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Regionalism: Art and Architecture of the Regional Styles 750 AD to
c.1200 (Deccan and south India)
Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi
Lesson: Regionalism: Art and Architecture of the Regional Styles 750 AD to c.1200 (Deccan and south India)
Lesson Developer: Anisha Saxena and Niharika Sankrityayan
College/ Department: Lady Shri Ram College/Center For
Historical Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University
Regionalism: Art and Architecture of the Regional Styles 750 AD to
c.1200 (Deccan and south India)
Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi
Table of Contents Chapter 20: Regionalism: Art and Architecture of the Regional Styles
750 AD to c.1200 (Deccan and South India and Deccan)
Introduction
20.1 Art and architecture of the Deccan I: Kailashnatha temple, Ellora
20.2 Art and architecture of the Deccan II: Chalukyan Architecture
20.3 Art and Architecture in South India I: Pallava Architecture
20.4 Art and Architecture in South India II: Chola Architecture 20.4.1 Art and Architecture: Early Phase
20.4.2 Art ad Architecture: Second Phase 20.4.3 Art and Architecture: Third Phase
20.5 Metal Sculpture 20.6 Other Architectural Achievements
20. 7Exercise Glossary
Further Readings
Regionalism: Art and Architecture of the Regional Styles 750 AD to
c.1200 (Deccan and south India)
Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi
Introduction
The previous chapter (chapter 19) discussed in detail various schools of architecture and sculpture that developed in northern India from
750 to 1200 CE. The chapter also discussed how temples in the early medieval India were not merely spaces for religious activity, they were
important structures that legitimized political authority and regulated economic life, sometimes even acting as banks providing loans to
traders. The present chapter in continuation with the previous chapter will discuss the growth of architecture and sculpture in south India and
Deccan from 750 to 1200 CE.
The early beginnings of architecture and sculpture in south India and
Deccan under the patronage provided by the Pallavas and the Chalukya rulers has already been discussed in great detail in chapter
10 (see chapter on cultural development). The foundations of the Dravida or the south Indian style of architecture were laid under the
Pallava rulers, who ruled from the sixth to the ninth century CE. The architecture of the Deccan or Vesara style was an amalgamation of the
Nagara and Dravida style of architecture and developed under the Chalukyas.
Politically by the eighth century CE the Deccan and southern India
were experiencing changes in political environment. From the middle of the sixth century to the thirteenth century, the Deccan region of
peninsular India came under the sway of a line of rulers. An important
dynasty was the Chalukyas of Badami ruling from their capital at Badami or Vatapi. The Early Chalukyas achieved political unification of
much of the Deccan for almost 200 years, even though during this period portions of their territories were temporarily lost to the Pallavas
from the Tamil country in southern India. Just after 750 CE the Chalukyas of Badami succumbed to the Rashtrakuta invasion from
Maharashtra in the northern Deccan. From 757 CE for about two centuries, the Rashtrakutas ruled over the Deccan. In 973 CE the
Rashtrakutas were ousted by Taila II, a scion of the Chalukya family, who established his capital at Kalyani/Kalyana. The decedents of Taila
Regionalism: Art and Architecture of the Regional Styles 750 AD to
c.1200 (Deccan and south India)
Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi
ruled from there until 1161 CE, when the region was temporarily
occupied by the Kalachuris with their capital at Annigeri and was afterwards shifted to Kalyani. The Chalukyas of Kalyani regained
power and ruled until 1189 CE. Due to the declining strength, the southern part of their territory was occupied by the Hoysalas and the
northern by the Yadavas of Devagiri. The Yadavas ruled from 1187-1310 CE. The Kakatiyas who were vassals of the Chalukyas of Kalyani
became independent after the defeat of the Chalukyas by the Kalachuris. The Kakatiyas rose to power and ruled over a large part of
the Deccan for nearly three centuries. The Eastern Chalukyas has established themselves in Vengi by the second half of the eighth
century and ruled till late tenth century, when they defeated by the
Cholas. The Pallavas of Kanchi continued to rule till the ninth century coming constantly in conflict with the Chalukyas, Pandyas and
Rashtrakutas, their power slowly dwindling replaced by the Cholas. The Cholas came to power at Tanjore under Vijayalaya, who defeated
the Muttaraiyar chiefs. In the beginning of their rule the Cholas accepted Pallavas as their overlords, but by the end of the ninth
century, beginning of tenth the Cholas under the leadership of Aditya I (871-907 CE) had become one of the strongest dynasty ruling from
south India. By mid twelfth century under the rule of the later Chola kings the empire began to dwindle loosing territory to the western
chalukyas and the emerging Hoysalas, who ruled Karnataka from the tenth to the fourteenth century. Each of the political dynasties that
ruled south India and Deccan created some of the exquisite examples of art, both in terms of temple architecture and sculpture.
