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Tectonophysics 405 (
Neotectonic evolution of the Central Betic Cordilleras
(Southern Spain)
Klaus R. Reicherter a,*, Gwendolyn Peters b,1
aInstitut fur Geophysik und Geologie, Universitat Leipzig, Talstr. 35, D-04103 Leipzig, GermanybGeophysikalisches Institut, Universitat Karlsruhe, Hertzstr. 16, D-76187 Karlsruhe, Germany
Received 15 July 2004; received in revised form 18 May 2005; accepted 25 May 2005
Available online 14 July 2005
Abstract
Paleostress orientations were calculated from fault-slip data of 36 sites located along a traverse through the Central Betic
Cordilleras (southern Spain). Heterogeneous fault sets, which are frequent in the area, have been divided into homogeneous
subsets by cross-cutting relationships observed in the field and by a paleostress stratigraphy approach applied on each individual
fault population. The state of stress was sorted according to main tectonic events and a new chronology is presented of the
Miocene to Recent deformation in the central part of the Betic Cordilleras. The deviatoric stress tensors fall into four distinct
groups that are regionally consistent and correlate with three Late Oligocene–Aquitanian to Recent major tectonic events in the
Betic Cordilleras. The new chronology of the neotectonic evolution includes, from oldest to youngest, the following main
tectonic phases:
(1) Late Oligocene–Aquitanian to Early Tortonian: r1 subhorizontal N–S, partly E–W directed, r3 subvertical; compres-
sional structures (thrusting of nappes, large-scale folding) and strike-slip faulting in the Alboran Domain and the External
Zone of the Betic Cordilleras;
(2) Early Tortonian to Pliocene–Pleistocene: r1 subvertical, r3 subhorizontal NW–SE, partly N–S directed or E–W-directed
(radial extension); large-scale normal faulting in the Central Betic Cordilleras and in the oldest Neogene formations of the
Granada Basin related to the gravitational collapse of the Betic Cordilleras and the exhumation of the intensely
metamorphosed rock series of the Internal Zones, at the same time formation of the Alboran Basin and intramontane
basins such as the Granada Basin;
(3) Pleistocene to Recent: (3a) r1 subvertical, r3 subhorizontal NE–SW with prominent normal faulting, but coevally; (3b)
r1 subhorizontal NW directed, r3 NE–SW subhorizontal with strike-slip faulting. Extensional structures and strike-slip
faulting are related to the ongoing convergence of the Eurasian and African Plates and coeval uplift of the Betic
0040-1951/$ - s
doi:10.1016/j.tec
* Correspondi
E-mail addre1 Present addr
Amsterdam, The
2005) 191–212
ee front matter D 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
to.2005.05.022
ng author. Tel.: +49 341 9732911; fax: +49 341 9732809.
ss: reicherter@dkrz.de (K.R. Reicherter).
ess: Tectonics Department, Faculty of Earth and Life Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081 HV
Netherlands.
K.R. Reicherter, G. Peters / Tectonophysics 405 (2005) 191–212192
Cordilleras. Reactivation of pre-existing fractures and faults was frequently observed. Phase 3 is interpreted as periodic
strike-slip and normal faulting events due to a permutation of the principal stress axes, mainly r1 and r2.
D 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Neotectonics; Paleostress; Fault-slip data; Deformation history; Betic Cordilleras
1. Introduction observed in tectono-stratigraphic units of the External
In this paper a paleostress and structural analysis is
presented of the central part of the Betic Cordilleras in
a corridor from the Mediterranean coast east of Ma-
laga to the southern border of the Guadalquivir Basin
(Fig. 1). This paper concentrates on the Miocene to
Quaternary deformation observed in the Neogene–
Quaternary sediments of the Granada Basin, and use
the deformation information (i.e. trend, character and
timing of the faulting) to calibrate the deformation
Fig. 1. A. Geological overview of the Betic Cordilleras and the working are
directed maximum in the Betics, and minor NW–SE and E–W directed faul
= Carboneras Fault Zone; GF = Gafarillos Fault; PF = Palomares Fault;
working area and geological main units of the Iberian Peninsula.
Zone and the Alboran Domain. We applied fault-slip
analysis with a paleostress stratigraphy approach,
which is complemented by joint and fractures analysis
as well lineations from satellite and aerial images.
Finally, a compilation is presented of the deformation
through time of the neotectonic history along the
studied transect.
The corridor investigated from the Mediterranean
coast to the southern border of the Guadalquivir Basin
crosses all tectono-stratigraphic units, from the inter-
a. Major faults and satellite lineations show a dominant ENE–WSW
ts occur. AF = Alhama de Murcia Fault; CF = Crevillente Fault; CFZ
TF = Tiscar Fault; VF = Ventas de Zafarraya Fault. B. Inset shows
K.R. Reicherter, G. Peters / Tectonophysics 405 (2005) 191–212 193
nal parts of the Betics to the foreland, including
Neogene intra-montane basins. Therefore a short sum-
mary of those geological units is provided.
