t h e f o r e i g n e r w h o w a s u t t e r l y p u z z l e d

at t h e s t r a n g e n e s s o f t h i s c u s t o m a n d a s k e d t h e r e a s o n , t h e

Boeotian d e c l a r e d t h a t h e k n e w o n e a n s w e r , a n d h e w o u l d

reply t h a t o n e s h o u l d o b s e r v e a n c e s t r a l c u s t o m s , a n d i t w a s

not h i s b u s i n e s s t o j u s t i f y t h e m to o t h e r m e n . ' T h i s a n e c d o t e

of A g a t h a r c h i d e s , r a th e r t h a n c o n f i r m i n g t h e v i e w o f t h o s e w h o

regard r i t u a l s m e a n i n g l e s s , a d v i s e s u s t o s h i f t t h e f o c u s o f t h e

discussion f r o m m e a n i n g t o f u n c t i o n s . T h e B o e o t i a n s c o n -

t inued t o s a c r i f i c e e e l s , n o t b e c a u s e o f a n o r i g i n a l , n o w f o r g o t -

ten, o b s c u r e a n d e n t ir e l y i n s i g n i f ic a n t m e a n i n g , b u t b e c a u s e o f

the i m p o r t a n c e a t ta c h e d t o t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n o f a n c e st ra l t r a d -

itions f o r t h e c o h e r e n c e a n d id e n t i t y o f a C o m m u n i t y .

O n e o f t h e p r i m a r y f u n c t i o n s o f r i t u a l s , a t l e a s t i n t h e c i v i c

communi t i es i n G r e e c e , w a s t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n b e t w e e n

humans a n d o t h e r b e i n g s w i t h i n a n d w i t h o u t h u m a n s o c ie t y . 8

Publ i c r e l i g i o u s r i t u a l s — s a c r i f i c e i n p a r t i c u l a r , a n d o t h e r a c t i v -

ities c o n n e c t e d w i t h s a c r if i c e ( th e s in g i n g o f h y m n s , r it u a l

dances, e t c . ) , r i tu a l s o f p u r i f i c a t i o n a n d r i t u a l s o f d e d i c a t i o n —are p r i v i l e g e d m e a n s o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n b e t w e e n m o r t a l s a n d

gods; r it u a l a c t i v it i e s e s t a b l is h t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e

l iving a n d t h e d e a d , i n t h e f u n e r a r y c u l t a n d t h e c u l t o f h e r o e s ; it

is a l s o w i t h r i t u a l s — t h e s e c re t r it u a ls o f m a g i c — t h a t m e n e s t a b

lish a c o n t a c t w i t h s u p e r h u m a n b e i n g s . P u b l i c r it u a ls ( s u c h a s

7 FGrH 8 6 F 5 ( f r o m A t h e n . 7 . 2 9 7 d ) .

8 e . g. F . G r a f , ' Z e i c h e n k o n z e p t i o n in d e r R e l i g i o n d e r g r i e c h is c h e n u n d

römischen A n t i k e ' , i n R . P o s n e r , K . R o b e r i n g , a n d T . A . S e b e o k ( e d s .) ,

Semiotik. Ein Handbuch zu den zeichentheoretischen Grundlagen von Natur

und Kultur ( B e r l i n a n d N e w Y o r k , 1 9 9 7) , 9 3 9 - 5 8 . C f . N . B o u r q u e , ' A n

Anthropologist's V i e w o f R i t u a l ' , i n E . B i s p h a m a n d C . S m i t h (e d s .) , Religion

in Archaic and Repu blican Rome and Italy: Evidence and Experience ( E d i n

burgh, 2 0 0 0 ) , 2 1 - 2 .

Ritual Dynamics 145

oath c e r e m o n i e s , b a n q u e t s , p r o c e s s i o n s , a n d i n i t i a t o r y r it u a ls )

play a n i m p o r t a n t p a r t a ls o in t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n b e t w e e n

communit ies , g r o u p s a n d i n d i v i d u a l s ; t h e P e r f o r m a n c e o f

rituals e x p r e s s e s s y m b o l i c a l l y r o l e s , h i e r a r c h i c a l s t r u c t u r e s ,and i d e a l s ; r i t u a ls i n c l u d e o r e x c l u d e i n d i v i d u a l p e r s o n s o r

whole g r o u p s f r o m c o m m u n a l l i fe . C o m m u n i c a t i o n is a ls o t h e

aim o f a ll t h o s e f o r m s o f r i t u a l a n d r i t u a l i z e d b e h a v i o u r t h a t

accompany t h e s o c ia l a n d p o l i t ic a l l if e o f t h e G r e e k s — t h e

drinking p a r t y o r t h e c e l e b r a t i o n o f a v i c t o r y , t h e h o n o u r i n g

of b e n e f a c t o r s o r t h e a s s e m b l y , t h e e n t h r o n i z a t i o n o r t h e adven-

tus o f a r u l e r , o r e v e n d i p l o m a t i c n e g o t i a t i o n s , a s m y n e x t

anecdote w i l l h o p e f u l l y d e m o n s t r a t e . I n 8 6 B C S u l l a w a s a t

war w i t h A t h e n s . A f t e r a l o n g s i eg e o f t h e i r c i t y t h e A t h e n i a n s

sent a d e l e g a t i o n t o n e g o t i a t e w i t h t h e R o m a n g e n e r a l . P l u t a r c h

reports: 9 ' W h e n t h e y ( th e e n v o y s ) m a d e n o d e m a n d s w h i c h

could s a v e t h e c i t y , b u t t a l k e d i n l o f t y s t r a in s a b o u t T h e s e u s

and E u m o l p u s a n d th e P e r s i a n w a r s , S u l l a s a id t o t h e m : ' B e o f f ,

m y d e a r s i r s , a n d t a k e t h e s e s p e e c h e s w i t h y o u ; f o r I w a s n o t

sent t o A t h e n s b y t h e R o m a n s t o l ea r n it s h i s t o r y , b u t t o s u b d u e

its r e b e l s . ' T h i s a n e c d o t e m a y p r e s e n t m o r e t h a n t h e c o n f r o n -

tation o f A t h e n i a n o r a t o r y a n d R o m a n p r a g m a t i s m . I t h in k w e

have h e r e t h e c a s e o f a m i s u s e d a n d m i s u n d e r s t o o d r i tu a l , t h e

funct ion o f w h i c h w o u l d h a v e b e e n t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e

basis o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n , b u t w h i c h f a i l e d t o d o s o . F r o m t h e

t imes o f P l a t o ' s Menexenus t o A e l i u s A r i s t i d e s , t h e A t h e n i a n s

reminded t h e m s e l v e s a n d o t h e r s s t e r e o t y p i c a l l y a n d i n a n

almost r i t u a l i z e d w a y o f t h e s a m e t h r e e v i c t o r i e s o v e r b a r b a r -ians: t h e v i c t o r y o f T h e s e u s o v e r t h e A m a z o n s , E r e c h t h e u s o v e r

the T h r a c i a n s o f E u m o l p u s , a n d t h e v i c t o r y in t h e P e r s i a n

Wa r s . 1 0 T h e s e s t a n d a r d i z e d c o m p o n e n t s o f t h e ir c u l t u ra l

m e m o r y a r e t o b e f o u n d n o t o n l y i n o r a t i o n s h e l d i n f e s t i v a l s

(in o t h e r w o r d s w i t h i n t h e f r a m e w o r k o f a r i tu a l ) , b u t a l s o i n

their d i p l o m a t i c c o n t a c t s , e . g . w i t h S p a r t a . 1 1 T h i s r i tu a l i ze d u s e

of h i s t o r y a s a n a r g u m e n t t h a t c a n b e o b s e r v e d in m a n y o c c a -

sions a n d i n m a n y f o r m s i n t h e h i s t o r y o f G r e e k d i p l o m a c y ,

f rom t h e P e l o p o n n e s i a n W a r t o t h e ' k i n s h i p d i p l o m a c y ' o f t h e

9 P l u . Sulla 13.10 Pla t . Menex. 2 3 9 b - 4 0 e ; A e l . A r i s t. Panath. 8 3 - 7 , 9 2 - 1 1 4 .11 Xen.Hell. 2.2 .20 ; 6 .2 .6 .

146 Ritual Dynamics

Hellenistic a n d I m p e r i a l p e r i o d , e s t a b l i s h e d a n d f a ci l it a t e d

communica t ion a m o n g t h e G r e e k c o m m u n i t i e s t h at s h a r e d t h e

same c u l tu r a l m e m o r y a n d v a l u e s . 1 2 T h i s d i p l o m a t i c r it u al

failed i n t h e c a s e o f S u l l a , a n d q u i t e n a t u r a l l y : S u l l a h i m s e l f

w as a b a r b a r i a n a g g r e s s o r, n o t u n l i k e t h e A m a z o n s , t h e T h r a -

cians a n d t h e P e r s i a n s t h a t h a d t h r e a t e n e d t h e f r e e d o m o f t h e

Athenians i n t h e r e m o t e p a s t .

3. R I T U A L S A N D C U L T U R A L T R A N S F E R

I h a v e s t r e t c h e d o u t t h i s c o m m u n i c a t i v e f u n c t i o n o f r it u a ls a n d

ritualized a c t i v i ti e s b e c a u s e I t h i n k it s h o w s w h y w e s h o u l d

include r i tu a l s a n d r i t u a l i z e d b e h a v i o u r i n c o m p a r a t i v e a n d

diachronic s t u d i e s o f t h e a n c i e n t M e d i t e r r a n e a n , d e s p i t e a ll

the o b s t a c l e s a n d m e t h o d o l o g i c a l p r o b l e m s t h a t c o n f r o n t u s . I t

w o u l d b e m i s l e a d i n g , f o r i n s t a n c e , t o i g n o r e t h e r it u a l c o m p o n -

ents i n d i s c u s s i o n s o f c o n t i n u i t i e s i n t h e u s e o f s a c r e d s p a c e .

T w o C r e t a n s a n c t u a r i e s w i t h t h e l o n g e s t r e c o r d o f a n u n i n t e r -

rupted u s e a s s a c r e d p l a c e s , t h e s a n c t u a r y i n S i m i V i a n n o u a n d

the I d a e a n C a v e , d e m o n s r a t e t h a t it i s e x a c t l y t h e c h a n g e o f t h e

rituals t h a t r e v e a l s s u b s t a n t i a l b r e a k s i n t h e t r a d i t i o n , d i s c o n -

tinuities r a t h e r t h a n c o n t i n u i t i e s . I n S i m i V i a n n o u t h e r e w a s a

shift i n t h e w o r s h i p f r o m s a c r i fi c ia l r i t u a ls a n d b a n q u e t s t o t h e

initiatory r i t u a l s o f e p h e b e s i n t h e h i s t o r i c a l p e r i o d . 1 3 I n t h e

Idaean C a v e t h e o f f e r i n g o f f o o d i t e m s i n t h e M i n o a n p e r i o d is

replaced b y b l o o d s a c ri f i ce s , t h e d e d i c a t i o n o f w e a p o n s — a g a i n ,poss ib ly i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h m i l i t a r y r it es o f p a s s a g e — i n t h e

early h i s t o r i c a l p e r i o d , a n d t h e c e l e b r a t i o n o f a c u l t o f d e a t h

and r e b i r t h . 1 4 T h a t t h e c o n t i n u i t y o f u s e c a n b e a c c o m p a n i e d b y

12 S e e m o s t r e c e n t l y C . P . J o n e s , Kinship Diplomacy in the Ancient World

(Cambridge, M a s s . , 1 99 9 ).13

A . L e b e s s i a n d P . M . M u h l y , ' A s p e c t s o f M i n o a n C u l t : S a c r e d E n c l o s -ures: T h e E v i d e n c e f r o m t he S y m e S a n c t u a r y ( C r e t e )' , Archäologischer Anzei

ger ( 1 9 9 0 ) , 3 1 5 - 3 6 ; A . L e b e s s i , ' F l a g e l l a t i o n o u a u t o f l a g e l l a t i o n ? D o n n e e s

iconographiques p o u r u n e t e n t a t i v e d ' i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ' , Bulletin de Correspon-

dance Hellenique 1 1 5 ( 1 9 9 1 ), 1 0 3 - 2 3 ; K . S p o r n , Heiligtümer und K ulte Kretas

in klassischer und hellenistischer Zeit ( H e i d e l b e r g , 2 0 0 2 ) , 8 5 - 9 ( w i t h th e ea r li e r

bibliography).14 J . S a k el la r ak is , ' T h e Id e a n C a v e : M i n o a n a n d G r e e k W o r s h i p ' , Kernos 1

(1988), 2 0 7 - 1 4 ; S p o r n , Heiligtümer 2 1 8 - 2 3 ( w i t h t h e e a r li e r b i b l i o g r a p h y ) .

