Remaking the case for linking relief, rehabilitation and development

HPGHumanitarianPolicy Group

Remaking the case for linking relief, rehabilitation and developmentHow LRRD can become a practically useful concept for assistance in difficult places

Irina Mosel and Simon Levine

March 2014

HPG Commissioned Report

About the authors

Irina Mosel and Simon Levine are researchers with the Humanitarian Policy Group (HPG) at the Overseas Development Institute (ODI).

Acknowledgements

Many thanks to Kathleen White for valuable early help in our research and thinking, and to Rachel Slater and Margie Buchanan-Smith for helping to stimulate our thinking on the problem of the practical application of LRRD as this paper was being prepared. Many people working in development and humanitarian action gave very generously of their time, knowledge and ideas in interviews. Thanks too to Barbara Kobler, Sebastian Wigele and Hanna Maier for their comments on earlier drafts of this paper. Particular thanks to BMZ for funding the study, and to GIZ for their constructive engagement during the writing of this paper. The opinions expressed in this paper are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of ODI, BMZ or GIZ.

Humanitarian Policy GroupOverseas Development Institute203 Blackfriars RoadLondon SE1 8NJUnited Kingdom

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© Overseas Development Institute, 2014

Readers are encouraged to quote or reproduce materials from this publication but, as copyright holders, ODI requests due acknowledgement and a copy of the publication. This and other HPG Reports are available from www.odi.org.uk/hpg.

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Introduction 1

WhydoweneedtothinkaboutLRRD? 3

2.1AshorthistoryoftheLRRDconcept 3

2.2Inter-relationsbetweendifferentconcepts 4

2.3ChallengestotheimplementationofLRRDandhowtheyhave 6

beenaddressed

2.4WhyisLRRDbackontheagenda? 8

WhatareothersthinkinganddoingwithregardtoLRRD? 9

CharacteristicsofcountriestargetedforTDAandthepractical 11implicationsforprogramming4.1CharacteristicsoftargetcountriesforTDA 11

4.2Practicalimplicationsforthewayassistanceisdelivered 11

WhatwouldagoodLRRDprogrammelooklike? 13

5.1KeyprinciplesofagoodLRRDprogramme 13

5.2Can‘LRRD-ness’beevaluated? 16

PracticalimplicationsoftakingLRRDseriously 17

References 21

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Contents

�� Remakingthecaseforlinkingrelief,rehabilitationanddevelopment

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1Introduction

Policymakersandaidactorshavebeengrapplingfordecadeswithquestionsofhowtobettersupportvulnerablepeopleaffectedbyprotractedorrecurrentcrises,andhowtocreateamoreseamlessfitbetweenshort-termlife-savinginterventionsandlong-termeffortstoreducechronicpovertyorvulnerability.Theideaoflinkingreliefanddevelopment,andlater‘linkingrelief,rehabilitationanddevelopment’(LRRD),seemsintuitivelysimple,buttherehasbeenmuchdebateabouthowitshouldbedefinedconceptually,howtoputitintopracticeandtheimplicationsthishasfortheaidarchitecture.WhileunderstandingofLRRDhasbecomeincreasinglysophisticated,evidencedbythegrowingamountofliteratureonthetopic,1theconcepthasbeenputintopracticeonlytoaverylimitedextent.Withthecurrentshiftofattentiontowards‘resilience’,therehashoweverbeenrenewedinterestintheconceptofLRRD.Manyseethecurrentfocusandpoliticalinterestthattheconceptofresiliencecommandsasthebestopportunityyettooperationalisethelinksbetweenreliefanddevelopment.

TheGermanFederalMinistryforEconomicCooperationandDevelopment(BMZ)hasestablished

aspecialfundinginstrument2fortransitionaldevelopmentassistance(TDA)toprovideaidincountrieswhereatransitionfrompredominantlyemergencyaidtomorelonger-termdevelopmentisaimedfor,inprotractedcrisesandcountriesinconflictorathighriskofdisasters(BMZ,2013b).Interventionsbeingfinancedbythisorsimilarbudgettitleswillhavetodealwiththerangeofneeds,fromacutecrisistostructuralvulnerability,whicharethesubjectofLRRD.ThispaperhasbeencommissionedbyBMZtolookatthechallengestothepracticalimplementationofLRRD,theextenttowhichthesechallengeshavebeenovercomeandhowtheconceptcouldbemostusefullyemployedtoday.Itissignificant,weargue,thatsuchananalysisoriginatesfromadevelopmentagency3ratherthanahumanitarianone.ThispaperfindsthatthepracticaluptakeandimpactoftheideascontainedinLRRDcouldbetransformedifitwerenolongerthoughtofaslinkingdifferentkindsofaid,butratherasprovidingsupportholisticallyacrossawidespectrumofcircumstancesandneeds.

1 ForanoverviewoftheliteratureseeforexampleBuchanan-SmithandMaxwell(1994);Buchanan-SmithandFabbri(2005);HarmerandMacrae(2004);Steets(2011);OttoandWeingärtner(2013).

2 TDAisafundinginstrumentwithinBMZ’sdevelopmentassistance,butitisalsoastrategyandaprogrammaticconceptthatisvalidbeyondthebudgettitle.

3 Germangovernmentalassistanceisdeliveredbytwoministries.Developmentassistance(includingtransitionaldevelopmentassistance)isunderBMZ,whilstemergencyreliefisundertheGermanFederalForeignOffice(AA).

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2.1AshorthistoryoftheLRRDconcept

TherootsofthecurrentdebateonLRRDcanbetracedbacktothefoodsecuritycrisesinAfricainthe1980s.Muchoftheinitialthinkingwasinformedbythecontextofnaturaldisastersandfocusedlargelyonriskreductionefforts(Christoplos,2006).UnderlyingtheinitialconceptualisationofLRRDwasalinearone-waytransitionfromaphaseofrelieftoaphaseofdevelopment–the‘continuum’model.Accordingtothisthinking,‘links’mainlyentailedapplyingexitstrategiestopreparethegroundforthenextaidphase.Criseswereseenas‘outliers’disturbingthe‘normal’developmentpath.ThisearlyperiodofthinkingaboutLRRDwasdrivenbypreoccupationsthatremainstrongtoday:theperceivedincreaseinthefrequencyandintensityofdisasters,theincreasedneedforemergencyreliefandthestrainthiswasputtingonaidbudgets(Buchanan-SmithandMaxwell,1994).Throughoutthe1990s,this‘linear’conceptualisationofLRRDwasadaptedtorespondtothechallengesofwhatwerethenknownascomplexpoliticalemergencies.

Permeatingthisinitialanalysiswasaperceptionthatemergencieswerecostly,‘disrupting’or‘displacing’developmentanddemandinglongperiodsofrehabilitation(Buchanan-SmithandMaxwell,1994).Theideaputforwardwasthat‘linking’reliefanddevelopmentcouldhelpaddresssomeofthesechallenges:‘better“development”canreducetheneedforemergencyrelief;better“relief”cancontributetodevelopment;andbetter“rehabilitation”caneasethetransitionbetweenthetwo’(ibid.).Thelinkinthismodelwasarguablymoreanalyticalthanempirical,seekingtohighlightthatdevelopmentwasinsensitivetocrisisandthatemergencyaidwasshort-terminnatureandinsensitivetotheinterventionsthatfollowedit.Thisearlythinkingalreadypointedtoaneedtodomorethanworryabouthowtwoformsofaidwerelinked,buttoreformassistancealongthewholespectrum.

AnalystslikeBuchanan-SmithandMaxwell(1994),Longhurst(1994)andDuffield(1994)challengedtheideaofa‘linear’LRRDmodel,andtheconceptofanaid‘continuum’wasslowlyreplacedbythe‘contiguum’4modeloverthe1990s.Evenso,linearthinkingaboutLRRDhascontinuedtopermeatemostsubsequentpolicydiscussionsandformulations(ibid.;Buchanan-SmithandFabbri,2005).Theterm‘LRRD’implicitlyimplieslinearitybyfocusingonmovementfromonestagetoanotherinonedirection,ratherthanemphasisingdifferentwaysofworkingthatmayrequiremovementsin‘both’directionsandbetweenallofthedifferentstages.

ThekeyECCommunications5onLRRD(EC,1996;EC,2001)clearlydemonstratethepitfallsofthislinearapproach.WhilethefirstCommunicationin1996embracesthelinearityoftheconcept(thoughwithacautionaryfootnotehighlightingthattheterm‘contiguum’maybemoreappropriate),thesecondCommunicationof2001,whileinprincipleacceptingtheneedtoapplydifferentinstrumentssimultaneously,neverthelesscontinuestoemphasisethatfillingthe‘gaps’andavoiding‘greyzones’6ininternationalassistancewouldleadtobetteraid(EC,2001).7Naturally,theremediesproposedcentredmainlyaroundincreasingcoherenceandcoordinationamongthedifferentactorsinvolved.TheEuropeanConsensusonHumanitarianAidof2007reaffirmsthecommitmenttoLRRD,andwithittheneedtosmoothtransitionsandensurebetterlinksbetweendifferent

2 Whydoweneedtothink aboutLRRD?

4 The‘continuummodel’commonlyreferstoasequentialunderstandingofthetransitionfromrelieftodevelopment,whereasthe‘contiguummodel’impliesthatallinstruments(whetherrelief,rehabilitationordevelopment)maybeappropriatesimultaneously.

5 A‘Communication’isaEuropeanCommissionpolicydocument.

6 A‘greyzone’inthiscontextrefersmostcommonlytothepresumedfundinggapthatexistsbetweenhumanitariananddevelopmentassistanceinprotractedcrises.

