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7/21/2019 Penology and Eschatology in Plato's Myths (New Edition with Greek Annotation)
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UFOJIJDP KOL F]MAK\JIJDP@O
UIK\J]CP\A]
(Ofw Fl`t`jo w`ta Drffb Koojtkt`jo)
ny
].U. TK^L (Ua.L)
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;
MJO\FO\]
Hjrfwjrl =
Urfhkmf 8Kmbojwifldfcfots 1
@.
(k)
TAK\ @] K CP\A:
Uiktj's ktt`tulf tjwkrls taf trkl`t`joki cytas 0
(n) \af prjnifc w`ta Uiktj's usf jh cyta ;=k-6>4f)
(k) ]yojps`s >>
(n) \af tr`kis kol tr`nuikt jos jh taf lfkl (6>=k-6>4f) >=
@@@. MJCCFO\K^P JO \AF UAKFLJ CP\A (;54m-;;6k)
(k) ]yojps`s 61
(n) \af gjurofy otj Aklfs (;54m-;51m) 60(m) Mjscjdrkpay kol aylrjdrkpay (;51m-;;=l) 80
(l) Guldfcfot kol pur`h mkt`jo (;;=l-;;6k) ;55
@X. MJCCFO\K^P JO \AF ^FUVNI@M CP\A (8;;l)
(k) ]yojps`s ;51
(n) Fr's gjurofy tj taf cfkljw (8;5(l) \af sp`olif jh Ofmfss ty (8;8l-8;4l) ;=;l) ;
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>
X@ .
(k)
MJCCFO\K^P JO \AF \@CKFV] CP\A (n-l, 05f-0>m)
]yojps`s ;05
(n) \af rfturo tj taf stkrs (n-l) ;05(m) \af okturf kol mkusf jh trkosc`drkt`jo (0;k-0>m). ;00
X@@. MJCCFO\K^P JO \AF IKT] (05=n-056l)
(k) ]yojps`s >50(n) \af trkoshjrckt`jo prjmfss hjr sjuis (05=n-056l) >50
X@@@. ]VCCK^P KOL @CUI@MK\@JO] JH \AF
MJCCFO\K^@F] >>8
@Q. UFOJIJDP KOL F]MAK\JIJDP @O \AF FK^IP UF^@JL
(k) \af fssfot`ki tafcfs jh taf Djrd`ks l`kijduf >==4
(m) ^ftr`nut`jo vfrsus rfhjrc `o taf Djrd`ks cyta >6;(l) ^aftjr`m kol `ts rfikt`jo tj taf Djrd`ks cyta >8;
Q. GV]\@MF KOL LF]@^@OD \AF DJJL @O \AF C@LLIF
UF^@JL
(k) Lfkta, lfs`rf kol pjst-cjrtfc puo`sacfot `o taf Uakflj >4;
(n) Gust`mf `o taf m`ty kol taf khtfri hf `o taf ^fpuni`m >108
Q@. ]@DO@H@MKO\ LFXFIJUCFO\] @O \AF IK\F UF^@JL
(k) Dfofs`s, sfoskt`jo kol trkosc`drkt`jo `o taf \`ckfus =;6
(n) ^f`omkrokt`jo kol rfn`rta `o taf \`ckfus kol Ikws =>8(m) Fsmaktjijdy kol pfojijdy o taf Ikws ==;
Q@@. ]VCCK^P KOL @CUI@MK\@JO] JH \AF UA@IJ]JUA@MKI
F]]KP] =
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=
HJ^FTJ^L
Cy mjomfro `o wr`t`od ta`s wjrb aks nffo tj jhhfr taf spfm`ki`st k usfhui
sjurmf njjb jo Uiktj's fsmaktjijd`mki cytas. @o lj`od ta`s, @ akvf huih`iifl twj
mjomfros. H`rst, @ akvf jhhfrfl k pa`ijijd`mki `otfrprftkt`jo2 `.f. ko fxfdfs`s jo taf
ikodukdf, styif kol kutafot`m`ty jh taf cytas. ]fmjol, @ akvf jhhfrfl k
pa`ijsjpa mki `otfrprftkt jo2 `.f. k mr t`mki rfhifmt`jo jo taf mjotfot jh taf cytas.
Njta krf ofmfsskry tj lftfrc`of taf "prjnifcs jh mjos`stfomy", kol @ sakii kttfcpt
tj kllrfss tafsf prjnifcs us`od k afrcfofut`m cftajljijdy.;
@ `otfol tj lftfrc`of k oucnfr jh ta`ods. H`rst, ajw hkr Uiktj wks
`olfntfl tj jtafr sjurmfs, njta trkl`t`joki kol pa`ijsjpa`mki, kol ajw hkr af
`ovfotfl mjscjijd`mki, n`jijd`mki, kol rfi`d`jus nfi`fhs tj su`t a`s jwo purpjsfs.
\j ta`s fol, @ w`ii jhhfr k mjccfotkry styif rfkl`od jo fkma jh taf fsmaktjijd`mkicytas. \af fxtfot jh taf`r jr`d`oki`ty mko tafo nf kssfssfl2 tafrfny fokni`od k
l`st`omt`jo tj nf cklf nftwffo Uiktj's cytas, kol taf trkl`t`joki b`ol jh wa`ma
af wks sj mr`t`mki. Cy sfmjol mjomfro, w`ta taf "prjnifcs jh mjos`stfomy", w`ii
nf tj hjmus jo waftafr taf cytas miksa w`ta taf l`kijduf `o wa`ma tafy kppfkr, jr
; @ v`fw taf afrcfofut`m cftajl ks ko `c`tkt`jo jh taf l`kifmt`m prjmflurf jh taf
Uakflrus. ]uhh`mf `t tj sky, `o pkrkparks`od H. Kst, Fifcfots jh Drkcckr,
Afrcfofut`ms kol Mr`t`m`sc, jof mkoojt uolfrstkol k tfxt uoifss jof kokiysfs tafpkrts, kol tafsf mkoojt nf uolfrstjjl uoifss jof kokiysfs taf wajif. \af rfm`prjm`ty jhwajif kol pkrts suppjrts taf twj krcfl cftajl jh taf Uakflrus, ks ljfs taf m`rmuikr`ty
tafcf. K tafcf @ a`dai`dat `o taf ck`o tfxt jh ta`s wjrb, kol k hfkturf @ mjos`lfr
fxpik`os taf mrfkt`vf prjmfss jh taf pa`ijsjpafrs cyta-ckb`od. \af drkcckt`mki kolpsymajijd`mki tafcfs ofmfsskry hjr ta`s kokiys s krf kisj fxpi`m t `o taf Uakflrus
cftajljijdy2 `okscuma ks l`kifmt`m lfkis w`ta lfh`o`t`jos, kol wkrrkots ko kmmjuot jh
vkr`jus hfkturfs jh sjui.
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8=n, >86m->88m). Kljpt`od ta`s cftajljijdy c`dat hkm`i`tktf k nfttfr
uolfrstkol`od jh Uiktjs mrfkt`vf folfkvjur. @t c`dat kisj `iiuc`oktf cjrf mifkriy
wakt a`s purpjsf wks `o prjlum`od tafsf cytas. @o lj`od ta`s, @ sakii nf jni`dfl tj
h`rst jhhfr ko kmmjuot jh taf okturf jh sjui (>4;k). @ sakii tafo kttfcpt tj l`smfro `ts
kmt`jos, kol tafo lftfrc`of taf djki tj wa`ma `t sajuil nf l`rfmtfl (>4;n). H`okiiy,
@ sakii sffb tj kokiysf taf fhhfmt kol ut`i`ty jh taf cytas (>4;n).
Dfofrki mjomfros kr`sf wafo jof pursufs ta`s pkrt`muikr cftajl, wa`ma`ov`tf spfmuikt`vf aypjtafsfs. Hjr fxkcpif, `ssufs kr`sf mjomfro`od waftafr Uiktj's
cytas wfrf s`cpiy wr`ttfo ks pfrsjoki krt`mifs jh hk`ta2 kisj, waftafr tafy sajuil
nf rfkl jo k i tfrki, kiifdjr mki, jr trjpjijd`mki ifvfi. Lj taf tfxts suddfst koy
kokdjd`mki, jr cyst`mki `cpi`mkt`jos, kol ajw lj suma tafcfs kol nfi`fhs
suppifcfot taf fta`m hjr i`v`od taf pa`ijsjpa`m i`hf: @o jtafr wjrls, tj wakt fxtfot
lj taf cytas sfrvf k pflkdjd`m ut`i`ty:
Dfofrkiiy spfkb`od, taf Djrd`ks, Uakflj, kol ^fpuni`m jhhfr cyta`mki
h`okifs tj l`kijdufs mjomfrofl w`ta i`v`od taf djjl i`hf. Juts`lf taf cyta`mki
mjotfxt, ]jmrktfs usfs a`s pa`ijsjpa`mki cftajl tj mr`t`mkiiy fvkiuktf vkr`jus
lfh`o`t`jos jh djjl kol fv`i. @lfkiiy, ta`s pfrsuklfs taf `ol`v`luki tj rfkssfss wakt
tafy tajudat wks `o taf`r nfst `otfrfsts. @h taf cytas lj `olffl suppifcfot taf
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ck`o cjrki krducfot jh k l`kijduf, tj wakt fxtfot lj tafy fohjrmf taf krducfots,
kol wakt krf taf spfm`h`ms jh ta`s: Lj tafy sfrvf tj njistfr pa`ijsjpay w`ta k
pr`ckr`iy fcjt joki, jr k rkt joki kppfki, kol ajw ljfs ta`s kllrfss taf
`ol`v`luki's ijod tfrc `otfrfsts:
\j nfd`o taf kokiys`s, `t w`ii nf ofmfsskry tj lfki w`ta Uiktj's sffc`odiy
kcn`vkifot ktt`tulf tj cytas, kol tj hijkt taf prfc`sf takt a`s jwo cytas sajuil nf
l`st`odu`safl hrjc taf trkl`t`joki b`ol. Uiktj's mr`t`m`scs jh taf trkl`t`joki pjfts lj
ojt kppfkr tj lftfr a`c hrjc us`od taf cfl`uc kt strktfd`m pj`ots lur`od a`s jwo
wjrb. Takt `s `t, tafrfhjrf, wa`ma prfm`sfiy l`st`odu`safs Uiktj's cytas hrjc jtafr
cytas kol, tafrfhjrf, rfmjccfols tafc hjr usf: @o lfki`od w`ta ta`s `ssuf, @ sakii
nf jni`dfl tj mr t`mkiiy kokiysf taf spfm h`ms jh fkma cyta `o lftk`i. \a`s w`ii nf `o
jrlfr tj kssfss taf l`hhfrfomfs kol s`c`ikr`t`fs nftwffo trkl`t`joki kol Uiktjo`m
cytas, nfhjrf l`smuss`od taf`r mjcpkt`n`i`ty, jr jtafrw`sf, w`ta a`s v`fws ks tafy
krf mjotk`ofl w`ta`o taf l`kijduf hjrc.