Ritual Dynamics 1 4 7

a r a d i c a l d i s c o n t i n u i t y i n r i t u a l p r a c t i c e s i s a l s o d e m o n s t r a t e d

b y t h e c o n v e r s i o n o f p a g a n t e m p l e s . S c h o l a r s o f t e n r e f e r t o t h e

e x i s t e n c e o f C h r i s t i a n c h u r c h e s o n t h e r u i n s o f p a g a n s a n c t u a r -

i es a s a c a s e o f c o n t i n u i t y i n t h e u s e o f s a c r e d s p a c e ; s o m e t i m e s i t

w a s n o t t h e s a n c t i t y o f t h e s p a c e t h a t i n v i t e d t h e C h r i s t i a n s t o

b u i l d t h e i r p l a c e s o f w o r s h i p t h e r e , b u t o n t h e c o n t r a r y i t s

u n h o l i n e s s ; n o t t h e e f f o r t t o c o n t i n u e t h e s a c r e d u s e o f a s i t e ,

b u t t h e e f f o r t t o e x p e l t h e p a g a n d e m o n s ; t h e e f f o r t t o c o n q u e r

a n u n h o l y a n d i m p u r e p l a c e a n d make i t s a c r e d . A s H o r d e n a n d

P u r c e l l p u t i t : ' t h e " h a r d w a r e " o f l o c a l i t y a n d p h y s i c a l f o r m ,

i n c l u d i n g t e m p l e , c h u r c h o r t o m b , i s i n p r a c t i c e i n f u s e d w i t h

c h a n g i n g s t r u c t u r e s o f m e a n i n g b y r i t u a l a n d o b s e r v a n c e . ' 1 5

R i t u a l s h a v e b e e n a n d s h o u l d r e m a i n a n i n t r i n s i c p a r t o f

c o m p a r a t i v e s t u d i e s i n t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n . T h e r e i s a p l e t h o r a

o f c o m p a r a t i v e s t u d i e s o n r i t u a l s t h a t n o t o n l y c o n t a i n t h e n a m e

o f t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n i n t h e i r t i t l e , b u t a l s o a d d r e s s t h e c o n v e r -

g e n c e s a n d d i v e r g e n c e s i n r i t u a l s i n t h e a n c i e n t M e d i t e r r a

n e a n . 1 6 W i t h o u t c l a i m i n g t h e e x i s t e n c e o f a M e d i t e r r a n e a n

15 CS 4 2 2 . F o r a me th o d o lo g i c a l a p p r o a c h s ee P . Pa k k a n e n , ' T h e R e la t i o n -

ship b e t w e e n C o n t i n u i t y a n d C h a n g e in D a r k A g e G r e e k R e l i g io n : A M e t h

odological S t u d y ' , Opuscula Atheniensia 25—6 (2 00 0-1 ) , 71—88.16 T o g ive on ly a few e xam ple s f r om the last decade or so , a Conference in

Ro me wa s devo ted to ded ica to ry prac t ices in the anc ient Med i ter ra nea n

(G . B a r to lo n i , G . C o lo n n a a n d C . G r o ta n e l l i ( e d s .) , Atti del corwegno inter-

nazionale Anathema. Regime delle offene e vita dei santuari nel mediterraneo

antico, Roma 15-18 Giugno 1989, in Scienze dell'antichitä 3-4 ( 1 9 8 9 - 9 0 )

(1991)); ar iö ther Conference in L y o n had M ed i ter ra nea n sacr i fi c ia l r i tua ls as

its s u b j e c t ( R . E t i e n n e an d M . - T . L e D i n a h e t ( e ds .) , L'Espace sacrificiel dans

les civilisations mediterraneenne s de l'antiquite: Actes du colloque tenu ä la

Maison de l'Orient, Lyon, 4-7 juin 1988 (Par is 1991); R . E . De M ar is , has

studied th e cu l t o f D e m e te r in R o m a n C o r in th a s a 'l o ca l d e v e lo p m e n t in a

Mediterranean r e li g io n ' ( ' D e m e t e r i n R o m a n C o r i n t h : L o c a l D e v e l o p m e n t i n

a M e d i t e r r a n e a n R e l i g i o n ' , Numen 4 2 ( 1 99 5 ) 1 0 5 - 1 7 ) ; D . J . T h o m p s o n a p -

proached Ph i l a d e lp h u s ' p r o c e s s io n in A l e x a n d r i a a s a n e x p r e s s io n o f ' d y n a s t i c

power i n a M e d i t e r r a n e a n c o n te x t ' ( 'Ph i l a d e lp h u s ' P r o c e s s io n : D y n a s t i c

Power i n a M e d i t e r r a n e a n C o n te x t ' , i n L . M o o r e n ( e d . ) , Politics, Adminis

tration and Society in the Hellenistic and Roman World: Proceedings of the

International Colloquium, Bertinoro 19-24 July 1997 ( L o u v a i n , 2 0 00 ) 3 6 5 -

88); and L . L i D o n n ic i has r ecent ly s tud ied 'e ro t ic spe l l s for fever and c o m -

pulsion in the anc ient Med i ter r ane an w or ld ' ( 'Bu rn in g for i t: Ero t ic Spe l l s for

Fever a n d C o m p u l s i o n in t h e A n c i e n t M e d i t e r ra n e a n W o r l d ' , Greek, Roman,

and Byzantine Studies 3 9 ( 1 9 9 8 ), 6 3 - 9 8 ) . S e e a l so B . G la d i g o w , 'M e d i t e r r a n e

148 Ritual Dynamics

religion o r o f Mediterranean r i t u a l s , t h e s e s c h o l a r s r e g a r d a

comparat ive s t u d y o f r i t u a l s l i m i t e d t o t h i s a r e a a s a m e a n i n g f u l

task. A n d t h e r e a r e g o o d re a s o n s f o r d o i n g s o , a t l ea s t i n c e r t a i n

historical p e r i o d s . T h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n S e a h a s m o r e o f t e n b e e n

a f ac i l it at or o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n t h a n a b a r r i e r, a n d c o m m u m -

cation c o n t r i b u t e s t o t h e w i d e d i f f u s i o n n o t o n l y o f f l o r a , f a u n a ,

and a r t e f a c t s , b u t a l s o o f c u l t u r e . A n d r i tu a l s a r e a n i m p o r t a n t

component o f c u l t u r a l t r a d i t i o n s . R i t u a l t r a n s f e r i s, t h e r e f o r e ,

neither a r a re n o r a s u r p r i s i n g p h e n o m e n o h . 1 7 T h e m e c h a n i s m s

of t h e tr a n s f e r a n d t h e f a c to r s t h a t c o n t r i b u t e — i n ce r t a i n

per iods —conver gences i n r i tu a l p r a c t i c e s a r e m a n i f o l d a n dhave s o o f t e n b e e n s t u d i e d th a t a b r i e f r e f e r e n c e t o t h e m o s t

c o m m o n f o r m s w o u l d s u f fi c e : m a s s i v e m o v e m e n t s o f p o p u l a -

t i o n — i n v a s i o n , m i g r a t i o n , c o n q u e s t , a n d o f c o u r s e c o l o n i z a -

t ion, w i t h t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e r i tu a l s o f t h e m o t h e r - c i t y t o

the c o l o n y — w e r e s o m e t i m e s n o m o r e i n f l u en t ia l t h a n t h e s e tt le -

ment o f s m a l l g r o u p s o f f o r e i g n e r s (e s p e c i a l l y m e r c h a n t s , g a r -

risons, a n d e x i le s : f o r e x a m p l e , P t o l e m a i c m e r c e n a r i e s w e r e a s

important f o r t h e d i f f u s i o n o f t h e c u l t o f E g y p t i a n d e i t i e s , a s t h e

R o m a n a r m y f o r t h e d i f f u s i o n o f m a n y O r i e n t a l c u l t s) .1 8 I n

addit ion t o t h i s , a d m i n i s t r a t i v e m e a s u r e s o f e m p i r e s a n d e v e n

diplomatic c o n t a c t s c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e u n i f o r m i t y o f r i tu a l

practices. O n e s h o u l d a ls o u n d e r s c o r e t h e m i s s i o n a r y a c t i v i t y

of i n d i v i d u a l s o r o r g a n i z e d g r o u p s . F i n a l l y , w e s h o u l d n o t

forget t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f c a n o n i c a l t e x t s , e i t h e r o r a l l y t r a n s m i t

ted o r w r i t t e n , f o r r i t u a l t r a n s f e r f o r i n s t a n c e , t h e u n i f o r m i t y o fmagical r it u a ls t h r o u g h o u t t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n o r t h e u n i f o r m i t y

Religionsgeschichte, R ö m i s c h e R e l i g i o n sg e s c h i ch t e , E u r o p ä i s c h e R e h g i o n s -

geschichte: Z u r G e n e s e e in s e F a k t k o n z e p t e s ' , i n Kykeon: Studies in Honour of

H. S. Versnel ( L e i d e n , e tc . , 2 0 0 2 ) , 49-67.

17 S e e , e . g. E . R . G e b h a r d , ' T h e G o d s i n T r a n s i t : N a r r a t i v e s o f C u l t

Transfer' , i n A . Y . C o l l i n s a n d M . M . M i t c h e l l ( e d s. ), Antiquity and Hum an-ity. Essays on Ancient Religion and Philosophy presented to D. Betz on his 70th

Birthday ( T ü b i n g e n , 2 0 01 ), 4 5 1 - 7 6 .18 M . L a u n e y , Recherches sur les armees hellenistiques ( r e imp r e s s io n a v e c

addenda e t m i s e ä j o u r e n p o s t f a c e p a r Y . G a r l a n , Ph . G a u t h ie r , C l . O r r i e u x ,

Paris, 1 9 8 7 ) , 1 0 2 6 - 3 1 ; A . C h a n i o t i s , ' F o r e i g n S o l d i e r s — N a t i v e G i r l s ? C o n -

structing a n d C r o s s in g B o u n d a r i e s in H e l l e n i s t i c C i t i e s w i th F o r e ig n G a r

risons', i n A . C h a n io t i s a n d P . D u c r e y (e d s . ) , Army and P ower in the Ancient

World ( S tu t tg a r t , 2 0 0 2 ) , 1 0 8 - 9 .

Ritual Dynamics 149

of r i t u a l s o f m y s t e r y c u l t s w a s t o a g r e a t e x t e n t t h e r e s u l t o f t h e

existence o f r it u a l h a n d b o o k s . 1 9

In w h a t f o l l o w s , I w i l l n o t d i s c u s s t h e m e c h a n i s m s o f r i tu a l

transfer a n d u n i f o r m i t y i n t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n , b u t s i m p l y a d dress s o m e p r o b l e m s w e a re c o n f r o n t e d w i t h w h e n w e a t t e m p t

to m a k e r it ua ls a m e a n i n g f u l s u b j e c t o f M e d i t e r r a n e a n s t u d i e s —

either d i a c h r o n i c a l l y o r i n p a r t i c u l a r p e r i o d s .

4 . T H E E L U S I V E N E S S O F R I T U A L S

Rituals b e l o n g t o t h e m o s t e l u s i v e p h e n o m e n a o f a n c i e n t r e l i -

gious a n d s o c ia l b e h a v i o u r . A s w i d e l y e s ta b l i s h e d , s t e r e o t y p i c a lactivities, f o l l o w e d c o n s i s t e n t l y a n d ( at l ea s t i n t h e o r y ) i n v a r i -

ably , t h e y a r e r a r e l y d e s c r i b e d a n d h a r d l y e v e r e x p l a i n e d b y

those w h o p e r f o r m t h e m ; t h e y a re r a t h e r d e s c r i b e d b y t h o s e

w h o o b s e r v e t h e m a n d ar e a s t o u n d e d a t t h e d i f f e r e n c e s f r o m t h e

rituals o f t h e i r o w n c u l t u r e , o r t h e y a r e d e s c r i b e d b y p u z z l e d

antiquarians. W h e r e a s r e l ig i o u s a c t i v i t y at a s it e c a n b e e s t a b

l ished b y v a r i o u s m e a n s (e .g . t h r o u g h t h e e x i s t e n c e o f a c u l t

bui ld ing, e x - v o t o s , o r d e d i c a t o r y i n s c r i p t i o n s ) , w e o f t e n l a ck

any k n o w l e d g e o f t h e r i tu a l s i n v o l v e d ; a n d t h e c u l t o f a d i v i n i t y

ma y b e p r a c t i s e d c o n t i n u a l l y , e v e n t h o u g h t h e r i tu a l s o f t h e

worship c h a n g e . T o g i v e a f e w e x a m p l e s , t h e r e w a s a d e c l i n e

in t h e o f f e r i n g o f b l o o d s a c r i f i c e i n t h e l a t e r p a r t o f t h e I m p e r i a l

period, a n d i n s t e a d a p r e f e r e n c e f o r t h e s i n g i n g o f h y m n s a n d

the o f f e r i n g o f l i b a t i o n s . 2 0 A n o t h e r c h a n g e w e m a y o b s e r v e

19 F o r r rrag ical ha nd bo ok s see F . G ra f , Gottesnähe und Schadenzauber: Die

Magie in der griechisch-römischen Antike ( M u n i c h , 1 9 9 6) 1 0 ; M . W . D i c k i e ,

' The L e a r n e d M a g i c i a n a n d t h e C o l l e c t i o n a n d T r a n s m i s s i o n o f M a g i c a l

Lore' , i n D . R . J o r d a n , H . M o n t g o m e r y , a n d E . T h o m a s s e n ( ed s. ), The

World of Ancient M agic: Papers from the First International Samson Eitrem

Seminar at the Noruiegian Institute at Athens, 4-8 M ay 1997 (Bergen , 1999) ,

163-93. A n imp res s ion o f in i t i a to ry li turg ica l boo ks i s p r ov id ed by the

so-called ' M i t h r a s l i t u r g i e ' i n a p a p y r u s in P a r i s (Papyri Graecae Magicae 4

475-824); s e e R . M e r k e l b a c h , Abrasax III. Ausgewählte Papyri religiösen und

magischen, Inhalts I I I ( O p l a d e n , 19 9 2) .20 S . Br a d b u r y , 'J u l i a n ' s P a g a n R e v i v a l a n d th e D e c l i n e o f B l o o d S a c r i f i c e ' ,

Phoenix 4 9 ( 1 9 9 5 ) , 3 3 1 - 5 6 ; se e e . g. F . S o k o l o w s k i , Lois Sacrees de l'Asie

Mineure ( P a r i s , 1 9 5 5 ) , n o . 2 8 ; A . R e h m , Didyma I I . Die Inschriften, e d .