7 SeealsoCispandVoice(2001).

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formsofassistance(EC,2007).However,inthisfocusonthe‘greyzone’inaiddeliverytheconcernwasforbetterlinksinorderto‘fillthegaps’,ratherthanthewayinwhicheitherreliefordevelopmentassistanceactuallyworked.Moresignificantly,itdidnotaddressthefundamentalproblemthatdevelopmentassistanceisfrequentlyabsentinprotractedcrises,leavingitunclearwhatreliefshouldactuallybelinkingto.TheECCommunicationonResilience(EC,2012),althoughnotusingthelanguageofLRRD,dididentifyaneedforinvestmentinakindofdevelopmentassistance(i.e.resilience-building)inprotractedcrises,evenifitdidnotspecificallydiagnosetheproblemofitscurrentabsence.

Theso-called‘secondgeneration’ofLRRDapproaches(HarmerandMacrae,2004)ofthelate1990s,andinparticularafterthe9/11attacksintheUnitedStates,hasshiftedthefocustolinkingassistancemorecloselytopoliticalandsecurityobjectivesinfragilestates,andthediscoursearoundstabilisationandearlyrecovery(see ibid.;Baileyetal.,2009).Donorshaveintroduced‘wholeofgovernment’approaches,wheredifferentdepartments(political,security,economic),aswellasthoseresponsiblefordevelopmentandhumanitarianpolicy,workmorecloselytogether,attimesthroughcommonfundinginstrumentssuchastheUK’sConflictPool.TheprospectthatassistancecouldnowbemoreintimatelytiedtopoliticalandsecuritygoalshasraisedchallengesnotonlywithregardtoLRRD(andtheapplicationofhumanitarianprincipleswhenlinkinghumanitariananddevelopmentassistance)butalsowithregardtoaperceivederosionofthedistinctionbetweensecurityandforeignpolicyandaid.ThishasfundamentallychangedtheargumentstraditionallydrivingtheLRRDdebate,fromafocusonhowtobetteraddressneedsinrecurrentcrisestothepoliticalmotivationsbehindaidallocation(HarmerandMacrae,2004;Buchanan-SmithandFabbri,2005).

Manyofthechallengesidentifiedinthedecades-longLRRDdebatepersisttoday.Whiletherehavebeensomechangesinthewaythatreliefisdeliveredandconceptualised–forexamplethroughcashtransfersandastrongerfocusonexitstrategiesandsustainability–therehavebeenfewerchangesinthewaydevelopmentassistanceisbeingprovidedandtargetedinprotractedcrises,andbureaucraticandbifurcatedinstitutionalarrangementsremaininplace.

2.2Inter-relationsbetweendifferentconcepts

TherecentcomebackofLRRDowessomethingtoanumberofdifferentyetinterrelateddebates,whicharebrieflysummarisedbelow.8

Resilience.Manyseetherenewedinterestandpoliticalcapitalbehindtheconceptof‘resilience’asthebestopportunityyettoachieveprogressonLRRD.Muchofthediscourseonresilienceisaboutitbringingtogetherdevelopmentandhumanitarianactors(andothers),whichmakesLRRDoneofthemeansofachievingtheoverallgoalofresilience.(Theconceptofresilienceisbroader,notonlyencompassingpeopleincrisesbutalsothosevulnerabletocrises.)Resiliencemayalsoprovideagoodentrypointforintegratedprogramminganddialogueacrossdifferentsectors(OttoandWeingärtner,2013).Oxfam(2013:5),forexample,notesthat‘buildingresiliencewillmeanbreakingdownthebarriersbetweenhumanitariananddevelopmentapproachesmorefundamentallythaneverbefore.Responsestohumanitarianandeconomiccrisesneedtobebroughttogetherwithresponsestofosterlong-termdevelopment’,aviewechoedinalmostallwritingonresilience.(SeeLevineandMosel(2014)forafullerdiscussionofresilienceindifficultplaces,whichisthecoreprincipleofBMZ’sTDAstrategy.)

Theconceptofresiliencealsostressestheneedtoreformbothreliefanddevelopmentassistancesothattheycanworkmorecloselytogetherinthesamecountries.Hence,afocusonresiliencecouldprovideanopportunitytoa)reformdevelopmentassistanceandmakesurethatitisdeployedmoreofteninprotractedcrisesandpaysattentiontothemostvulnerable;andb)reformhumanitarianaidsothatitemphasisestheneedforlonger-termandjointplanningstrategieswiththedevelopmentsidebeyondjustexitstrategies(e.g.multi-yearhumanitarianfunding).9Thereisafrequentlystatedbeliefthataidforbuildingresiliencecanpreventcrisesand

8 ThissectionhighlightsonlysomeoftherelateddebateswhichtheauthorsfeelaremostimportantinrelationtoLRRD.SeeOttoandWeingärtner(2013)foramorecomprehensiveoverview.

9 DFIDhasintroducedfour-yearmulti-annualhumanitarianfunding,anddiscussionsareunderwaytowardsintroducingmulti-annualCAPs.

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reducetheneedforemergencyrelief,10thoughcredibleevidencefortheprobablefutureimpactofinternationalaidforresilience-buildingontheneedsandcostsofhumanitarianreliefhasnotbeenproducedtosubstantiatethis.Resilience incrises,asopposedtoresiliencetocrises,isnotyethighenoughontheagenda.Resiliencecouldprovidenewimpetusforthinkingdifferentlyaboutaidincrises,bringingaboutanewfocusonhowdevelopmentaidlinkstoemergencyaidandhowemergencyaidlinkstodevelopment(whatwedescribebelowas‘two-wayLRRD’).Lastly,whereasLRRDreferstolinksbetweenkindsofaid,theconceptof‘resilience’refersdirectlytothelivesandcapacitiesofpeopleinsituationspronetocrises.Thisoughttohelpshiftthefocusofdiscussionawayfromhow‘we’organise‘our’aid,andtowardsthelivesofpeoplesufferingfromcrises.

Rights-based approaches.Rights-basedapproachesthatfocusonduty-bearers’responsibilitiesandpeople’sabilitytoclaimtheirrights,ratherthantheirneeds,havebeenidentifiedbysomeanalystsasmorepromisingavenuesforpracticalapplicationsoftheLRRDapproach(Buchanan-SmithandFabbri,2005;Slim,2000;Christoplos,2006).Suchapproachescanprovideaframeworkforlinkingreliefanddevelopmentbyshiftingthefocustounderlyingproblems,suchasthedenialofrightsandfreedomsthatisoftenattherootofvulnerabilityandpoverty.However,whiletheyprovideawelcomefocusongovernance,theypresupposetheexistenceoffunctioningnationalorlocalstateinstitutionsbothwillingandabletotakeuptheirresponsibilitiesfortheircitizens’welfare.Iftheseconditionsarepresentthenaprotractedcrisisisunlikely,sincesuchcrisesaretypicallyasymptomofweakorcontestedgovernanceoranabsenceofpoliticalinterestincitizens’needs.11Theseapproachescanhoweverbeusefulinemphasisingtheimportanceofchanginglocalinstitutionalrelationshipsandlinksbetweenpeopleandthestate(Christoplos,2006).

Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR).ThecloseassociationbetweenLRRDanddisasterspresentatthebeginningofthedebateinthe1980shasrecentlycomebackto

theforewiththeprominenceregainedbytheconceptofDRRintheaftermathofthe2004IndianOceantsunami,theWorldConferenceonDisasterReductioninKobeandtheHyogoFrameworkforActionin2005–andwithincreasingrecognitionofthelikelyconsequencesofclimatechange.TherelevanceofLRRDtoDRRliesinthecallfortheintegrationofmoredisasterriskreductionmeasuresindevelopmentassistance(so-calledDRR‘mainstreaming’).DRRhasusuallybeenusedwithalargelytechnicalfocus,withlessattentiontothepolitical,socialandeconomicaspectsunderpinningrepeatedcrises.12Theconceptisalsoalmostentirelyappliedtonaturaldisasters,thoughsomedonors,suchasDFID,arealsobeginningtousethetermDRRor‘disasterresilience’inconflictsettings(DFID,2012).TheconceptofDRRanditsfocusondifferentriskreductionmeasures–whileseekingtoreformthewaydevelopmentassistanceworksbymakingitmorerisksensitive–stilltendstoseecrisesasindependentlydetermined(‘stochastic’),ratherthancreatedatleastinpartbytheconditionsinasociety.Manywhohavebeencriticalofthispoliticallyblindapproacharehopingthatresiliencewillserveasawayofkeepingafocusonriskreductionindevelopment,butwithinastrongerunderstandingofvulnerability.Early recovery wasintroducedaspartofthehumanitarianreformprocessin2005,and‘earlyrecoveryclusters’weresetupwithintheemergencyresponsearchitecture.TheconceptismainlypromotedbytheUnitedNationsDevelopmentProgramme(UNDP),thedesignatedclusterlead,whichdefinesearlyrecoveryasa‘multidimensionalprocessguidedbydevelopmentprinciplesthatbeginsinahumanitariansetting,andseekstobuildonhumanitarianprogrammesandcatalysesustainabledevelopmentopportunities’(UNDP,2008).Conceptuallyitisunclearwhetherearlyrecoveryappliesto‘developmentalrelief’(i.e.makingreliefmore‘developmental’)orto‘rehabilitation’.Inpracticetheconcepthasbeenusedmainlyinreliefprogramming.Itfocusesonapplyingdevelopmentprinciplesearlyoninanintervention,aswellasensuringappropriateexitstrategiesforhandingovertonationalinstitutionsandorganisations.Theemphasisisnotonreformingthewayreliefanddevelopmentactorsworkinpractice.Theconceptisanadministrativecreationoftheaidbureaucracy,notanewanalytical

10EC(2013)goesevenfurtherthanhopingforthisasanoutcomebystatingthatthe‘determinantofsuccess[oftheActionPlanforResilienceinCrisisProneCountries]willbeareductioninhumanitarianneeds’.