1.1. Geological setting of the Betic Cordilleras
The Betic Cordilleras of southern Spain form
the northern branch of the Gibraltar Arc, the western-
most termination of the Alpine orogenic system. Clas-
sically, the arcuate orogen is subdivided in a
predominantly metamorphic core complex, the
Alboran Domain, comprising the Betic and Rif Inter-
nal Zone, surrounded by an external fold-and-thrust
belt (Fig. 1). From the Late Cretaceous onwards,
continuing convergence of Africa with respect to
Europe (Reicherter and Pletsch, 2000; Rosenbaum et
al., 2002) defines the tectonic framework for the
Iberian subplate. The structure of the Betic orogen is
due to the oblique convergence and collision of the
Iberian plate with the African plate, which was initi-
ated in the Santonian/Campanian (De Jong, 1990;
Reicherter and Pletsch, 2000). The collision led to
metamorphism and thrusting within the Alboran Do-
main (e.g., Sanz de Galdeano, 1997).
Whether subduction of oceanic crust was involved
in the mountain building process within the Betic
Cordilleras is still doubtful (discussion in Platt et al.,
2003). During the collision, the Alboran Domain
underwent approximately 300 km of westward move-
ment, from a more easterly position in the context of
the Alpine Cretaceous–Paleogene orogenic system
(Martınez-Martınez and Azanon, 2002). In the Early
Miocene the westward movement of the Alboran
Domain caused thinning of the thrust sheets (Bakker
et al., 1989). A widespread orogenic collapse in the
Western Mediterranean region led to extension in the
Alboran Domain and the Liguro-Provencalian Basin
during the Upper Oligocene and Burdigalian (Platt
and Vissers, 1989; Calvert et al., 2000). Convective
removal of the lithospheric root in combination with
N–S directed compression seems to have resulted in a
westward tectonic escape (Martınez-Martınez and
Azanon, 2002). During the Burdigalian–Langhian
gravitational collapse of the metamorphic core com-
plex started with extension towards the (N)NW–(S)SE
along low-angle normal faults, followed by WSW
directed orogen-parallel extension during the Serrava-
lian (Galindo-Zaldıvar et al., 1989; Martınez-Martınez
and Azanon, 2002). From the Tortonian until present
the dominating stress regime in the Betic Cordilleras
is extensional with varying extension directions in an
overall compressive plate boundary setting (Galindo-
Zaldıvar et al., 1999).
1.1.1. Alboran domain or internal zone
The Alboran Domain or Internal Zone of the Betic
and Rifian Cordilleras is believed to form part of a
continental microplate with a complex tectonic and
metamorphic history (Vissers et al., 1995). The
Alboran Domain forms the core of the orogen (Fig.
1) and comprises the remains of an older collisional
mountain belt formed during Late Cretaceous and
Paleogene times (Platt et al., 2003), with a certain
evidence for a pre-Alpine (Variscan or older) meta-
morphic episode (Gomez Pugnaire et al., 2000).
Mainly Precambrian to Paleozoic and Triassic sedi-
mentary rocks were subdivided on the basis of the
different metamorphic overprint from top to base into
the Malaguide-Complex, the Alpujarride-Complex,
and the Nevado-Filabride-Complex (summary in Wei-
jermars, 1991; Azanon et al., 2002). These units
represent three thrust sheet complexes associated
with stacking and thickening during the Oligocene
and Late Miocene (Jolivet and Faccenna, 2000),
later deformed by extensional detachments (Fernan-
dez-Fernandez et al., 1992). Low- to high-grade meta-
morphosed schists and marbles form the Alpujarride-
Complex, while the Malaguide-Complex includes
Variscan basement covered by Mesozoic sediments.
The Internal-External Zone Boundary (IEZB) is a
major tectonic contact in the Central Betic Cordilleras
and separates the Internal Zones from the External
Zones (Lonergan et al., 1994). The IEZB forms a low
angle detachment (N508E strike and 258 dip to NW)
in the studied area with a top-to-the-W sense of
movement and leading to Neogene intramontane
basin formation, such as the Granada Basin
(Galindo-Zaldıvar et al., 2000). The E–W trending
mountain chains of the Sierras Tejeda and Almijara
(Fig. 2) are situated between the Granada Basin and
the Mediterranean coast and consist of Paleozoic
phyllites, quartzites and Triassic marbles of the Alpu-
jarride-Complex (e.g., Gallegos, 1975; Martın Martın,
1980). Outcrops of the weaker metamorphosed Mala-
guide-Complex with Silurian phyllites are found
along the western border of the Sierra Tejeda
K.R. Reicherter, G. Peters / Tectonophysics 405 (2005) 191–212194
(IGME, 1979–1988). In the southern part of the study
area the Alboran Domain is locally overlain by nappes
of the Flysch Zone (Figs. 1 and 2).
1.1.2. Flysch zone
The Flysch Zone in the western Betic Cordilleras is
comprised of a stack of nappes consisting of silici-
clastic sediments of Cretaceous to Early Miocene age
(Figs. 1 and 2), mainly deposited along the passive
margin of Africa on thinned continental crust (Reich-
erter et al., 1994), but also partly on oceanic crust
(Durand-Delga et al., 2000). The nappes of the Flysch
Zone of the Campo de Gibraltar make up most of the
western part of the Cordilleras, whereas small slices
are incorporated in thrust sheets between Ronda and
Granada. The Sierra Tejeda is overlain by flysches of
the Vinuela Formation and the Colmenar–Periana
Complex in its western part (Guerrera et al., 1993,
Fig. 2. Geological map of the central Betic Cordilleras with the locality of
External Boundary Zone.