R. H ä r d e r ( Be r l i n , 1 9 5 8 ) , n o . 2 1 7 ; R . M e r k e l b a c h a n d J . S t a u b e r , ' D i e O r a k e l

des A p o l l o n v o n K l a r o s ' , Epigraphica A natolica 27 (1996) , 1 -54 , nos . 2

(Pergamon), 4 ( H i e r a p o l i s ) , a n d 11 ( S a r d e s o r K o l o e ) .

Ritual Dynamics

thanks t o i n s c r i p t i o n s w i t h s a c r e d r e g u l a t i o n s i s a s h i f t f r o m t h e

preoccupat ion w i t h t h e r it u a l p u r i t y o f t h e b o d y t o a p r e o c c u -

pation w i t h t h e p u r i t y o f t h e m i n d ; 2 1 t h e r e l e v a n t e v i d e n c e d a te s

f r o m t h e f o u r t h C e n t u r y B C o n w a r d s a n d is w i d e l y d i f f u s e d i n

the e a st er n M e d i t e r r a n e a n ( in M a c e d o n i a a n d m a i n l a n d

Greece , i n C r e t e a n d m a n y i s la n d s o f t h e A e g e a n , a n d m a n y

places i n A s i a M i n o r ) . B o t h c h a n g e s i n r i tu a l s o c c u r r e d i n

sanctuaries u s e d w i t h o u t a n y in t e r r u p t i o n a n d d e v o t e d t o t h e

same d i v i n i t y . A l l t h i s h a s b e e n o b s e r v e d t h a n k s t o t h e r a t h e r

unusual a b u n d a n c e o f l i t e r a r y t e x t s a n d a b o v e a ll o f i n s c r i p t i o n s

(sacred r e g u l a t i o n s ) i n t h e r e s p e c t i v e p e r i o d s . S u c h c h a n g e s

have a s o c ia l p a r a m e t e r a s w e l l . B o t h a f o r e m e n t i o n e d c h a n g e s

seem t o h a v e i n f l u e n c e d o n l y p a r t o f t h e w o r s h i p p e r s , t h e i n t e l -

lectual e l it e a n d t h e p e r s o n s t h a t s t o o d u n d e r i ts i n f l u e n c e .

Social a n d in t e l l e c t u a l d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n s i n t h e p r a c t i c e o f r i t u a l s

should b e t a k e n i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n , b u t it i s o n l y i n e x c e p t i o n a l

cases t h a t o u r s o u r c e s a l l o w u s t o d o so .

A n o t h e r e x a m p l e o f c o n t i n u a l u s e o f a s a c r e d p l a c e c o n n e c t e d

wi th a d i s r u p t i o n o f r i t u a l p r a c t i c e s i s p r o v i d e d b y t h e a l ta r o f t h e

Jerusa lem t e m p l e . I t w a s u s e d a s a n al ta r f o r b l o o d s a c r i f ic e s

throughout t h e H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d , w i t h n o i n t e r r u p t i o n i n i ts

u s e — a w o n d e r f u l c a s e o f c o n t i n u i t y i n r i tu a l s , o n e m i g h t h a v e

thought , i f w e d i d n o t h a v e t h e l i t e r a r y e v i d e n c e t h a t i n f o r m s u s

that f o r a p e r i o d o f t h r e e y e a r s a n d s i x m o n t h s d u r i n g t h e r e i g n o f

Ant iochus I V t h e a l ta r w a s u s e d f o r t h e s a c r i f i c e o f s w i n e ; 2 2 t h e

change o f j u s t o n e c o m p o n e n t o f t h e r i tu a l o f b l o o d s a c r i f i c e ( t h especies o f t h e s a c r if ic i a l a n i m a l ) p r o v o c a t i v e l y d e m o n s t r a t e d a

disrupt ion o f t h e r i t u a l t r a d i t i o n . I n t h i s p a r t i c u l a r c a s e w e

happen t o k n o w o f t h i s s h o r t - t e r m i n t e r r u p t i o n , i n o t h e r s w e

do n o t , a n d it h a s o f t e n b e e n o b s e r v e d t h a t c o n t i n u i t y i n u s e o f

the s a m e s p a c e d o e s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y m e a n it s i d e n t i c a l u s e . 2 3 It is

A . C h a n i o t i s , ' R e i n h e i t d es K ö r p e r s — R e i n h e i t d e r S e e le in d e n g r ie chischen K u l t g e s e t z e n ' , in J . A s s m a n n a n d T h . S u n d e r m e i e r ( ed s .) , Schuld,

Gewissen und Person ( G ü te r s l o h , 1 9 9 7 ) , 1 4 2 - 7 9 .22 J o s e p h . Ant.Jud. 1 2 .2 5 3 .23 A . C h a n io t i s , in J . S c h ä fe r ( e d . ), Amnisos nach den archäologischen, topo

graphischen, historischen und epigraphischen Zeugnissen des Altertums und der

Neuzeit ( B e r l in , 1 9 9 2 ), 8 8 - 9 6 ; L . V . W a t r o u s , The Cave Sanctuary of Zeus at

Psychro. A Study of Extra-Urban Sanctuaries in Minoan and Early Iran Age

Crete ( L i e g e , 1 9 9 6 ) , e s p . 1 0 6 - 1 1 ; CS 4 0 4 - 1 1 .

Ritual Dynamics

often t h i s e l u s i v e n e s s o f r i tu a l s t h a t m a k e s s c h o l a r s v e r y p r u -

dently t a lk a b o u t c o n t i n u i t y o f c u l t , b u t n o t o f c o n t i n u i t y o f

rituals.

But e x c e p t f o r i n t e r r u p t i o n s a n d d i s r u p t i o n s t h a t e s c a p e o u rnotice, s o m e t i m e s th e r e a r e e l u s i v e c o n t i n u i t i e s . R i t e s o f p a s -

sage i n p a r t i c u l a r , l o n g a b o l i s h e d o r n e g l e c t e d , h a v e t h e t e n -

dency t o e m e r g e i n u n e x p e c t e d p la c e s a n d f o r m s ( v e r y o f t e n a s

the b a c k g r o u n d o f l it e ra r y n a r r a t i v e s — a n i m p o r t a n t s u b j e c t

that c a n n o t b e a d d r e s s e d h e r e ) . 2 4 T h e a c t iv it ie s o f t h e A t h e n i a n

ephebes i n t h e H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d , a f t e r t h e a r ti f ic i a l r e v i v a l o f

the e p h e b i c i n s t it u t i o n s b u t w i t h o u t t h e in s t i t u t io n a l i z e d P e r

formance o f i n i t i a t o r y r i t u a l s , p r e s e n t a n i n t e r e s t i n g ca s e . A n

honor i f ic d e c r e e o f 1 2 3 B C d e s c r i b e s t h e s e a c t i v i t i e s , w h i c h

included p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n f e s t i va l s , p r o c e s s i o n s , a n d a t h le t i c

competit ions, a t t e n d a n c e at p h i l o s o p h i c a l s c h o o l s , m i l i t a r y

exercises, v i s i ts t o i m p o r t a n t h i s t or i ca l m o n u m e n t s a n d s a n c t u -

aries, a n d a c q u a i n t a n c e w i t h t h e b o r d e r s o f A t h e n i a n t e r r i t o r y ;

these a c t i v i t i e s a r e m o r e o r l e ss s t a n d a r d i z e d , s i n c e w e f i n d

references to th e m in s im i la r dec rees . I t i s in th i s pa ssa ge thatw e f i n d t h e f o l l o w i n g r e p o r t : 2 5

and they m ad e an excu rsion to the border of Att ic terr itory carry ing

their we ap on s, acquir ing k no wl edg e of the terr itory and the roads

[lacuna] an d they visited the sanctuaries in the cou ntr ysid e, offering

sacrifices on b ehalf of the people . W h e n they arr ived at the grave at

Marathon, they offe red a wrea th and a sacrif ice to those w h o died in

war for f reedo m ; they a lso came to the sanctuary o f Am ph iara us . A n d

there they d em onstra ted the legit imate possession of the sanctuary

which ha d been occ upie d b y the ancestors in o ld t imes. A n d after they

had offe red a sacrif ice, they returned o n the sam e day to our o w n

territory.

W h a t a t f i rs t s i g h t s e e m s a h a r m l e s s e x c u r s i o n , a c q u i r e s a n o t h e r

dimension w h e n w e t a k e i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n t h e f a c t t h a t i n t h i s

per iod t h e s a n c t u a r y o f A m p h i a r a u s w a s not p a r t o f t h e A t h e n

ian t e r r i t o r y , b u t b e l o n g e d t o t h e c i ty o f O r o p o s . T h e A t h e n i a n s

had l o s t th i s t e r r i t o r y l e ss th an a ge ne ra t io n ear l i e r ( th i s w a s the

occasion o f t h e f a m o u s e m b a s s y o f t h e A t h e n i a n p h i l o s o p h e r s t o

24 C f . J . M a , ' B la c k H u n t e r V a r i a t i o n s ' , Proceedings of the Cam bridge Philo-

logical Society 4 0 (1 9 9 4 ) , 4 9 - 8 0 .25 IG I I 2 1 0 0 6 l i n es 6 5 - 7 1 .

! g 2 Ritual Dynamics

R o m e ) . T h e A t h e n i a n e p h e b e s m a r c h e d u n d e r a r m s i n to f o r -

eign t e r r i t o r y , r e m i n d i n g t h e ir a u d i e n c e w i t h S p ee c h e s t h a t t h e

Athenians w e r e t h e l e g i t i m a t e o w n e r s o f t h e s a n c t u a r y , a n d t h e n

w i t h d r e w b e h i n d t h e A t h e n i a n b o r d e r . T h i s l o o k s v e r y m u c h

like t h e s u r v i v a l o f a n i n i t i a t o r y r i t u a l : S e p a r a t i o n f r o m u r b a n

life, l i m i n a l i t y t h r o u g h v i s i t o f t h e b o r d e r s o f t h e t e r r i t o r y ,

exp'osure t o a d a n g e r a n d a c h i e v e m e n t o f a n i m p o r t a n t d e e d ,

and r e i n t e g r a t i o n — r e t u r n t o A t h e n s a n d a c c e p t a n c e i n t o t h e

Citizen b o d y .