11ThisparallelsAmartyaSen’soft-quotedobservationthatfaminesdonotoccurindemocracieswherethereisafreepress(e.g.Sen(1993),amongmanyothers).

12Foranin-depthanalysisofdisastersandriskfromapoliticallyinformedperspectiveofvulnerability,Wisneretal.(2003)remainsessentialreading.

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tool.Asaresultithasbeencriticisedforbeingtoovaguetobeusefullyappliedtosituationsontheground,andassuchprovideslittlebywayofmeaningfulconceptualorpracticalguidancefortheapplicationofLRRD(Bailey,2011).

Rehabilitation.MuchoftheearlyliteratureonLRRDassigned‘rehabilitation’aspecialfunctionnotlimitedtorepairingthephysicaloreconomicdamagewroughtbycrises.Buchanan-SmithandMaxwell(1994),forexample,highlightthat‘rehabilitation’providesanopportunityfor‘morethanareturntothestatusquo’.TheECdefinesrehabilitationas‘anoverall,dynamicandintermediatestrategyofinstitutionalreformandreinforcement,ofreconstructionandimprovementofinfrastructureandservices,supportingtheinitiativesandactionsofthepopulationsconcerned,inthepolitical,economicandsocialdomains,andaimedtowardstheresumptionofsustainabledevelopment’.Rehabilitationwasinitiallyverymuchseenasthe‘bridge’betweenreliefanddevelopment(EC,1996):notjustaplaceholder‘inthemiddle’,butanapproachthathadadifferentcontentthaneitherreliefordevelopment,focusedonrebuildingstructuresandinstitutionsinabetterway.

Whiletherearemanyotherdefinitionsofrehabilitationintheliterature–andthereisstillconsiderableconfusionsurroundingtheconcept–onecommonelementisthe‘strategicdimensionofrehabilitation’(Dieci,2006),whichrequires‘theattentionofavarietyofactorswithdifferentmandates’anda‘combinationofdifferenttypesofintervention’.Therehabilitation‘phase’wasthusseenasaspecialopportunitytoengagein‘development’inmoretransformativewaysbecausethe‘system’maybeinastateoffluxorfragilitythatcanbecapitalisedon.Itisa‘windowofopportunity’–ratherthanaparticularsetofneedsthatpeoplehaveduringthatparticular‘phase’.Theideaofrehabilitationbecomesmoredifficulttoapplytoprotractedcrises,asthereisnotjustone‘window’afteracrisisbutseveral‘windows’thatmayopenorclose,dependingonthenatureofthecrisis/crises.(Re)-establishinginstitutionsisalsoafundamentallydifferenttaskincrisissettingsthaninnon-crisisenvironments.Rehabilitationisthusnotaseparate‘phase’distinctfromother‘phases’,norisita‘bridge’betweentwokindsofaid.Instead,itcouldmoreusefullybeseenasaparticularkindofdevelopmentwithinthedevelopment‘phase’,whichtakesintoaccounttheopportunitiesforsubstantivetransformationthatmayopenupbefore,duringoraftercrises.TheseideashavesincebeenpickedupinBuildBackBetterapproaches,thoughthereisasimilarlackofcommonunderstandingabouttheextent

towhichthisshouldbeatechnicalorpoliticalprocess,andhowshort-andlonger-termapproachesshouldfittogethertoachievetheobjectivesof‘buildingbackbetter’(Fan,2013).

ConnectednesswasincludedinthesevenOECDDACcriteriaforevaluatingaidincomplexemergencies(OECDDAC,1999).Thetermoriginallyreferredonlytoemergencyprogramming(i.e.projects)andstressedtheneed‘toensurethatactivitiesofashorttermemergencynaturearecarriedoutinacontextthattakeslonger-termandinterconnectedproblemsintoaccount’(ALNAP,2006).Itgrewoutofaconcernthatemergencyaidcouldunderminelonger-termstructuresandwouldneedtohandovertogovernmentorotheraidactorsassoonaspossible.Thetermishencelessaboutagapthanabout‘pre-transitioning’or‘pre-linking’fromrelieftowhatevercomesafterwards.Unliketheterm‘LRRD’,whichcanreferto‘two-waylinks’(thewayrelieflinkstodevelopmentassistanceanddevelopmentassistancelinkstorelief),connectednesshasbeenusedtodesignatea‘one-sidedlink’–namelytheneedtolinkemergencyaidmorecloselytolonger-termgoalsandstructures.

Thereisadearthofwritingaboutwhattodowiththeconceptof‘connectedness’.Thereisonlyonesetofguidelinesforthepracticalapplicationoftheterm(ALNAP,2006),whichsuggestsusingitinevaluationstogivemoreattentiontotheconceptsofsustainability,partnershipsandlocalownership.ALNAPstressesinitsguidethatevaluatorsshouldlookspecificallyatthenatureofpartnershipsbetweeninternationalandnationalNGOs,howtheycameaboutandhowtheyweresupported.Itemphasisesthatdevelopinglinksandcapacityisimportant(whetherwithlocalorganisationsorlocalornationalgovernmentsatalllevelsof‘civilsociety’).Connectednessinthissense–eventhoughconceptuallydifferentfromLRRD–becomesanimportantpartofthinkingaboutlinksbetweenreliefanddevelopment,aswellasbetweendevelopmentandrelief.

2.3ChallengestotheimplementationofLRRDandhowtheyhavebeenaddressed

Themostfundamentalchallengetooperationalising‘LRRD’remainsreconcilingthefundamentallydifferentinstitutionalcultures,assumptions,values,structuresand

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waysofworkingthatcharacterisethe‘humanitarian’andthe‘development’‘communities’.Macrae(2012)describeshowthedividehasbeencreatedbytwofundamentallydifferentparadigms.Developmentassistanceintheimmediatepost-colonialperiodwasmainlydeliveredthroughgovernmentsandaimedatstrengtheningthem.Asawarenessgrewinthe1980sthatgovernmentswereoftenunableorunwillingtoprovidefortheircitizens,theaidarchitecturebecameincreasinglybifurcated:humanitarianaidwasmainlyaimedatsavingthelivesofindividuals,andhadtoworkaroundrecalcitrantgovernmentstodothis,whiledevelopmentassistancewasaimedatsupportingsystemsandinstitutionsandwasdeliveredprimarilythroughgovernments(Macrae,2012).Thisfundamentaldistinctionaroundwhoorwhataparticularkindofaidisforandhowitistobedeliveredcreatesobstaclestochangingthewayinwhichreliefanddevelopmentassistanceiscarriedout.Itmayalsoexplainthedifficultiesaidactorsfaceindeployingdevelopmentassistanceinconflictsettingswherethereisoftennogovernmentalstructuretoworkwith.Differentdonorcountries’institutionalarrangements,includingtheGermanaidarchitecture,whereBMZfocuseson‘developmentcooperation’andtheGermanForeignOfficeon‘emergencyrelief’,mirrorthisunderstandingofaid.

Thepracticalapplicationof‘LRRD’alsoraisesquestionsregardingtheindependenceandneutralityofhumanitarianaid,inparticularinthewakeofmovestowardsgreaterUNintegration(Metcalfeetal.,2011)andtheincreasedpoliticisationofaidsince9/11(HarmerandMacrae,2004).Manyhumanitarianactorswouldstillinsistthatnotworkingwithstateinstitutions(anddevelopmentactorswhoseresponsibilityitistobuildthecapacityoflocalinstitutions)isthebestwaytosafeguardhumanitarianprinciplesinconflict.However,asanalystssuchasMacrae(2012)argue,workingwithstateinstitutionsdoesnotmeanditchinghumanitarianprinciplesbuttakinghighlypragmatic,context-specificdecisionsonwhetherworkingwithlocalinstitutionsisintheinterestsofthemostvulnerable.AsCollinsonandElhawary(2012)pointout,‘humanitarianspace’hasalwaysbeendeeplypoliticalandhencestrongpoliticalandcontextanalysishasalwaysbeennecessary,particularlybyhumanitarians,inordertosafeguardhumanitarianprinciples.Workingwithcolleaguesfromthedevelopment‘side’could,asseveraldonorsandaidagenciesinterviewedforthisstudypointedout,ineffecthelpbothhumanitariansanddevelopment

actorsdividetasksmoreeasilyandmakedecisionsinapoliticallyinformedway.

AthirdchallengetooperationalisingLRRDhasbeenthelackofclarityabouttheproblemstheconceptisactuallytryingtoaddress.Therearenoagreeddefinitionsofwhattheconceptoranyofitscomponents–relief,rehabilitationanddevelopment–mean,orwhereeachcomponentstartsorends(OttoandWeingärtner,2013).Thisraisesthequestionofwhatitscomponents(‘R-R-D’)areactuallytryingtolinkupto,andwhethertheconceptactuallyreferstoa‘bridge’betweenreliefanddevelopment,andifsowhatkind.Itisalsounclearwhethertheconceptreferstoalineartransition(asitsnameseemstoimply)orwhetheritreferstonon-linear,unpredictablephasesthatoverlap.AsSteets(2011:3)highlights,theconcepthasbeenusedwithvaryingemphasistomeanoneofthreethings:1)theearlyapplicationofdevelopmentprinciplesinemergencysettings;2)a‘smoothtransition’fromemergencyaidandsustainableinterventionsontheground;and3)theintegrationofpreventionandDRRelementsindevelopmentcooperation.