20.1 Art and architecture of the Deccan I: Kailashnatha temple, Ellora In Deccan the most fascinating traditions of rock-cut and structural
temples emerged from the sixth to the thirteenth centuries CE. The religious monuments of the Chalukyas of Badami are of outstanding
interest for their transition from cutting into rock to free-standing construction, as well as for their range of distinctive architectural
styles. Hardly anywhere else in India it is possible to find cave-temples and structural temples of the same period beside each other at the
same site, as in Badami and Aihole; nor at other sites can temples be seen next to each other built in contrasting Dravida and Nagara styles,
as at Mahakuta and Pattadakal.
One of the finest examples of rock cut architecture in Deccan is the
Kailasa temple at Ellora. It is one of the largest and the biggest
Regionalism: Art and Architecture of the Regional Styles 750 AD to
c.1200 (Deccan and south India)
Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi
monolithic temple in India. The temple was the result of the
munificence of Rashtrakuta king Krishna I (756-773 CE) and was named after him as Krishnesvara. The style of carving for the main
complex is uniform. Its architectural and elevational impact is marred by the fact that it is located as if in a huge pit or hollow of a rocky hill.
The plan of the temple has a square mandapa with sixteen columns, three porches, sandhara plan of shrine and ambulatory passage
(pradakshina-patha). Its ambulatory passage is an open terrace. The iconography of the south wall of its mandapa is rich with Ramayana
panels.
Kailasa temple, Elevation Source: AIIS, Gurgaon
20.2 Art and architecture of the Deccan II: Chalukya Architecture
In the first half of the 8th century, climax of the Dravida and Nagara styles appeared, with emergence of other idioms and stylistic
intermingling. In the later years of Chalukya ruler Vijayaditya’s reign (696-733 CE), and reigns of Vikramaditya II (733-44 CE) and
Kirttivarma II (744-57 CE) a number of temples were constructed. Some of the temples are: Sangameshvara,Virupaksha and Mallikarjuna
temples at Pattadakal. The Bhutanatha group of temples at Badami,
Gaudargudi , Chikkigudi Hucchappayyamatha, Hucchappayyagudi and Hucchimalligudi, Durga and Ladkhan, Galaganatha and Mallikarjuna
Regionalism: Art and Architecture of the Regional Styles 750 AD to
c.1200 (Deccan and south India)
Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi
temples at Aihole.
The largest of the Pattadakal temples and the most elaborately
planned and artistically embellished monument of the Chalukya period, the Virupaksha stands at the southern perimeter of the site’s
landscaped compound. The temple is associated with Lokamahadevi, queen of Vikramaditya II, and was original named after her as
Lokeshvara. That the temple must have been considered the outstanding achievement of the era is borne out by two inscriptions on
the eastern gateway to the complex. These give the names of the principal architects: Tribhuvan and Sarvasiddhi Acharyas, Master of
the Three Worlds and Master of the Abode of Good Qualities. Many of
the sculptors involved on the project also have their names engraved beneath the carved panels that they worked on.