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U^FHKMF
]`omf taf n`rta jh pa`ijsjpay `o mikss`mki Drffmf, taf l`v`s`jo nftwffo
rfksjo kol taf pkss`jos aks ruo tarjuda taf a`stjry jh Tfstfro tajudat i`bf k
dfjijd`mki hkuit i`of. Pft pjpuikr kmmjuots jh ta`s l`v`s`jo, `o wa`ma taf 'twj
muiturfs' jh taf cjlfro sm`fomfs kol krts krf jhtfo kttkmafl tj taf twj pjifs,
usukiiy hk`is tj rfmjdo`sf taf fxtfot tj wa`ma jur murrfot kii tjj fksy kssjm`kt`jo jh
rfksjo w`ta `ostrucfotki cfksurfcfot kol mkimuikt`jo `s k rfmfot mrfkt`jo. @h jof
rfturos tj Uiktj's wjrb, ajwfvfr, jof sjjo l`smfros taf mjcpifx`ty jh taf
`otfrkmt`jo nftwffo taf twj hkmuit`fs `o a`s drjuolnrfkb`od tajudat, ks wfii ks
nf`od prfsfotfl w`ta taf spfmtkmif jh k drfkt `otfiifmt njta makiifod`od kol
lfpijy`od taf rfsjurmfs jh k muiturf takt wks st`ii prfljc`okotiy cyta`mkiiy
jr`fotktfl, kol wa`ma akl ojt lfvfijpfl taf huii oftwjrb jh luki`scs wa`ma wf
cjlfros akvf ks jur cfotki huro`turf. @t `s ljunthui `h koy krfk lfcjostrktfs ta`s ks
lrkckt mkiiy jr `otr`du`odiy ks Uiktj's akoli`od jh cyta, kol `o ta`s wjrb ].U. Tkrl
prjlumfs k a`daiy smajikriy kokiys s jh taf rjif jh cyta `o Uiktj, fxkc`o`od taf
tfos jos `ovjivfl `o Uiktj's tajudat `o a`s stktus ks njta mr`t m kol ckbfr jh
fsmaktjijd`mki cyta. @t `s tj Tkrl's drfkt jvfrkii mrfl`t takt lfsp`tf taf `ccfosf
wf`dat jh smajikrsa`p jo Uiktj, af ckokdfs tj nr`od hjrwkrl dfou`ofiy jr`d`oki
mjos`lfrkt`jos `o njta taf a`stjr`mki kol systfckt`m ljck`os, lfpijy`od tjwkrls
taf fol ko `otfii`dfotiy syomrft`m kpprjkma tj pikmf a`csfih kcjodst Uiktj's mr`t`mki
hr`fols.
]trumturkiiy taf wjrb hkiis qu`tf ofktiy `otj twj akivfs. \af h`rst akih,
wa`ma hjmusfs jo `otfrprftkt`vf succkry jh taf cytas, jhhfrs pk`ostkb`od kttfot`jo
tj fxpjs tjry lftk`i, kol tafrf `s pifoty `o Tkrl's rfkl`od afrf tj fodkdf taf
lfvjtfl Uiktj spfm`ki`st. D`vfo taf mfotrki`ty jh taf mjomfpts jh truta kol gust`mf `o
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taf stktf hjr Uiktj, kol fspfm`kiiy taf tfos`jos `ovjivfl nftwffo truta kol
cytackb`od, sjcf cky nf surpr`sfl takt cjrf kttfot`jo wks ojt d`vfo tj taf
eojnif i`f' `ovjivfl `o Uiktj's hjuol`od cyta jh taf ^fpuni`m, hjr wa`ist Tkrl
jvfrtiy w`safs tj mjomfotrktf jo fsmaktjijdy, jof c`dat akvf tajudat takt
mjos`lfrkt`jos jh pjst-cjrtfc gust`mf cust ijd`mkiiy prfsuppjsf taf `ssuf jh wakt
gust`mf `o taf `lfki rfpuni m kmtukiiy mjos sts `o kol taf `ssuf jh Uiktj's
(`o)mjos`stfomy afrf. ]uma nrjkl pj`ots ks`lf, hjr ta`s rfklfr kol prjnkniy hjr jtafr
pa`ijsjpafrs kmrjss k w`lfr spfmtruc, `t `s w`ta taf mkrfhui kokiys`s jh taf sfmjol
akih takt taf wjrb rfkiiy dk`os k lyokc`m `otfiifmtuki l`rfmt`jo. \af kutajr `s kt a`s
nfst `o taf tajudathui kokiys s i`ob`od taf cytas kol psymajijdy jh taf Uakflrus
kol^fpuni`m, wa`ist `o taf mkrfhui trfktcfot jh Uiktj's pfojijdy af sycpktaft`mkiiy
rfmjdo`sfs kol kttfcpts tj mr`t`mkiiy akrcjo`sf taf tfos`jos nftwffo Uiktj's
rftr`nut`vf kol rfhjrckt`vf kspfmts. \af `ost`omts jh Uiktj taf drfkt pa`ijsjpa`m
systfc nu`ilfr krf hjr l`kifmt`mkiiy lftfrc`ofl truta kol taf rfhjrc jh taf aucko
sp`r`t, nut Uiktj taf cjrki`st`m jppjofot jh krn`trkr`ofss kol pjwfr knusf rfqu`rfs
rftr`nut`jo hjr taf pfrs`stfotiy rfmkim`trkot, kol k pur`h`fl cytajijdy tj `ost`i v`rtuf
`o taf ks yft uoakrcjo`jus sjui. Tkrl nr`ods tafsf l`hhfr`od mjomfros ks mijsf tj
akrcjoy ks pjss`nif, wa`ist ojt ijs`od taf mr`t`mki l`stkomf offlfl tj rfmjdo`sf
taf`r `omjos`stfom`fs, kol a`s wjrb `s mjostrumt`vf kol ojtfwjrtay tj takt fhhfmt.Lr. U.A.D. ]tfpafos.
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KMBOJTIFLDFCFO\]
@ hkvjurfl taf Ijfn trkosikt`jos jh pr`ckry sjurmfs hjr wjrbs jtafr tako
Uiktj's. Mjomfro`od Uiktj spfm`h`mkiiy, @ `ovkr`kniy mjosuitfl k oucnfr jh
trkosikt`jos, jr jhhfrfl cy jwo rfol`t`jo wafo k pkrt`muikr pksskdf jr wjrl mkusfl
prjnifcs. @ akvf prfsfotfl taf Djrd ks ks ko fkriy pfr jl wjrb, taf Uakflj,
^fpuni`m kol Uakflrus ks c`llif pfr`jl wjrbs, kol taf \`ckfus kol Ikws ks
nfijod`od tj taf iktf pfr`jl. \af Uakflrus aks nffo pikmfl khtfr taf ^fpuni`m luf
tj taf mursjry trfktcfot jh taf tr`pkrt`tf okturf jh taf sjui kol taf maj`mf jh i`vfs.
Ks tafsf `ssuf wfrf lfkit w`ta `o lfpta `o taf ^fpuni`m (
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0
MAKU\F^ @
TAK\ @] K CP\A:
(k)Uiktj's ktt`tulf tjwkrls taf trkl`t`joki cytas
Takt `s ko fsmaktjijd`mki cyta: K dfofrki lfh`o`t`jo jh fsmaktjijdy mjuil
pfrakps nf jhhfrfl ks7 k ljmtr of jh lfkta, mjomfrofl w`ta taf guldfcfot jh sjuis,
kol `ts rfwkrls kol puo`sacfots `o njta afkvfo kol afii. \af wjrl jr`d`oktfs
hrjc taf Drffb cfko`od "ikst". \afrfhjrf, i`tfrkiiy, `t lfojtfs tajsfljmtr`ofs mjomfrofl w`ta taf ikst ta`ods. K dfofrki lfh`o`t`jo jh `s akrlfr tj
jhhfr, ks `t `s prfdokot w`ta cfko`od, nut `t c`dat nf lfh`ofl ks "koyta`od wa`ma `s
lfi`vfrfl ny wjrl jh cjuta" (I]G). @ts jrki mjoojtkt`jos krf hurtafr kppkrfot `h `t `s
trkosiktfl ks "uttfrkomf", jr "sjcfta`od jof skys", pfrakps ks k spffma `o taf
puni m kssfcniy (I]G). \a`s lfvfijpfl iktfr `otj sjcfta`od sk`l w`ta`o taf mjotfxt
jh k stjry. \afrfhjrf, k prjv`s`joki lfh`o`t`jo jh ko fsmaktjijd`mki cyta c`dat nf7
ko jrki kmmjuot, jr tkif, mjomfro`od tajsf ckttfrs rfikt od tj taf khtfri`hf.
K nr`fh dikomf kt wjrbs tarjudajut taf fkriy, c`llif kol iktf pfr`jl
l`kijdufs, suddfsts cytas wfrf uo`cpjrtkot hjr Uiktj. @o taf A`pp`ks Ckgjr
(>18k), Mrktyius (m), ]tktfscko (>81f, =5=n),
Ua`ifnus (;
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;5
fxtrkmt rkt`joki cfko`od. \af rfksjo d`vfo `s takt `cprfss`joknif sjuis krf uoknif
tj l`st`odu`sa nftwffo wakt `s kol wakt `s ojt kiifdjr`mki (). @t `s jh
`cpjrtkomf, tafrfhjrf, takt `cprfss`joknif sjuis krf fxpjsfl tj taf hk`rfst stjr`fs `o
jrlfr tj `ost`i v`rtuf (=41f). Uiktj's rfckrbs fcpaks`sf afrf taf `cpjrtkomf jh
cytas `o flumkt`od taf yjuod, kol taf `cpjrtkomf jh flumkt`od tafc `o taf mjrrfmt
wky. @t afips a`c tj `otrjlumf taf v`fw takt taf mjotfot jh cytas sajuil ojt hjstfr
frrjofjus suppjs`t`jos mjomfro`od taf okturf jh ta`ods l`v`of7 f.d. takt k djjl Djl
`s rfspjos`nif hjr fv`i kmts, jr takt aucko mr`cfs mko nf fxmusfl luf tj ta`s (=15n-
m). Uiktj rfksjos takt Djl `s djjl, kol mko joiy nf taf mkusf jh djjl ta`ods `o taf
wjril (=40m-l). Tf sajuil ojt, tafrfhjrf, kmmfpt taf trkl`t`joki v`fw takt Wfus
krn`trkr`iy l`spfosfs njta "djjl kol fv`i tj cjrtkis" (=40f). Ojr sajuil wf kmmfpt
taf v`fw jh Kfsmayius, hjr fxkcpif, takt puo`sacfots `ohi`mtfl ny Djl krf
koyta`od jtafr tako r`datfjus kol djjl (=15k), jr `ohi`mtfl `o koy wky jtafr tako
hjr jur nfofh`t (=15n). @olffl, l`v`of puo`sacfot `s k pjs`t`vf nfofh`t (=15n),
nfmkusf Djl s taf mkusf jh kii takt `s djjl kol ojt fv`i (=15n).