LRRDcouldbetakentorefertoeitherabureaucraticorstructuralissue(e.g.afundingmechanism),aprogrammaticmechanism(aparticularkindofprogrammecontent)oramodality(i.e.anexitstrategyorthewayinwhichassistanceisdelivered).Thecommonlyheldideaofatemporalfundinggapbetweena‘humanitarian’anda‘developmental’phasehasprovenuntenable(Steets,2011).Instead,thereissomeevidencethatafundinggapexistsforrecoveryactivitiesandstrongevidencethatfragilestatesorstatesinprotractedcrisesdonotreceivesufficientdevelopmentsupport(ibid.).Thefundamentalproblemofreformingthewaydevelopmentassistanceisdeliveredinemergenciesandprotractedcriseshasyettobeaddressed–achallengerecognisedintheestablishmentofTDA.

AfourthchallengehasbeenthatLRRDreferssolelytothewayweorganiseouraid,ratherthantheneedstheaidissupposedtoaddress.WhilemuchhasbeenwrittenaboutthevariousconceptsofLRRD,thebiggestlacunaintheliteratureandresearchisinlookingatwhatLRRDactuallymeansforpeopleontheground,andhowtheycanbestbesupported(Buchanan-SmithandFabbri,2005).InthissenseLRRDhasbeenabout‘our’solutionscontributingto‘their’LRRD’,i.e.thelinksthatpeoplethemselvesmakewiththeinstitutions(formalorinformal)andorganisationsthataffecttheirdailylives(Christoplos,2006).

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2.4WhyisLRRDbackontheagenda?

MuchoftheLRRDdebatehasbeendrivenbyhumanitarianactors(asisthecasewithresilience).Theconcepthasneverbecomeacentralpreoccupationofdevelopmentassistance.Thishasconsistentlyreinforcedthe‘one-way’linearityoftheconcept,asthekeypreoccupationhasbeenaboutlinksfromrelieftodevelopment(‘whendoIhandoverwhattowhom–andhow?’),ratherthanabouthowtodobetterdevelopmentincircumstanceswhereextremeneedsareentrenched.Theconcepthasthusmainlybeenusedtothinkaboutexitstrategies.

Effortstolinkreliefanddevelopmentdidnotworkinthepastbecauseineffectthemodelwassetuptoaddressthewrongproblem:crisescontinuedtobeperceivedasoutliersratherthanthenorm,andLRRDonlymadesenseinaworldwheresuddennaturaldisastersweredisturbing‘normal’developmentalprogress(Macrae,2012).Developmentassistancewasabsentinprotractedcrisesandwasnottargetedtothepeoplemostvulnerabletocrises.ThiswasdespitethefactthatsomeofthescholarshiponLRRDinthe1990salreadypointedto‘emergencyasnorm’(Maxwell,1994)anda‘crisisindevelopmentalism’,wherebythenormativeconceptofdevelopmentisunabletodealwith‘permanentemergencies’(Duffield,1994).Linksbetweenvulnerabilityanddeepstructuralinequalitiesinsocietieswerenotacknowledgedanddisasterswereseenas‘unfortunate’eventsratherthan‘symptomaticofpovertyandpoliticalcrises’(Macrae,2012).

Fundamentally,LRRD,inits‘one-sided’or‘linear’interpretation,wasthewrongsolutiontoastillpersistentproblem:howdoweprogrammedevelopmentassistanceincontextsofrecurrentorprotractedcrisesinfragileandoftenalsoconflict-affectedstates,whereneedsareextremeandconstantlyshiftinginanon-

linearway.RatherthantacklingthisproblemtheconceptofLRRDwasusedtofocusmuchmoreonlinkingdifferentkindsofaidandhowtoaddressthepresumed‘gap’betweenthem.

WearguethatthefundamentalissueofLRRDisnottofindanewcategoryorfundingmechanismtoputinthe‘middle’,buttofindadifferent wayofthinkingaboutdevelopmentinprotractedcrisesandhowtotargetthosemostvulnerabletofallingintocrisis.Manyofthesameproblemsarealsopartofthediscourseof‘resilience’.Thisdifferentwayofworkingwouldmeanthatdevelopment‘instruments’needtobecomemoreflexibleandadaptableinordertoengagewithroutineunpredictabilityandcrises,andpeople’schanginganddiverseneeds.

AreinterpretationoftheconceptofLRRDisneeded.This‘new’modelwouldessentiallynotbeaboutlinkingdifferentkindsofaid,butaboutfindingadifferentmodeloflong-termengagementthatcandealwithprotractedandrecurrentcrisesaspartofnormality.Ratherthanthinkingofpeopletransitioningoutofcrises,weneedtothinkofLRRDintermsof‘two-wayLRRD’whereoverlaps,linksortransitionsatboth‘ends’(the‘relief’andthe‘development’side)goinbothdirections;andmorecrucially,anewholisticapproachistakentogivingsupportacrosstheentirespectrumfromshorttermtolong-term(or‘relieftodevelopment’).Asdiscussedbelow,suchamodelwouldhavetofundamentallyreformthewaybothhumanitarianaidanddevelopmentprogrammingwork.Thispresentsprofoundchallengestotheprogrammeplanning,managementandevaluationtoolscurrentlyinuse.

Intherestofthispaper,wethususetheterm‘LRRD’initscommonusage,andspecificallyuse‘two-wayLRRD’forourproposedunderstandingoftheconcept.Theintentionisnottointroducenewjargon,butmerelytohighlightthelimitedwaythat‘LRRD’iscurrentlythoughtabout.

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TheconceptofLRRDisusedmuchlesstodaythanitwasinthe1980sor1990s,thoughithasrecentlyseenaresurgenceamongmostlyEuropeandonorsinthecontextof‘operationalisingresilience’.InNorthAmericasimilarissuesareaddressedundertheconcept‘developmentalrelief’or‘relief-development’(Steets,2011).LRRDwasadoptedasoneofthe23principlesforGoodHumanitarianDonorship(GHD)in2003.

ThemajordrivingforcebehindthecontinueduseofLRRDasanorganisingconceptofaidremainstheEuropeanUnion.TheCommissionhashighlightedwaysofpracticallyapplyingLRRDinvariousCommunicationsovertheyears,mainlyaroundcoherence,coordinationandjointplanningandanalysis(cfEC,1996,2001,2007),andin2012theEuropeanParliamentalsopublishedapolicybriefingonLRRD(EuropeanParliament,2012).In2011,theCommissiondesigneda‘JointHumanitarianDevelopmentFramework(JHDF)’for‘transitionsituations’,whichhasbeenappliedasaplanningtooltoguideanalysissupportingtheSHAREinitiative.13EUinitiativesonLRRDareparticularlyprominentinthefieldoffoodsecurity,wheretheSHAREandAGIR14initiativesareseenasawayofimprovinghumanitariananddevelopmentinteraction,thoughtheseinitiativesarequitenewandfewpracticalsuccessescanbediscerned.15TheUShasgrappledwithsimilarchallengesinoperationalisingLRRDduetoinstitutional,conceptualandoperationalhurdles(Koddenbrock,2009).ThereisnolackofpolicycommitmenttoLRRD(theECandmanyEuropeandonorsincludingtheNetherlands,Germany,Sweden,Finland,Denmark

andIrelandhaveeitherexplicitlycommittedto,orexpressedaninterestin,usingtheconcepttoinformtheiraidstrategies),andseveraldonorcountrieshavecommissionedstudiesorreviewsonthe‘stateoftheart’ofLRRD.AmuchlongerdiscussiononLRRDcanbefoundinthesestudies(OttoandWeingärtner,2013;Steets,2011;Lassila,2009;SwissRedCross,2010).

Formanydonors,commitmentstoLRRDhavebeenrenewedundertheoverallframeworkofresilienceprogramming,withLRRDoftenakeyprincipleinoperationalisingresilience.Intervieweesforthisstudy,however,notedthatthisdidnotmeanthattheyweredoinganythingdifferently;instead,theysaw‘resilience’asausefulwayofengagingwithotherdonorsandwiththeirownministerstopromoteLRRDthinking.

Newinstrumentshavehelpedtomakehumanitarianfundinginparticularmoreflexibleandlonger-term:severaldonorsarelookingatmulti-yearfundingoptions(e.g.theECandDFID),ormulti-yearcommitmentswithyearlyrenewalsofgrants(Danida).Somedonorsaremovingawayfromprojectgrantsaltogetherinfavourofstrategicpartnershipagreements(DanidaandDFID)whichallowpartnersgreaterflexibilityinfundingandprogrammingcycles.TherearesomespecificbudgetlinesforLRRD,suchastheEuropeanInstrumentforStability,Norway’sgapbudgetlineandUSAID’sTransitionInitiatives.16Theuseoftheterm‘transitional’inBMZ’sTDAimpliesthatitisalsoseenasrelativelyshort-tomedium-termassistancedesignedtolinktolonger-termdevelopmentaid.OtherdonorshaveincreasedtheflexibilityofexistingfundsbypoolingresourcesoradaptingtheeligibilitycriteriaforfundssuchastheDutchStabilityFund,theDanishStabilisationFundandCanada’sPeaceandSecurityFund,orhavesetasideaspecificshareofhumanitarianordevelopmentfundsforrecovery(Steets,2011:30).OttoandWeingärtner(2013)findthatflexibilitywithinalreadyallocated

3 Whatareothersthinkingand doingwithregardtoLRRD?

13TheECinitiativeon‘SupportingHornofAfricaResilience’(SHARE)isajointhumanitarian–developmentprogrammethatstartedinresponsetothe2011HornofAfricafoodcrisis.

14TheGlobalAllianceforResilienceInitiative(AGIR)ispromotingresiliencebycreatingsynergiesbetweenemergencyaidandlonger-termdevelopmentinresponsetochronicfoodinsecurityintheSahel.

15ForafulloverviewofEUinitiativesinthefieldofLRRDseeOttoandWeingärtner(2013).

