Research Part3

Research Methodology

Step 4: Deciding on the Methodology

d. Data collection:• Guidelines to Construct a Research Tool:• Research tool is instrument you use to collect data • It contains your variables (questions)• For oral and written questioning it is called

questionnaire• For focus group discussion it called topic guide• For observation it is called check list

Step 4: Deciding on the Methodology

• The tool should be valid and reliable • Valid means it should be able to measure what it is

intended for• A weighing scale is a valid instrument for measuring the

weight of persons• A weighing scale is not a valid instrument for measuring

the height of persons• The question (what is your age ?) is valid for measuring

the age• It is not valid for measuring gender

Step 4: Deciding on the Methodology

• Reliable means the instrument gives the same measurement every time it is used

• If I use a weighing scale to measure your weight twice and the reading was 60 kgs in both instances – the scale is reliable

• If I use a weighing scale to measure your weight twice and the reading was 60 kgs in first time and 70 in the second time– the scale is not reliable

•

Step 4: Deciding on the Methodology

• The Questionnaire: • A questionnaire consists of a set of questions

presented to a respondent for answers. • There are two basic types of questions: • Closed –ended • Open-ended

Step 4: Deciding on the Methodology

1.Closed –ended Questions: • Closed ended questions include all possible

answers/prewritten response categories, and respondents choose among them.

• e.g. multiple choice questions, scale questions • What is your marital status?

1. Married2. Never married3. Widow4. Divorced

Step 4: Deciding on the Methodology

2. Open-ended Questions: • Open-ended questions allow respondents to

answer in their own words. • Questionnaire leaves a blank section for the

response to write in an answer. • As there are no standard answers to these

questions, data analysis is more complex. • What is your age?……………………………….years

Step 4: Deciding on the Methodology

How to construct questionnaires: • Deciding which questionnaire to use- - closed

or open ended, or combination - self or interviewer administered

Step 4: Deciding on the Methodology

Wording and structure of questions • Questions should be kept short and simple• Avoid double barreled i.e. two questions in one –

ask two Qs rather than one. (do you eat meat and vegetables? 1. yes 2. no)

• Avoid double-negative questions- as it is confusing for respondent to agree or disagree. ( it is not good not to breast feed children: 1. yes 2. no)

Step 4: Deciding on the Methodology

• Avoiding Leading Question: Don’t lead the respondent to answer in a certain way ( it is good to wash hands before eating? 1. agree 2. do not agree).

Step 4: Deciding on the Methodology

• Using closed- ended questions- try to make sure that all possible answers are covered

• (What is your educational level? illiterate – primary school)

Step 4: Deciding on the Methodology

Length and ordering of the Questions: • Avoid unnecessary questions – these waste time for

interviewees, interviewers, data entry clerks, etc.• If combined questionnaire, keep open ended Qs for

the end. • Group the Qs. Into specific topic as this it makes it

easier to understand and follow. • Layout and spacing is important as cluttered

Questionnaire is less likely to be answered. • Put more straightforward questions first: leave

more sensitive questions till later

Step 4: Deciding on the Methodology

• Piloting the Questionnaire • Once you have constructed your questionnaire, you

must pilot it. • This means that you must test it out to see if it is

obtaining the result you require (valid). • This is done by asking people to read it through and see

if there are any ambiguities which you have not noticed. • They should also be asked to comment about the length,

structure and wording of the questionnaire • Alter the questions accordingly

Step 4: Deciding on the Methodology

Ethical issues in research:i)Seeking consent: • it is unethical to collect information without the

knowledge of the participant, and their expressed willingness and informed consent.

• Informed consent means that you tell subjects about the type of information you want from them

• The consent should be voluntary and without pressure of any kind.

Step 4: Deciding on the Methodology

Ethical issues in research:• ii) Providing incentives: • Is it ethical to provide incentives to

respondents to share information with you because they are giving their time?

• Giving a present before data collection is unethical.

Step 4: Deciding on the Methodology

Ethical issues in research:• iii) The possibility of causing harm to participant: • When you collect data from respondents or

involve subjects in an experiment, you need to examine carefully whether their involvement is likely to harm them in any way.

• Harm includes hazardous experiments, discomfort, anxiety, harassment, invasion of privacy

Step 4: Deciding on the Methodology

Ethical issues in research:• iv) Maintaining confidentiality: • Sharing information about a respondent with

others for purposes other than research is unethical.

Step 4: Deciding on the Methodology

Analysis of data:• Data can be analysed either manually or with the

help of a computer• Manual Data Analysis: • This can be done if the number of respondents is

reasonably small, and there are not many variables to analyse.