5. A R T I F I C I A L R E V I V A L S

A s e c o n d p r o b l e m i n v o l v e d in t h e s t u d y o f c o n t i n u i t ie s i n

rituals ( b u t a l s o i n t h e s t u d y o f r e l i g i o u s c o n t i n u i t i e s i n g e n e r a l )

is t h e fa c t t h a t w h a t a t f i r s t s i g h t s e e m s a s u r v i v a l m a y w e l l b e a n

artificial r e v i v a l . S o m e t i m e in t h e f if t h C e n t u r y A D , a p a g a n

priest i n M e g a r a , o n e H e l l a d i o s , s et u p a n i n s c r i p t i o n o n t h e

m o n u m e n t o f t h e d e a d o f t h e P e r s i a n W a r s , r e s to r i n g S i m o m -

des' e p i g r a m ( w r i t t e n a l m o s t o n e m i l l e n n i u m ea r li er ) a n d

adding t h e r e m a r k t h a t ' t h e c i t y o f f e r e d s a c r i f i c e s u p t o t h i s

day ' . 2 6 I t w o u l d b e a b i g m i s t a k e t o t a k e t h i s S t a t e m e n t a s p r o o f

that t h i s r i t u a l h a d b e e n c o n t i n u a l l y p e r f o r m e d in M e g a r a f o r

ten c e n t u r i e s . A l o n g t i m e a f t e r t h e p r o h i b i t i o n o f p a g a n s a c r i

fices, H e l l a d i o s p r o v o c a t i v e l y d e f i e s t h e l a w s o f t h e C h r i s t i a n

e m p e r o r s — a p h e n o m e n o n to w h i c h I w i l l r e t u r n l at er . H e r e , w e

are m o r e p r o b a b l y d e a l in g w i t h a r e v i v a l r a th e r t h a n a s u r v i v a l .T h i s is m o r e c le a r i n m y s e c o n d e x a m p l e , a M i l e s i a n d e c r e e o f

the m i d - f i r s t C e n t u r y c o n c e r n i n g a b a n q u e t w h i c h s h o u l d b e

offered b y t h e prophetes ( th e p r i e st o f A p o l l o D i d y m e u s ) at

D i d y m a t o t h e kosmoi ( p r o b a b l y a b o a r d o f s a c re d o ff i c ia l s

responsible f o r s o m e k i n d o f d e c o r a t i o n in t h e s a n c t u a r y ) a n d

b y t h e stephanephoros to the molpoi, t h e o l d , r e s p e c t e d p r i e s t l y

board o f s i n g e r s . 2 7 T h i s d e c r e e w a s b r o u g h t t o t h e a s s e m b l y b y

T iber ius C l a u d i u s D a m a s , a w e l l - k n o w n C it iz en o f M i l e t u s .

26 IG V I I 5 3.27 P . H e r r m a n n , Inschriften von Milet, Pa r t 1 (Ber l in , 1997) , no .13 4 (w i th

the e a rl ie r b ib l i o g r a p h y ) ; F . S o k o lo w s k i , Lots sacrees de l'Asie Mineure (Par is ,

1955), no . 53 . Fo r a deta i led d iscuss ion o f the re l ig ious con tex t o f D am a s '

initiative a n d fu r th e r e x a m p le s s ee A . C h a n io t i s , ' Ne g o t i a t in g R e l ig io n in th e

Cities o f t h e E a s t e r n R o m a n P r o v i n c e s ' , Kernos 16 (2003) , 177 -90 .

Ritual Dynamics 153

T h a n k s t o n u m e r o u s i n s c r i p t i o n s a n d c o i n s w e k n o w a f e w

things a b o u t h i s p e r s o n a l i t y . H e h e l d t h e o f f i c e o f t h e prophetes

for a t l e a st t w o t e r m s a n d h e in i t i a t e d a c o i n a g e w i t h r e p r e s e n t a -

tions o f A p o l l o D i d y m e u s a n d A r t e m i s P y t h i e .

W e a re d e a l in gwi th a n i n d i v i d u a l w i t h a p a r t i c u l a r i n t e re s t i n t h e o l d , r e v e r e d ,

but a l s o o f t e n d e s t r o y e d a n d n e g l e c t e d s a n c t u a r y a t D i d y m a .

T h e a c t u a l s u b j e c t o f t h e d e c r e e i s p r e s e n t e d in f e w e r t h a n s i x

lines: T h e a c t i ng prophetes a n d t h e stephanephoros a r e o b l i g e d

'to o r g a n i z e t h e b a n q u e t o f t h e kosmoi a n d t h e molpoi a c c o r d i n g

to a n c e s t r a l c u s t o m a n d i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e l a w s a n d t h e

decrees w h i c h h a v e b e e n p r e v i o u s l y is s u e d . ' S u r p r i s i n g l y

enough, t h i s s h o r t t e x t is f o l l o w e d b y t w e n t y - f o u r li n e s, d e v o t e d

to m e a s u r e s p r e v e n t i n g f u t u r e v i o l a t i o n s o f t h i s d e c r e e a n d t h e

punishment o f w r o n g d o e r s . T h e r e s p o n s i b l e m a g i s tr a te s w e r e

not a l l o w e d t o S u b s t i t u t e t h i s c e l e b r a t i o n w i t h a m o n e y c o n t r i -

but ion .2 9 A n y f u t u r e d e c r e e w h i c h d i d n o t c o n f o r m to t h i s

decree s h o u l d b e i n v a l i d ; i ts i n i ti a t o r w o u l d h a v e t o p a y a f in e ,

in a d d i t i o n t o t h e d i v i n e p u n i s h m e n t w h i c h a w a i t s t h e i m p i o u s ;

and t h e r it u a l w o u l d h a v e t o b e p e r f o r m e d , n o n e t h e l e s s . T h i sdecree i s d e c l a r e d t o b e ' a d e c r e e p e r t a i n i n g t o p i e t y t o w a r d s t h e

gods a n d t h e A u g u s t i a n d t o t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n o f t h e c i t y ' . D a m a s

w as o b v i o u s l y a f r a i d t h a t h i s d e c r e e w o u l d b e a s p e r s i s t e n t l y

ignored b y f u t u r e m a g i s t r a t e s a s a ll t h o s e e a r l i e r l a w s o n t h e

same m a t t e r w h i c h h e q u o t e s . H i s c o n c e r n m u s t h a v e b e e n

justif ied. D a m a s h i m s e l f s e r v e d as a prophetes, v o l u n t a r i l y ; i n

the t e x t w h i c h r e c o r d s h i s f ir s t t e r m i n t h i s o f f i c e D a m a s u n d e r -

scores t h e f a c t t h a t ' h e p e r f o r m e d e v e r y t h i n g w h i c h h i s p r e d e -

cessors u s e d t o p e r f o r m ' . S u c h S ta t e m e n ts i n h o n o r i f i c

inscriptions i n d i c a t e t h a t s o m e m a g i s t r a t e s w e r e l es s d i l i g e n t

in t h e f u l f i l m e n t o f t h e i r d u t i e s . D a m a s s e r v e d a s e c o n d t e r m

later, a f t e r a y e a r o f v a c a n c y in t h i s o f f i c e ; 3 0 n o t a S ingle

28 L . R o b e r t , Monn aies grecques. Types, legendes, Ma gistrats monetaires et

geographie ( G e n e v a a n d P a r i s , 1 9 6 7 ) , 5 0 .29 T h a t t h is o cc a s i o n a ll y h a p p e n e d , f o l l o w i n g t he d e m a n d o f t h e C o m m u

nity, is d em o n s t r a t e d b y a n e w in s cr ip t io n f r o m D a g ' m a r a / K a r a k ö y ( T e m p -

sianoi?): a p r ie s t acceded to the request o f the c i t y and p r ov ide d the m on ey he

was s u p p o s e d t o s p e n d f o r b a n q u e t s fo r t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f an a q u e d u c t (c.AD

180-92). S e e H . M a l a y , Researches in Lydia, Mysia and Aiohs (TAM, E r g a n -

Eungsband 23) (V ien na , 1999) , 115 no . 127 .30 R e h m , Didyma, no . 268 .

154 Ritual Dynamics

Miles ian h a d b e e n W i l l i n g t o s e r v e a s a prophetes—not an un -

usual S it u at io n a t D i d y m a .

N u m e r o u s i n s c r i p t i o n s d o c u m e n t a g e n e ra l u n w i l l i n g n e s s

amongst t h e C i t i z e n s t o s e r v e a s prophetai a n d a n e v e n g r e a t e r

unwil l ingness t o p e r f o r m all t h e t r a d i t i o n a l r i t u ä l s . I n t h e l o n g

series o f m o r e t h a n o n e h u n d r e d i n s c r i p t i o n s t h a t r e c o r d t h e

names o f t h e prophetai m a n y t e x t s i n f o r m u s t i m e a n d a g a i n o f

the d i f f i c u l t i e s i n f i n d i n g c a n d i d a t e s . O n e o f t h e prophetai,

Cla ud ius C h i o n i s , e x p l i c i t l y s ta t es t h a t h e s e r v e d b o t h a s archi-

prytanis a n d a s prophetes i n a y e a r i n w h i c h ' n o C i t iz e n w a s

Willing t o a c c e p t e i t h e r o f f i c e ' .3 1

W e g et s o m e i n f o r m a t i o nabout D a m a s ' s e c o n d t e r m as a prophetes f r o m t h e a b o v e i n -

scription f r o m D i d y m a . I t r e po r ts t h at D a m a s s e r v e d v o l u n t a r -

i ly a s e c o n d t e r m as a prophetes, at th e ag e o f 81 , a n d tha t

'he r e v i v e d t h e a n c e s t r a l c u s t o m s ' a n d c e l e b r a t e d t h e b a n q u e t

in t h e s a n c t u a r y a t D i d y m a t w e l v e d a y s l o n g . S i m i l a r r e fe r e n ce s

to t h e r it es p e r f o r m e d b y t h e prophetes a p p e a r o c c a s i o n a l l y i n th e

inscriptions o f t h e prophetai. T h e e x p l i c i t c e r t i fi c a t i o n t h a t

the p a r t i c u l a r p r i e s t h a d f u l f i l l e d h i s d u t i e s i n d i c a t e t h a t t h i s

w a s n o t a l w a y s t h e c a s e. A n d s o m e o f f ic i a l s s e e m t o h a v e d o n e

mor e t h a n t h e ir p r e d e c es s o r s . A n a n o n y m o u s prophetes, f o r

example , p r o v i d e d t h e f u n d s f o r a b a n q u e t fo r a ll t h e C i t iz e n s

for 1 3 d a y s ; h e d i s t r i b u t e d m o n e y to w o m e n a n d v i r g i n s i n a

festival; h e o f f e r e d a d i n n e r f o r t h e b o y s w h o o f f i c i a t e d i n

a c e l e b r a t i o n ; a n d h e d i s t r i b u t e d m o n e y t o t h e m e m b e r s o f t h e

Council o n A p o l l o ' s b i r t h d a y .3 2

T h e s e s p o r a d i c r e f e r e n c e s t o r e v i v a l s s e e m t o m e t o r e f l e c t

failures r a t h e r t h a n s u c c e s s . T h i s e v i d e n c e ( a n d t h e r e is m u c h

mor e f r o m o t h e r c i ti e s) s h o w u s h o w a n i n d i v i d u a l w i t h a v i v i d

interest i n a n c e s t r a l c u s t o m s r e v i v e d ri tu a l s l o n g fo r g o t t e n a n d

neglected. T h e f a c t t h a t i n s c r i p t i o n s w h i c h r e f e r t o t h e s e i n i t i a

tives s u r v i v e d o e s n o t p e r m i t t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t t h e s u c c e s s o f

these i n i t i a t i v e s w a s l a s t i n g . D a m a s ' d e c r e e o f f e r s a n i n t e r e s t i n g

example o f a r e v i v a l w h i c h w a s a p p a r e n t l y a c c e p t e d b y t h e

people , b u t w h o s e s u c c e s s w a s e p h e m e r a l . F r o m h i s o w n

31 Ib id . no . 272 . S im i la r p ro b l em s are a l lud ed to in nos . 214 B , 215 , 236 B

I I I , 241 , 243, 244, 252 , 269, 270 , 277, 278, 279 A , 286 , 28 8, and 289.32 I b i d . n o . 2 9 7 . T w o o t h e r prophetai c la i m that they ha d rev ive d anc ient

customs, but the i r insc r ip t ions a re too f ragm en tar y to a l low us to see wha t

exactly the ob je c t o f the rev iva l had been : nos . 289 and 303 .

Ritual Dynamics 155

inscriptions w e k n o w th a t a t l ea s t he f o l l o w e d t h e c u s t o m , b u t

otherwise t h e r e a r e o n l y s p o r a d i c r e f e r e n c e s to t h i s c e l e b r a t i o n .