Virupaksha temple, Pattadakal Source: Author
The Virupaksha temple is the focus of a symmetrically planned complex, with a stone paved compound bounded by walls and sub-
Regionalism: Art and Architecture of the Regional Styles 750 AD to
c.1200 (Deccan and south India)
Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi
shrines, entered through gateways on the east and west. A Nandi
pavilion stands freely within the compound, between the temple and the eastern gateway. The temple consists of a linga sanctuary
surrounded by a passageway on three sides, lit by windows on three sides and preceded by a vestibule. This opens into a square mandapa
with sixteen free-standing columns creating five aisles running in both directions, the central aisles being slightly wider.
The sculptures on the outer walls are among the greatest masterpieces
of Chalukya plastic art. Panels on the passageway walls are mostly devoted to Shiva, which include icons of Bhikshatana, Bhairava,
Lakulisha holding a club, and Harihara. The central projection on the
north passageway walls has a formally posed eight-armed image of Vishnu armed with disc, conch, sword, shield, bow and arrow, with a
dwarf at the feet. That this may be a replacement image is suggested by Shiva and Parvati between exquisitely modelled makaras with open
jaws, riders and cascading tails on the walls above, and diminutive Mahishasuramardini beneath. An image of Varaha occupies the
adjacent recess.
20.3 Art and Architecture in south India I: Pallava Architecture
A definite architectural and iconographical vocabulary had developed in south India under the Pallavas by the seventh century CE. This is clear
indicated in the rock cut structures that the Pallavas created at Mahabalipuram (Tamil Nadu). It was also under the Pallavas that the
first structural temples were created in south India. The Shore temple at Mahabalipuram is considered the first structural temple built in
south India. The temple is constructed out of blocks of granite and was constructed under the patronage of the Pallava king Narsimhavarman
II Rajasimha (700-728 CE).
The temple has an unusual plan with three distinct worship areas
constructed on a same platform; the primary worship area faces east and is dedicated to Shiva. This worship area has the highest pyramidal
superstructure. The second, smaller shrine is also dedicated to Shiva and consists of a smaller superstructure. The third shrine is located at
the western edge and is dedicated to Vishnu as Anantashayin and has no superstructure. The figure of Anantashayin was carved out of
existing rock at situ.
Regionalism: Art and Architecture of the Regional Styles 750 AD to
c.1200 (Deccan and south India)
Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi
Shore temple, Mahabalipuram, Tamil Nadu
Notice the two rising pyramidal shaped shikaras Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shore_Temple#mediaviewer/File:
Shore_temple,_mahabalipuram.jpg
Regionalism: Art and Architecture of the Regional Styles 750 AD to
c.1200 (Deccan and south India)
Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi
20.4 Art and Architecture of south India II: Chola Architecture 20.4.1 Art and Architecture: Early Phase
The Cholas were the successors of the Pallava rulers in south India and had established themselves firmly by the ninth century CE. Their
religious and artistic activity centered in and around Tanjore. Early stages of temple architecture began under the reign of Aditya I (871-
907 CE) and Paratntaka I (907-955 CE).
The first phase of Chola artistic activity can be dated from the ninth to the early half of the tenth century CE, the temples during this early
phase were generally constructed entirely in stone and were smaller in size. The plan of the early temples consisted of a vimana and an
ardhmandapa. The entire complex was surrounded by a prakara and a
small gopuram was placed at the principal entrance, the superstructure of which was constructed in brick.
One of the finest examples of the early Chola architecture is the
Brahmapurishvara temple at Pullamangai in Papanasam district, twenty kilometers from Tanjore. The temple is dated to 910 CE and
was constructed under the reign of Parantaka I, dedicated to Shiva the temple faces east and consists of a vimana and an ardhmandapa.
The outer walls of the temple contain images of various Brahmanical
gods and goddesses, these sculptures are some of the finest Chola sculptures carved in stone and show extraordinary grace and delicacy.
The adhisthana of the temple has a beautifully carved frieze of yalis. Sculptures of exceptionally beautifully carved ganas appear at various
places on the temple walls, they are carved with great skill and
delicacy and are represented in various moods and poses.