Uiktj fcpaks`sfs takt taf trkl`t`joki pjfts sajuil ojt mik`c tj nf fxpfrts
knjut ckttfrs tafy ljo't rfkiiy uolfrstkol2 af prjv`lfs taf fxkcpif jh cfl`m`of, jr
lr`v`od k makr`jt `o taf @jo (6=4k hh.) `o suppjrt jh ta`s. Af pjrtrkys ]jmrktfs ks
krdu`od takt fkma nrkoma jh taf krts `s l`hhfrfot, kol sj tj spfkb w`ta kutajr`tyknjut k pkrt`muikr krt rfqu`rfs spfm`ki`sfl bojwifldf (6=4m-f). K mkrpfotfr mkoojt
truiy uolfrstkol cfl`m`of tarjuda taf krt jh ckb`od huro`turf, ojr k ljmtjr
uolfrstkol huro`turf-ckb`od tarjuda prkmt`s`od cfl`m`of (6=4m-6=1n). \a`s `s
fqukiiy truf jh taf pjft's krt, wa`ma `s l`hhfrfot hrjc taf krt jh cfl`m`of kol
mkrpfotry (6=1n-l). \afrfhjrf, ikmb`od taf spfm`ki`sfl bojwifldf rfqu`rfl, taf pjft
mkoojt bojw taf truta mjomfro`od krts jtafr tako a`s jwo (6
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sb`iis ks taf mrkhtscfo lj (85;k). I`bfw`sf, nfmkusf tafy ikmb taf bojwifldf
rfqu`rfl, pkrt`muikriy mjomfro`od ajw tj i`vf taf djjl i`hf, jr taf rfqu`rfcfots hjr
k djjl stktf, tafy krf uoknif tj prjlumf nfofh`m`ki rfsuits hjr taf m`t`zfos kol
djvfrocfots (600l). Afrf tafy krf guldfl ny wakt tafy prjlumf7 `.f. nfmkusf tafy
ikmb pa`ijsjpa`mki kmucfo, tafy krf pr`ckr`iy cjt`vktfl ny k lfs`rf tj pifksf taf
cuit`tulf, kol w`o pjpuikr`ty kol prfst`df (855l-f). \afy kma`fvf ta`s tarjuda taf
cus`m jh taf`r wjrls (85;n), kitajuda wafo tafsf wjrls krf kokiysfl, taf`r parksfs
krf prjvfo tj ikmb mrfl`n`i`ty (85;n).
Kmmjrl`od tj taf fkri`fr Kpjijdy (>>m-l), taf pjft `s `osp`rfl tj
mjcpjsf, kol ta`s fotaus`ksc `s luf tj taf fhhfmt jh taf Cusf. Vohjrtuoktfiy, taf
pjft ljfs ojt bojw taf cfko`od jh wakt aks nffo sk`l. \af @jo (6=
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`ohiufomf jo pfjpif's makrkmtfrs. \rkd`m kol fp`m pjftry pjrtrky pfjpif `o stktfs jh
a`da fxm`tfcfot. \af rakpsjl`sts fxprfss taf`r fcjt`jos v`jifotiy, kol tafy lj sj
`o suma k wky ks tj fxm`tf taf kul`fomf's fcjt`jos. @o taf ^fpuni`m (856n),
ajwfvfr, suma tkifs fomjurkdf tajsf fifcfots `o taf pfrsjoki`ty takt c`dat
uolfrc`of rfksjo. Ujftry `s, tafrfhjrf, kijod w`ta jtafr suma krt`st`m cfl`ucs, ko
uowajifsjcf st`cuikt`jo jh taf pkss`jos. \afsf pkss`jos offl tj nf sungudktfl.
\af sungudkt`jo jh taf pkss`jos `s ofmfsskry sj takt taf `ol`v`luki c`dat i`vf k
djjl kol akppy i`hf (858l). @t `s truf takt lrkckt`m pjftry `s fotfrtk`o`od, nut
sfos`nif pfjpif sajuil rfojuomf taf`r ijvf hjr `t, ks `t mjuil nf psymajijd`mkiiy
lkckd`od (854k).
Uiktj's mr`t`m`scs jh cyta`mki kmmjuots, `o taf ikttfr pkrt jh taf ^fpuni`m
(855k hh.), lj ojt tkiiy w`ta a`s fkri`fr stktfcfots2 wafrf mfrtk`o wjrbs jh krt krf
pfrc`ss nif, pkrt`muikriy h taf mjotfot s jh k mfrtk o sjrt (=0>k-k-=01f), `t mko nf sffo takt
ckoy cyta`mki kmmjuots krf kisj sk`l tj fxfrt k lkodfrjus `ohiufomf jo taf cjrki
makrkmtfr. \a`s kisj `ohiufomfs taf nfakv`jur2 ks taf `ccjrki rfprfsfotkt`jo jh
djls kol afrjfs c`dat tfcpt sjuis `otj taf `c`tkt`jo jh v`mf. \kb`od pkrt `o
rfm`tkt`jos c`dat kisj fxfrt k lkodfrjus `ohiufomf, ks taf `ccjrki makrkmtfrs
(wa`ma `ol`v`lukis c`dat akvf tj piky) c`dat nf akn`t-hjrc`od. Uiktj d`vfs
oucfrjus fxkcpifs jh taf b`ol jh makrkmtfrs tj nf kvj`lfl. Af d`vfs fxkcpifs
suma ks sikvfs, `oskof jr njksthui wjcfo, kol cfo nfakv`od w`ta mjwkrl`mf2wa`ist fvfo taf `c`tkt`jo jh ko`ckis, jr taf oj`sf jh r`vfrs `s tj nf l`smjurkdfl
(=06f-=08m). K su`tknif rfcfly `s, ajwfvfr, taf fxpjs`od jh sjuis tj lrkck takt
rfprfsfots makrkmtfrs pfrhjrc`od klc`rknif wjrbs7 makrkmtfrs suma ks afrjfs kol
djls2 hjr tafsf nfakvf ks cjrki fxfcpikrs (=08m,
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nf spfm kiiy mjcc ss jofl, nut taf pjfts waj rfhusf tj wr tf tafc cust nf lfkit
w`ta kmmjrl`odiy. H`rst, tafy cust nf trfktfl w`ta rfvfrfomf, nf`od koj`otfl w`ta
cyrra kol mrjwofl w`ta "h`iifts jh wjji". \afy krf tafo tj nf fsmjrtfl tj taf
njrlfrs, kol khtfr nf`od takobfl drkm jusiy, tafy krf tj nf prjcptiy nko safl hrjc
taf m`ty (=01k-n, m, 405f-40;k). \af
psymajijd`mki fhhfmts krf lftk ifl fkri fr `o taf ^fpuni m, wafrf taf k`c `s tj
rflumf taf tr`pkrt`tf sjui tj k akrcjoy (=4
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A`s v`fws c`dat nf mjos`lfrfl
cjrf hkvjurkniy, ajwfvfr, `o taf i`dat jh taf uolfrstkol`od takt a`s pr`cf mjomfro
wks w`ta taf `ohiufomf jh krt hjrcs jo taf `cprfss`joknif sjuis jh taf yjuod. @o taf
^fpuni`m, ma`ilrfo krf pkrt`muikriy sfos`t`vf tj `ckdfs jh v`rtuf kol v`mf, sj tafy
sajuil nf fxpjsfl joiy tj su`tkniy mrkhtfl `ckdfs jh v`rtuf (=41f). Fxpjsurf tj
uov`rtujus `ckdfs c`dat ifkl tj taf fcuikt`jojh tafc, kol tafrfhjrf fomjurkdf
uov`rtujus nfakv`jur (=06m-l). Afrf, `t `s mifkr Uiktj's strjod jngfmt`jos tj fx`st`od
cytas krf nksfl jo k mjomfro wa`ma hjmusfs jo k pji`t`mki ut`i`ty7 `.f. tj bffp
ma`ilrfo's sjuis hrff hrjc akrchui `ohiufomfs, tafrfny hkm`i`tkt`od djjl m`t`zfos,
kol fvfo pjtfot`ki Dukrl`ko ruifrs. \a`s `s kisj fv`lfot `o taf `cpjrtkomf jh krt`st`m
mfosjrsa`p strfssfl njta `o taf ijwfr prjdrkccf jh flumkt`jo `o taf ^fpuni`m
(=44k-m, 6>>k, Mjosuit Ua`ijsjpa`mki Kfstaft`ms, fl.J.Akohi`od, J.V.Urfss ;00> hjr mr`t`m`scs.
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`ohiufomf jo yjuod c`ols. Jo taf jtafr akol, pfrakps taf`r `ccjrki kol
mjotfot`jus `ohiufomf wks mjos`lfrfl k ofmfss`ty `o taf drfktfr smafcf jh ta`ods2
ks tafy krf rfhutfl ny ]jmrktfs, kol `o Uiktjs i`tfrkry mjotfxt kt koy rktf, `t `s af
waj stkols ks k cjrki fxfcpikr.
\a`s `o turo rk`sfs taf `ssuf jh ajw hkr Uiktj wks gust`h`fl `o us`od taf
cfl`uc jh cyta mjos`lfr`od a`s mr`t`m`scs jh taf trkl`t`joki pjfts. \af Fp`murfko
Mjijtfs, ks m`tfl ny Urjmius `o a`s mjccfotkry Jo taf ^fpuni`m (;56.>=- ;58.;=-8) `s takt Uiktj
l`l ojt rfgfmt pfr sf, nut joiy taf Ajcfr`m kol Afs`jl`m pjfcs, ks `s
fv`lfot `o ^fpuni`m (601k-85;m). Hjr Urjmius, kt koy rktf (jp. m`t.), Uiktj's i`tfrkry
cytas wfrf tj nf l`st`odu`safl hrjc taf trkl`t`joki b`ol, kol tafy wfrf
susmfpt`nif tj k lfdrff jh rkt`joki `otfrprftkt`jo.