16Forafulloverviewanddetaileddescriptionoftheavailablefunds,seeSteets(2011:28ff).

�0 Remakingthecaseforlinkingrelief,rehabilitationanddevelopment

fundsormechanisms,suchasUSAID’s‘crisismodifiers’,17seemstoworkbetterthanflexibilityintheuseofdifferentornewfundingmechanisms.

VeryfewspecifictoolsorguidelineshavebeendevelopedforLRRD(OttoandWeingärtner,2013).Thisisparticularlysurprisinggiventhelongevityoftheconceptandtheampletheoreticaldiscussionsthattheconcepthasinspiredsincethe1980s.Thelackofalinkbetweentheoryandpracticewashighlightedbyevaluationsof‘LRRDprogrammes’aftertheIndianOceantsunami(Goyderetal.,2006;Brussetetal.,2006;Ternströmetal.,2006)whichfoundlittleevidencethatLRRDasaprinciplehaddrivenprogramminginpractice.LRRDpolicieswereseenas‘toovagueanddisconnectedfrompracticetomakeanytangibledifference’(Christoplos,2006:36).

Ininterviewsdonorsstressedthatcoordinationbetweenhumanitariananddevelopmentactors,aswellasjointplanningandcoordination,wereworkingbetteratthefieldlevelthanatheadquarters.Severaldonorshaveestablishedjointhumanitariananddevelopmentoffices;forexample,FAOemergencyofficesarenowpartoftheofficeofthedevelopmentrepresentative,andSIDAhasjointhumanitariananddevelopmentteamsinsomefragilestates(OttoandWeingärtner,2013:36).AlthoughECHOandDEVCOremainseparateinstitutions,bothinBrusselsandincountry,therehavebeenattemptsinthelasttwoyearstobringthetwotogetherforanalysisandplanningpurposes.18

Therehasalsobeensomeprogressineffortstodecentraliseplanning,analysisandresponsibilityforfundallocationtothecountrylevel.DFID,forexample,managesbothhumanitariananddevelopmentbudgetsatcountrylevel,anddecision-makingisfullydecentralised.DGECHOhasdecentralisedplanningandimplementationofprogrammestoits44countryandsixregionaloffices,thoughfundingdecisionsarestilltakeninBrussels(Steets,2011).TheAustraliangovernmenthasalsodecentralisedmanyofitsprogrammemanagementfunctionstothecountrylevel,includingfinancialandprogrammingauthority(ibid.).Insomecountries,suchasIndonesia,Australiaisfunding‘facilities’ratherthanprojects,withdecisionsabouthowfundsareusedfullylocatedatthecountrylevel.The‘PovertyReductionSupportFacility’inIndonesiasetstheoverallgoal,e.g.‘tosupporttheIndonesiangovernmentinsocialprotection’,butleavesopenthedifferentcomponentsbywhichthiswillbeachievedtoadapttochangingcontexts,needsandpartnershipsatcountrylevel.19

ThereremainverylimitedexamplesofinterventionswhichareexplicitlydesignedandspokenofasapracticalapplicationofLRRD.(Thereisaparallelherewithresilience,inthatmuchgoodpolicyformulationandprogrammingmaygoonwhichactuallyreflectstheprinciplesofLRRD,butmakesnoexplicitreferencetoLRRDorconnectednesstheory.)LRRDhasalsoremainedverymuchahumanitarianconceptformanydonors,andassuchmanyoftheperspectivesandapproacheshaveonlylimitedrelevancetoare-interpretationoftheconceptofLRRDwithafocusonchangingthewaydevelopmentassistanceworksinprotractedcrises

17A‘crisismodifier’allowsfortheinjectionofadditionalfundsshouldacrisisoccur.

18Asoneobservernoted,thisisdisappointinggiventhattheLRRDdebatehasbeengoingonformorethantwodecades,andthetwoofficesinBrusselsarewithinwalkingdistanceofeachother.

19Formoreinformationseehttp://www.grminternational.com/projects/poverty_reduction_support_facility.

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4.1CharacteristicsoftargetcountriesforTDA

HarmerandMacrae(2004)definecountriesinprotractedcrisesasplaceswhere‘asignificantproportionofthepopulationisvulnerabletodeath,diseaseordisruptionoftheirlivelihoodsoveralongperiodoftime’.Governancestructuresareusuallyweak,withthestateunableorunwillingtoadequatelyprotectthepopulationfromthesethreats.FAO(2010;2012)highlightskeycharacteristicsofprotractedcrises,includinglongevity,thepresenceofconflict,weakgovernance,unsustainablelivelihoodsandthebreakdownoflocalinstitutions.

Whatdoesthismeanforengagementinthesecontexts?

• Thereareextremeandwidespreadneeds(wherethe‘normal’continuouslypassesemergencythresholds).

• Needsareoftenunpredictableandchangingrapidly,withdifferentsegmentsofthepopulationneedingverydifferentsupportatanygiventime.

• Insecurityisoftenhigh,asstatestructuresareweakandcontestedorhavebrokendowncompletely,leadingtoabsentorweakruleoflaw.

• Thereisoftendeepmistrustwithinsocietiesandbetweensocietiesandwhatisleftofstatestructures,andahighdegreeofpoliticisationofresources(includingaid).

Beyondthesebasiccharacteristics,countriesinprotractedcrisesoftendonotshareanycommonfeaturesorunderlyingfactorsthatmakethempronetocrises.Therearegoodreasonstobecautiousabout

devisingany‘blueprint’modelsofinterventionsintheseparticularcontexts,beyondsomebasicprinciplesofengagement.

4.2Practicalimplicationsforthewayassistanceisdelivered

Twomainproblemsneedtobetackled.First,mostengagementinprotractedcriseshasbeenfromahumanitarianangle,withshort-termgoals,ratherthanfromthedevelopmentside.Developmentassistancehasoftenbeenabsentorminimalincountriessufferingfromprotractedcrisesand,wherepresent,haslargelyfailedtotargetthosemostatriskoffallingintocrisis.Second,development‘instruments’areill-equippedtodealwithroutineunpredictabilityandarenotresponsiveenoughtochangingcircumstances.Asdiscussedbelow,currentprogrammemanagementandmonitoringtoolsaregearedtowardsmeasuringtheachievementofpredefinedoutcomesandoutputsandpenalisedeviationsfromsetprojectgoals.Underlyingcausesofvulnerabilityandhowtheserelatetothewiderpolitical,socialandeconomiccontextinaparticularsettingarepoorlyunderstoodandseldomtargetedbyprogramming.Akeycharacteristicofprotractedandrecurrentcrisesandcountriesin‘recovery’isthattheysufferfromlong-term,extremestructuralvulnerabilities.Afundamentalquestionguidinginterventionsin‘transitions’mightthenbetheextenttowhichaninterventionshouldseektoengagein‘transformative’issues,ratherthanjust‘restoringthestatusquo’.Docrises(evenifprotracted)presentopportunitiesforengaginginthe‘bigissues’andaddressingthe

4 Characteristicsofcountries targetedforTDAandthe practicalimplicationsfor programming

�� Remakingthecaseforlinkingrelief,rehabilitationanddevelopment

structuralinequalitiesthatdrivevulnerabilitiesinthesesocieties?

ThelevelandqualityofengagementwiththestatehasoftenbeenpresentedasoneofthekeydilemmasattheheartoftheLRRDproblem,withfundamentaldifferencesinthewayhumanitariananddevelopmentactorsapproachtheissue(cfSection1.3).Particularlyinprotractedcrisesorconflictsettings,wherethestateisoftenpartofaconflictandunableorunwillingtoprovideservicesandprotectiontoitscitizens,decidingwhetherandhowtoengagewiththestatemaynotbeeasy.Thishasfundamentalconsequencesforthewayinwhichprogrammesareconceived,theirsustainabilityandissuesof‘ownership’andaccountabilitytobeneficiaries(Koddenbrock,2009).

Thedichotomyofeitherhavingtoworkthroughthestateorworkarounditishoweverafalseone,fortworeasons.First,statesandgovernmentsarenotmonoliths.Evenincontextswherethestateispredatory,therewillusuallybepartsofthesystemorparticularinstitutions,bureaucratsorministrieswithwhichaidactorscanwork.Second,thechoiceisnotsimplybetweeneitherworkingthroughthestateorignoringit.Manykindsofrelationshiparepossible,includingbeingsupportivebutchallenging.Thepointofdepartureshouldbetofocusonhowbesttosupportpeople’scapacitytocopebetterinthefaceofcrisis.Ineachcontextthoroughpoliticalandinstitutionalanalysisisneededtodecidewhetherthiscanbeachievedbestbysupportingthestateorbysupportingpeople,civilsocietyactorsorotherformalorinformalstructures,eitherdirectlyorbyhelpingthemtoputpressureonthestate.Evaluationsofthe

responsetothe2004IndianOceantsunamihaveshownthatthemostimportantLRRDlinksaremadebetweenaffectedpeopleandtheformalorinformal,stateorprivateinstitutionstheydependoninthelongtermfortheirlivelihoodsandgeneralwellbeing(Christoplos,2006).Forgingtheselinksdemandsgoodknowledgeandunderstandingofthelocalcontextandlocalinstitutions,aswellasthepoliticalenvironment.