• If you want to carry out statistical tests, they have to be calculated manually.

Step 4: Deciding on the Methodology

• Data Analysis Using a Computer: • If you want to analyse data using computer,

you should be familiar with the appropriate program.

• In this area, knowledge of computer and statistics plays an important role.

• The most common software is SPSS for windows.

Table 1: distribution of first year students at college of medicine- 2014

Gender Frequency Percent Male 54 45.0female 66 55.0Total 120 100

Table 2: distribution of first year students at college of medicine- 2014

Age < 16 years 20 16.716 – 18 years 80 66.7> 18 years 20 16.7Total 120 100

Table 3: relationship between smoking and lung cancer

• Here you have to use the chi square test to see if a relationship really exists or it is due to chance

Age Ca lung No ca lung

Total

Smokers 25 15 40Non smokers 10 30 40Total 35 45 80

5. Interpretation of results• You interpret results by comparing it with results of other

similar studies• 55% of the students are females- what does this imply?• Compare with the % of females in other colleges in IUA• If females are more in all colleges this may mean that females

are more than males in general population that is why they are more in college

• If no, compare with % of females in other colleges in medicine locally and internationally

• If females are more this may mean females work harder and get better marks – or males prefer other studies ( engineering)

Step6: REPORTING THE FINDINGS:

• Writing the report is the last, and for many, the most difficult step of the research process.

• The report informs the world what you have done, what you have discovered and what conclusions you have drawn from your findings.

• The report should be written in an academic style. • Language should be formal and not journalistic.

Step6: REPORTING THE FINDINGS

Written Research Project Report Format• Traditional written reports tend to be produced in the

following format. • Title Page • -Title of the Research Project, • -Name of the researcher, • -Purpose of the research project, e.g. “ A research

project submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements of MBBS”

• -Date of Publication

Step6: REPORTING THE FINDINGS

• Acknowledgements • Here the researcher may acknowledge

Institute Principal, Faculty Guide-both research guide and technical guide, research participants, friends etc.

Step6: REPORTING THE FINDINGS

• Introduction • This section introduces the research subject,

and description of the problem• It includes a rationale for the research. • Research objectives:• General and specific

Step6: REPORTING THE FINDINGS

• Review of Literature • In this section is included all your background

research which may be obtained from the literature review.

Step6: REPORTING THE FINDINGS

• Materials and Methods:• Research design: • Study area• Study population• Sampling• Data collection techniques and tools• Data analysis• Ethical issues

Step6: REPORTING THE FINDINGS

• Results: • this section may contain tables, graphs, pie

charts and associated statistics. • Discussion:• Interpretation of results using literature

Step6: REPORTING THE FINDINGS

• Conclusion: • In this section you sum up your findings and

draw conclusions from them, perhaps in relation to your objectives

• Recommendations • A list of clear recommendations which have

been developed from the research is included-

Step6: REPORTING THE FINDINGS

• List of references contains details only of those works cited in the text.

• The popular referencing system Harvard System lists books and periodicals in the following manner:

Step6: REPORTING THE FINDINGS

• For Books• 1.Authors surname ( alphabetically), followed

by their initials, • 2.Date of publication • 3.Title of book in italics • 4.Place of publication, Publisher. e.g. Philip,

T.E.; 1986 , Modern Cookery for Teaching and Trade, Mumbai, Orient Longman.

Step6: REPORTING THE FINDINGS

• For Journal Article: • The title of the article appears in inverted commas

and name of the journal comes in italics, followed by volume number and pages of the article. e.g.

• Philip, T.E.; “Factors associated with exclusive breastfeeding practices among mothers in Goba district, south east Ethiopia: a cross-sectional study”; International Breastfeeding Journal; 5:5-11

Step6: REPORTING THE FINDINGS

• Appendices: • If you have constructed a questionnaire or Interview

schedule • for your research, it may be useful to include them

in your report as an appendix. • Appendices do not count towards your total number

of pages/words. It is a useful way of including relevant material so that the examiner can gain a deeper understanding of your work by reading it.

• Reference• Dawson, Catherine, 2002, Practical Research

Methods, New Delhi, UBS Publishers’ Distributors, • Kothari, C.R.,1985, Research Methodology-

Methods and Techniques, New Delhi, Wiley Eastern Limited.

• Kumar, Ranjit, 2005, Research Methodology-A Step-by-Step Guide for Beginners , (2nd .ed), Singapore, Pearson Education