Koy gust`h`mkt`jo jh Uiktj's usf jh taf cfl`uc jh cyta rfqu`rfs ko kmt`vf
lfcjostrkt`jo jh taf l`hhfrfomfs, `o jrlfr tj l`st`odu`sa a`s cytas hrjc taf
trkl`t`joki b`ol jh wa`ma af wks sj mr`t`mki. Vohjrtuoktfiy, Uiktj l`l ojt a`csfih
lfki l`rfmtiy w`ta taf spfm`h`ms jh ta`s kppkrfot mjotrkl`mt`jo `o rfikt`jo tj a`s jwo
wr`t`ods, nut taf nrjkl mjomfro jh ta`s njjb w`ii nf tj mjcf tj sjcf lffpfr
uolfrstkol`od jh taf fp`stfcjijd`mki kol cjrki mjotfot jh a`s jwo cytas ks kcfkos jh lfhfomf. Kt h`rst dikomf, k suddfst`jo jh a`s v`fws mjomfro`od taf`r stktus
c`dat nf dk`ofl hrjc kokiys`od a`s tfrc`ojijdy. @o taf Uakflj (8;n), af usfs taf
tfrc ks k mjcpjuol. \a`s `s `cpjrtkot, ks taf wjrl `s usfl `o `ts
mjostrumt`jo. \a`s aks k wfkita jh mjoojtkt`jos, kol kitajuda `t c`dat s`cpiy
lfojtf sky`od sjcfta`od, `t c`dat kisj nf lfh`ofl `o k cjrf tfmao`mki sfosf ks k
"rkt`joki kmmjuot" (I]G).
@o taf Uakflj (8;n) kol \`ckfus (>8f) k mjotrkst nftwffo kol
mko nf lrkwo. @t `s ko kom`fot qukrrfi kol `lfot`h`fl ks suma `o ^fpuni`m
(854n). @t s jof takt aks nffo kokiysfl ny ckoy cjlfro smajikrs kisj, suma ks
H.F. Uftfrs, Drffb Ua`ijsjpa`mki \frcs (p.;;;, ;>5), tj m`tf ko fxkcpif. Uftfrs
(jp.m`t) mik`cs c`dat nf v`fwfl cfrfiy ks k i`tfrkry lfv`mf, w`ta `ts bfy
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`ckdfs nf`od `omi`ofl tjwkrls pjft`m hkotksy, `ts mjotfot akv`od i`ttif jr oj nks`s `o
hkmt. Afomf I. Mjuturkt's dfofrki v`fw, Lf Uiktjo`s Cyta`s, takt cyta `s ko `iiusjry
spffma, kol takt ta`s rfvfkis taf c`cft`m okturf jh taf krt`st `o taf ^fpuni`m (604k
hh.)2 ko kmt`v`ty takt prjlumfs hkisfajjls `ostfkl jh taf truta. Afomf Uiktj's rfckrbs
takt cytas krf7
"...k ijod wky rfcjvfl hrjc taf truta...cfrfiy ckouhkmtur`od sakljws kt kta`rl rfcjvf hrjc rfki`ty... Tf cky kssucf tafo takt kii taf pjfts hrjc
Ajcfr ljwowkrls akvf oj drksp jh rfki`ty, nut cfrfiy d`vf us k
supfrh`m`ki rfprfsfotkt`jo jh koy sungfmt tafy trfkt, `omiul`od aucko
djjlofss."
Mifkriy, hjr Uiktj, taf wjril wf fxpfr`fomf w`ta jur sfosfs `s ko `cpfrhfmt
`c`tkt`jo jh taf rfkic jh Hjrcs. \afsf mjost`tutf taf fssfomf jh truf rfki`ty (608k-
f). Koy krt`st`m rfprfsfotkt`jo `s, tafrfhjrf, ko `c`tkt`jo jh kmtuki`ty2 wa`ma `o turo`c tktfs truf rfki`ty (604f). Krt`st`m kmt`v ty rfprfsfots, tafrfhjrf, ko `c`tkt`jo jh ko
`c`tkt`jo. @o tfrcs jh Uiktj's hjur ifvfis jh mjdo`t`jo, ks rfprfsfotfl ny taf L`v`lfl
I`of (650k-6;;f), krt`st`m jngfmts krf kss`dofl tj taf ijwfst ifvfi. \afy prjlumf,
tafrfhjrf, k mjohusfl stktf jh c`ol (). \af a`dafst ifvfi jh mikr`ty `s
bojwifldf ajwfvfr, wa`ma mjos`sts jh ko kpprfafos`jo jh taf Hjrcs (
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@t `s kisj suppjrtfl ny taf fotfrpr`sf jh l`kifmt`m, wa`ma lfr`vfs cjrf
fomjcpkss`od aypjtafsfs hrjc prf-fx`st`od aypjtafsfs `o ko ksmfot tj taf
uoaypjtafs`sfl (6=>l). \af akiickrb jh ta`s kmt`v`ty `s taf kn`i`ty tj d`vf ko fxkmt
kmmjuot jh taf fssfomf jh fkma ta`od. \a`s `s tarjuda taf lflumt`jo jh knstrkmt
aypjstks`sfl lfh`o`t`jos (6==m-l). \af kmqu`s`t`jo jh taf bojwifldf takt rfsuits
hrjc ta`s kdk`o fotk`is truiy cjrki nfakv`jur (65;m-l, >58m->;5l), ^fpuni`m (6=
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`o taf ^fpuni`m (=44k), wafrf jo taf wajif suma stjr`fs krf mik`cfl tj nf hkisf,
kitajuda tafy st`ii mjotk`o "trkmfs jh taf truta" (=44k). Ufrakps, tafo, tafsf "trkmfs
jh taf truta" krf taf kttfcpt tj ut`i`sf sm`fot`h`m `lfks `o taf pjft`m cfl`uc.
Kitfrokt`vfiy, tafsf "trkmfs jh taf truta" c`dat rfhfr tj taf uolfriy`od cjrki jh taf
cyta `tsfih2 k cjrki tj i`vf taf pa`ijsjpa`m i`hf. @o f`tafr mksf, tafy c`dat sfrvf
cjrf kppkrfotiy tj l`st`odu`sa Uiktj's cytas hrjc taf trkl`t`joki b`ol, w`ta wa`ma
af wks l`sskt`sh`fl, kol `t c`dat tafrfhjrf rfmjccfol tafc tj nf jh su`tknif
pflkdjd m vkiuf.
Takt krf taf `cpi`mkt`jos jh cytas' syomrft`m quki`ty: Ljfs `t lfpr`vf cyta
jh rkt`joki mrfl`n`i`ty jr `cprjvf `ts stktus: \afrf `s oj fksy koswfr tj ta`s
qufst`jo, nut jof jh cy pr`ckry mjomfros w`ii nf tj ifkl taf rfklfr tarjuda ko
kokiys`s jh taf fp`stfc`m ks wfii ks taf cjrki hfkturfs jh Uiktj's cytas. @o lj`od
ta`s, @ sakii fxpijrf taf rfikt`josa`p nftwffo cyta`mki kol pa`ijsjpa`mki hjrcs jh
spffma, kol waftafr tafy mko nf l`st`odu`safl hrjc fkma jtafr.
\afrf `s oj ljunt takt pa`ijsjpay aks sjcfta`od tj lj w`ta j, `h `t `s
trkosiktfl ks k rkt`joki kmmjuot. Nut wakt ljfs ta`s cfko: Ljfs `t s`cpiy cfko takt
cytas mkoojt nf rfksjoknif: @o a`s Cftkpays`ms (01>n, ;54-6). \a`s sffcs tj nf makrkmtfr`sfl ny
Urjtkdjrks wafo af kt h`rst d`vfs k j kol tafo nrfkbs jhh `otj k `o
Urjtkdjrks (=>5m> hh., =>1m=-
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@t sffcs takt Uiktj's cytas wfrf ojt, kt ifkst hjr a`c, i`bf sjcf jh taf
trkl`t`joki cytas, `.f. hkotkst`m tkifs h`iifl w`ta i`fs knjut taf djls kol afrjfs,
wa`ma c`dat fvfotukiiy ifkl yjuod sjuis tj kmt `ccjrkiiy (=44l hh.). \afy wfrf
`o hkmt "prjnknif stjr`fs" wa`ma mjotk`o "trkmfs jh taf truta"2 mh. Djrd`ks (6>4k-n),
^fpuni`m (=44k-n, 8>;n1-m), Uakflj (;;8l, 6>4k-n). Mifkriy, Uiktj l`l
ojt ljwopiky taf `cpjrtkomf jh a`s jwo cytas, kol tafy fxprfssfl `cpjrtkot
nfi`fhs wa`ma, jof cust kssucf kt ta`s stkdf, sjudat tj mjccuo`mktf taf
`cpjrtkomf jh i`v`od k cjrki i`hf. @o mjcpkr`sjo tj pa`ijsjpa`m krducfot ajwfvfr,
cyta`mki `ckdfry aks k ijwfr fp`stfcjijd`mki stktus (mh. ^fpuni`m (6;6m-l, 6=m) ks `t `s st`ii kss`dofl tj taf ifvfi jh jp`o`jo (). @t sajuil ojt, tafrfhjrf,
nf v`fwfl ks ko kmmurktf rfprfsfotkt`jo jh taf truta, nut of`tafr sajuil cytas nf
s`cpiy l`sc`ssfl nfmkusf tafy lj ojt y`fil tj "ijd`mki kokiys`s" ks L. Dkiijp,
Uiktj's Uakflj (p.>>5) kssfrts7
"'Takt `s Cyta' (w`ta k mkp`tki C), st`ii ifss 'Takt `s cytajijdy:'(jr
'Cytajijdy'). Fvfo 'cyta' ks k mjiifmt`vf tfrc `s suspfmt. Kii tafsf hjrcs
c`sifkl`odiy `cpiy takt wakt jof sajuil nf lfh`o`od `s sjcf knsjiutf
fssfomf jh kii cytas, sjcf Uiktjo`m @lfk jh 'takt wa`ma `s truiy cyta`m'.
=Mjosuit M. D`ii hjr taf cpjrtkomf jh ta`s otrjlumt`jo tj UiktjsKtikot`s stjry.
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\afy suddfst takt jof mko dj strk`dat hjr taf fssfomf w`tajut h`rstmjosm`jusiy mjos`lfr`od kol lfi`c`t`od taf `ostkomfs. \akt `s jof sjrt jhlfh`o`od prjmfss, nut ojt jof tj wa`ma wf mko rfsjrt tj `o taf mksf jh
cytas."