AnotherkeyprobleminoperationalisingLRRDhasbeenhowtodealwiththeinevitabletrade-offswhenrebuildingduringoraftercrises.Trade-offsarenotonlyduetolimitedresources,butalsoaboutchoicesaroundprioritisingobjectives.Forexample,choicessometimeshavetobemadebetweenmeetingshort-ormedium-termfoodsecurityorlivelihoodobjectivesthroughthedirectdeliveryofbasicservicesontheonehandand,ontheother,thelonger-termrehabilitationofstateandgovernancestructures,whichwouldbeachievedbysupportingagradualimprovementinthecapacityofstateinstitutionstodeliverthoseservices(FAO,2012).Intermsofaidprinciples,thereareoftentrade-offstobemadebetweenadherenceto‘humanitarianprinciples’versusothers,suchastheOECDDACprinciplesforengagementinfragilestates(whichhavestate-buildingastheiroverarchingprinciple).Thereareoftennoeasyor‘blueprint’solutionstothesequestions,ifonlybecauseasimpleappealtotheprimacyofhumanitarianprinciplesmustacknowledgethatthecharacterisationofanysituationas‘humanitarian’hasnoclear-cutcriteriatorelyon.Trade-offsneedtobeopenlyaddressedinallprogrammingandaidactorsneedtobemuchmorerealisticabouttheambitionsandgoalsthattheysetforthemselves.

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5.1KeyprinciplesofagoodLRRDprogramme

ThispaperhasarguedthattherecanneverbegenericprogrammingforLRRD.EvaluationstudiesonLRRD(Goyderetal.,2006;Brussetetal.,2006;Ternströmetal.,2006)foundthatthekeytosuccessfulLRRDprogrammesislessinLRRDplanningorLRRD-specificapproaches,butininterventionsthathadstrongengagementandlocalpartnershipsonthegroundwerebestabletomarryshort-andlong-termperspectives.AgoodLRRDprogramme,inotherwords,isfirstandforemostagoodprogramme.However,somebroadprinciplescanbediscerned.

Flexibility: Inordertogenuinelyincorporatetheunpredictabilityanduncertaintyofcrisesintoprogramming(ratherthanassumingthatcrisesare‘outliers’),our‘tools’wouldneedtobecomemoreflexibleandadaptabletochangingcontexts.Asdiscussedabove,moreandmoredonorsareadoptingtheprincipleof‘flexibility’intheirprogrammes.Flexibilityhasusuallybeenusedtorefertofundingmechanismsthatcan‘flex’–i.e.getlargerorsmaller,orfundingfromdifferent‘pots’canberedirectedforotherpurposesthanoriginallydesignated.Withinthelatter,apopularconceptisthatof‘crisismodifiers’or‘contingencyfunds’,whichareoftenpartofpreapprovedinternalriskfinancingarrangementsindevelopmentfunds,andcanbeusedincaseofanemergencytoscaleupfundingforrapidresponseorearlywarningactivities.Thisishoweveroftennotsufficient.Crisismodifiersorcontingencybudgetlinesallowflexibilitywithalimitedpercentageofabudget,butpresupposethatthemainbudgetshouldcontinuetobeusedaccordingtotheoriginalplan–evenifcircumstanceshavechanged.Whilemulti-year,predictablefundingisimportant,realflexibilitywouldentailnotsimplychangingthewayprogrammesarefunded,butalsochangingthewayinwhichunpredictabilityanduncertaintyareintegratedintoprogramming itself.Thiswouldmeanintegratingkey

changestoboththemodalitiesofdeliveryandthecontentofprogrammeplanningandimplementation.

Realflexibilityforprogrammecontentwouldmeanencouragingandevendemandingresponsivenesstocontextualchanges,ratherthandiscouragingorpenalisingmodification.Donorsshouldbeholdingconversationswithimplementingpartnersandactivelydemandingtoseehowtheprogrammehasadaptedtochangesovertime.Flexibilityshouldalsobeadoptedatthelevelofimpact,meaningthattherewouldbeanexplicitprogrammeobjectivetopreparepeopleforanunpredictablefuturebygivingaidthatisrelevantinmanydifferentscenarios;bysupportingadaptivecapacity(Ludietal.,2012);andbyencouraging,ratherthanseekingtoprevent,peoplefromusinginterventionstoadvancetheirowndiverseobjectives.Thislevelofflexibilitymaydemand,forexample,adoptinghigher-levelprogrammeobjectivesthatcanbetailoredtosituationalchangesifneeded.Currently,the‘effectiveness’ofprogrammesisoftendefinedasmeetingstatic,predefinedobjectives.Input/output-basedlogframesstruggletodealwithchangesinaprogrammeasanecessaryadjustmenttochangingcircumstances.Programmeframeworksthatarebasedonbroadertheoriesofchangeandhigher-levelobjectivescouldallowfortheflexibilitynecessaryinrecurrentcrises.Australia’sfundingof‘facilities’insteadof‘projects’inIndonesiaillustratesthispointwell.Asthegoalthatistobeachievedinsucha‘facility’issetatamuchhigherlevel,itleavesmoreflexibilityintermsofthedifferentmeansandapproachesthatmightbeused.Risk taking and openness to learning: Aprogrammethatissensitivetocrisesandcontextualchangeswouldneedtobeflexibleenoughtotestwhatworksandwhatdoesnot.Thiswouldmeaninvestingextensivelyinlearningtoaccompanyaprogrammeandmonitortheeffectithaswhileitisbeingimplemented,pointtotheneedforcoursecorrectionsorsuggesttheterminationofallorpartsoftheprogrammeshoulditnotbehavingthedesiredeffect.Suchanapproachoftensitsuneasilywithcurrentprogrammecyclemanagement.

5 WhatwouldagoodLRRD programmelooklike?

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Thorough context and political analysis: Agenuine‘two-wayLRRD’programmewouldrequirestrongcontextanalysis,includingathoroughunderstandingofthepoliticaleconomy,localpowerrelationsandthestructuralinequalitiesunderpinningvulnerabilityandpoverty.Forexample,BMZ’s2013policyforworkinginfragilecontexts(BMZ,2013a)makesconflictanalysisessential(pp.16and20).Strongcontextanalysisispremiseduponin-depthknowledgeofandgoodlinkswithlocalinstitutionsandorganisations

andthepeoplewhoaretobetheultimatebeneficiariesofaid.Therewouldneedtobeafundamentalrethinkingbothwithregardtothetimethat‘real’engagementandanalysistakes,andthewaythisengagementisdone.

Working with local institutions:Inordertogenuinelyreformthewaydevelopmentassistanceworksincrises,aidactorsalsoneedtobemuchmoreopenandreflectiveaboutthewaystheyengagewithlocalinstitutionsandorganisationsonanumberoflevels:therangeofpartners;thenatureoftherelationshipsformed;andtheextenttowhichtherelationshipsreflectrealityontheground.Thoughthereareofcourseexamplesofverydifferentpracticeinmanycountries,alltoooftenengagementislimitedtostateactorsor‘localNGOs’,organisationscreatedasvehiclestochannelinternationalaid.Inmanyprotractedcrises,abroaderperspectiveandunderstandingofthekindsofactorsthatarelocallyimportantandpotentiallyusefuliscrucial.Thesemayincludenotonlydifferentlevelsofthestate(local,regional,mid-levelbureaucrats)butalsootherformalandinformalinstitutions(traditionalauthorities,clanstructuresetc.),localcivilsocietygroups(beyondnationalNGOs)andbusinesses.21Crucialforsuchengagementwillbeagoodunderstandingoflocalpowerrelations.Ideally,relationswouldbebuiltwithorganisationsthatalsotakeaholisticapproachtoworkingacrossthewholerelief–developmentspectrum.Thisishoweveroftenchallenging.Relationshipsand/orpartnershipscanencourageorganisationstobuildmorelinkswithreliefanddevelopmentpartnersanddonors.

Asmentionedabove,awiderangeofpossiblerelationshipsareavailablewithbothstateandnon-stateinstitutions.Notallrelationshipsneedtobeoutrightpartnerships,i.e.wheresharedgoalsarepursuedtogether,andwhereeitherorganisationmaysacrificeoneoftheirgoalsforthesakeoftheother’s.Meaningfulrelationshipsorcollaborationstoagreaterorlesserdegreemaybemoreappropriateinprotractedcrises,particularwiththestateandprivatebusinesses.Guidingquestionsforsuchrelationshipswouldinclude:

Thereisarecentmovetowardsinvestingingeneratingreal-timelearningeitherwithinorasanaccompanimenttooperationalaidprogrammes.Theselearningcomponentsaredesignedtogeneratebothlocallyspecificlessonsfortheprogrammeitself–whichthenhastobedesignedwithsufficientflexibilitytotakeadvantageofthelearning–andmoregeneralorthematiclessonsforawideraudience.GoodexamplesofprogrammeswithinbuiltlearningpartnershipsincludesomeofDFID’sdevelopment,multi-yearhumanitarianandclimatechangeprogrammes,20andUSAID’sSahelResilienceLearningProject(SAREL).

TheDFIDAAWAZprogrammeinPakistanisarrangedaroundaconsortiumofimplementingpartnerswithoneresearchpartnerresponsibleforevidencecollectionandlearningasanintegralpartoftheconsortium.Thisresearchpartnercarriesoutresearchandcollectsevidence,monitorsimplementationandprogressandadvisesonchangesbasedoncontextanalysisandevidencecollected.Theprogrammeismulti-yearanddesignedinphases,withtheinceptionphaseoftenintendedforadditionalresearchaswellastriallingandtestingriskierprogrammeapproachesorcomponents.Theexplicitassumptionunderpinningthisprogrammedesignisthatcertainprogrammecomponentsmightchangesignificantlyorwillevenbediscontinuedafterinitialtrialifthecontextchanges.

Box1:Learningwhiledoing

20SeeDFIDPakistanBusinessCasefordetailedexplanationofthemodel.OtherexamplesincludeDFID’sBuildingResilienceandAdaptationtoClimateExtremesandDisastersProgramme(BRACED)andBuildingResilientCommunitiesinSomalia.

