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Parts of Speech
● Content words and function words– Examples?
Parts of Speech
● Speech errors involving substitution keep part of speech– He's going to have with them < He's having to
go with them
Parts of Speech
● Speech errors involving substitution keep part of speech– He's going to have with them < He's having to
go with them● What does that say about speech
processing?
Parts of Speech
● Speech errors involving substitution keep part of speech– He's going to have with them < He's having to
go with them● What does that say about speech
processing?– Part of speech is encoded in word in the mental
lexicon
Parts of Speech
● In word association nouns generate mainly nouns and verbs mainly verbs– What does that say?
Parts of Speech
● In word association nouns generate mainly nouns and verbs mainly verbs– What does that say?
– It is more evidence that part of speech is integral part of words
Characteristics of Nouns
● They have meronyms – X is a meronym of Y if X is part of Y
• What are the meronyms of car?
• What are the meronyms of cell phone?
• What are the meronyms of feeling?
Characteristics of Nouns
● They have holonyms – X is a holonym of Y if Y is part of X
• keyboard is a holonym of key since key is a part of keyboard
Characteristics of Nouns
● They have holonyms – X is a holonym of Y if Y is part of X
• keyboard is a holonym of key since key is a part of keyboard
• What is a holonym of brain?
Characteristics of Nouns
● They have holonyms – X is a holonym of Y if Y is part of X
• keyboard is a holonym of key since key is a part of keyboard
• What is a holonym of brain?
• What is a holonym of car?
Characteristics of Nouns
● Nouns have attributes– coins are metallic, round, shiny, have faces
Characteristics of Nouns
● Nouns have attributes– coins are metallic, round, shiny, have faces
● Nouns have functions– coins are used to buy things, they jingle, get
dirty
Characteristics of Nouns
● Nouns often have or are hyponyms– X is a hyponym of Y if every X is a kind of Y
Characteristics of Nouns
● Nouns often have or are hyponyms– X is a hyponym of Y if every X is a kind of Y
• a daisy is a flower since every daisy is a kind of flower
• a chair is furniture since every chair is a kind of furniture
Characteristics of Nouns
● Nouns often have or are hyponyms– X is a hyponym of Y if every X is a kind of Y
• a daisy is a flower since every daisy is a kind of flower
• a chair is furniture since every chair is a kind of furniture
● daisy is a hyponym of flower because it falls under flower
● chair is a hyponym of furniture because it falls under furniture
Characteristics of Nouns
● Nouns often have or are hyponyms– X is a hyponym of Y if every X is a kind of Y
• a daisy is a flower since every daisy is a kind of flower
• a chair is furniture since every chair is a kind of furniture
● Not all nouns are or have hyponyms• a handshake is a kind of ?
• a leaf is a kind of ?
Characteristics of Nouns
● Nouns often have or are hypernyms– X is a hypernym of Y if every Y is a kind of X
• a flower is a hypernym of daisy since every daisy is a kind of flower
• furniture is a hypernym of chair since every chair is a kind of furniture
Characteristics of Nouns
● What is the relationship between these?– building and structure
Characteristics of Nouns
● What is the relationship between these?– building and structure
• building is a hyponmy of structure
• structure is a hypernym of building
Characteristics of Nouns
● What is the relationship between these?– sport and soccer
Characteristics of Nouns
● What is the relationship between these?– sport and soccer
– liposuction and surgery
Characteristics of Nouns
● What is the relationship between these?– sport and soccer
– liposuction and surgery
– cough and ?
– sound and ?
Characteristics of Adjectives
● Meaning depends on what they modify– hot water (temperature)
– hot taco (spice)
– hot athlete (effective)
– hot guy (attractive)
Characteristics of Adjectives
● Two kinds of adjectives– Descriptive: give value to noun
– hard surface– fuzzy appearance
Characteristics of Adjectives
● Two kinds of adjectives– Descriptive: give value to noun
– hard surface– fuzzy appearance
• Usually have opposites– soft surface– sharp appearance
Characteristics of Adjectives
● Two kinds of adjectives– Pertaining to
– historical figure– religious guru– musical virtuoso
Characteristics of Adjectives
● Two kinds of adjectives– Pertaining to
– historical figure– religious guru– musical virtuoso
• Don't have opposites– *non-historical figure– *atheistic guru– *tone deaf virtuoso
Characteristics of Verbs
● Do verbs have hypo- and hypernyms?