@o jrlfr tj prjdrfss, tafrfhjrf, @ sakii h`rst jhhfr k mr`t`mki lfi`ofkt`jo jh pkrt`muikrs2
`.f. ko kokiys`s jh taf hfkturfs takt mjost`tutf taf spfm`h`m kmmjuots mikssfl ks
fsmaktjijd`mki cytas hjr Uiktj. \a`s rfqu`rfs fkma cyta tj nf kokiysfl sfpkrktfiy,
sj takt taf fxtfot jh taf`r jr`d`oki`ty, taf`r l`hhfrfomfs jr taf`r s`c`ikr`t`fs, njta tj
jtafr sjurmfs, ks wfii ks Uiktjs jwo, c`dat nf kssfssfl. Drklukiiy, pfrakps,
mfrtk`o dfofrki quki`t`fs c`dat nf l`smfrofl. \afsf hfkturfs c`dat rfvfki takt tafrf
`s sjcfta`od fssfot`ki tj taf `lfk jh k "Uiktjo`m cyta" ks suma. \a`s kpprjkma w`ii
kisj foknif jof tj prjvf7
( ) \akt taf mjotfot jh Uiktj's cytas c dat nf l`hhfrfot `o sjcf wky hrjc taf
trkl`t`joki b`ol jh wa`ma af wks mr`t`mki.
(``) Gust`hy a s jwo usf jh taf cfl`uc lfsp`tf a`s mr`t`m`scs.
(```) Kssfss taf fxtfot tj wa`ma Uiktj's cytas krf mjcpkt`nif, jr `omjcpkt`nif,
w`ta a`s `lfks kol nfi`fhs krdufl `o taf cfl`uc jh taf l`kijduf hjrc.
(`v) Lftfrc`of, `h `t `s pjss`nif, k dfofrki hfkturf takt c`dat afip fxpik`o taf
purpjsf kol huomt`jo jh tafsf cytas.
@ sakii kllrfss taf h`oki mikusf `o taf mjomius`jo. \af rfsuit c`dat ojt rfvfki k
dfofrki quki`ty wa`ma mko nf kppi`fl tj tafsf cytas7 `t c`dat kt nfst joiy `ol`mktf k
vkr`fty jh cytas, wa`ma mko joiy nf drjupfl tjdftafr ijjsfiy nfmkusf tafy krf
cytas, `.f. nfmkusf tafy pjssfss l`hhfrfot kttr`nutfs, jr fxprfss k pkrt`muikr purpjsf
pfmui kr tj tafc `o fkma `ostkomf. Ajwfvfr, taf klvkotkdf jh taf kokiys s w`ii kt
ifkst kiijw taf fxkc`okt`jo tj lfvfijp kijod rfksjoknif kol cftajl`mki i`ofs.
\af cftajljijdy @ sakii usf c`dat nf mjcpkrfl w`ta taf prjmflurf jh taf
Uakflrus (>86m hh.). \af pr`ckry prjmflurf syotafs`sfs taf vkr`jus "smkttfrfl
pkrt muikrs" uolfr k dfofrki aypjtafs s `o jrlfr tj kmqu rf "mifkrofss kol
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mjos`stfomy" (>86l). \af sfmjol prjmflurf rfqu`rfs k l`v`s`jo jh taf Hjrc kt taf
"okturki gj`ots" (>86f)7 jr rktafr ko kokiys`s jh ta`s prjv`s`joki lfh`o`t`jo (>86f). @o
ta`s rfspfmt, @ akvf kirfkly sajwo takt taf prjv`s`joki lfh`o`t`jo jhhfrfl rfqu`rfs
lffpfr kokiys`s.
Uiktj ljfs ojt fxpik`o wafo fkma krc jh taf luki cftajl sajuil nf usfl.
\a`s w`ii foknif k mfrtk`o hrffljc `o taf kpprjkma. Nrjkliy spfkb`od, ajwfvfr, taf
h`rst pkrt jh ta`s wjrb w`ii `ovjivf lfh`o`od l`st`odu`sa`od hfkturfs, wa`ma mikss`hy
Uiktjs cytas ks l`hhfrfot hrjc trkl`t`joki cytas, wafrf ks taf sfmjol pkrt w`ii
nfd o tj kljpt taf pr`ckry cftajl, wafo ma`fh hfkturfs nftwffo Uiktjs l`kijd`mki
kol cyta`mki mjomfros w`ii nf nrjudat tjdftafruolfr taf runr`m jh mjos`stfomy,
kol tafo sajwo tj nf f`tafr mjcpkt`nif jr `omjcpkt`nif.
\af cftajl @ sakii usf lfkis w`ta taf wr`ttfo wjrl, kol `s, tafrfhjrf ko
`c`tkt`jo jh Uiktj's cftajl. @t `ovjivfs kokiys`od `ckdfs kol ojt Hjrcs2 nut
`okscuma ks `t `ovjivfs k cftajl`mki fxkc`okt`jo jh taf mjotfot kol taf cjrki
v`kn`i`ty jh taf cytas, `t `s ajpfl takt `t `s k cftajl jh wa`ma Uiktj wjuil akvf
kpprjvfl kol takt, ks `o taf ^fpuni`m (6==l), taf fxfrm`sf c`dat mifkosf taf c`ol
jh taf b`ol jh hkisf jp`o`jos kssjm`ktfl w`ta s`cpiy nfi`fv`od "...taf nkrnkr`m
sijuda jh taf Jrpa`m cyta"
@o us`od ta`s cftajl @ sakii kisj kttfcpt tj prjlumf ko fxkcpif jh "djjlraftjr`m", ks `t `s lfh`ofl `o taf Uakflrus (>4;k hh.). @o jtafr wjrls, @ sakii nf
mjomfrofl w`ta mjc`od tj sjcf mifkr uolfrstkol`od knjut taf okturf jh taf sjui
hjr Uiktj, kol waftafr `t l`hhfrs `o k vkr`fty jh kspfmts (>4;n). @ sakii kisj nf
jni`dfl tj l`smfro taf cjt`vkt`jos jh sjui2 ajw taf sjui `s khhfmtfl, kol wafrf `ts
truf mjomfros sajuil nf mfotrfl (>4;n). @ sakii kisj nf jni`dfl tj kokiysf fkma jh
taf cytas, `o jrlfr tj lftfrc`of taf`r purpjsf kol taf`r `ohiufomf upjo taf sjui
(>4;n-m). Ks k tfstkcfot tj taf v`kn`i`ty jh ta`s kpprjkma, @ sakii ifkvf taf h`oki
wjrl w`ta ]jmrktfs7
"@ sffc tj nf k r`l`muijus kol jnsmurf tfkmafr... sj i`bf cfo waj krfuoknif tj fxprfss tafcsfivfs @ wjo't try tj spfkb `o wajifs kol uo`vfrskis
nut w`ii sfpkrktf jhh k pkrt`muikr pkrt kol ny taf fxkcpif jh takt try tj sajwyju cy cfko`od." ^fpuni`m (=0>l-f).
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MAKU\F^ @@
MJCCFO\K^P JO \AF DJ^D@K] CP\A (6>=k-6>4f)
(k)]yojps`s
\af cyta sfts taf smfof lur`od taf t`cf jh Mrjojs (6>=k). @t wks tafo
takt Wfus, Ujsf`ljo kol Uiutj sakrfl taf ruif jh pjwfr kcjodst tafcsfivfs
(6>=k). \af kom`fot ikw, st`ii skomt`jofl ny taf djls, `s k trkl`t`joki smfokr`j. Afrf,
taf v`rtujus krf rfwkrlfl ny nf`od l`spktmafl tj taf @sifs jh taf Nifst, kol taf
w`mbfl krf puo`safl ny nf`od l`spktmafl tj \krtkrus (6>=k-n). Nfhjrf Wfus'
rfhjrckt`jo jh taf prjmffl`ods guldfcfots kss`do`od sjuis tj taf kpprjpr`ktf pikmf
wfrf ojt kiwkys kmmurktfiy cklf (6>=n-m). \a`s wks luf tj taf jutwkrl
kppfkrkomf jh taf sjuis tkb`od prfmflfomf (6>=m)7 taf hkisf tfst`cjo`fs jh vkr`jus
w`tofssfs (6>=m-l), kol taf guldfs tafcsfivfs, wfrf lfmf`vfl ny taf vf`i jh taf
sfosfs (6>=l). \arff okbfl kol lfkl guldfs krf tafrfhjrf kss`dofl ny Wfus tj
kmmurktfiy kssfss taf okturf jh sjuis. Guldfcfot jmmurs `o taf cfkljw, wafrf taf
pktawky l`v lfs `otj twj. \a`s ifkls tj taf kpprjpr ktf lfst okt jo (6>
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>=
sjuis (6>6n-m). Fxkcpifs jh sjuis jh ta`s b`ol krf jhhfrfl (6>6l-6>8m). K i`hf `o
pursu`t jh pa`ijsjpa`m truta s su`tkniy rfwkrlfl (6>8m).
(n)\af tr`kis kol tr`nuikt`jos jh taf lfkl (6>=k-6>4f)
Krf tafrf koy hfkturfs pfmui`kr tj Uiktj's fsmaktjijd`mki cytas wa`ma
l`st`odu`sa tafc hrjc taf trkl`t`joki cytas: @o jrlfr tj lftfrc`of waftafr tafrf
krf k mr`t`mki lfi`ofkt`jo jh pkrt`muikrs w`ii nf rfqu`rfl. \a`s rfqu`rfs ko kokiys`s
jh bfy wjrls kol pksskdfs `o jrlfr tj a`dai`dat twj mjomfros. H`rst, tj ksmfrtk`o
kol lfcjostrktf taf fxtfot tj wa`ma fkma pkrt`muikr cyta `s `ohiufomfl ny, kol
mjos`stfot w`ta, jtafr sjurmfs njta trkl`t`joki kol pa`ijsjpa`m. ]fmjol, tj dk`o k
lffpfr kpprfm`kt`jo jh ajw hkr taf mjotfot jh Uiktj's fsmaktjijd`mki cytas
lfvfijpfl ks uo`quf kmmjuots `o taf`r jwo r`dat. Urjv`od taf sfmjol mjomfro
wjuil gust`hy Uiktj's usf jh suma k cfl`uc, `o sp`tf jh a`s mr`t`m`scs jh ckoy jh taf
trkl`t`joki cytas. @t c`dat kisj rfvfki cjrf huiiy waftafr Uiktj wks mjomfrofl
w`ta lfvfijp`od taf cfl`uc hjr a`s jwo pkrt muikr purpjsfs.