21Governmentalinternationalassistance,bothbilateralandmultilateral,tendstoseethecentralgovernmentasthenaturalpartner,particularlyfordevelopmentassistance.SomespecificfundinginstrumentssuchasTDAhavetheflexibilitytomoveawayfromthisandworkwithlocalgovernmentoroutsidethegovernmentaltogether.

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• Overthelongterm,doestherelationshipbringaboutpositivechangeinthelivesofaffectedpeople?

• Doweunderstandanypossiblenegativeimpactsofestablishingrelationshipswithparticularinstitutions?Aremechanismsinplaceformonitoringthisandcouldtherisksbemitigated?

• Towhatextentarepartnerinstitutionsabletoserveaffectedpeopleinthelongterm,andwithwhatlegitimacy?

• Arepeople’slinkswiththeinstitutionsthatareimportantandmeaningfultotheminthelongertermbeingsupported(e.g.localorcentralgovernment,traditionalauthorities,informalstructures)?

Engagementisoftenintendedtobuildthecapacityoftheorganisation:itshouldratherbepremisedontheoverallgoaltoimprovethelivesofthepeoplewhohavetodealwithit.Anassessmentofwhether

strengtheningorengagingwithanorganisationwillcontributetoimprovingpeople’slives–andinwhatway–wouldbeanimportantfirststepinanyanalysisofhowbesttosupportthatorganisation.

Currentapproachesalsofocusoverlyon‘capacity-building’throughone-offengagementandanoverrelianceontransferringskills.Ananalysisofactualconstraintstofunctionalitywithinorganisationsmayfindverydifferentproblems,e.g.highstaffturnoverinlocalgovernment(seeforexampleWorldBank(2001)).InthecontextswhereTDAwillbeused,functionalityshouldalsobeforwardlooking,supportingtheadaptivecapacityoforganisationssotheycanadjustthemselvestoachangingfuture.Thereisaninevitabletensionbetweenworkingthroughexistingprocessesandnormstobringchangeandworkingtochallengeandtransformtheacceptednormswhichcreateor

UNICEFtooktheUgandangovernment’sSelfRelianceStrategy(SRS)asastartingpointandpaidtheset-upcostsforanationalmicrofinanceinstitutetostartworkinginNorthernUgandawhichcouldlendtorefugees(thoughnotexclusively,andineffectmostmoneywaslenttolocalgovernmentofficialsastheycouldguaranteeloanswiththeirregularsalary).Thishelpedindirectlytopayforcontinuityofservicesnotonlyforthelocalpopulationbutalsoforrefugees.Thiswasnevercalledan‘LRRDproject’,butittackledissuesfromalonger-termperspective,workedwithingovernmentpolicies(e.g.theSRSstrategy),and,ratherthanemergency-typeprogram-mingforvulnerablegroups,helpedprovideservicestoall–whileensuringthatrefugeeswereincludedinservicesthathadbeenidentifiedasusefulforthem.

DANIDAsupportedaPublicWorksProgrammewhichgavepeoplevouchersforworkwithwhichtheycouldgetfarmingsupplies.Thiswaslinkedtoalong-termnationalbusinesscreditprogrammesupportingsuppliers.DANIDAcombinedthiswithstrongadvocacyagainstthefreedistributionofseedsandtools,whichwasunderminingattemptstodevelopamarketthatcouldprovideasustain-ablesupplyofagriculturalinputsandservices.

Inseveralsituationsofdisplacement,NRChassetuplocalcounsellingcentrestoprovideinformation

andlegaladvicetoall(refugees,IDPs,locals),includingonhowtotackleunderlyingissuessuchasconflictoverlandandhowtoresolvedisputesconstructively.Thecentresalsohelpconnectpeopletostateservices,livelihoodopportuni-ties(e.g.jobcentresandvocationaltraining)andadviceonhowtoaccessland,therebyequippingpeoplewithinformationandknowledgeaswellasconnectingthemwithstateandnon-statestruc-tures.

ReintegrationandDevelopmentCentres(RDCs)inSouthSudanrunbywhatwasthentheGermanDevelopmentService(DED)establishedaninitialfocalpointforreturnees(returningIDPs,refugees,locals)undertheoverallauthorityofthelocalgovernment.Atthisfocalpointpeoplecouldgetconnectedtolocalgovernment,foundinformationonlivelihoodandtrainingopportunities(linkstoagovernmentjobsdatabaseaswellastoopportuni-tiesprovidedbyotherNGOs)andinformationonwheretogetaccesstocreditandbusinessgrants,aswellastheavailabilityoflocalservices(e.g.HIV/AIDStreatments).Theprojecttherebyencour-agedgreatercitizen–statelinksandengagement,andalsocreatedaspaceformutualexchangeanddialogue,whichenabledpeopletoexpresstheirdemandforservicesandallowedlocalgovernmentofficialstohearandengagewithcitizens.

Box2:WhatdogoodLRRDprojectslooklike?

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maintaininequalityorvulnerability.Therearenosimplerulestodeterminehowtomanagethistension,excepttostresstheneedtobeawareofitandtomakeexplicitandreasonedchoices.

Joint analysis/planning and learning at country level:Ideally,farmorepeopleshouldbeinvolvedinaidplanning,includingacademicsandindividualsfromdifferentpartsofgovernment,andtheaspirationsofthepeople22affectedbycrisisshouldbethestartingpointforaidplanning.Decentralisationisgenerallyseenasconduciveto‘goodLRRD’becauseitispresumedthatstaffwillbe‘closertotheground’andhaveabetterunderstandingofthelocalcontext(Steets,2011;Otto&Weingärtner,2013).However,decentralisationoftenmeanshandingoverresponsibilitywithoutthepower(e.g.theresources)tomeetthoseresponsibilities,allowingthecentralauthoritytoabsolveitselfofaccountability.Itcannotbeassumedthatgovernmentstaffclosertoaconflictwillalwaysconductamoreimpartialanalysisorbeawareofallthenationalorregionalissuesofconcern.

Realistic programming: Moreclarityandamorerealisticunderstandingaboutwhataprogrammecanachieveisrequired.Inmostcases,peoplecontinuewiththeirlivesregardlessoftheoftenchaoticworkingsofaidprogrammes.Inthissense,ashiftawayfromapreoccupationwiththebureaucracyoftheaidindustryandafocusonwhataffectedpeoplearedoingalready,andhowtheiragencyandlinkstoinstitutionscanbestbesupported,wouldbeagoodstepforwardforthe‘LRRDdebate’.

Box2givessomeillustrationsofwhatmightberegardedasgoodLRRDprojects.Noneoftheseprojectswasexplicitlyintendedtobean‘LRRDproject’,buttheyaddressedstructuralneedsinemergencyorrecoverysituationsbyusingshort-terminterventionsdesignedfromalong-termperspective.Somecommoncharacteristicscanbediscerned:

• Identifyarealconstraintandtrytotackleitwithasfewexternalresourcesaspossible,andwithoutprovidingasubstituteservice.

• Establishlinksbetweenpeopleandlong-termself-sustainingformal/informalinstitutionsorstatestructureswhichhelpbuildlonger-termrelationships.

• Helppeopletoadapt–whetherthroughtheprovisionofinformation,skillsoradaptivecapacity.

• Respondtopressingneedswithashort-terminterventionwhichtakesalonger-termperspective.

• Activelyencouragesynergieswithotherreliefordevelopmentinterventions,statepoliciesortheprivatesector.

5.2Can‘LRRD-ness’beevaluated?

If,asweargue,theconceptofLRRDneedstobereinterpretedtomeanthatreliefand,especially,developmentassistanceismorecloselytargetedatpeople’sneedsinprotractedcrises,thenthereisno‘measure’or‘blueprint’modelbywhichonecanevaluateaprojectfor‘LRRD-ness’.‘LRRD-ness’shouldnotbea‘quality’ofaproject,butratherawayofapproachingasituation.Inthissensetheprojectwouldbeevaluatedforbeingagooddevelopmentproject–i.e.onethatiscloselytargetedatpreventingthemostvulnerablepeoplefromfallingintocrises–ratherthanforbeinggoodat‘LRRD’.

Thekeyaspectsthatevaluatorswouldlookoutforcouldinclude:

• Howsuitablewastheprogrammeforasituationwherecrisesare‘normal’?

• Howwellhastheprogrammemetthechangingneedsofthemostvulnerable?

• Howappropriatewasitsdesignforinsecureenvironmentswithaconstantlychangingcontext?

• Howwelldidtheprogrammeconsiderthepoliticisationofaidandresources?

• Howhaslong-termworkhelpedincrises,forexamplebyreducingaparticularproblemorriskorbysupportingpeoplesothattheycancopebetter?

• Howwellhastheprogrammeencouragedlinksonthegroundbetweenpeopleandinstitutionsororganisationsthatsupporttheminthelongerterm?

• Whereonlyshort-termaidwasgiven,couldsupporthavebeenmoreeffectiveifgiveninalonger-termway?

• Howadequatewerethestrategyprocesses,thelevelofcontextandpoliticalanalysis,theappropriatenessofthemodelsemployed,currentimpactandlikelyfutureimpact?

22Thesearerarelydocumented.SeeIFRC(2013)forarareexample.

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6 Practicalimplicationsof takingLRRDseriously

Changingthewaythatprogrammesworkwillhaveimplicationsonmultiplelevelsandacrossdifferentdimensions.TheseincludethewaythatBMZcurrentlyworkswithdifferentdepartmentsandministries,aswellasresourceimplications,changestothelevelsandtypesofskillsneededforprogrammingandanalysis,thelevelsofinvestmentneededforanalysisandpoliticalunderstandingandstaffinglevels.