Regionalism: Art and Architecture of the Regional Styles 750 AD to
c.1200 (Deccan and south India)
Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi
Standing sculpture of Brahma, Brahmapurishvara temple, Tamil Nadu. Source:https://www.flickr.com/photos/shanmugamsriraman/3688625
087/in/set-72157620836984165
Regionalism: Art and Architecture of the Regional Styles 750 AD to
c.1200 (Deccan and south India)
Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi
Images of ganas in various poses and moods, Brahmapurishvara temple, Tamil Nadu.
Source: http://www.harekrsna.com/sun/features/01-12/features2349.htm
The next impetus for the Chola architecture came under the patronage of the Chola queen Sembiyan Mahadevi, wife of Chola king
Gandaraditya (949-957 CE). Though not many new temples were constructed under her, she is said to have replaced a number of
existing brick temples with stone. The quality of Chola stone sculpture
became deteriorated, the sculpture became stiff marking a deviation from the early graceful and delicate style. The Agastyeshvara temple
at Anangur, Tamil Nadu is said to be built by her in 979 CE.
20.4.2 Art and Architecture: Second Phase
The next phase of Chola architecture began with the accession of
Rajaraja I (985-1012 CE) and continued under the reign of his son Rajendra Chola (1012-1044 CE). Under the rule of Rajaraja the Chola
empire reached its zenith, he conquered parts of Kerala, Coorg, lower and eastern Karnataka. In 993 CE he also led naval expeditions to Sri
Lanka and Maldives. Rajaraja not only patronized Brahmanical temples and deities, under his rule a number of Jaina and Buddhist religious
structures were also constructed.
Regionalism: Art and Architecture of the Regional Styles 750 AD to
c.1200 (Deccan and south India)
Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi
This phase of Chola architecture was marked by construction of large,
grand temples with multiple stories- Brihadishvara temples at Thanjavur and at Gangaikondacholapuram are two examples of this
phase of Chola architecture.
The Brihadishvara temple at Tanjore during its time of construction was one of the largest buildings to be constructed in the world. The
temple has a number of inscriptions and inform that the temple was constructed between 1003 CE - 1010 CE. Dedicated to Shiva the
temple was originally surrounded by two prakara walls, the inner prakara is 800 feet long (east-west) and 400 feet broad (north-south)
and has gopuram on the east entrance and three small torana on the
other three sides. The outer prakara is now completely lost, but the gopuram attached to it still stands on the east.
Seen in the photograph are the two entrance gopuram to the Brihadishvara temple, notice the barrel valuted roof that finishes the
shikhara of the gopuram.
Brihadishvara temple, Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brihadeeswarar_Temple
Regionalism: Art and Architecture of the Regional Styles 750 AD to
c.1200 (Deccan and south India)
Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi
Both the gopurams are same in design though the outer gopuram is taller and has five tiers and inner gopuram has three tiers. In front of
the temple rests an enormous stone image of Nandi, which is sixteen feet long and thirteen feet high.
The main temple itself is constructed out of granite and is one hundred
and eighty feet in length and consists of a mukhamandapa, ardhmandapa, an antarala, a garbhagriha and a pradakshinapath. The
niches on outer walls of the temple contain images of various forms of Shiva. The Vimana of the temple is two hundred and sixteen feet high
and consists of sixteen stories
Brihadishvara temple, Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu
Source: http://undiscoveredindiantreasures.blogspot.in/2011/06/brihadeeswar
a-temple-in.html
Regionalism: Art and Architecture of the Regional Styles 750 AD to
c.1200 (Deccan and south India)
Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi
Similar to the architectural style of Brihadesvara at Tanjore, Rajaraja I’s son Rajendra I constructed another temple with same name at his
new capital city of Gangaikindacholapuarm. Constructed in about 1023 CE, the temple marked his victory over Pala king Mahipala. The temple
has only one prakara wall with an all-stone gopuram on the east.