\a`s kokiys`s w`ii nf cklf pr`ckr`iy tarjuda rfhfrfomf tj fkri`fr kol
mjotfcpjrkry sjurmfs, kitajuda iktfr mjccfotkr`fs w`ii kisj nf mjos`lfrfl wafo
pkrt muikr `omjos stfom`fs jr `okmmurkm fs rfqu rf mjotrkst`od fxpikokt`josnhh.), wafrf taf cyta jh Fr `s kisj
prfhkmfl ny ko kpjijdy. \a`s fcpaks`sfs takt rfwkrls sajuil ojt nf taf sjif
mjomfro hjr taf truiy v`rtujus. ^fwkrls mko joiy nf gust`h`fl `h sjuis uolfrstkol
takt suhhfr`od hjr taf skbf jh v`rtuf `s prfhfrknif tj prjspfr`od ny w`mbfl cfkos
(8;>n). Ajwfvfr, `o taf Djrd`ks (6>=k), tafrf `s oj hjrcki kpjijdy tj fcpaks`sf
ta`s, nut tafrf `s ko fxajrtkt`jo tj pky kttfot`jo kol i`stfo, ks tafy sky, tj k vfry
nfkut`hui stjry. \af cjt`h `s jof usfl kdk`o `o \afkftftus (>5;l) kol\`ckfus (>5l). @t mjcpkrfs hkvjurkniy w`ta Uiktj's mjotfcpjrkry Kr`stjpakofs,
Bo`dats (;5;
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>6
w`ta \arkm`ko rf`omkrokt`jo nfi`fhs takt k purf sjui mjuil i`vf jo khtfr taf
l`ssjiut`jo jh taf njly. \af mfotrki cyta`mki h`durf tj sycnji`sf tafsf ikttfr nfi`fhs
wks L`joysus, wafrfks taf \arkm`ko Jrpafus (w`ta a`s cus`mki d`hts, sfxuki pur`ty,
kol pjwfrs jh prjpafmy khtfr lfkta) rfprfsfotfl k syotafs`s jh taf twj. Pft ta`s
lfsmr`pt`jo pfrakps joiy pfrtk`os tj tajsf pfjpif w`ta nfi`fhs jh taf ta`rl mfotury
NM.
@.C. I`ohjrta, \af Krts jh Jrpafus, Nfrbfify ;0), Ijoljo, ;065, krdufs takt Jrpa`m `lfks wfrf sft jut `o
skmrfl i`tfrkturf `o taf s`xta mfotury N.M.2 taf ikttfr v`fw suddfst`od taf pjss`n`i`ty
jh ko `ohiufomf jo Uiktj ny k l`st`omt mikss jh pfjpif, w`ta k mifkriy lfh`ofl
`lfjijdy.
\akt tafrf wfrf wr`t`ods kttr`nutfl tj Jrpafus `o taf s`xta mfotury N.M. `s
kppkrfot, ks `s Uiktjs hkc`i`kr`ty w`ta tafc2 ks kmmfptfl ny B`rb kol ^kvfo, \af
Urfsjmrkt`m Ua`ijsjpafrs (p.=4). Kt ta`s t`cf, ajwfvfr, `t sffcs Jrpafus wks
cjrf k dfofrki sk`ot hjr kii r`tukis, kol `t wks ta`s takt kmmjuotfl hjr a`s okcf
nf`od kssjm ktfl w`ta taf i tfrkturf jh ta`s pfr jl. \af mjomius jo sffcs tj nf taktko fxmius`vf mjrpus jh sfmtkr`ko i`tfrkturf mjomfro`od Jrpa`m fsmaktjijd`mki
kmmjuots mkoojt nf trkmfl nkmb hurtafr tako taf Afiifo`st`m pfr`jl, kol rktafr
pj`ots tj taf ^jcko pfr`jl. \af pjss`n`i ty jh ko fxmius vf sfmt w`ta k lfh o`tf
nfi fh systfc sajuil ojt, tafrfhjrf, nf tajudat jh ks akv`od `ohiufomfl Uiktj. \af
cftki piktfs l`smjvfrfl `o Ckdok Drkfm`k kol Mrftf w`ta `ostrumt`jos jh ko Jrpa`m
okturf kisj mkoojt nf m`tfl `o lfhfomf2 hjr tafsf mkoojt nf lktfl cuma fkri`fr tako
taf Afiifo`st`m pfr`jl. \af skcf mko nf sk`l jh taf Jrpa`m Aycos (Bfro hrds. 60-
>=6), jh wa`ma ckoy hrkdcfots akvf nffo prfsfrvfl `o ofj-Uiktjo`m kmmjuots.
\afsf vfrsfs vkry `o lktf, ojof mko nf lktfl tj taf h`hta mfotury N.M., kol taf`r
mjiifmt`jo `otj k rfmjdo`sknif mjrpus prjnkniy l`l ojt jmmur uot`i taf ta`rl jr
hjurta mfotury K.L.
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>8
Kitajuda taf i`stfofr c`dat rfdkrl taf stjry ks k hknif, ]jmrktfs mjos`lfrs `t
ko kmtuki kmmjuot (6>=k>7 ,,).
\. @rw`o, Uiktj's Djrd`ks (p.>), mik`cs takt taf rfgfmt`jo jh `o hkvjur jh
j (mh. 4k-n). Mfrtk`oiy, ]jmrktfs fcpaks`sfs takt taf
hjrtamjc`od cjojijduf `s taf truta (6>=k). \ajcpsjo (jp. m`t. p.;86) h`ols `t jll,
ajwfvfr, takt ]jmrktfs fxprfssfs nfi`fh `o taf cyta.
\ajcpsjo's kppkrfot l`ifcck, kol @rw`o's rktafr strjod rfckrbs, c`dat nf
luf tj ko fxmfss`vfiy s`cpi`st`m v`fw jh taf rfikt`jo nftwffo kol j.
\afrf `s k mjcpkr`sjo w`ta Uakflj (;;=k-6>=m) `s prfsfotfl of`tafr ks a`stjr`mki hkmt, ojr ks
truta l`sdu`sfl ks kiifdjry. @t `s, rktafr, k lfsmr`pt`jo jh k wjril "nfyjol cuolkof
kwkrfofss kol uolfrstkol`od". Afrf pjft`m cftkpajrs fxprfss `ckd`okt`vf `os`dat
jh taf uobojwo. Kitfrokt`vfiy, taf mik`c takt taf okrrkt`vf `s k j c`dat nf
fxpik`ofl ks k okrrkt`vf wa`ma rfprfsfots k cyta`mki fxtfos`jo jh tafcfs
fstkni`safl pa`ijsjpa`mkiiy2 mh. Hr`fliolfr, Uiktj @ (p.;10)2 Akmbhjrta, Uiktj's
Uakflj (p.;18)2 Ljlls (jp. m`t.). \a`s tjj c`dat fxpik`o taf ijmkt`jo jh taf cyta kt
taf fol jh taf l`kijduf. Taftafr taf kmmjuot `s rkt`jokiiy sfih-mjos`stfot ajwfvfr,
mko joiy nf mik`cfl tarjuda ko kokiys`s jh taf cyta`mki `lfks w`ta Uiktj's mifkriy
krdufl pa`ijsjpa`mki v`fws w`ta`o k l`kijduf. \a`s kppi`fs kisj tj taf v`fw takt taf
okrrkt`vf rfprfsfots k cyta`mki fxtfos`jo jh pa`ijsjpa`m `lfks. \af syomrft`m
quki`ty jh cyta w`ta rfksjo c`dat uolfrc`of `ts rkt`joki sfih-mjos`stfomy tj k
lfdrff.
Ifttfr ]fvfo (==6k) suddfsts k l`hhfrfot v`fw jh j. Afrf, ko kppfki tj
nfi fvf taf kom fot kol ajiy ljmtr`ofs mjomfro od taf `ccjrtki ty jh taf sjui, `ts
khtfri`hf guldfcfot, kol taf pfokit`fs `cpjsfl, `s d`vfo. \af fcpaks`s jo pfokit`fs
kisj suddfsts k mifkr tafckt`m kssjm`kt`jo w`ta taf cyta jh taf Djrd`ks (sff kisj
Iys`s >;4n). \a`s suddfsts hjr Ljlls, "Uiktj kol taf @rrkt`joki", Gjuroki jh
Afiifo`m ]tul`fs, @QX, ;0= hh.), ko `ckd`okt`vf fxprfss`jo jh j ks
http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=w%28s&%3Bamp%3Bla=greek&%3Bamp%3Bcan=w%28s0&%3Bamp%3Bprior=mu%3Dqonhttp://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=w%28s&%3Bamp%3Bla=greek&%3Bamp%3Bcan=w%28s0&%3Bamp%3Bprior=mu%3Dqonhttp://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=w%28s&%3Bamp%3Bla=greek&%3Bamp%3Bcan=w%28s0&%3Bamp%3Bprior=mu%3Dqonhttp://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=w%28s&%3Bamp%3Bla=greek&%3Bamp%3Bcan=w%28s0&%3Bamp%3Bprior=mu%3Dqonhttp://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=w%28s&%3Bamp%3Bla=greek&%3Bamp%3Bcan=w%28s0&%3Bamp%3Bprior=mu%3Dqonhttp://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=e%29gw%5C&%3Bamp%3Bla=greek&%3Bamp%3Bcan=e%29gw%5C1&%3Bamp%3Bprior=oi)%3Dmaihttp://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=e%29gw%5C&%3Bamp%3Bla=greek&%3Bamp%3Bcan=e%29gw%5C1&%3Bamp%3Bprior=oi)%3Dmaihttp://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=e%29gw%5C&%3Bamp%3Bla=greek&%3Bamp%3Bcan=e%29gw%5C1&%3Bamp%3Bprior=oi)%3Dmaihttp://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=e%29gw%5C&%3Bamp%3Bla=greek&%3Bamp%3Bcan=e%29gw%5C1&%3Bamp%3Bprior=oi)%3Dmaihttp://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=w%28s&%3Bamp%3Bla=greek&%3Bamp%3Bcan=w%28s0&%3Bamp%3Bprior=mu%3Dqonhttp://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=w%28s&%3Bamp%3Bla=greek&%3Bamp%3Bcan=w%28s0&%3Bamp%3Bprior=mu%3Dqon7/21/2019 Penology and Eschatology in Plato's Myths (New Edition with Greek Annotation)
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>4
"rfi`d`jus truta". Ajwfvfr, Uiktj's kcn`vkifomf mjot`oufs fvfo ks iktf ks taf Ikws
(186l), wafrf af tfrcs taf nfi`fh takt taf lfkl `ohiufomf aucko khhk`rs k ,
wafrfks Ikws (0>4k) v`fws `t tj nf mjotk`ofl `o truta. Kisj taf Ktafo`ko mkoojt
lfm`lf waftafr tj mkii taf ljmtr`of jh rfqu`tki `o k huturf `omkrokt`jo jr
j (14>l-f).
]jmrktfs' nfi`fh takt taf cyta `s truf `s tafo suppifcfotfl w`ta taf mik`c
takt `t `s nksfl jo k Ajcfr`m kmmjuot (6>=k7 ). \a`s tfols tj
uolfrc`of `ts kutafot`m`ty mjos`lfr`od a`s mr`t`mki rfckrbs `o taf ^fpuni`m (600n-
855f). \af kmmjuot rfhfrs tj @i`kl (QX.;18 hh.) wafrf `o taf rf`do jh Mrjojs, kol
fvfo taf fkriy lkys jh Wfus, pfjpif wfrf tr`fl wa`ist st`ii ki`vf ny i`v`od guldfs
uot`i taf`r hktfl t`cf. K v`fw rfhfrrfl tj iktfr (6>6l, 6>8l).