Fig. 2). Deposition of a breccia at the base of the
Vinuela Formation, with clastic components of the
metamorphic Alboran Domain, is interpreted to indi-
cate the end of the westward movement of the Internal
Zone during the Aquitanian. During the Early Burdi-
galian sedimentation of the Vinuela Formation was
terminated by overthrusting of the Flysch Zone (Bour-
gois, 1978; Sanz de Galdeano et al., 1993).
1.1.3. External zone
The External Zone of the Betics consists of non-
metamorphic sedimentary successions of Triassic to
Paleogene age, representing the Mesozoic south Ibe-
rian margin (Figs. 1 and 2). The different paleogeo-
graphic units were deformed during intracontinental
collision in the Miocene, forming now a thin-skinned
fold-and-thrust belt (e.g., Garcıa-Hernandez et al.,
1980; Lonergan and White, 1997). The External
the paleostress stations, note section line of Fig. 3. IEZB = Internal-
K.R. Reicherter, G. Peters / Tectonophysics 405 (2005) 191–212 195
Zone is made up of discrete paleogeographic domains:
(1) the Subbetic (subdivided into External, Median
and Internal Subbetic, Fig. 2); (2) the Penibetic; and
(3) the Prebetic nappes. Generally, all units are com-
prised of up to 1000 m of Lower Jurassic limestones
and dolomites, followed by approximately 500 m of
marly limestones and limestones of Middle Jurassic to
Late Cretaceous age (Garcıa-Hernandez et al., 1980).
The Triassic rocks at the base of the stratigraphic
sequences, especially the Keuper evaporites, acted
as decollement horizons during nappe emplacement
and were also subject to tectonically induced and
compressive diapirism in the Late Cretaceous (Reich-
erter and Pletsch, 2000). The individual tectono-strati-
graphic evolution of these paleogeographic units
during the Mesozoic has been outlined by Reicherter
et al. (1994).
1.1.4. Neogene basins
The most recent rocks in the study area are the
Neogene to Quaternary sediments of the Granada
Fig. 3. Simplified stratigraphic section with the timing of faulting events
Location of section see Fig. 2.
Basin (Fig. 2). The transition from sequences repre-
senting Tortonian marine sedimentation to post-Torto-
nian continental deposits, with major unconformities
related to tectonic and/or eustatic events, displays the
complex tectono-sedimentary evolution of the intra-
montane basin (Fernandez et al., 1996a). Basin-wide
sedimentation commenced with marine sediments in
the Early Tortonian, characterized by calcarenites and
marls as well as breccias (Fig. 3). A very well-pro-
nounced intra-Tortonian unconformity is interpreted
to be of tectonic origin (Fernandez et al., 1996a).
During the uppermost Tortonian–lowermost Messi-
nian the depositional environment changed to conti-
nental conditions with sedimentation of proximal
fluvial conglomerates and distal sandstones and marl-
stones (Fig. 3). The central part of the basin evapo-
rated and filled with gypsum and halite. On top of this
sequence upper were deposited Messinian to lower
Pliocene lacustrine limestones and terrigenous sand-
stones of the Turolian mammal stage. These marls
include lignitic layers and lacustrine gastropod-rich
in the Neogene Granada Basin, modified after Braga et al. (1990).
K.R. Reicherter, G. Peters / Tectonophysics 405 (2005) 191–212196
limestones (e.g., near Arenas del Rey, Bandel et al.,
2000). The Pliocene to Pleistocene is represented by
thick alluvial conglomerates and sands of Piedmont
and Glacis sediments (Lhenaff, 1979; Fernandez et al.,
1996b), locally intercalated by clays and travertines.
The entire basin fill has a thickness of 500 m along the
basin margins (Braga et al., 1990) and occasionally
exceeds 1000 m in depocenters close to the Sierra
Elvira (Fig. 2) northwest of Granada (Morales et al.,
1990; Rodrıguez Fernandez and Sanz de Galdeano,
2001). The sedimentary infill of the Granada Basin
experienced a northward tilt of the sequences. The
present day sedimentation takes place along a NW–SE
trending fault-bounded graben W of Granada (Fig. 2).
1.2. Seismological setting
The Betic Cordilleras are located within the Afro-
European Convergence Zone in an approximately 600
km long and 200 km wide region with a dispersed
seismicity. The central and eastern Betic Cordilleras,
especially the intramontane basins of Neogene age,
form the most active seismic zones in Spain with
several moderate earthquakes reported during the
last few centuries (Morales et al., 1996, 1997; Reich-
erter, 2001). Major earthquakes occurred during his-
torical times (see catalogue in Reicherter, 2001). The
last prominent earthquake took place in 1884 and
caused more than 800 casualties close to Arenas del
Rey in the southwestern Granada Basin, (Fig. 2;
Reicherter et al., 2003). Moderate and small earth-
quakes (bM 5) take place predominantly along major
fault zones, and are concentrated along the margins of
the Granada Basin (Morales et al., 1990; Sanz de
Galdeano et al., 1995).
2. Tectonic setting
The present-day stress orientation in the studied
area has been determined from focal mechanism solu-
tions, which point to a NW–SE directed maximum
horizontal stress SHmax, whereas r1 is mainly vertical
and r3 is horizontal in NE–SW direction (Galindo-
Zaldıvar et al., 1993, 1999; Herraiz et al., 2000).