W h e n t h e d r i v i n g f o r c e o f a r e v i v a l w a s a n i n d i v i d u a l , n o t t h e

Communi t y , t h e r e v i v a l o f t e n d i e d w i t h i ts i n i t i a t o r , e x a c t l y a s

certain f e s t i v a l s o r c u l t s d i d n o t s u r v i v e t h e d e a t h o f t h e i r

founders. I h a v e d i s c u s s e d t h i s c a s e i n s u c h d e t a i l , b e c a u s e i t

seems t o m e a v e r y c h a r a c t e ri s t ic e x a m p l e o f h o w m i s l e a d i n g it

m a y b e t o t r y t o d r a w c o n c l u s i o n s a b o u t t h e c o n t i n u a l P e r f o r m

ance o f r it u a ls f r o m is o l a te d p i e c e s o f e v i d e n c e . T h i s e x a m p l e

also d e m o n s t r a t e s th e r o l e o f i n d i v i d u a l p e r s o n a l i t i es a n d i d i o -

syncrasies f o r t h e P e r f o r m a n c e o f r i t u a l s , a s u b j e c t t o w h i c h Ireturn l a te r . N e e d l e s s t o s a y a r t if ic i a l r e v i v a l s s o m e t i m e s a re

accompanied w i t h c h a n g e s i n m e a n i n g . T h e i n i t i a t o r y r it u al o f

the f l a g e l la t i o n i n t h e s a n c t u a r y o f A r t e m i s O r t h i a i n S p a r t a

( k n o w n a l s o f r o m C r e t e ) w a s r e v i v e d a s a t o u r i s t i c a t t r a c t i o n i n

the i m p e r i a l p e r i o d . 3 3

6. M I S L E A D I N G A N A L O G I E S : T H E D A I D A L A O FP L A T A I A A N D I T S M O D E R N E X E G E T E S

A t h i r d p r o b l e m is t h a t s o m e t i m e s s im i l a r it i es i n i s o la t e d e l e m -

ents o f r i t u a l s a t t e s t e d i n d i s t a n t p a r t s o f t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n a r e

regarded a s p r o o f o f t h e i d e n t i t y o f t h e s e r i t u a l s , o r o f a n a n a l o g y

between t h e m . L e t u s t a k e , f o r e x a m p l e , t h e c a r r y i n g o f t h e

w o o d e n i m a g e i n a p r o c e s s i o n , t h e c e n t r a l r i t u a l o f t h e f e s t i v a l o f

the D a i d a l a .3 4

T h e a e t io l o g ic a l m y t h is n a r r a t e d b y P l u t a r c hand P a u s a n i a s :3 5 o n c e H e r a h a d q u a r r e l le d w i t h Z e u s a n d w a s

hiding. A l a l k o m e n e s a d v i s e d Z e u s to d e c e i v e H e r a , b y a c t in g a s

if h e w e r e g o i n g t o m a r r y a n o t h e r w o m a n . W i t h A l a l k o m e n e s '

help, Z e u s s e c r e t ly c u t d o w n a b i g a n d v e r y b e a u t i f u l o a k - t r e e ,

gave it t h e s h a p e o f a w o m a n , d e c o r a t e d it a s a b r i d e , a n d c a l l e d

it D a i d a l e . T h e n t h e y s a n g t h e w e d d i n g s o n g fo r h e r , t h e

n y m p h s o f t h e r i v e r T r i t o n g a v e h e r t h e n u p t i a l b a t h , a n d

Boiotia p r o v i d e d f o r f l a u t i s ts a n d r e v e l l e rs . W h e n a ll t h i s w a s

33 P l u . Mor. 2 3 9 d .34 F o r a mo r e d e ta i l e d d i s c u s s io n s ee A . C h a n io t i s , ' R i tu a l D y n a m ic s : T h e

Boiotian fes t i va l o f the Da ida la ' , in Kykeon: Studies in Honour ofH. S. Versnel

(Leiden, 2002) , 23 -48 (w i th the ear l ier b ib l iography) .

35 P l u t a r c h , FGrH 388 F 1 (peri ton en Plataiais Daidalon); Pa u s a n ia s 9 .2 .7 -

9.3.3.

Ritual Dynamics

almost c o m p l e t e d , H e r a l os t h e r p a t i e n c e . S h e c a m e d o w n f r o m

M t . K i t h a i r o n , f o l l o w e d b y t h e w o m e n o f P l a t a ia , a n d r a n f ü l l o f

anger a n d j e a l o u s y t o Z e u s . B u t w h e n s h e r e a l i z e d t h a t t h e

'br ide ' w a s a d o l i , s h e r e c o n c i l e d h e r s e i f w i t h Z e u s w i t h j o y

and l a u g h t e r a n d t o o k t h e r o l e o f t h e b r i d e s m a i d . S h e h o n o u r e d

this w o o d e n i m a g e a n d n a m e d t h e f es t i va l D a i d a l a . N o n e t h e -

less, s h e b u r n e d t h e i m a g e , a l t h o u g h it w a s n o t a l i v e , b e c a u s e o f

her j e a l o u s y . P a u s a n i a s g i v e s u s t h e m o s t d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n o f

the r i t u a l :

In this wa y they celebrate the fest ival. N o t far fr om Ala lko m en ai is a

grove of oaks. H er e the trun ks of the oaks are the largest in Boeotia .

T o this grov e co m e the Plataians, and lay out por t ion s of boi led f lesh.

They keep a str ict wa tch o n the crow s wh ic h flock to them , bu t the y

are not trou ble d at all abo ut the other bird s. T h e y mar k careful ly the

tree on w hic h a cro w set tles w i t h the mea t he has se ized . T h e y cut

down the trunk of the tree on w h ic h the cro w has sett led, and m ake of

it the daidalon; for this is the nam e that they give to the w oo de n imag e

also. T h i s fest ival the Plataians celebrate b y them selves , cal l ing it the

Little Da idala , bu t the G re at Daida la , wh ich is ce lebrated wi th the m

by the Bo eotian s, is a fest ival held at intervals of f i f ty -n ine y ears, for

that is the per io d durin g w hi ch , they say , the fest ival cou ld not be

held, as the P lata ians we re in ex ile . Th e re are fourteen wo od en images

ready, ha v ing be en p rov ide d each year at the L i t t le Da idala . L ot s are

cast f o r them b y the P la ta ians , Koro na ian s , Thes p ian s , Thangra ians ,

Chaironeis, Orc hom enia ns , Leb ade i s , and Th eb an s . Fo r a t the t ime

when Kas sand ros , the son o f Ant ipa te r , r ebu il t Th eb es , the T he ba ns

wished to be reconc i led wi th the Plataians, to share in the co m m o nassembly, and to send a sacr i fice to the Da ida la. T h e tow ns of less

account pool the ir fund s for images . Br ing ing the ima ge to the A s o -

pos, and sett ing it up on a wa go n, they place a br id esm aid also on

the wa go n. T h e y again cast lots for the pos it ion the y are to ho ld in the

procession. A ft er this they dr ive the wa go ns f ro m the r iver to the

summit of Kit ha iro n. O n the peak of the mo un tain an altar has been

prepared, wh ich they m ake in the fo l low ing w ay . T h e y f it together

quadrangular pieces of wo o d , putt in g th em together just as i f theywere m akin g a stone bui ldin g, and h av ing raised it to a height they

place br us hw oo d up on the a ltar . T h e c it ies w i t h the ir magistrates

sacrifice a cow to H era an d a bul l to Ze us , bur nin g on the altar the

victims, fül l of w in e and incense, along wi th the daidala. Rieh peop le ,

as ind iv idu als sacr if ice wh at they wis h; bu t the less wea lth y sacr i fice

the sm aller cattle; all the vic tim s alike are bu rn ed . T h e f ire seizes the

altar and the v ict im s as we l l , and con su m es them all together . I kn ow

Ritual Dynamics 157

of no b laz e that is so hig h, or seen so far as this (trans. W . H . S. Jo n es ,

modified).

F r o m F r a z e r ' s t i m e s o n w a r d s t h e D a i d a l a o f B o e o t i a h a v e f a s -

cinated s c h o l a r s s t u d y i n g t h e r e l a ti o n b e t w e e n m y t h a n d r i tu a l .

A m o n g s t t h e m a n y s t u d i e s o n th e D a i d a l a t h e m o s t i n f l u e n t i a l

approach r e c o g n i z e s t h e h e t e r o g e n e i t y o f t h e d e t a i l s d e s c r i b e d

b y P a u s a n i a s , b u t f o c u s e s o n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d b u r n i n g o f

the w o o d e n i m a g e o r i m a g e s , in v e s t i n g th i s r it u a l w i t h a v a r i e t y

of m e a n i n g s w h i c h r ä n g e f r o m th e i d e a o f a n a n n u a l f ir e e x -

pressing t h e r e j u v e n a t i o n o f n a t u r e t o t h e a p p e a s e m e n t o f a

mighty c h t h o n i c g o d d e s s . T h i s a p p r o a c h a s s oc ia t e s t h e D a i d a l awi th t h e s p r i n g a n d m i d - s u m m e r b o n f i r e f e st iv a ls o f m o d e r n

E u r o p e ( o f t h e M a y p o l e o r J o h a n n e s f e u e r - t y p e ) , a t w h i c h a

w o o d e n i m a g e is b r o u g h t t o t h e s e t t l e m e n t a n d b u r n e d .

A c c o r d i n g t o F r a z e r ' s i n t e r p r e t a t io n , t h e D a i d a l a r e p r e s e n t

the m a r r i a g e o f p o w e r s o f V e g e t a t i o n ; H e r a ' s r e t i r e m e n t is a

mythica l e x p r e s s i o n f o r a b a d s e a s o n a n d t h e f a i lu r e o f

crops.3 6 M . P . N i l s s o n s p e c u l a t e d t h a t t h e i m a g e w h i c h w a s

bur ned r e p r e s e n t e d a d e m o n o f V e g e t a t i o n t h a t h a d to g o

through f i r e i n o r d e r t o s e c u r e t h e w a r m t h o f t h e s u n f o r

every th ing t h a t l i v e s a n d g r o w s . S i n c e t h i s f i r e r i t u a l h a d t h e

purpose o f p r o m o t i n g f e r t i l it y , it w a s u n d e r s t o o d a s a w e d d i n g ;

Her a w a s asso c ia ted w i t h th i s f e s t i v a l a t a l a te s tage , as th e

goddess o f m a r r i a g e ; t h e d i s c r e p a n c i e s i n t h e m y t h s a n d t h e

rituals r e f l e c t t h e l a t e c o n f l a t i o n o f t w o s e p a r a t e f e s t i v a l s , a f i r e

festival a n d a f e s t i v a l o f H e r a . 3 7

T h e p r o m i n e n t p o s i t i o n o f a h o l o c a u s t o f f e r i n g a t t w o f e s t i

vals o f A r t e m i s , t h e L a p h r i a a n d t h e E l a p h e b o l i a , l ed A .

Schachter t o t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t t h e b u r n i n g o f t h e i m a g e s a t

the D a i d a l a w a s a l s o o r i g i n a l l y d e d i c a t e d t o A r t e m i s a n d a t

some l a te r p o i n t c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e c u l t o f H e r a . 3 8 N e e d l e s s

to s a y , t h e s i m i l a r i t y b e t w e e n t h e D a i d a l a o n t h e o n e h a n d

and t h e L a p h r i a a n d t h e E l a p h e b o l i a o n th e o t h e r is r a t h e r

36 J . G . F r a z e r , The Golden Bough: A Study in Magic and R eligion. Part I :

The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, 3rd edn . (L on d o n , 1913), i i. 140 -1 .37 M . P . N i l ss o n , Griechische Feste von religiöser Bedeutung mit Ausschluss

der attischen ( L u n d , 1 9 0 6) , 5 4 - 5 ; Geschichte der griechischen Religion, 3 r d e d n .

(Munich, 1967) , i . 130 -1 , 431 .38 A . S c h a c h t e r , Cults of Boiotia ( L o n d o n , 1 9 8 1 ), i. 2 4 7 .

158 Ritual Dynamics

superficial; t h e b u r n i n g o f s l a u g h t e r e d s a c ri f ic i a l v i c t i m s a t t h e

Daida la c a n n o t b e c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e t h r o w i n g o f l i v i n g

animals o n t h e p y r e a t t h e L a p h r i a . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h i s , I c a n

see n o e v i d e n c e f o r t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t i n t h e h o l o c a u s t s o f t h e

L a p h r i a a n d th e E l a p h e b o l i a A r t e m i s w a s c o n c e i v e d a s t h e

patroness o f c h i l d b i r t h ; a n d o f c o u r s e t h e r e i s n o e v i d e n c e f o r

the s a c r if ic i a l b u r n i n g o f w o o d e n i m a g e s i n t h e s e f e s t iv a l s o f

Ar temis .

F ina l ly , W . B u r k e r t h a s a t t r i b u t e d t h e D a i d a l a t o a c a t e g o r y

of m y t h s a n d r it u a ls t h e c o m m o n t h e m e o f w h i c h is t h e d e p a r t -

ure a n d r e t u r n o f a g o d d e s s o f f e r t i l i t y — w e l l k n o w n f r o mOrienta l i c o n o g r a p h y a n d m y t h . 3 9 B u r k e r t r e c o g n i z e d a n a n -

cient G r e e k p a r a l l e l i n a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o n a pithos o f t h e n i n t h

Century B C f o u n d a t K n o s s o s . A w i n g e d g o d d e s s , r i c h ly d r e s s e d

and w i t h a h i g h polos, S t a n d s o n a c h a r i o t . S h e i s r e p r e s e n t e d i n

t w o d i f f e r e n t w a y s i n t w o p a n e l s o n t h e t w o o p p o s i t e s i d e s o f t h e

pithos. I n t h e o n e p a n e l t h e g o d d e s s r ai se s h e r h a n d s o n w h i c h

t w o b i r d s a r e s e a t e d . O n t h e o t h e r p a n e l t h e g o d d e s s h a s

dr opped h e r a r m s , h e r w i n g s a r e l o w e r e d , t h e b i r d s f l y a w a y .