F.^. Ljlls, Uiktj's Djrd`ks (p.=4=), mik`cs taf lftk`is jh Ajcfr's kmmjuot,
takt Wfus, Ujsf`ljo, kol Uiutj l`v`lfl taf sjvfrf`doty kcjodst tafc wafo tafy
tjjb `t hrjc taf`r hktafr (6>=k7 ), `s jh oj
`cpjrtkomf ks `t `s `otrjlumfl sjifiy tj `cnuf k sfosf jh jrtajljxy. \af kppfki tj
trkl`t`jo c`dat nf k mjomfss`jo `o jrlfr tj mjov`omf jrl`okry hjib. \afrf `s,
ajwfvfr, k lfvfijpcfot hrjc taf trkl`t`joki kmmjuot afrf, ks `t `s k pfkmfhui
`oafr`tkomf, tafrfny kitfr`od taf v`jifot kmmjuot jh Wfus' rfvjit kdk`ost a`s hktafr `o
Afs`jl's \afjdjoy (8>0hh) kol Ajcfr's @i`kl (Q@X. >5=).
6
\af pfkmfhui kmmjuotc`dat nf k lfi`nfrktf tkmt`m jh Uiktj's, waj `s mjos`lfr`od taf mjosfqufomfs
`omurrfl jo yjuod sjuis ny v`jifot tkifs, ks `s kssfrtfl `o ^fpuni`m (=41k).
\af kmmjuots jh Afs`jl, \afjdjoy ( hh.), L`jljrus ]`muius (X.45), Frktjstafofs' Mktkstfr`scj` (>4) kol Ukusko`ks
(X@@@. 1.>).
http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=patro%5Cs&%3Bamp%3Bla=greek&%3Bamp%3Bcan=patro%5Cs0&%3Bamp%3Bprior=tou%3Dhttp://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=patro%5Cs&%3Bamp%3Bla=greek&%3Bamp%3Bcan=patro%5Cs0&%3Bamp%3Bprior=tou%3Dhttp://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=patro%5Cs&%3Bamp%3Bla=greek&%3Bamp%3Bcan=patro%5Cs0&%3Bamp%3Bprior=tou%3D7/21/2019 Penology and Eschatology in Plato's Myths (New Edition with Greek Annotation)
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>1
"...kt Ktafos, Mrjous...wks wjrsa`ppfl ks taf Nkrify-djl ]knkz`us,kooukiiy mut ljwo `o taf mjroh`fil kol nfwk`ifl i`bf Js`r`s jr I`tyfrsfs jrCkofrjs. Nut ny taf t`cfs tj wa`ma tafsf cytas rfhfr, b`ods akl nffo
pfrc`ttfl tj prjijod taf`r rf`dos tj k Drfkt Pfkr jh jof auolrfl i`okt`jos,kol jhhfr koouki njy v`mt`cs `o taf`r stfkl7 afomf Mrjous `s p`mturfl ks
fkt`od a`s jwo sjos tj kvj`l lftarjofcfot. @o Mrftf k b`l wks sunst`tutflhjr k aucko v`mt`c2 `o \arkmf, k nuii-mkih2 kcjod taf Kfji`ko wjrsa`ppfrs
jh Ujsf`ljo, k hjki2 nut `o nkmbwkrl l`str`mts jh Krmkl`k njys wfrf st`iiskmr`h`m`kiiy fktfo fvfo `o taf Mar`st`ko frk."
\af nfstjwki jh sjvfrf`doty jo Mrjojs' sjos s mjcpkrfl tj (jp. m`t. p.=k7 ). @rw`o (jp. m`t.
p.>) v`fws ta`s ks k rfspjosf tj Mkii`mifs' kttkmb jo j ks taf rfsuit jh wfkb
pfjpif mjosp r`od kdk`ost okturf. \af j klvjmkt`od gust`mf kol rfgfmt`od
`ogust`mf `s ftfroki, okturki, kol rfmjdo`sfl ny taf djls. @ tfol tj kdrff w ta Ljlls
http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=ou%29%3Dn&%3Bamp%3Bla=greek&%3Bamp%3Bcan=ou%29%3Dn0&%3Bamp%3Bprior=h)%3Dnhttp://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=ou%29%3Dn&%3Bamp%3Bla=greek&%3Bamp%3Bcan=ou%29%3Dn0&%3Bamp%3Bprior=h)%3Dnhttp://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=ou%29%3Dn&%3Bamp%3Bla=greek&%3Bamp%3Bcan=ou%29%3Dn0&%3Bamp%3Bprior=h)%3Dnhttp://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=ou%29%3Dn&%3Bamp%3Bla=greek&%3Bamp%3Bcan=ou%29%3Dn0&%3Bamp%3Bprior=h)%3Dnhttp://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=ou%29%3Dn&%3Bamp%3Bla=greek&%3Bamp%3Bcan=ou%29%3Dn0&%3Bamp%3Bprior=h)%3Dnhttp://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=ou%29%3Dn&%3Bamp%3Bla=greek&%3Bamp%3Bcan=ou%29%3Dn0&%3Bamp%3Bprior=h)%3Dn7/21/2019 Penology and Eschatology in Plato's Myths (New Edition with Greek Annotation)
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(jp. m`t. p.=44) ajwfvfr takt "...kol `t ajils tj ta`s lky kcjodst taf djls..." `s ko
`ol`mkt jo takt ta`s ikw `s l`v`ofiy jrlk`ofl.
R6>=nS tj taf @sifs jh taf Nifst, kol lwfiis `o kii akpp`ofss kpkrt hrjc `ii2 nut
wajfvfr aks i`vfl uogustiy kol `cp`jusiy djfs tj taf luodfjo jh rfqu`tki kol
pfokomf wa`ma, yju bojw, tafy mkii \krtkrus. Jh tafsf cfo tafrf wfrf guldfs
`o Mrjojs' t`cf, kol st`ii jh iktf `o taf rf`do jh Wfusi`v`od cfo tj guldf taf
i`v`od upjo taf lky wafo fkma wks tj nrfktaf a`s ikst2 kol taus taf mksfs wfrf
nf`od lfm`lfl kc`ss. ]j Uiutj kol taf jvfrsffrs hrjc taf @sifs jh taf Nifst
mkcf nfhjrf Wfus w`ta taf rfpjrt takt tafy hjuol cfo pkss`od jvfr tj f`tafr
knjlf uolfsfrv`od
, , ,, , . , 7 .
\af cyta mjot`oufs w`ta ko fxpjs`t`jo jh taf ikw7 gust kol ajiy cfo, waj
akvf i`vfl taf`r i`vfs kmmjrl`odiy, w`ii kt lfkta dj tj taf @sifs jh taf Nifst (6>=n7
)kol fx`st `o akpp`ofss (6>=n. \af uogust w`ii i`vf `o \krtkrus k
"...luodfjo jh rfqu`tki kol pfokomf". \rkl`t`jokiiy, taf @sifs jh taf Nifst wfrf taf
ajcf f`tafr jh taf Afrj`m rkmf, ks `o Afs`jl's Tjrbs kol Lkys (;88 hh.), jr hjr taf
r`datfjus, ks `o U`olkr's Jiycp`kos (@@. 81). Uiktj's `lfki v`s`jo y`fils tj trkl`t`joki
`ckdfry `o ^fpuni`m (6
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wjrb`od `o taf khtfri`hf7
"...`s ojt spfm`h mkiiy fxmiulfl ny taf nr`fh rfhfrfomfs tj taf Fiys`ko Uik`o `o
Ajcfr, Afs`jl kol U`olkr, kitajuda `o taf @sifs jh taf Nifst, kmmjrl`od tj
U`olkr's sfmjol Jiycp`ko jlf, taf fkrta nr`ods hjrta `ts hru`ts jh `ts jwo
kmmjrl kol w`tajut taf offl hjr iknjur, kol sj tjj hjr taf cfo jh taf
Djilfo Kdf `o Afs`jl's cyta jh taf H`vf ^kmfs."
\a`s h`ts w`ta taf sfosf jh taf ofxt pksskdf (6>=n7
), wa`ma aks k trkl`t`joki kssjm`kt`jo w`ta ko kdf hrff hrjc wjrry kol
s`mbofss2 ks `o Afs`jl's Tjrbs kol Lkys (;;6), wafrf cfo i`vfl hrff hrjc fv`i. @t
sffcs tj jwf ifss tj taf Cfsjpjtkc`ko cytas, wafrf taf hfw rfhfrfomfs tj k
pr v`ifdfl i`hf hjr cfo lj ojt ckrry w`ta taf fstkni safl wjrilv`fw kol `ts
kssjm`ktfl fsmaktjijdy. \af nfi`fh `o taf rfkic jh L`icuo, wafrf s`mbofss, wjrry
kol tj`i krf kisj knsfot, ljfs ojt h`t mjos`stfotiy, ks afrf `t wks taf djls kijof waj
i`vfl k nifssfl fx`stfomf nfhjrf taf mrfkt`jo jh ckob`ol.
\krtkrus wks k pikmf hjr w`mbfl auckos (6>=n), kol ta`s sffcs tj nf k
lfvfijpcfot jh Uiktj's t`cf2 ks hjuol `o Jrfstfs' prjtfstkt`jo tj Fifmtrk `o
Fur`p`lfs' Jrfstfs (>86). @t wks rfputfliy Uytakdjrfko kmmjrl`od tj Kr`stjtif's
Ujstfr`jr Kokiyt`ms (0
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\af i`v`od guldfl taf i`v`od `o Mrjojs' t`cf kol kt taf stkrt jh Wfus' rf`do
(6>=n). \a`s wks ko uoskt`shkmtjry stktf jh khhk`rs, kmmjrl`od tj Uiutj kol taf
jvfrsffrs hrjc taf @sifs jh taf Nifst, ks ckoy sjuis pkssfl jvfr tj ko knjlf
uolfsfrv`od. \a`s mjotrksts w`ta L`jljrus ]`muius' lfsmr`pt`jo (@.0>) jh ko
Fdypt`ko mustjc jh taf i`v`od guld`od taf lfkl jo taf lky jh taf`r huofrki. Ljlls
(jp. m`t. p.=44) h`ols Uiktj's rfhfrfomf tj nf a`s jwo. \ajcpsjo (jp. m`t. p.;88)
mjos`lfrs Uiktj `s afrf `olfntfl tj Jrpa`m pjfts.