AtthestrategiclevelIfpeople’schangingneedsincrisissituationsaretobeaddressedinaholisticmannerbytheGermangovernment,itwillbeimportanttodevelopasinglecommonstrategyatthecountrylevel.Suchastrategymustbebasedonajointanalysisbyemergencyanddevelopmentactorsoftheinterplaybetweenchronicproblems,underlyingstructuralcausesandacutevulnerabilitiesorneeds.Thiscountry-levelstrategyshouldincludeananalysisofwhatcanbedoneoverthelongertermtoreduceproblems,andalsowhatwillbedoneintheshorttermasandwhencrisesoccur.TherearespecificissuesforGermanassistancebecausethedifferentministriesfordevelopmentandemergencyaiddonotalwaysworkinthesamecountries.Insuchcountries,analysiscandrawonclosecooperationanddiscussionswithotheragenciesincludingbilateralandmultilateraldonorspresentinthecountry.BMZmustrealisethepotentialoftheTDAwithamandatetoachievetwo-wayLRRD.Itcanbeusedtoinfluencechangeatmultiplelevels:

• asafund,tofinanceinterventionsthattakeaholistictwo-wayLRRDperspective;

• aspartofacountryportfoliooffunds,togiveatwo-wayLRRDperspectivemoreprominence,encouragingjointanalysisandworkingacrossthewholeemergency–developmentspectrum;

• bringingaboutchangewithintheoverallGermanaidarchitecturebyusingTDAtoencouragegreatercoordinationbetweenBMZandtheGermanFederalForeignOffice,bothatthestrategicandthecountryprogrammelevel;

• aspartofBMZ’soveralldevelopmentcooperation,pilotinggoodflexiblemodalitieswhichcanbeadoptedasmainstreamdevelopmentapproachesacrossmoreandmorecountries;and

• withintheaidsectorinternationally,exploitinginfluencewithotherdonors(andtheaid‘system’morebroadly)toencouragemorewidespreadpracticalapplicationof‘two-wayLRRD’.ThislatterobjectivewillrelyoncloserdirectcoordinationwithotherEuropeandonors,includingpotentialbilateralworkwithstrategicallychosenlike-mindedEUmemberstates.

Oneaidfund,orevenonedonor,cannotonitsownchangetheinternationalaidsystem.Itshouldseektobeanagentforchange,seeklike-mindedalliesanddevelopacoherentstrategy.

Attheprogramme/thematiclevelTheTDAwillhopefullybeusedforinnovativeprogramming,experimentingwithandlearningfromdifferentimplementationmodalitiesandflexible,longer-termapproachesthat‘track’andrespondtochangesinthelocalsituation.

Akeydilemmaistheextenttowhichdonors’developmentstrategyshouldfollowgovernmentdevelopmentpolicy–inparticularinprotractedcriseswherethegovernmentmaybeapartof,oracauseof,theproblem.Therearenoeasyanswerstothis,butdonorscanatleastensurethatthequestionhasbeenexplicitlyconsideredandadequatejustificationgivenforthechoicesmade.

Inmanycrises,fundinghorizonsareshortterm.EvenwheretheseareextendedthroughtheTDAorsimilarapproaches,thetimehorizonmaynotbeadequateforlearningaboutthelonger-termimpactsofinterventionsifmonitoringandevaluationislimitedtoprojecttimeframes.Itisessentialthatdonorsencourageandfinanceevaluationsorstudiesofthechangebroughtaboutbyinterventionsyearsaftertheyhaveended.

�� Remakingthecaseforlinkingrelief,rehabilitationanddevelopment

ImplicationsfortheaidarchitectureandaidbureaucracyFlexiblelong-termprogrammingthatcanalsorespondtoshort-termneedsdemandseithermoreflexibilityintherangeofprogrammes(fromrelieftodevelopment)thatonefundoragencysupports,orsignificantcooperationbetweendifferentfunds/organisations,suchasclosecooperationbetweenpartneragenciesoftheGermanFederalForeignOfficeandBMZinthefield.WhenfundingorganisationsthroughTDA,BMZshouldexpectthemtosayhowtheywouldhandlecrisesshouldemergencyreliefberequired.

Ideally,‘two-wayLRRD’workswithpartnersatthelocallevelwhocanimplementacrosstheentirerelief-to-developmentspectrum.However,itcanbechallengingtosustaintheserelationshipsgiventhatdifferentministriestendtoworkwithdifferentpartners,andfundingcontinuestobebifurcated.Thereisaneedtofindwaystobettersustaintheserelationshipsgivencurrentbureaucraticandfinancialconstraints,includingwithintheGermanaidarchitecture.

Workingacrossthespectrumwillentailcollaborationwithboththeemergencycoordinationsystem(i.e.theclustersystem)anddevelopmentcoordinationmechanisms(e.g.budgetsectorworkinggroups).Currently,thereissignificant‘silo-fication’intwoways:thedifferentsectorworkinggroupsanddifferentclustersworkintheirownsilos;andtheclustersystemasawholeanddevelopmentcooperationasawholedonottalktoeachotherenough.BMZcouldbecomeachampionandadvocateofgreaterflexibilitywithinandbetweenthetwosystems.

Ashasbeenarguedthroughoutthispaper,LRRDisnotaboutfillingagap,butaboutalackofconnectednessmoregenerallyfromallsides.AssistancemodalitiessuchasTDAcancontributetoasolutiontothe‘LRRDproblem’if,asitscurrentunderlyingstrategyimplies(BMZ,2013b),theyareseennotsimplyasamissinglinkinthe(one-way)chainoftransitionfromrelieftodevelopment,butasavehicleforspanningthespectrum,inparticularmakinglinksfromthedevelopmentsidetowardsthereliefsidewiththeabilitytocomplementotheraidmodalities.WhenTDAisappliedincountrieswhereotherfundinginstrumentsarealsobeingused,fromeitheremergencyordevelopmentassistance,asinglecoherentstrategyforthemallwillbeneeded:ifnot,

LRRDhasbeenontheperipheryoftheaidagendafordecades.Thereisobviouscommonsenseinlinkingupshorter-andlonger-termwaysofassistingvulnerablepeople,andnoonehaseverarguedagainstLRRD.Nevertheless,anddespiteanumberofpapersexaminingtheconcept,ithasnotsucceededinplayingasignificantroleinshapingthewayaidisplanned,managedoradministered.WhatevertheconstraintstoLRRDinone-off,short-termnaturaldisasters,thispaperarguesthat,indiffi-cultplaces,LRRDhasaparticularanddifferentimportance,andthatoneofthemainconstraintstowardsgreaterimplementationofitsprincipleshasbeenthatthedebatehastoooftenbeenheldinthewrongplaceandwithamisleadingpictureinmind.

Humanitarianactionhasworriedabouthowtolinktolonger-termdevelopment,anddonorshaveworriedabouthowtoestablishmecha-nismstofillthegap.Infact,theproblemislessagapbetweenemergencyanddevelopmentactionandmorethefactthatdevelopmentactionhastoooftenbeenmissingindifficultplaces.Fordifficultplaces,wherehumanitarianactionisalong-termreality,concernforLRRDprinciplesneedstobeseenpredominantlyindevelopmentcircles,andthemodelshouldbetofindwaysofengagingforthelongerterminwaysthatcanadapttocrises,eitherchanginghowaidisdelivered,becomingmoreorlessrelieforientedaccordingtotheneedsofchangingcircumstances,orcapableofadaptingtoandconnectingwithotherassis-tanceinterventionsusingdifferentmodalities.Inordertoachievethis,aid(whetherfrompeople’sowngovernmentorfrominterna-tionalagencies)needstobeguidedbyanoverallstrategythatencompassesthewholespectrum,fromlong-termsupporttoimmediateassistance.Thecallforsuchanoverallstrategyisnowfrequentlyheardbythoseconcernedwithresilience;forthisreason,politicalsupportforresilienceoffersanopportunityformakingLRRDprinciplesmeaningfulandinfluential–ifdiscussionsareheldintherightcircleswithapictureinmindthatreflectsrealityontheground.

��

thereisadangerthattherewillevenbethecreationofaneedforyetmorelinksbetweendifferentbudgetlinesandinstruments.

Relationships/partnershipsThispaperhasarguedthatrelationshipsandpartnershipsshouldbepremisedontheoverallgoalofimprovingthelivesofaffectedpeople.Buildingthecapacityofagovernmentaloranyotherinstitutionisnotinitselfnecessarilyofanybenefit.Thiswillrequireadegreeofsophisticationinmonitoringandevaluation,sinceasimplemeasureofanorganisation’s‘capacity’willnolongerbearelevantindicatorofprogress,exceptasanoutput,whichrequiresastronglogicalcasetoshowthatsuchanoutputwill(probably)leadtosomedesiredoutcomes.Itwillalsorequireexantewaysofjustifyingthechoiceoftheinstitutionswithwhichrelationshipsaremade.

Toolsandapproaches–the‘howwework’Theneedforprogrammemanagementtoolswhichcanhandleflexibility,riskandchangehasbeenstressed.Currently,programmetoolsalsoserveforaccountability(e.g.logframesandmonitoringreports).Thesetoolsarenotwelladaptedforhandlingflexibilityandafocusonhigher-levelobjectives.Thedemandsofaccountabilitycannotbecompromised,butnewwaysofansweringthemwillneedtobedeveloped.Thiswillalsoinvolveachangeintherelationshipbetweendifferentactorsintheaidsystem,e.g.donorswillhavetodemandprogrammemodificationfromoperationalagenciesratherthanwaittoberequestedbythemtoallowit.Thishasfurtherramificationsforstaffingandinformationlinks,especiallyfordonorswhocurrentlyrelyonimplementingpartnersfortheirknowledgeofhowsituationsarechangingontheground.

�0 Remakingthecaseforlinkingrelief,rehabilitationanddevelopment

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