T h e t r e e s i n t h e f i r s t r e p r e s e n t a t i o n b l o s s o m , t h e tr e e s o n t h e

other s i d e d o n o t . A c c o r d i n g t o B u r k e r t ' s p l a u s i b l e i n t e r p r e t -

ation, t h e t w o p a n e l s a r e c o n n e c t e d w i t h a f e s t iv a l o f t h e C o m i n g

and t h e d e p a r t u r e o f t h e g r e a t g o d d e s s o f f e r t i l i t y ; t h e c h a r i o t

impl ies t h a t a n i m a g e o f t h e g o d d e s s w a s b r o u g h t i n t o t h e c i t y .

T h e r e a r e i n d e e d o b v i o u s a n a l o g i e s t o t h e m y t h s a n d t h e r i tu a l

of t h e D a i d a l a : t h e d e p a r t u r e o f a n ( a n g r y ) g o d d e s s a n d h e r

return, t h e c a r r y i n g o f a n i m a g e o n a c h a r i o t . B u t t h e r e a r e

also o b v i o u s d i f f e r e n c e s : t h e r e p r e s e n t a t io n f r o m K n o s s o s is

the i m a g e o f a g o d d e s s ; t h e w o o d e n daidala w e r e n o t ; t h e

daidala w e r e b u r n e d ; a n d t h e r e is n o i n d i c a t i o n t h a t t h e i m a g e

o n t he K n o s s i a n pithos i s t h a t o f a b r i d e .

Another p a r a l l e l w a s r e c o g n i z e d b y B u r k e r t i n t h e r e p o r t

of F i r m i c u s M a t e r n u s c o n c e r n i n g a f e st iv a l o f P e r s e p h o n e . 4 0

A t r e e w a s c u t a n d w a s u s e d f o r t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e i m a g e o f

39 W . B u r k e r t , ' K a t a g ö g i a - A n a g ö g i a a n d t h e G o d d e s s o f K n o s s o s ' , i n R .

Hägg, N . M a r i n a t o s , a n d G . N o r d q u i s t ( e d s. ), Early Greek Cult Practice.

Proceedings of the Fifth International Symposium at the Sw edish Institute at

Athens, 26-29 June 1986 ( S t o c k h o l m , 1 9 88 ), 8 1 - 7 .40 Err. prof. rel. 27 .2 .

Ritual Dynamics 159

a m a i d e n , w h i c h w a s t h e n b r o u g h t t o t h e c i t y ; t h e r e , it w a s

m o u r n e d f o r f o r t y d a y s ; o n t h e e v e n i n g o f t h e f o r t i e t h d a y , t h e

image w a s b u r n e d . T h i s r it u a l is s u p p o s e d t o r e fl e ct t h e a n n u a l

cycle o f n a t u r e . T h e j o y a t t h e C o m i n g o f t h e g o d d e s s w a sfo l lowed b y t h e s a d n e s s a t h e r d e p a r t u r e i n t h e fa l l. A g a i n , t h e

differences f r o m t h e D a i d a l a a r e n o l es s s t r i k i n g t h a n t h e s i m i -

larities. P e r s e p h o n e ' s p e r i o d i c a l d e a t h f i n d s n o a n a l o g y i n a n y

k n o w n c u l t o f H e r a ; t h e w o o d e n daidala w e r e n o t b r o u g h t t o t h e

city, t h e y w e r e n o t m o u r n e d , a n d t h e y w e r e n o t s u p p o s e d t o

represent t h e p e r i o d i c a l d e a t h o f a v i r g i n . A e l i a n a n d A t h e n a e u s

have r e p o r t s o f a s i m i l a r fe s t i v a l a t E r y x i n S i c i l y , t h i s t i m e f o r

A p h r o d i t e — t h e f e s t i v a l A n a g o g i a . I t o w e d it s n a m e t o t h e d e

parture o f A p h r o d i t e , w h o w a s t h o u g h t t o l e a ve f o r A f r i c a ,

fo l lowed b y b i r d s ( p i g e o n s ) . N i n e d a y s l at e r a v e r y b e a u t i f u l

pigeon w a s s e e n c o m i n g f r o m t h e s o u t h , a n d its c o m i n g w a s

celebrated a s t h e f e s t iv a l K a t a g o g i a . W e o b s e r v e , h o w e v e r , t h a t

in t h i s f e s t i v a l t h e r e is n o i m a g e , n o m a r r i a g e , n o p y r e . B u r k e r t

suggested a s s o c i a t in g t h is g r o u p o f f e s ti v a ls w i t h m a n k i n d ' s

pr imordia l f e a r s : t h r e a t e n e d b y d r o u g h t , b a d h a r v e s t s , i n f e r t i l -

ity, a n d b a d w e a t h e r , p e o p l e f r o m t i m e t o t i m e l e a v e t h e a re a o f

agricultural a c t i v i t y a n d r e t u r n to t h e fo r e s t , w h e r e t h e y u s e d t o

f ind f o o d a t t h e s t a g e o f h u n t e r s a n d g a t h e r e r s . T h e b u r n i n g o f

an i m a g e m a y b e a s u r v i v a l o f t h e g r e a t p y r e s o n p e a k s a n c t u a r -

ies i n M i n o a n C r e t e .

M o d e r n r e s e a r c h h a s n o t o n l y i s o l a t e d t h e s e t w o i m p o r t a n t

components o f t h e D a i d a l a , t h e s a c r e d m a r r i a g e a n d t h e f i r eritual; it h a s a l s o p o i n t e d o u t t h a t t h e b u r n i n g o f t h e D a i d a l a c a n

be c o n c e i v e d o f a s a s a c r if i c e , a n d t h is is a v e r y i m p o r t a n t

d e m e n t w h i c h i s d i f f i c u l t t o r e c o n c i l e w i t h t h e o t h e r t w o a p -

proaches. K . M e u l i h a s a s s i g n e d t h e s a c r i f ic e o f t h e D a i d a l a t o

the c a t e g o r y o f t h e ' c h t h o n i s c h e V e r n i c h t u n g s o p f e r ' , s a c ri fi c es

offered t o c h t h o n i c d e it ie s w h o s e d a n g e r o u s p o w e r s h o u l d b e

appeased;41 t h e m y t h a b o u t t h e q u a r r e l b e t w e e n H e r a a n d Z e u s

and t h e g o d d e s s ' w i t h d r a w a l c a n b e a s s o c ia t e d w i t h t h is i n t e r -

pretation, w h i c h , h o w e v e r , f ai ls t o e x p l a i n o th e r c o m p o n e n t s o f

the r i t u a l i n t h e I m p e r i a l p e r i o d ( e s p e c i a l l y t h e a l l u s i o n s t o a

wedding) . T h e f a c t t h a t t h e daidala c a n n o t b e c o n c e i v e d a s

41 K . M e u l i , ' G r i e c h i s c h e O p f e r b r ä u c h e ' , i n Phyllobolia für Peter von

Mühll zum 60. Geburtstag am 1. August 1945 (Base l , 1946) , 20 9 -1 0 .

i6o Ritual Dynamics

div ine i m a g e s l e d E . L o u c a s - D u r i e t o t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h at t h e ir

burning w a s t h e S u b s t i t u t e f o r a h u m a n s a c r i f ic e , w h i c h m a y

have c o n s t i t u t e d a c e n t r a l p a r t o f t h e ri t u a l i n i t s e a r l y p h a s e . 4 2

I h a v e d e al t w i t h th e D a i d a l a a t s o m e l e n g t h — w i t h o u t m e n -

t ioning a ll t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f f e r e d s o f a r — b e c a u s e it o f f e r s a

characteristic e x a m p l e o f t h e p r o b l e m s w e f a c e w i t h s i m i l a r it i e s

and a n a l o g i e s b e t w e e n r i tu a l s , e s p e c i a l l y w h e n o u r s o u r c e s c o m e

f r o m a p e r i o d in w h i c h t h e P e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e r i t u a l is t h e r e s u l t

of a m a l g a m a t i o n s a n d s y n c o p a t i o n s .

7 . R I T U A L S A N D T H E P H Y S I C A L E N V I R O N M E N T

A f o u r t h o b s ta c l e i n t h e w a y o f s t u d y i n g r i tu a l s i n a M e d i t e r r a -

nean c o n t e x t is t h e f a c t t h a t r i t u a ls p r e s e n t a n a s p e c t o f w o r s h i p

that s e e m s t o b e l ea s t r e l a te d t o g e o g r a p h y , p h y s i c a l e n v i r o n -

ment a n d l a n d s c a p e . O n e m a y r a is e o n e ' s h a n d s i n p r a y e r , k n e e l

before a c u l t s t a t u e , k i s s a n o b j e c t o f w o r s h i p , p o u r a l i q u i d

dur ing a n o a t h c e r e m o n y , o r t a k e a r i t u a l b a t h n e a r t h e b a n k s o f

the N i l e o r i n t h e r o c k y l a n d s c a p e o f K a p p a d o k i a — o r v i r t u a l l y

a nywher e e is e . N o g e o g r a p h i c a l f a c t o r s s e e m t o b e d i r e c t l y i n

Operation w h e n p e o p l e p e r f o r m r it es o f p a s s a g e a c c o r d i n g t o t h e

threefold s t ru c t u re e s t a b l is h e d b y v a n G e n n e p a n d m o d i f i e d b y

T u r n e r a n d o t h e r s , w h e t h e r t h e y a r e i n a n c i e n t G r e e c e , m e d i -

eval I n d i a , o r a c o n t e m p o r a r y S t u d e n t f r a t e r n i t y .

T h i s p o s i t io n w h i c h d i s s o c ia t e s r it u a ls f r o m g e o g r a p h i c a l

factors a n d la n d s c a p e s i s r e l a t e d t o a w i d e s p r e a d a t t i t u d e i n t h estudy o f r it u al s t h a t r e a p p e a r s i n d i f f e r e n t f o r m s f r o m F r a z e r ' s

Golden Bough t o B u r k e r t ' s Creation of the Sacred: r i t u a l s a r e

primeval, t h e y a re n o t i n v e n t e d b u t t r a n s m i t t e d — e i t h e r t h r o u g h

natural p r oc es se s o f a c c u l t u r a t i o n o r e v e n b i o l o g i c a l l y — a n d

adapted t o n e w c u l t u ra l e n v i r o n m e n t s . A c c o r d i n g t o t h is v i e w ,

rituals o b s e r v e d i n v a r i o u s c u l t u r e s s h o u l d b e r e g a r d e d a s m u t a -

tions o r v a r ia n t s o f a r c h e t y p a l f o r m s .

It s h o u l d n o t t h e r e f o r e b e a s u r p r i s e t h a t t h e s t u d y o f r i t u a ls

in m o d e r n s c h o l a r s h ip h a s p r i m a r i l y b e e n a s t u d y o f o r i g i n s .

E v e n w h e n w e h a v e d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n s o f r i tu a l s f r o m th e

Imperial p e r i o d , s u c h a s t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e D a i d a l a i n

42 E . L o u c a s - D u r i e , ' S i m u l a c r e h u m a i n et o f f r a n d e ri t u el le ' , Kernos 1 (1988) ,

151-62.

Ritual Dynamics 161

Boeotia, t h e q u e s t i o n a s k e d is n o t w h a t t h e f u n c t i o n o f t h e r i t u a l

was i n t h e p e r i o d f r o m w h i c h th e e y e - w i t n e s s r ep o r t s c o m e , b u t

h o w w e c a n r e c o n s t r u c t t h e r i tu a l 's o r i g i n a l f o r m a n d m e a n i n g .

T h i s i s n o t t h e p l a c e t o d i s c u s s t h e e t h o l o g i c a l b a c k g r o u n d o f

rituals43 o r h o w m e a n i n g f u l t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f o r i g i n s m a y b e .

Nonetheless , g i v e n t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n c o n t e x t o f t h is v o l u m e , it

is n o t i n a p p r o p r i a t e t o e m p h a s i z e th e i m p o r t a n c e o f p h y s i c a l

environment, n o t f o r t h e o r i g i n o f r i t u a l s p e r h a p s , b u t c e r t a i n l y

for t h e i r e v o l u t i o n a n d d i f f u s i o n . A g a i n , H o r d e n a n d P u r c e l l

have p r e s e n t e d a s t r o n g ca s e f o r a d i s t i n c t i v e l y M e d i t e r r a n e a n

sense o f p l a c e a n d h a v e s h o w n t h a t p l a c e c a n b e a u s e f u l i n s t r u -ment o f a n a l y s i s . 4 4 T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t f e at u re o f t h e M e d i t e r

ranean, i n t h i s r e s p e c t , is t h e f r a g m e n t e d t o p o g r a p h y , a f a c t o r

that c o n t r i b u t e s t o d i v e r g e n c e s a n d d i v i s i o n s b e t w e e n c u l t u r a l

Systems, b u t h a s i n m a n y p e r i o d s a l so c h a l l e n g e d M e d i t e r r a

nean p o p u l a t i o n s t o o v e r c o m e t h is f r a g m e n t a t i o n . T h e c h a l -

lenge h a s m a d e t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n a z o n e o f ' l at er al

transmission o f i d e a s a n d p r a c t i c e s ' , i n c l u d i n g t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n

of r i t u a l s . 4 5 T h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e p h y s i c a l e n v i r o n m e n t a s t h e

setting i n w h i c h r it u a ls a re p e r f o r m e d c a n s o m e t i m e s , u n e x -

pectedly, b e o b s e r v e d w h e n a n a t t e m p t is m a d e t o r e p r o d u c e th e

physical e n v i r o n m e n t o f a p a r t i c u l a r r it u a l i n a n e w e n v i r o n

ment, t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n n o t o n l y o f t h e e n v i r o n m e n t , b u t a ls o o f

its o r i g i n a l s e t t in g . T h e b e s t k n o w n e x a m p l e is t h e r e p r o d u c t i o n

of N i l o t i c l a n d s c a p e s i n s a n c t u a r i e s o f t h e E g y p t i a n d e i t ie s

outside E g y p t ; 4 6 s i m i l a r p h e n o m e n a a r e t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f

artificial c a v e s f o r t h e c e l e b r a t i o n o f t h e M i t h r a i c m y s t e r i e s o r

for D i o n y s i a c c e l e b r a t i o n s ( c o m p a r e t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f c a v e s i n

moder n I n d i a t o r e p r o d u c e t h e c a v e o f S t M a r y a t L o u r d e s ) .