However, the stress field in the area is heterogeneous
as documented by permutations of the stress axes.
Radial extension, NE–SW extension, and NW–SE
subhorizontal compression are observed; the latter
being parallel to the regional tectonic stress field
(Buforn et al., 1988; De Mets et al., 1990; Galindo-
Zaldıvar et al., 1993).
Since Tortonian time the Betic Cordilleras were
deformed under extensional stress regimes with va-
rying extension directions in an overall compressive
plate boundary setting (Galindo-Zaldıvar et al., 1999).
The Alboran Basin and the Neogene intramontane
basins formed along major faults (Fernandez et al.,
1996a; Comas et al., 1999). Strike-slip faults (Sanz de
Galdeano, 1990; Lonergan and White, 1997) and
major normal faults (e.g., Jabaloy et al., 1992; Sanz
de Galdeano and Lopez-Garrido, 1999) were involved
in the basin formation processes.
Thrusting directions in the External Zone vary
significantly. Generally, the thrusting directions in
the Betic Cordilleras are N and NW directed (Gar-
cıa-Hernandez et al., 1980; Guezou et al., 1991;
Banks and Warburton, 1991; Allerton et al., 1993).
In the Prebetic fold-and-thrust belt, however, fault-slip
vectors point to mainly NW directed thrusting, but
deviation varies from N to WNW trends (Platt et al.,
2003). Locally, prominent S and SE directed back
thrusts are developed (Allerton et al., 1993, 1994;
Vissers et al., 1995), which also affected the IEZB
(Lonergan et al., 1994). In the central and western
parts of the Betic Cordilleras, thrusting directions are
towards N and NW (Reicherter and Michel, 1993),
but frequently W orientations have been detected
(Platzman, 1992; Kirker and Platt, 1998; Ruano et
al., 2000).
Thrusting in the External Betics was accompanied
by differential vertical-axis rotations of individual
thrust sheets, as revealed by numerous paleomagnetic
studies (e.g. Osete et al., 1989; Platzman, 1992; Aller-
ton et al., 1993, 1994; Lonergan et al., 1994; Kirker
and Platt, 1998; summary in Platt et al., 2003). Fold
trends are often clearly related to thrusts, however
Triassic decollement horizons are not always parallel
to the major fold axes due to complex ramp-flat
geometries (De Ruig, 1990). Folding of the thrust
planes occurs during late stage folding. The major
fold orientation in the central Betic Cordilleras is
ENE–WSW, but swings locally towards N–S (Blu-
menthal, 1927; De Ruig, 1990; Reicherter and Michel,
1993). NW-vergent and overturned folds, as well as
box folds, can be observed. The Prebetic is partly
K.R. Reicherter, G. Peters / Tectonophysics 405 (2005) 191–212 197
characterized by NW trending folds (Platt et al.,
2003). In the Campo de Gibraltar fold axis orientation
varies between 358 and 858 (Kirker and Platt, 1998).
Internally, thrust nappes are often intensely deformed
with chevron-type folding.
2.1. Satellite lineations
Satellite lineations obtained from Landsat data in-
terpretation of the Iberian Peninsula show a grouping
in four major sets directed NW–SE, N–S, NE–SW and
ENE–WSW (531 lineations were evaluated). A pro-
nounced minimum is observed in E–W direction.
Taking into account the length of the lineations, the
four major directions are apparent. However, when the
number/length ratio is calculated the N–S and E–W
directions form maxima. The E–W direction is repre-
sented by only 2 lineations and, hence, is not regarded
as relevant. Directions of topographic lineations from
a digital elevation model and Landsat data of Anda-
lusia (Fig. 1) differ significantly from the overall
Iberian trend. A total of 295 lineations can be grouped
into three maxima: NW–SE, NE–SW, and a broad
range between 70 and 90 azimuth degrees. The latter
range parallels the major fold axis trend and is known
as the bBetic trendQ described already by Blumenthal
(1927) and Staub (1927). The lineation lengths and
number / length ratios are in accord with the observed
three major directions.
2.2. Fault pattern
The Central and Western Betic Cordilleras are
presently characterized by normal faulting, only
minor strike-slip faults are observed. The fault pattern
can be grouped into four main directions: NW–SE,
NE–SW, NNE–SSW and E–W (Sanz de Galdeano,
1983, 1990). The study area comprises faulted rocks
of all tectono-stratigraphic units (Fig. 2), from Paleo-
zoic schists of the Nevado-Filabride and Alpujarride
Complexes to Quaternary sediments of the Granada
Basin. The maximum displacement/uplift rate ob-
served was around 3500 m along the western low-
angle detachment of the Sierra Nevada (Sanz de Gal-
deano and Lopez-Garrido, 2000). The Ventas de
Zafarraya Fault in the western part of the Granada
depression (Fig. 2), the possible source of the 1884
earthquake, exhibits more than 1500 m of vertical
throw that has happened since the Tortonian
(Galindo-Zaldıvar et al., 2003; Reicherter et al.,
2003). Most of the related faults were reactivated
under changing stress fields and acted partly as
boundaries of the basins during the Neogene. The
Granada Basin is delimited by faults trending E–W
along the southern boundary and NW–SE at its west-
ern and eastern margins (Fernandez et al., 1996a). The
northern boundary is characterized by a low-angle
detachment (Ruano et al., 2000; Ruano, 2003).