Brihadesvara temple, Gangaikondacholapuram, Tamil Nadu
Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gangaikonda_Cholapuram#mediaviewer/File:GangaiKonda_Cholapuram(Front_View).JPG
20.4.3 Art and Architecture: Third Phase
The last phase of architecture under the Chola patronage began in
1070 CE and lasted till 1279 CE. During this phase the Chola rulers focused on restoration of the old temples and made additions to the
existing temples than undertaking new temple projects. Vikrama Chola (1118-1135 CE) added a Nrittya mandapa and covered the roof of the
Tirumalikai temple. Kulotunga III (1178-1218) added a Nrittya
mandapa at the Chidambaram temple. Both these rulers also added a prakara wall and a gopuram to the already existing goddess shrine at
Regionalism: Art and Architecture of the Regional Styles 750 AD to
c.1200 (Deccan and south India)
Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi
Chidambara.
Another feature that became common during this time was
construction of separate shrine for the female goddesses, which came to be known as the Amman shrines. The addition of free standing
mandapas that are popularly called the ‘thousand pillared halls’ also became popular’ the mandapas of the temple became more ornate and
started receiving special attention; one of the architectural feature peculiar to this phase of Chola architecture was the shape of the
mandapas which imitated form of a chariot. The number and size of gopurams increased, they also became more ornate than before.
20.5 Metal Sculpture
The Cholas created some of the most exquisite metal sculptures known to humankind. Their bronze sculptures are world famous for their
exquisite quality, beauty, grace and precision. Pratapaditya Pal rightly notes that the Chola sculptors found an ideal balance between form
and ornamentation. Although the figures are idealized, they appear to
be naturalistically modeled. Chola bronzes have found their way in all major museums in the world.
Before the Cholas, even the Pallavas were aware of the knowledge of
bronze casting, but only few examples of Pallava bronze sculpture survive. The technique used to create the bronze sculpture by the
Cholas is called cire perdue or the lost wax process. According to this process a wax model of the image created was made with all complete
details of jewellery, clothes etc, then this image was coated with three layers of clay. This clay-encased wax image was heated, the wax
melted out leaving a hollow cavity within the clay image. The molted bronze was then carefully poured inside the hollow clay image and was
allowed to cool. Once the metal was called and set the clay was broken revealing a bronze image. Details were reworked and image was given
its final shape. Out of all the images created by Chola sculptors the
image of Shiva as Nataraja is their best-known creation, they are best known for their high aesthetic quality.
These bronze images unlike the stone sculptures that were sculpted on
the temple walls, were movable images. These images were regularly taken out of the temple during religious festivals.
Regionalism: Art and Architecture of the Regional Styles 750 AD to
c.1200 (Deccan and south India)
Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi
Shiva as Nataraja, Chola eleventh century Bronze Dallas Museum of Art, Texas, U.S.A
Regionalism: Art and Architecture of the Regional Styles 750 AD to
c.1200 (Deccan and south India)
Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi
Bronze image of Chola queen Sembiyan Mahadevi as Parvati
Chola bronze, 990 CE
Freer Gallery, Washington D.C, U.S.A Photograph: Author
Regionalism: Art and Architecture of the Regional Styles 750 AD to
c.1200 (Deccan and south India)
Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi
20.6 Other Architectural Achievements It was during the early medieval period that Shravana Belagola in
Karnataka, became an important Jaina pilgrimage site. The famous 17.5 meter standing stone image of Bahubali or Gommata, the son of
the first tirthankara Rishabhnath or Adinatha was erected under the patronage of Chamunda Raya, minister of the Ganga king Rachamalla
(974-984 CE).
The rulers of the Hoysala dynasty also created some of the most
exquisite temples during this period. The Hoysala for,ed a small kingdom in region around Belur and Halebid in eleventh century, in the
begening they were feudatories of the Chalukyas of Kalyan, but by the twelfth century they were becoming powerful defeating and acquiring
territories both from the Cholas and the Chalukyas. Tht Hoysala temple consists of several connected parts and consisted of a porch, a
vestibule, a hall and a sanctum sanctorum. The Hoysala temple plans are one of the most complex temple plans and their sculpture are
much celebrated for their intricate detailed carvings.