O ne c a n i n c l u d e h e r e th e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f p o o l s f o r t h e w o r s h i p

of t h e n y m p h s , 4 7 a n d p e r h a p s e v e n p e a k s a n c t u a ri e s o n e l e v a -

43 W . B u r k e r t , Creation oj the Sacred: Tracks of Biology in Early Religions

(Cambridge, M a s s . a n d L o n d o n , 1 9 96 ); i d . , ' F i tn e s s o d e r O p i u m ? D i e F r a gestellung der Soz io lo g ie im Bere ich a lter Re l ig io ne n ' , in F . S to lz (ed . ) , Homo

naturaliter religiosus. Gehört Religion notwendig zum Mensch-Sein? ( B e r n ,

1997), 1 3 - 3 8 .44 CS 4 0 1 - 6 0 . 4 5 CS 4 0 4 , 4 0 7 - 8 .46 e . g . R . S a l d i t - T r a p p m a n n , Tempel der ägyptischen Götter in Griechenland

und an der Westküste Kleinasiens ( L e id e n , 1 9 7 0) , 1 - 2 5 .47 C f . CS 4 3 1 . B a k c h i c ca v e s : A th e n . 4 .1 4 8 b c . C f . th e t e r m androphylakes

('the gua rd ian s o f the cave ' ) in an insc r ip t ion o f a D i on ys iac assoc ia t ton in

I Ö 2 Ritual Dynamics

tions t h a t d o n o t d e s e r v e t h e d e s i g n a t i o n m o u n t a i n , b u t p r e s e n t

' imaginary m o u n t a i n s ' . 4 8 T h e S a m a r i t a n s o n D e l o s w e r e s o

b o u n d t o t h e h o l y p l a c e o f t h e ir h o m e l a n d t h a t t h e y d e s i g n a t e d

their a s s o c i a t i o n a s ' t h o s e w h o s a c r i f i c e i n t h e h o l y s a c r e d M t .

Argar ize in ' (aparchom enoi eis hieron hagion Argarizein).49

Fina l ly , e v e n i f i t w o u l d b e f u t i l e t o l o o k f o r r i t u a l s o r i g i n a t i n g

in t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n o r p r a c t i se d o n l y i n t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n ,

one c a n o b s e r v e c e r t a i n p r e f e r e n c e s t h a t t o s o m e e x t e n t a r e

favoured b y t h e p h y s i c a l e n v i r o n m e n t , f ör e x a m p l e t h e p r o m

inent p a r t p l a y e d b y p r o c e s s i o n s o r t h e w i d e s p r e a d c u s t o m o f

setting u p t e n t s , a t t e s t e d i n a v a r i e t y o f c o n t e x t s , f r o m t h eH e b r e w succah t o t h e G r e e k T h e s m o p h o r i a a n d f r o m t h e P t o -

lemaia o f A l e x a n d r i a t o t h e skanopageia o f K o s . 5 0

8. T H E R O L E O F R E L I G I O U S I D I O S Y N C R A S I E S

A f a c to r o f e n o r m o u s i m p o r t a n c e f o r t h e e v o l u t i o n o f r i t u a l s —

no m a t t e r w h e t h e r w e a r e d e a l i n g w i t h r e v i v a l o r t r a n s m i s s i o n ,

amalgamation o r s y n c o p a t i o n , a e s t h e t i c o r i d e o l o g i c a l t r a n s -

f o r m a t i o n — i s t h e p a r t p l a y e d b y i n d i v i d u a l s , t h e i r i d i o s y n -

crasy, p e r s o n a l p i e t y , s o c ia l p o s i t i o n , e d u c a t i o n , o r e v e n

political a g e n d a . I h a v e a l r e a d y r e f e r r e d t o t w o m e n ( u n f o r t u -

nately o u r s o u r c e s m o s t l y r e fe r t o m e n ) w h o s e r o l e w a s e s s en t ia l

for t h e r e v i v a l o f r i t u a l s : t h e p r i e s t H e l l a d i o s i n M e g a r a a n d t h e

prophetes D a m a s i n M i l e t u s . W e o f t e n h e a r o f p e r s o n s w h o o n

their o w n i n i t i a t i v e i n t r o d u c e d c u l t a n d r i tu a l s f r o m o n e p l a c e a tanother, f o r i n s t a n c e t h e T e l e m a c h o s w h o i n t r o d u c e d t h e c u l t o f

Asklep ios i n A t h e n s o r D e m e t r i o s w h o f o u n d e d a s a n c t u a r y o f

the E g y p t i a n d e i t ie s a t D e l o s . 5 1 S o m e t i m e s w e h e a r o f p e r s o n s

Ro me ( G . R i c c i a r d e l l i , ' M i t o e Pe r fo r ma n c e n e l l e a s s o c iaz i o n i d i o n i s i a c h e ' , i n

M . T o r t o r e l l i G h e d i n i , A . S t o rc h i M a r i n o , a n d A . V i s c o n t i ( e d s. ), Tra Orfeo e

Pitagora. Origini e incontri di culture nell'antichitä. Atti dei seminari napoletani

1996-1998 ( N a p l e s , 2 0 0 0 ) , 2 7 4 ) .48 F o r ' i m a g i n a r y m o u n t a i n s ' s ee R . B u x t o n , Imaginary Greece: The Con

texts ofMythology ( C a m b r i d g e , 1 9 94 ), 8 1 - 9 6 .

R. G o g g i n s , ' J e w i s h L o c a l P a t r io t i sm : T h e S a m a r i t a n P r o b l e m ' , i n S .

Jones an d S . Pea rce (eds . ) , Jewish Local Patriotism an d Self-Identification in

the Graeco-Roman Period ( S h e f f i e ld , 19 9 8 ), 7 S - 7 .

Thesmophoria: H . S . V e r s n e l , Inconsistencies in Greek and Roman Reli

gion (L e id en , 1993) , i i. 236 n . 25 .

51 H . E n g e l m a n n , The Delian Aretalogy of Sarapis ( L e id e n , 1 9 7 5) .

Ritual Dynamics 163

w h o r e v i v e d a n e g l e c t e d r i t u a l, f o r e x a m p l e D a m a s w h o r e v i v e d

the r i t ua l b a n q u e t at D i d y m a , S y m m a c h o s o f L y t t o s w h o

rev ived t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f m o n e y t o t r i b a l s u b d i v i s i o n s i n h i s

Cretan c i t y o n t h e o c c a s i o n o f t h e f e s t i v a ls W e l c h a n i a a n d

Theodais ia , 5 2 o r M n a s i s t r a t o s i n A n d a n i a w h o g a v e t h e s a c re d

books o f t h e m y s t e r i e s t o t h e c i t y , t h u s c o n t r i b u t i n g to a r e -

organization o f t h i s c u l t . 5 3

L e t u s t a k e o n e o f t h e m o s t i n t e r e s t i n g c a s es o f r i t u a l t r a n s f e r ,

the m y s t e r i e s o f t h e r u r a l s a n c t u a r y a t P a n ö i a s i n n o r t h e r n

Portugal. 5 4 A lex sacra i n f o r m s u s t h a t t h e S e n at o r C . C a l p u r -

nius R u f i n u s f o u n d e d a m y s t e r y cu lt d e d i c a te d t o H y p s i s t o sSarapis, t o d e i ti e s o f t h e u n d e r w o r l d (Diis Severis), a n d t h e

local g o d s o f t h e L a p i t e a e . T h e t e x t s m e n t i o n a t e m p l e (tem-

plum, aedes) a n d v a r i o u s c u l t f a c il it i es c o n s t r u c t e d o n t h e n a t

ural r o c k (quadrata, aeternus lacus, a gastra); t h e i r f u n c t i o n is

explained i n s e v e r a l t e x t s : hostiae quae cadunt hic imm olantur.

Extra intra quadrata contra cremantur. Sanguis laciculis super-

funditur (1 ) , in quo h ostiae voto cremantur (3) , lacum, qui voto

miscetur ( 5 ). F r o m t h e s e i n s t r u c t i o n s g i v e n t o t h e i n i ti a t es

A l f ö l d y r e c o n s t r u c t s t h e r i tu a l , w h i c h i n c l u d e d th e p r e p a r a t i o n

of s a c r i f ic i a l a n i m a l s , t h e o f f e r i n g o f t h e i r b l o o d t o t h e g o d s o f

the u n d e r w o r l d , t h e b u r n i n g o f t h e ir i n t es t in e s , a b a n q u e t , a n d

purification. T h e m y s t e r y c u l t w a s p r o b a b l y i n t r o d u c e d f r o m

Perge ( cf . t h e D o r i a n f o r m mystaria, f o r mysteria), R u f i n u s '

place o f o r i g i n . I f w e o n l y h a d t h e d e d i c a t o r y f o r m u l a ( R u f i n u s

dedicated t o H y p s i s t o s S a r a p i s ), w e w o u l d n a t u r a l l y h a v e

assumed t h a t R u f i n u s ' a c t i v i t y w a s s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f T e l e m a -

chos i n A t h e n s o r D e m e t r i o s i n D e l o s . T h e d e t ai le d d e s c r i p t i o n

of t h e r it u a l s s h o w s t h a t u n d e r t h e g u i s e o f m y s t e r i e s o f S a r a p i s

w e h a v e a n a m a l g a m a t i o n o f d i f f e r e n t r it u a l t r a d i t io n s . R u f i n u s

is n o t a n i s o l a t e d c a s e. T h e c u l t f o u n d a t i o n o f A l e x a n d e r , t h e

52 /. Cret. 1 . x v i i i 11 (2n d /3 rd Century ) .

53 F . S o k o l o w s k i , Lois sacrees des cites grecques (Par is , 1969) , no . 65 . F o r the

cult see mo s t r ecent ly L . P io lo t , 'Pausan ias e t les Mys ter es d 'A nd an ie : His t o i re

d'une apo r ie ' , in J . Re na rd (ed . ) , he Peloponnese. Archäologie et Histoire. Actes

de la rencontre internationale de Lorient, 12-15 mai 1998 ( R e n n e s , 1 9 9 9 ), 1 9 5 -

228 ( w i th e a r li e r b ib l i o g r a p h y ) .54 G . A l fö ld y , ' Insc r ic ion es , sac r i f i cios y mis ter ios : E l santuar io rupes tre de

Panöias/Portugal', Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts—

Abteilung Madrid 3 6 ( 1 9 95 ) , 2 5 2 - 8 : id . , ' D i e M y s te r i e n v o n Pa n ö ia s ( V i l a

Real, Po r tug a l ) ' , ib id . 38 (1997), 176 -24 6 .