Characteristics of Verbs
● Do verbs have hypo- and hypernyms?– Yes, but the difference is not is X a kind of Y
Characteristics of Verbs
● Do verbs have hypo- and hypernyms?– Yes, but the difference is not is X a kind of Y
– It entails doing something in a particular way
– It is called troponymy
Characteristics of Verbs
● X is a troponym of Y if X is doing Y in a particular way– wiggle is a troponym of move since wiggle is
moving in a particular way
Characteristics of Verbs
● X is a troponym of Y if X is doing Y in a particular way– wiggle is a troponym of move since wiggle is
moving in a particular way• nibble, scarf, gorge are troponyms of ?
Characteristics of Verbs
● X is a troponym of Y if X is doing Y in a particular way– wiggle is a troponym of move since wiggle is
moving in a particular way• nibble, scarf, gorge are troponyms of ?
• roll, and slide are troponyms of ?
Characteristics of Verbs
● X is a troponym of Y if X is doing Y in a particular way– wiggle is a troponym of move since wiggle is
moving in a particular way• nibble, scarf, gorge are troponyms of ?
• roll, and slide are troponyms of ?
• march and stroll are troponyms of ?
Characteristics of Verbs
● Entailment– X is entailed by Y if by doing Y you must be
doing X as well • Sleeping is entailed by snoring since to be snoring
you must also be sleeping
Characteristics of Verbs
● Entailment– X is entailed by Y if by doing Y you must be
doing X as well • Sleeping is entailed by snoring since to be snoring
you must also be sleeping
• What is entailed by kissing?
Characteristics of Verbs
● Entailment– X is entailed by Y if by doing Y you must be
doing X as well • Sleeping is entailed by snoring since to be snoring
you must also be sleeping
• What is entailed by kissing? Touching
Characteristics of Verbs
● Entailment– X is entailed by Y if by doing Y you must be
doing X as well • Sleeping is entailed by snoring since to be snoring
you must also be sleeping
• What is entailed by kissing? Touching
• What is entailed by buying?
Characteristics of Verbs
● Entailment– X is entailed by Y if by doing Y you must be
doing X as well • Sleeping is entailed by snoring since to be snoring
you must also be sleeping
• What is entailed by kissing? Touching
• What is entailed by buying? Paying
Content vs. Function Words
● How are they different?– We can easily add new content words (google,
blog)
– Few new function words are added (behind, to, for, every)
Content vs. Function Words
● How are they different?– We can easily add new content words (google,
blog)
– Few new function words are added (behind, to, for, every)
– Broca's aphasia entails loss of function words, not content words
Content vs. Function Words
● How are they different?– We can easily add new content words (google,
blog)
– Few new function words are added (behind, to, for, every)
– Broca's aphasia entails loss of function words, not content words
– In LDT there are frequency effects for content, but not function words
More Experiments
● Spanish gender– all nouns are either masculine or feminine
More Experiments
● Spanish gender– All nouns are either masculine or feminine
– Nouns pass the gender to the adjectives that modify them
much*gente alt*
│
fem.
Lots of tall peopleF
More Experiments
● Spanish gender– All nouns are either masculine or feminine
– Nouns pass the gender to the adjectives that modify them
mucha gente alta
│
fem.
Lots ofF tall
F people
F
More Experiments
● Spanish gender– All nouns are either masculine or feminine
– Nouns pass the gender to the adjectives that modify them
much* edificio alt*
│
masc.
Lots of tall buildingsM
More Experiments
● Spanish gender– All nouns are either masculine or feminine
– Nouns pass the gender to the adjectives that modify them
muchos edificios altos
│
masc.
Lots ofM tall
M buildings
M
Spanish Gender
● Weird cases: masculine nouns take feminine article
– elM águila
F
– elM áncla
F
– elM árma
F
– *laF águila
F
– *laF áncla
F
– *laF árma
F
Spanish Gender
● Weird cases: masculine nouns take feminine article
– elM águila
F
– elM áncla
FWHY?