Hence, the prolongation and evidence of the Crevil-
lente Fault or bCadiz-Alicante-FaultQ as a dextral
strike-slip fault in the study area (Figs. 1 and 2),
along the northern margin of the Granada Basin, is
doubtful (De Smet, 1984; Leblanc and Olivier, 1984;
Leblanc, 1990; Sanz de Galdeano, 1990; Sanz de
Galdeano and Lopez-Garrido, 2000; Ruano, 2003).
2.3. Previous studies
Several studies concerning the neotectonic evolu-
tion were carried out in the Central Betic mountain
range, the Subbetic Zone and the adjacent Neogene
basins (e.g., Sanz de Galdeano, 1990; Galindo-Zaldı-
var et al., 1993; Reicherter and Michel, 1993; Ruano
et al., 2000; Ruano, 2003). The results of this study
supplement previous studies by Galindo-Zaldıvar et
al. (1993, 1999), Reicherter and Michel (1993), Aller-
ton et al. (1994), Sanz de Galdeano (1997) and Munoz
et al. (2002), and will be so compared to those. The
upshot is to provide a new deformation path for the
last 15 Ma.
3. Paleostress analysis
Stress evolution was deduced from paleostress
analysis of populations of striated fault planes.
Paleostress analysis was carried out using a repre-
sentative number of striated fault planes (325 in
total) from 36 sites (with different lithology, stratig-
raphy and of different paleogeographical units) along
the traverse across the central Betic Cordilleras (Fig.
2, Table 1). The brittle mesoscale features include
striated fault planes, joints and tension gashes, dip of
bedding, as well as fold-axis directions. A set of 20
fault planes with striations was usually collected at
each site, sometimes the number of faults used is
Table 1
Paleostress data of the Central Betic Cordilleras: AD = Alboran Domain (Alp = Alpujarride Complex, Dors. = Dorsalian Complex); EZ = External Zone (eSub = External Subbetic, mSub = Median Subbetic,
Peni = Penibetic), GB = Granada Basin
General information Calculated results Timing of deformation
Station Domain Age Lithology Locality N r1 r2 r3 R Quality Phase Fault characterization
1 AD (Alp) Triassic marbles Frigiliana 11 161/14 330/74 071/02 0.4 B 3b sin, N–S; dex, NW–SE
1 AD (Alp) Triassic marbles Frigiliana 3 213/13 084/68 307/15 0.47 B 1 sin, NE–SW
2 AD (Alp) Paleozoic schists Sierra Nevada 5 024/63 159/19 255/17 0.6 B 2 nor, NW–SE, NE+SW dip
3 AD (Alp) Paleozoic marbles Sierra Nevada-2 13 008/02 222/86 098/01 0.41 B 3b
4 AD (Alp) Paleozoic schists Arroyo de la Miel 6 119/75 297/14 027/00 0.75 B 3a nor, NW–SE, SW dip
5 AD (Alp) Paleozoic micaschists La Herradura 6 154/82 337/07 247/00 0.62 B 3a nor, NW–SE, SW dip
5 AD (Alp) Paleozoic micaschists La Herradura 4 094/72 227/11 320/12 0.54 B 2 nor, NE–SW+E–W
5 AD (Alp) Paleozoic micaschists La Herradura 6 157/71 008/16 275/09 0.55 B 1 or 2? nor, N–S
6 AD (Alp) Triassic shales Vinuela 6 262/03 353/05 142/85 0.61 B 1 rev, N–S, E dip
7 AD (Alp) Paleozoic shales Vinuela 8 320/52 079/21 182/30 0.5 C 2 nor, NW–SE, NE dip
8 AD (Alp) Paleozoic shales Vinuela 6 333/33 137/55 238/07 0.45 A 3b dex, NW–SE; sin, N–S
8 AD (Alp) Paleozoic shales Vinuela 10 355/79 130/03 222/08 0.48 B 3a nor, NW–SE, NE+SW dip
8 AD (Alp) Paleozoic shales Vinuela 4 111/74 002/05 271/14 0.51 C 2 nor, N–S, E dip
9 AD (Alp) Paleozoic shales Canillas 4 209/78 300/00 030/12 0.5 B 3a nor, NW–SE, NE+SW dip
10 AD (Dors.) Jurassic limestones Alhama 18 027/53 232/33 134/12 0.49 B 2 dex, N–S; sin, NE–SW
10 AD (Dors.) Jurassic limestones Alhama 8 003/07 265/47 100/41 0.48 C 1 rev+dex, NW–SE, SW dip