164 Ritual Dynamics

false p r o p h e t , a t A b o n o u t e i c h o s is v e r y s i m i l a r , i n c l u d i n g t h e

adaptation o f h e t e r o g e n e o u s e l e m e n t s f r o m t h e c u lt o f A s c l e -

pius, d i f f e r e n t o r a c u l a r p r a c t i c e s, N e o p y t h a g o r e a n o b s e r v a n c e s

and d o c t r i n e s , a n d t h e m y s t e r i e s o f E l e u s i s . 5 5 A n d a c e rt a in

Dionys ios w h o f o u n d e d a m y s t e r y c u l t a n d a c u l t a s s o c i a t i o n

at P h i l a d e l p h i a c o m p o s e d a s a cr e d r e g u la t io n w i t h st ric t m o r a l

and r i tu a l o b s e r v a n c e s n o t m o d e l l e d a c c o r d i n g to a p a r t i c u l a r

mys te r y c u l t , b u t i n f l u e n c e d b y m a n y d i f f e r e n t t r a d i t i o n s . 5 6 It is

certainly n o t n e c e s s a r y to u n d e r l i n e h o w d i f f i c u l t it is t o g r a s p

the p e r s o n a l r e l i g i o s it y o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l s th a t i n t r o d u c e d o r

rev ived r i tu a l s , n o t t o m e n t i o n t h e c a s e o f p e r s o n s w h o p e r -f o r med r it u a ls . H o w c a n w e e v e r k n o w h o w a n E p i c u r e a n p h i l

osopher t h o u g h t a n d fe i t w h e n h e s e r v e d a s a p r i e s t r e s p o n s i b l e

for t h e t r a d i t i o n a l r i tu a l s s c o r n e d b y h i s f e l l o w p h i l o s o p h e r s ? 5 7

9. T H E M A N I F O L D C H A R A C T E R O F R I T U A L T R A N S F E R

Ritual t r a n s f e r m e a n s n o t o n l y t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n o f r it u a ls f r o m

one p l a c e t o a n o t h e r , it i m p l i e s a f a r m o r e c o m p l e x p r o c e s s :

the t r a n s f e r o f a r it u a l f r o m a p a r t i c u l a r c o n t e x t to a n o t h e r — t o

55 S e e tn o st r e c e n t l y U . V i c to r , Lukian von Samosata, Alexander oder Der

Lügenprophet ( L e i d e n , e t c. , 1 9 9 7) ; G . S f a m e n i G a s p a r r o , ' A l e s s a n d r o d i A b o -

nutico, l o " p s e u d o - p r o f e t a ' o v v e r o C o m e cons tru i r s i un ' ide nt i tä r e lig iosa I ' ,

Studi e M ateriali di Storia delle Religioni 62 (1996) (1998) , 565 -9 0 ; ead . ,

'Alessandro d i A b o n u t i c o , l o " p s e u d o - p r o f e t a " o v v e r o c o m e c o s tr u ir s iun'identitä r e l ig i o s a I I ' , i n C . B o n n e t a n d A . M o t t e ( e d s .) , Les syncretismes

religieux dans le monde mediterraneen antique. Actes du colloque international

en l'honneur de Franz Cum ont ( B r ü s se l s a n d R o m e , 1 9 9 9 ), 2 7 5 - 3 0 5 ; A . C h a -

niotis, ' O l d W i n e i n a N e w S k i n : T r a d i t i o n a n d I n n o v a t i o n i n t h e C u l t

Foundation o f A l e x a n d e r o f A b o n o u t e i c h o s ' , i n E . D a b r o w a ( e d. ), Tradition

and Innovation in the Ancient Wo rld ( K r a k o w , 2 0 0 2 ) , 6 7 - 8 5 . F o r th e in f lu e n c e

of m a g i c a l r it u al s o n A l e x a n d e r o f A b o n o u t e i c h o s , s ee A . M a s t r o c i n q u e ,

'Alessandro d i A b o n o u te i c h o s e la ma g ia ' , i n Imago A ntiquitatis. Religions et

iconographie du monde romain: Melanges offerts ä Robert Turcan (Par is , 1999) ,341-52.

56 S . C . B a r t o n a n d G . H . R . H o r s l e y , ' A H e l l e n i st i c C u l t G r o u p a n d

the N e w T e s t a m e n t C h u r c h ' , Jahrbuch für Antike und Christentum 24

(1981), 7 - 4 1 .

57 R e h m , Didyma, no . 285 . Fo r per sona l r e l ig ios i ty see F . G ra f , 'Be m er

kungen z u r b ü r g e r l i c h e n R e l ig io s it ä t im Z e i t a l t e r d e s H e l l e n i s m u s ' , in

M . W ö r r l e a n d P . Z a n k e r (e d s . ), Stadtbild und Bürgerbild im Hellenismus

(Munich, 1995) , 103 -14 .

Ritual Dynamics 165

a n e w s o c i a l c o n t e x t , a n e w c u l t i c c o n t e x t , a n e w i d e o -

logical c o n t e x t . M y la st e x a m p l e s a i m a t d e m o n s t r a t i n g t h i s

complex i ty .

T h e f i r s t c o n c e r n s t h e t r a n s f e r o f s a c r i f i c i a l r i t u a l s f r o m

the c u l t o f t h e g o d s t o t h e c u l t o f t h e d e a d , t h e r u l e r c u l t ,

and t h e a p p e a l t o s u p e r h u m a n p o w e r s i n m a g i c . I n a ll t h e s e

cases t h e t r a n s f e r is a c c o m p a n i e d e it h e r b y r e v e r s a l s o r b y

syncopations. I n t h e c a s e o f m a g i c , f o r i n s t a n c e , t h e s a c r i f i c e

takes p l a c e i n t h e d a r k a n d i n v o l v e s t h e k i l l i n g o f u n u s u a l

animals i n u n u s u a l w a y s . 5 8 A n a l o g o u s re v e rs a ls c a n b e o b s e r v e d

in t h e enagismoi o f f u n e r a r y c u l t ; i n t h e r u l e r c u l t , t h e d e m e n t o fprayer, i n t e g r a l p a r t o f t h e s a c r if i c e , h a r d l y p l a y s a n y r o l e . 5 9

M y s e c o n d e x a m p l e c o n c e r n s t h e t r a n s f e r o f a r i tu a l i n t o a

new i d e o l o g i c a l c o n t e x t . L e t u s t a k e a g a i n t h e r i tu a l o f b l o o d

sacrifice. U n t i l t h e l at e f o u r t h C e n t u r y A D it w a s a w i d e l y

attested a n d a c c e p t e d p r a c t i c e . I t w a s p e r f o r m e d in p r i v a t e

and i n t h e C o m m u n i t y ; it d i d n o t h a v e a l i m i n a l p o s i t i o n . O f

course t h i n g s c h a n g e d a f t e r t h e y e a r 3 9 1 , w h e n s a c r i fi c e s w e r e

forbidden. T h e s p o r a d i c P e r f o r m a n c e o f s a c r if ic e s , a t te s t ed b y

several i n s c r i p t i o n s a f t e r t h i s p r o h i b i t i o n ( e .g . t h e in s c r i p t i o n o f

the p r i e s t H e l l a d i o s in M e g a r a ) , a c q u i r e s a d i f f e r e n t m e a n i n g i n

the n e w h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t . I t is n o t j u s t t h e P e r f o r m a n c e o f a

custom, b u t t h e d e m o n s t r a t i v e d e f i a n c e o f C h r i s t i a n le g i sl a ti o n

and o b s e r v a n c e o f a n c i e n t c u s t o m s i n a p e r i o d o f r e l ig i o u s

intolerance.60 B u t e v e n b e f o r e t h e p r o h i b i t i o n , w e k n o w f r o m

58 G r a f , Gottesnähe, 203-4. C f . n o w S . I. J o h n s to n , ' S a c r if i c e in th e G r e e k

Magical Pa p y r i ' , i n P . M i r e c k i a n d M . M e y e r ( e d s .) , Magic and Ritual in the

Ancient World ( L e i d e n , 2 0 0 2 ), 3 4 4 - 5 8 .59 S . R . F . Pr ice , Rituals and Power: The Rom an Imperial Cult in Asia

Minor ( C a m b r i d g e , 19 8 4 ), 1 1 8 - 2 1 ; M . C l a u s s , Kaiser und Gott: Herrscherkult

im römischen Reich (S tu t tga r t and Le ip z i g , 1999) , 41 3 -1 9 . In the Eas t , the on ly

unecjüivocal re ference to a pray er (euche) to an em pe ror is in an inscr ip t ion at

Thyateira (IGRRP4A273, l ines 11 -13 ) . M o re pro b lem at ic are the re ferences

to euche in the con tex t o f the em pe ror cu l t in SE G 2 .718 and 45 .1719 . Fo r a

discussion s ee D . F i s h w i c k , ' V o t i v e O f f e r i n g s t o t he E m p e r o r ? ' , ZPE 8 0

(1990), 1 2 1 - 3 0 , a n d A . C h a n i o t i s , ' D e r K a i s e r k u l t i m O s t e n d e s R ö m i s c h e n

Reiches im K o n te x t d e r z e i tg e n ö s s is c h e n R i tu a lp r a x i s ' , i n H . C a n c ik a n d

K. H i t z l (e d s . ) , Die Praxis der Herrscherverehrung in Rom und seinen Provin

zen: Akten der Tagung in B laubeuren vom 4. bis 6. April 2002 ( T ü b i n g e n ,

2003), 3 - 2 8 .60 G e n e r a l s u r v e y o f t h e e v i d e n c e : F . R . T r o m b l e y , Hellenic religion

and Christianization, c.370-529 ( L e i d e n , 1 9 9 3 -4 ) . E x a m p l e s : A . C h a n i o t i s ,

i66 Ritual Dynamics

the f o u r t h C e n t u r y s e v e r a l c a se s o f l a te p a g a n s w h o e m p h a s i z e i n

their i n s c r i p t i o n s t h a t t h e y h a v e o b s e r v e d t h e p a g a n r it u a ls . N o t

so m a n y p e o p l e b o t h e r e d t o w r i t e e p i g r a m s c o m m e m o r a t i n g t h e

fact t h a t t h e y h a d o f f e r e d s a c r i f ic e s b e f o r e t h e f o u r t h C e n t u r y

AD. I n t h e p e r i o d o f a d v a n c i n g C h r is t i a n iz a t i o n m a n y d i d — f o r

example P l u t a r c h , praeses insularum d u r i n g th e re i g n o f J u l i a n ,

w h o m e n t i o n s i n a n e p i g r a m o n S a m o s t h e f a ct t h a t h e h a d

sacrificed i n t h e I d a e a n C a v e , 6 1 o r V e r a i n P a t m o s ( f o u r t h

Century), s e l e c t e d b y A r t e m i s t o b e h e r p r i e s t e s s ; a s a hydro-

phoros s h e c a m e t o P a t m o s f r o m L e b e d o s i n o r d e r t o c e l e b r a t e a

festival w h i c h i n c l u d e d t h e s a c r if ic e o f a p r e g n a n t s h e - g o a t .6 2

Fina l ly , r i t u a l t r a n s f e r m a y i m p l y a r a d i c a l c h a n g e i n t h e s o c i a l

context o f i ts P e r f o r m a n c e . I t h a s b e e n o b s e r v e d , f o r i n s t a n c e

that i n i t i a t o r y r i tu a l s i n e a r l y t i m e s p e r f o r m e d b y a ll t h e

member s o f a C o m m u n i t y , s u r v i v e d a s r i tu a l s o f a p r i v i l e g e d

group ( e . g . i n A t h e n s t h e r it u a l o f t h e arkteia).63

10 . C O N T E X T U A L I Z I N G M E D I T E R R A N E A N R I T U A L S

T h e p l e t h o r a o f ' M e d i t e r r a n e a n ' s t u d i e s m a k e s c le a r h o w

urgent t h e n e e d t o c o n c e p t u a l i z e t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n i s. T h i s

can o n l y w o r k i f it g o e s a l o n g w i t h t h e c o n t i n u a l e f f o r t t o

contextualize ' M e d i t e r r a n e a n ' p h e n o m e n a . I h o p e t h a t t h e

case s t u d i e s p r e s e n t e d h e r e h a v e s h o w n t h e n e c e s s i t y t o c o n

textualize r i tu a l s a n d r i tu a l b e h a v i o u r in t h e a n c i e n t M e d i t e r r a

nean a n d t h e i r s u r v i v a l s i n l at er p e r i o d s . T h e t i tl e o f t h e b o o kwi th w h i c h th e heros ktistes o f o u r c o m m o n s u b j e ct , F e r n a n d

Braudel, i n a u g u r a t e d M e d i t e r r a n e a n s t u d i es , r e m i n d s u s t ha t

the s t u d y o f t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n is t h e s t u d y o f h i s t o ri c a l c o n -

texts.

'Zwischen K o n f r o n t a t i o n u n d I n t e r a k ti o n : C h r i s t e n , J u d e n u n d H e i d e n i m

spätantiken A p h r o d i s i a s ' , i n C . A c k e r m a n n a n d K . E . M ü l l e r ( e ds .) , Patch-

work: Dimensionen multikultureller Gesellschaften (B ie le fe ld , 20 02) , 101—2.61 SEG 1 . 4 0 5 . F o r th e i d e n t i t y o f P l u t a r c h se e A . Ch a n i o t i s , ' P l u t a r c h o s ,

praeses I n s u l a r u m ' , ZPE 6 8 ( 1 9 8 7 ) , 2 2 7 - 3 1 .62 R . M e r k e l b a c h a n d J . S t a u b e r , Steinepigramm e aus dem griechischen Osten

(Stuttgart a n d L e i p z i g , 1 9 9 8 ) , i . 1 6 9 - 7 0 .63 O n th e arkteia s ee r e c e n t ly N . D e m a n d , Birth, Death, and Motherhood in

Classical Greece ( Ba l t i m o r e , 1 9 9 4 ) , 1 0 7 - 1 4 , a n d B . G e n t i i i a n d F . P e r u s i n o

(eds.), Le orse di Brauron: Un rituale di iniziazione femminile nel santuario di

Ritual Dynamics in the Eastern Mediterranean. Case Studies in Ancient Greece and Asia Minor

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