– elM árma
F
– *laF águila
F
– *laF áncla
F
– *laF árma
F
Spanish Gender
● Traditional explanation– you do this to avoid [a á] sequences
• *laF águila
F
• elF águila
F
The el is just a variant form of la that is feminine, but just looks masculine
Spanish Gender
● So, only el is OK before these words. The words are still feminine
● Problem: people put all kinds of masculine modifiers before these words
Spanish Gender
● Problem: people put all kinds of masculine modifiers before these words (Google search)
Masculine Feminine
este agua 82,900 esta agua 210,000
ese hacha 1,140 esa hacha 1,170
aquel águila 240 aquella águila 421
mucho hambre 13,700 mucha hambre 138,000
todo el área 122,000 toda el área 383,000
poco agua 34,500 poca agua 136,000
un único área 129 una única área 14,100
Spanish Gender
● Problem: people put all kinds of masculine modifiers before these words (Google search) WHY?
Masculine Feminine
este agua 82,900 esta agua 210,000
ese hacha 1,140 esa hacha 1,170
aquel águila 240 aquella águila 421
mucho hambre 13,700 mucha hambre 138,000
todo el área 122,000 toda el área 383,000
poco agua 34,500 poca agua 136,000
un único área 129 una única área 14,100
Spanish Gender
● Answers– Lots of people have bad grammar
Spanish Gender
● Answers– Lots of people have bad grammar
• But you can even find it in the writings of “good writers”
Spanish Gender
● Answers– Lots of people have bad grammar
• But you can even find it in the writings of “good writers”
● I think these words are hermaphroditic (have both genders)
– At least on the left side
Spanish Gender
● Evidence for this are masculine modifiers on left
– tanto ansia so much anxiety
– ese arma that arm
– buen alma good soul
– propio agua own water
● Even when separated by another word
– el abundante agua the abundante water
– un único área the only area
Spanish Gender
● So, gender doesn't radiate from noun to modifiers
mucha gente alta
│
fem.
Lots ofF tall
F people
F
Spanish Gender
● Instead, people experience feminine modifiers around feminine nouns and masculine modifiers around masculine ones.
● They choose appropriately gendered modifiers by analogy, not by rule
● The hermaphroditic nouns give best evidence of this
Spanish Gender
● Examples: F=feminine modifier
F F F F F F
F F F F casa F F F F
F F F F F F F F F
Spanish Gender
● Examples: M=feminine modifier
M M MM M M M M M
M M M M caso M M M M
M M M M M M M
Spanish Gender
● Examples: M, F
M F M F M M M M M
F M F M agua M M M M
M F F F M M M M
Hypothesis
● If gender assignment is rule-based error rates should be similar for:
– post- and preposed modifiers.
– different kinds of nouns.
● If gender assignment is analogical:
– differing error rates are expected for different nouns. – different error rates for post-and preposed modifiers.
Experiment
● Subjects: 25 native Spanish speakers
● Test items:
– Noun with an inflected modifier and uninflected modifier
• nuestra hambre constante
• la peor ancla
– Items varied between prescriptively correct and incorrect
• nuestro/a hambre constante
• el/la peor ancla
– Distractor items were included with number agreement
• humilde curas católicos
Experiment
● Test items: Items varied on placement of inflected modifier (before or after noun)
– original arpa clásico/a
– el/la mejor arma
● 3 types of nouns:
– Regular: hermana, elemento, carne
– Transvestite: problema, enigma, drama (masculine, but look feminine)
– Hermaphroditic: arca, asta, haba (Have both genders)
Experiment
● Task: Press bien or mal key depending on if words could appear together in a correct sentence.
● Measure: Number of correct/incorrect responses in each category.
● Errors:
– Answering mal to a prescriptively good sequence:
• la dulce agua
– Answering bien to a prescriptively bad sequence:
• *el dulce agua
Results
● People made more errors on hermaphroditic and transvestite words (regardless of whether the modifier came before or after noun)
Results
● People made more errors on hermaphroditic and transvestite words (regardless of whether the modifier came before or after noun)
● More errors made on modifiers to the left of noun, especially for hermaphroditic nouns (and less so for transvestite nouns)
Conclusions
1-If gender were inherent to nouns and were passed equally to all modifiers, all modifiers would be as likely to induce errors, but hermaphroditic nouns are much more error prone. Exemplar-models expect this given actual usage.
2-Fluidity of agreement in usage does not support rule-approach.
3-Errors on preposed and postposed modifiers differ, while rule approach would predict similar patterns for each.
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