11 EZ (mSub) E. Jurassic limestones Los Olivares 7 140/09 257/69 046/17 0.54 A 3b dex, E–W+NW–SE
12 EZ (eSub) E. Cretaceous marly limestones Barbahijar 16 321/10 188/74 053/11 0.69 B 3b dex, E–W; rev, NE–SW
12 EZ (eSub) E. Cretaceous marly limestones Barbahijar 6 092/56 270/33 000/01 0.9 C 2 nor, E–W, N+S dip
12 EZ (eSub) E. Cretaceous marly limestones Barbahijar 11 172/83 055/02 325/05 0.85 B 1 dex, NW–SE+N–S
13 EZ (mSub) L. Cretaceous marly limestones Rio Fardes 11 117/44 312/44 215/07 0.63 A 3a + 3b dex, E–W
13 EZ (mSub) L. Cretaceous marly limestones Rio Fardes 7 233/79 081/09 350/04 0.77 B 2 nor, E–W
13 EZ (mSub) L. Cretaceous marly limestones Rio Fardes 14 189/04 006/85 099/00 0.6 A 1 dex, NE–SW, NE+SW dip
14 EZ (mSub) E. Jurassic limestones Morron 20 100/87 340/01 250/01 0.52 A 3a nor, N–S, E+W dip
14 EZ (mSub) E. Jurassic limestones Morron 8 159/75 060/02 329/14 0.51 B 2 nor, NE–SW, NW dip
14 EZ (mSub) E. Jurassic limestones Morron 4 036/76 287/04 196/12 0.6 C 1? nor, NW–SE, NE+SW dip
15 EZ (mSub) E. Jurassic limestones Sierra Elvira 5 336/10 212/71 069/15 0.5 B 3b dex, NW–SE+E–W; sin N–S
15 EZ (mSub) E. Jurassic limestones Sierra Elvira 16 310/14 173/70 044/12 0.55 A 3b dex, E–W, S dip; sin, N–S
15 EZ (mSub) E. Jurassic limestones Sierra Elvira 12 272/71 107/16 015/04 0.51 A 3a nor, NW–SE, SW dip
15 EZ (mSub) E. Jurassic limestones Sierra Elvira 4 205/82 353/06 084/03 0.49 B 2 nor, N–S, W dip
15 EZ (mSub) E. Jurassic limestones Sierra Elvira 5 204/01 105/82 296/12 0.49 B 1 dex, N–S
16 EZ (mSub) E. Jurassic limestones Venta Nava 12 004/24 167/64 271/06 0.5 A 3b sin, NE–SW, SE dip
16 EZ (mSub) E.–M. Jurassic limestones Venta Nava 11 136/12 321/77 226/01 0.5 A 3b dex, E–W; sin, N–S
16 EZ (mSub) E.–M. Jurassic limestones Venta Nava 5 071/22 249/68 341/01 0.52 A 1 sin, NW–SE; dex, NE–SW
17 EZ (eSub) E. Jurassic limestones Cast. Locubın 9 176/39 028/45 280/16 0.5 B 3b dex, N–S; sin, NE–SW
17 EZ (eSub) E. Jurassic limestones Cast. Locubın 12 118/74 229/05 320/14 0.39 B 2 nor, NE–SW, SE dip
17 EZ (eSub) E. Jurassic limestones Cast. Locubın 9 225/23 104/51 329/30 0.46 B 1 rev, NE–SW, SE dip
18 EZ (mSub) E. Jurassic limestones Colomera 6 325/04 082/79 234/09 0.19 B 3b dex, NW–SE; sin, N–S
18 EZ (mSub) E. Jurassic limestones Colomera 4 014/08 152/78 283/07 0.45 C 3b sin, NE–SW; dex, NW–SE
18 EZ (mSub) E. Jurassic limestones Colomera 11 007/83 145/05 236/04 0.13 B 3a dip
18 EZ (mSub) E. Jurassic limestones Colomera 13 176/76 293/06 024/11 0.71 B 2 SW dip
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18 EZ (mSub) E. Jurassic limestones Colomera 10 088/79 199/03 290/09 0.6 B 2 nor, N–S+NE–SW, W+E dip
18 EZ (mSub) E. Jurassic limestones Colomera 10 227/21 031/67 135/15 0.41 B 1 dex, N–S; rev, NE–SW, NW dip
19 EZ (eSub) L. Jurassic limestones Casablanca 5 141/18 237/15 004/65 0.4 C 3b rev, NE–SW, SE dip
19 EZ (eSub) L. Jurassic limestones Casablanca 11 071/66 300/15 205/16 0.36 B 3a nor, NW–SE, NE+SW dip
19 EZ (eSub) L. Jurassic limestones Casablanca 10 218/04 308/02 072/84 0.39 B 1 NE–SW
20 EZ (Peni) E. Jurassic limestones Zafarraya 4 138/25 333/63 231/05 0.51 A 3b dex, NW–SE, NE dip
20 EZ (Peni) E. Jurassic limestones Zafarraya 6 179/76 285/04 016/13 0.2 A 3a nor, NW–SE, NE dip, N–S, W dip
20 EZ (Peni) E. Jurassic limestones Zafarraya 2 190/16 073/56 289/28 0.5 B 1 rev, NE–SW, SE dip
21 EZ (Peni) E. Jurassic shales Zafarraya 8 249/77 088/12 357/04 0.48 B 2 nor, E–W, N dip
22 EZ (Peni) E. Jurassic dolomites Hacho de Loja 4 346/52 204/31 102/18 0.47 A 3a nor, NW–SE, NE dip, E–W, N dip