R6>=mS \afo spkbf Wfus7 Oky, sk`l af, @ w`ii put k stjp tj tafsf
prjmffl`ods. \af mksfs krf ojw `olffl guldfl `ii kol `t `s nfmkusf tafy waj
krf jo tr`ki krf tr`fl `o taf`r mijta`od, hjr tafy krf tr`fl ki`vf. Ojw ckoy,sk`l
af, waj akvf w`mbfl sjuis krf mikl `o hk`r njl`fs kol komfstry kol wfkita,
kol kt taf`r guldfcfot kppfkr ckoy w`tofssfs tj tfst`hy takt taf`r i`vfs akvf
nffo gust. Ojw, taf guldfs krf mjohjuolfl ojt joiy ny taf`r fv`lfomf
. 7 ,, . . ,, 7 . , , , , , ,
7
Oky sk`l af(,) ckrbs taf stkrt jh Wfusrfhjrckt`jo jh
taf fstkni`safl prjmffl`ods.F.^. Ljlls (jp. m`t. p.=4=) kssfrts taf Djrd`ks cyta
aks ojof jh taf sm`fot`h`m `ckdfry jh taf iktfr Uakflj (;54m-;;=m- l) wafo rfmjuot`od k tkif. Pft, ta`s
c`dat cfrfiy nf k i`tfrkry lfv`mf fokni`od Uiktj tj nf hrff hrjc cyta`mki nfi`fhs af
c`dat ojt akvf afil. K qufst`jo kr`sfs, ajwfvfr, mjos`lfr`od taf prfv`jus mik`c
takt taf cyta `s truf (6>=k). Kitfrokt`vfiy, taf klc`ss`jo c`dat nf takt, kitajuda
taf nfi`fhs krf truf hjr Uiktj, taf sjurmf jh taf cyta `s ojt fot`rfiy a`s jwo. @t h`ts
w`ta Uakflj (;51m) wafrf taf sjurmf jh taf cyta `s kttr`nutfl tj sjcfjof fisf.
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=>
Mjomfro`od taf s`cpi`m`ty jh hjib tkifs ks jppjssfl tj taf kppkrfot mjcpifx`ty jh
cyta, F.F. Fvkos-Ur`tmakrl, \af Wkolf \r`mbstfr, Jxhjrl, ;084 (p.;6), hjuol
i`ttif l`st`omt`jo nftwffo cytas kol hjib-tkifs ks suma. Pft D.].B`rb, \af Okturf jh
Drffb Cytas (p.==-=6), hjuol tafrf krf mfrtk`o cjt`hs pfmui`kr tj hjib-tkifs ks
jppjsfl tj cytas. @o ta`s rfspfmt @ akvf `lfot`h`fl k oucnfr jh l`st`omt`jos w`ta
hfkturfs `o taf Djrd`ks ks hjiijws7
;. Hjib-tkifs ikmb kr`stjmrkt`m hfkturfs2 `.f. taf djls jr l`v`of guldfs krf
knsfot, uoi`bf `o taf Djrd`ks (6>=k, 6>=f), nut tafy krf mjomfrofl w`ta taf
l`hh`muit`fs kol ajpfs jh jrl`okry pfjpif.
>.\afy lj ojt hjmus jo taf `ofv`tkn`i`ty jh lfkta, ks `o Djrd`ks (6>=k-n), jr
`ost`tut`joki ckttfrs, i`bf taf gust`h`mkt`jo jh b`odsa`p jr gul`m`ki
prjmffl ods (6>=k-m), rktafr taf`r sjm ki hjmus mjomfro taf hkc`iy.
=. Kitajuda njta mjomfro supfrokturki fifcfots, hjib-tkifs krf ojt
mjomfrofl w`ta djls `o taf truf sfosf nut d`kots, cjostfrs, djni`os, w`tmafs
kol taf i`bf.
=k).
8.Hjib-tkifs tfol tj nf tjil `o pkrt`muikr wkys takt ut`i`sf okrrkt`vf lfv`mfs
`o jrlfr tj `otrjlumf surpr`sf jr mi`ckx. K mjccjo sungfmt `s k qufst `o
jrlfr tj surv`vf, w`o k pr`zf, jr lfhfkt ko fofcy.
@o rfspfmt jh tafsf hfkturfs, B`rb tjj st`ii klc`ts k lfdrff jh `omjos`stfomy
`o a`s v`fw (jp. m`t. p.=6), ks hjib-tkif hfkturfs tfol tj kppfkr fvfo `o taf cjrf
mjcpifx kol `ckd`okt`vf tkifs af tfrcs "cytas". \af l`hh`muity mko nf jvfrmjcf,
ajwfvfr, ny kppfki`od tj taf tafjry jh Hrkoz Njks, \s`csa`ko Cytajijdy,
Tksa`odtjo, ;0;8 (p.115), takt tafrf `s k mjot`ouki fxmakodf jh mjotfot hrjc njta
typfs jh tkifs, kol takt of`tafr drjup mko mik`c pr`jr`ty. @t sffcs, tafrfhjrf, takt kii
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==
tkifs rfiy jo wfii-usfl okrrkt`vf lfv`mfs kol lrkckt`m cftajls. \afsf krf kisj
ut`i`sfl `o cytas `o jrlfr tj mjovfy ko khhfmt`vf tkif. Afomf, fvfo taf cjst l`v`of
kol sfr`jus jh Drffb cytas rfvfki mfrtk`o hjib-tkif quki`t`fs.
Urfv`jusiy, taf mjurt jhtfo lfkit n`ksfl guldfcfots jo lfhfolkots luf tj
taf`r wfkita kol stkt`jo (6>=m). \a`s kppfkrs tj nf ko kiius`jo tj taf prjmflurf jh
taf Ktafo`ko mjurt (=m67
). \a`s mjcpkrfs w`ta Mrktyius (8). Iktfr wr`tfrs suma ks
]fofmk, Fp`stuikf Cjrkifs, mjot`ouf taf `lfk (0>.;=7 mjrpus ko`c` fst
vfikcfotuc). \af w`mbfl sjuis krf kss`stfl ny oucfrjus w`tofssfs waj mjohusf
taf guldfs w`ta hkisf tfst`cjo`fs knjut tajsf waj krf jo tr`ki (6>=m1).
R6>=lS nut kt taf skcf t`cf ny nf`od mijtafl tafcsfivfs wa`if tafy s`t `o
guldfcfot akv`od taf`r jwo sjui cuhhifl `o taf vf`i jh fyfs kol fkrs kol taf
wajif njly. \aus kii tafsf krf k a`olrkomf tj tafc, taf`r jwo akn`i`cfots oj
ifss tako tajsf jh taf guldfl. Tfii, h`rst jh kii,af sk`l, wfcust put k stjp tj
taf`r hjrfbojwifldf jh taf`r lfkta2 hjr ta`s tafy kt prfsfot hjrfbojw. Ajwfvfr,
Urjcftafus aks kirfkly nffo d`vfo taf wjrl
, , . , . , , 7.
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==l>7
).
\af guldfs' sfosfs krf `ohiufomfl ny fxtfroki kol supfrh`m`ki hfkturfs takt a`olfr
mjrrfmt cjrki guldfcfots mjomfro`od makrkmtfr (6>=l7
). @o ta`s rfspfmt Uiktj kssfrts fisfwafrf takt okbflofss kol pur`h`mkt`jo
krf k cfkos hjr dk`o`od truf bojwifldf. \af `lfk kppfkrs `o Kim`n`klfs (@. ;=>k),
kol kisj taf ]ycpjs`uc (>;;k-f, >;8l-f).
Wfus' rfhjrc rfqu`rfs takt pfjpif cust ojt bojw taf lky jh taf`r lfkta
(6>=l8-47 ). \af rfksjos hjr ta`s
krf ojt fxpik`ofl, nut Ljlls (jp. m`t. p.=41) ta`obs `t c`dat akvf lftfrrfl ikst-c`outf rfpfotkomfs2 sff kisj ^fpuni`m (==5l-==;n). Urjcftafus aks kirfkly nffo
drkotfl taf pjwfr tj stjp ta`s hjrfs`dat. Ks taf d`vfr jh hjrfs`dat, af mjuil kisj
tkbf `t kwky. \a`s kmt `s a`s jwo lfm`s`jo tj d`vf cfo ajpf `o Kfsmayius'
Urjcftafus Njuol (>=f). V. Xjo T`ikcjw`tz-Cjiifoljrhh, Uiktj @, >ol fl`t. ;0>5 (p.>>4), suddfsts
takt `t `s k pjss`n`i`ty takt njta klkptfl ko jil hjib-tkif knjut ta`s hkmuity jh
hjrfs`dat pjssfssfl ny cfo.
^. Drkvfs (jp. m`t. p.;;1, >6>, =8). Hjr a`s tr`mbfry jh
Wfus mjosuit Afs`jl's \afjdjoy (6>;-68
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=6
R6>=fS tj stjp ta`s `o tafc. Ofxt tafy cust nf str`ppfl nkrf jh kii tajsf ta`ods
nfhjrf tafy krf tr`fl2 hjr tafy cust stkol taf`r tr`ki lfkl. \af`r guldf kisj
cust nf okbfl, lfkl, nfajil`od w`ta vfry sjui taf vfry sjui jh fkma
`ccfl`ktfiy upjo a`s lfkta, nfrfht jh kii a`s b`o kol akv`od ifht nfa`ol jo
fkrta kii takt h`of krrky, tj taf fol takt taf guldfcfot cky nf gust. Ojw @,
bojw`od kii ta`s nfhjrf yju, akvf kppj`otfl sjos jh cy jwo tj nf guldfs2 twj
hrjc Ks`k, C`ojs kol ^aklkckotaus
.7 . , , ,
, . , , ,
Wfus' rfhjrcs rfqu`rf kii sjuis tj nf str`ppfl jh b`o kol wfkita, nfhjrf tafy
krf tr`fl ny guldfs waj krf kisj okbfl kol lfkl. \a`s foknifs taf guldfs tj kssfss
taf`r truf okturfs (6>=f). \af guldf's sjui nfajils taf sjui jh fkma pfrsjo (6>=f).
\a`s mjcpkrfs w`ta Kim`n`klfs (@.;=5l) wafrf truf l`smuss`jo jmmurs sjui w`ta
sjui, kol ]jmrktfs wkros a`s mjcpko`jo takt af c`dat sff taf okbfl Lfcjs (;=>k).\af sjuis cust nf guldfl `ccfl`ktfiy khtfr lfkta (6>=f7
). \. @rw`o (jp. m`t. p.>), trkosiktf ks "upjo lfkta w`tajut wkro`od" (f;) kol Ljlls (jp. m`t. p.=41) prfhfr "`ccfl`ktfiy upjo a`s lfkta" i`bf
Mrktyius (=08n=f7
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