20. 7 Exercise
Explain the following architectural elements 1. Prakara 2. Vimana
3. Gopuram
Ans.
1. Prakara- outer wall in south Indian temple architecture 2. Vimana- The main temple consisting of garbhagriha and Shikhara
3. Gopuram- Large entrance gateways, peculiar to south Indian or Dravida architecture
Regionalism: Art and Architecture of the Regional Styles 750 AD to
c.1200 (Deccan and south India)
Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi
Match the following Pallava rock cut temples Rahtrakuta
Earliest structural temple in south India Chola queen Lost wax process Mahabalipuram
Sembiyan Mahadevi Shore temple Kailashnath temple, Ellora Parantaka I
Brahmapurishvara temple Chola Bronzes
Answer
Pallava rock cut temples Mahabalipuram
Earliest structural temple in south India Shore temple Lost wax process Chola Bronzes
Sembiyan Mahadevi Chola queen Brahmapurishvara temple Parantaka I
Kailshnath temple, Ellora Rashtrakuta
Describe the Lost wax process
Ans. According to the lost wax process or cire perdue a wax model of
the image created was made with all complete details of jewellery, clothes etc, then this image was coated with three layers of clay. This
clay-encased wax image was heated, the wax melted out leaving a
hollow cavity within the clay image. The molted bronze was then carefully poured inside the hollow clay image and was allowed to cool.
Once the metal was called and set the clay was broken revealing a bronze image. Details were reworked and image was given its final
shape.
What were the important landmarks of Chola architecture in
third phase of architecture?
Ans.
1. The last phase of architecture under the Chola patronage began in 1070 CE and lasted till 1279 CE
2. During this phase the Chola rulers focused on restoration of the
old temples and made additions to the existing temples than undertaking new temple projects.
3. Construction of separate shrine for the female goddesses, which
Regionalism: Art and Architecture of the Regional Styles 750 AD to
c.1200 (Deccan and south India)
Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi
came to be known as the Amman shrines became popular.
4. The addition of free standing mandapas, popularly called the ‘thousand pillared halls’ became popular. The so called Nrittya
mandapa imitated chariots. 5. The number and size of gopurams increased, they also became
more ornate than before
Glossary Adhisthana-platform
Antarala-vestibule Ardhmandapa-intermediary space between the sanctum and the
temple exterior. Dravida-Form of south Indian architecture
Ganas-pot bellied attendants of Shiva Garbhagriha- womb house, sanctum
Gopuram-gateway Mukhamandapa-the front hall or porch of the temple
Nrittyamandapa-dancing hall Pradakshinapath-circumambulatory path
Prakara-outer wall Torana- gateway , archiform gateway pattern
Vesara-Form of architecture in Deccan Vimana-the main temple, including garbhagriha and shikhara
Further Readings
Champakalakshmi, R. Trade, Ideologyand Urbanization: South India
30 BC to AD 1300, Oxford University Press, 1996.
Foekema, Gerard. A Complete Guide to Hoysala Temples, Abhinav Publications, 1996.
Hardy, Adam. Indian Temple Architecture: Form and Transform,
IGNCA, 1995.
Huntington, Susan L. The Art of Ancient India: Buddhist, Hindu, Jain, University of Michigan, 1985.
Meister, Michael W., M.A. Dhaky, and Krishna Deva (ed.). Encyclopaedia of Indian Temple Architecture, South India. Lower
Dravidadesa 200 B.C.-A.D.1324, American Institute of Indian Studies,
Regionalism: Art and Architecture of the Regional Styles 750 AD to
c.1200 (Deccan and south India)
Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi
1988.
Pal, Pratapaditya. Indian Sculpture, Vol.2, 700-1800, Los Angeles
County Museum of Art, 1988.
Soundararajan, K. V. Early Temple Architecture of Karnataka and its Ramifications, Dharwar, 1969.
Srinivasan, K. R. Temples of South India, New Delhi, 1971.
Yazdani, G., ed., The Early History of the Deccan, Oxford, 1960.
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