22 EZ (Peni) E. Jurassic limestones Hacho de Loja 12 089/68 313/16 218/15 0.48 A 2 nor, N–S+E–W
22 EZ (Peni) E. Jurassic dolomites Hacho de Loja 4 107/06 014/17 214/72 0.48 A 1 rev, N–S, E dip
23 EZ (mSub) M. Jurassic limestones Algarinejo 8 288/15 082/74 196/07 0.48 A 3b dex, E–W
23 EZ (mSub) E. Jurassic limestones Algarinejo 9 208/80 321/04 052/09 0.53 A 3a nor, NW–SE, SW dip
23 EZ (mSub) M. Jurassic limestones Algarinejo 4 083/70 272/20 181/83 0.5 A 2 nor, E–W, S dip
23 EZ (mSub) E. Jurassic marly limestones Algarinejo 4 336/54 067/01 157/36 0.5 B 2 nor, NE–SW, SE dip
23 EZ (mSub) E. Jurassic limestones Algarinejo 6 020/31 269/31 143/43 0.52 B 1 rev, E–W, N dip
24 EZ (Peni) Triassic shales Loja 4 135/04 278/84 042/04 0.57 C 3b dex, E–W
24 EZ (Peni) Triassic shales Loja 6 312/71 078/11 173/14 0.54 C 2 nor, E–W, N dip
24 EZ (Peni) Triassic shales Loja 4 298/25 031/05 131/64 0.5 B 1 rev, NE–SW, NW dip
25 EZ (Peni) E. Cretaceous marly limestones Loja 6 053/80 264/09 173/05 0.49 B 2 nor, E–W, N dip
26 EZ (eSub) E. Jurassic dolomites Priego de Cordoba 4 118/08 227/68 025/21 0.5 B 3b dex, E–W
26 EZ (eSub) M. Jurassic marly limestones Priego de Cordoba 4 191/69 056/15 322/14 0.5 B 2 nor, NE–SW, NW dip
26 EZ (eSub) L. Cretaceous marly limestones Priego de Cordoba 4 091/68 300/20 207/10 0.49 A 2 nor, E–W, N dip
26 EZ (eSub) E. Jurassic dolomites Priego de Cordoba 4 308/31 046/16 160/55 0.49 A 1 rev, NE–SW, NW dip
27 EZ (Peni) E. Jurassic limestones Torcal 6 131/70 320/19 229/02 0.49 A 3a nor, NW–SE, NE dip
27 EZ (Peni) E. Jurassic limestones Torcal 5 275/02 009/53 182/36 0.5 A 1 sin, NW–SE, NE dip
28 GB Miocene conglomerates Sierra Nevada 3 282/53 161/21 058/28 0.54 A 2 nor, NW–SE, SW dip
29 GB Mio–Plioc. marls Fuensanta 15 085/85 303/03 213/02 0.37 B 3a nor, N–S; dex, E–W
30 GB Plio–Pleistocene clastics Cubillas 8 153/00 063/81 243/21 0.43 A 3b dex, E–W; sin, N–S
31 GB L. Miocene sands Otura 7 244/09 337/18 127/68 0.38 B 3b rev, NW–SE, NE dip
31 GB L. Miocene sands Otura 5 326/21 062/14 163/63 0.39 B 3b dex, E–W; sin, N–S
31 GB L. Miocene sands Otura 14 179/06 088/02 357/83 0.4 A 2 rev, NE–SW, NW+SE dip
31 GB L. Miocene sands Otura 13 029/72 258/12 165/12 0.35 A 2 nor, NE–SW+E–W
32 GB L. Miocene marlstones Arenas del Rey 3 277/83 099/07 009/00 0.46 A 3a nor, E–W, N dip
32 GB L. Miocene marlstones Arenas del Rey 6 199/78 296/01 026/12 0.48 B 3a nor, NW–SE, N+SW dip
32 GB L. Miocene marlstones Arenas del Rey 7 236/80 003/06 093/08 0.49 A/B 2 nor, N–S, E+W dip
32 GB L. Miocene marlstones Arenas del Rey 3 326/82 215/03 125/07 0.43 B 2 nor, NE–SW, NW+SE dip
33 GB L. Miocene sandstones Arenas del Rey 2 321/40 131/50 227/05 0.31 A 3b dex, NW–SE+E–W
33 GB L. Miocene sandstones Arenas del Rey 6 270/72 105/18 013/04 0.57 A 3a SE
34 GB M. Miocene calcarenites Alhama 5 030/83 120/01 210/06 0.5 A 3a nor, NW–SE, NE dip
35 GB Pliocene sands, congl. Salar 6 183/84 296/02 027/05 0.5 A 3a nor, NW–SE, SW dip
36 GB Pliocene sands Rıo Frıo 6 105/12 281/78 015/01 0.5 A 3b dex, E–W
N =number of separated faults of the individual phase; r1=main compression direction (trend and plunge), r2= intermediate direction,r3=main extension direction, axial ratio of the stress ellipsoid
R =[(r2� r3) / (r1�r3)] with r1Nr2Nr3; quality of the fault-striae data set A = very good, B = good, C = regular; deformation phase, explanation see text; fault characterization: sin = sinistral, dex =
dextral, nor = normal, rev = reverse.
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even less due to bad preservation of striae. If possi-
ble, the sense of slip (normal, reverse, sinistral or
dextral) and displacement were determined, which is
on the order of centimeters or meters (Table 1). The
sense and direction of motion along the faults were
inferred from various kinematic indicators such as
Riedel shears, lunate and tensile cracks, striation and
slickensides (calcite fibres or slickolithes; after Petit,
1987, Doblas, 1998). The quality of the kinematic
indicators was classified into very good (A), good
(B) and C (regular), and weighted during subsequent
data analysis (extend, displacement, fault plane area,
Table 1). To distinguish between the different phases
of faulting, also considered were: (1) the age of the
deformed rocks; (2) characterization of synsedimen-
tary faults; (3) use of tilted structures and including
back-rotation of strata and associated faults; (4)
cross-cutting relationships; and (5) reactivation with
the formation of superimposed striae on the fault
plane. Most of the deformation structures were
dated relatively, i.e., using overprinting criteria, and
separated in the field into different phases of fault-
ing. Correspondingly, the fault sets described in the
following section represent already separated and
homogeneous subsets.
Where separation was difficult the data were di-
vided with graphical methods into populations with
matching orientations of the theoretical P and T axes
(pressure and tension axes). A theoretical shorting and
extension direction were constructed for each indivi-
dual fault plane based on orientation, sense of slip of
the fault assuming a frictional angle of 308, whichprovided the best results. The principal axes of the
paleostress tensors (r1Nr2Nr3) were obtained by
computer-aided numerical dynamic analysis (NDA)
based on Spang (1972) and Sperner and Ratschbacher
(1994). The applied NDA method of the TVB-pro-
gram (Ornter, 2002) calculates strain parameters rather
than stress parameters. Assuming that deformation
follows the applied stress these values equal the stress
parameters). In addition, the axial ratio of the stress
ellipsoid [R =(r2�r3) / (r1�r3)], with r1Nr2Nr3,
was calculated. The orientations of the principal stress
axes, the distribution of the P and T axes, as well as
the ratio R have all been used to infer the individual
tectonic regimes. At most outcrops, the ratio R is
approximately 0.5, indicating pure normal, reverse
or strike-slip faulting (Table 1), characterized by
small circle distribution of T-axes. Thus the deforma-
tion is mostly two-dimensional, which can also be
observed from the analysis of earthquake focal
mechanisms (see Galindo-Zaldıvar et al., 1999).
Strike-slip faulting, with an oblique transpressive
component, shows lower ratios between 0.2 to 0.5,
and is characterized by a great circle distribution of T-
axes. The paleostress orientations of each separated
fault-slip population set are presented graphically as
cumulative pseudo fault plane solutions, representing
the mean tensors of individual fault-striae data sets. A
series of maps delineates the paleostress evolution of
the central Betic Cordilleras.
The determinations of the paleostress axes have
been supplemented by the analysis of tension gashes
and joints (hybrid, extensional or shear fractures,
partly open, partly not filled or calcite-filled; Han-
cock, 1985). Asymmetric rose plots incorporate the
dip direction of fracture planes, which may allow one
to delineate small horizontal axis rotations of the
joints (Fig. 4) and bedding tilt correction. Four
major sets are directed NW–SE, N–S, NE–SW and
ENE–WSW. As already observed in satellite lineation
analysis, the NW–SE direction forms the maximum,
and may be an inherited feature of the underlying and
overridden Variscan basement of Iberia. The ENE–
WSW striking sets have also been found in the Mio-
cene sediments in the Granada Basin and the Alcala la
Real sector. These sediments post-date the major
bBeticQ trend of thrusting and folding.
3.1. Results of the paleostress analysis
The stratigraphy and the Neogene basin evolution
of the Granada Depression, which forms most of the
central part of the investigated traverse, are known
(Braga et al., 1990; Morales et al., 1990; Fernandez et
al., 1996a,b, Fig. 3). The paleostress-stratigraphy con-
cept of Kleinspehn et al. (1989) was applied to estab-
lish a chronology of the tectonic events during basin
evolution. The Neogene–Quaternary fill of the Gra-
nada Basin displays a complex tectonic evolution, as
well as a complex sedimentary and subsidence history
since its initiation in the Early Miocene. Reactivation
of Neogene faults is frequently observed in the study
area, especially in rocks of lake deposits. Sediment
ages helped to date activities along faults (e.g., syn-
sedimentary horst and graben development associated
Fig. 4. Map of the traverse through the Central Betic Cordilleras showing the characteristic joint patterns (N number of extensional joints),
illustrated by asymmetric rose diagrams incorporating also the fault dip direction. From numbered stations also paleostress data are available
(see Fig. 2).
K.R. Reicherter, G. Peters / Tectonophysics 405 (2005) 191–212 201
with NW–SE striking normal faults) that have been
reactivated as dextral strike-slip faults, occasionally
with an oblique component (Fig. 5A). Horst and
graben systems developed (Fig. 5B, C). Synsedimen-
tary normal growth faults are frequent in lacustrine
marlstones of Late Messinian to Earliest Pliocene age
(Fig. 5D). Most of the faults in the Granada Depres-
sion within Tortonian–Pliocene sediments indicate
NW–SE to W–E extension during formation and
SW–NE extension during later reactivation.
3.1.1. Oligocene–Tortonian deformation (thrusting,
phase D1)
The oldest stress tensor group is characterized by a
maximum subhorizontal compression (r1) and direct-
ed mainly N–S and minor NW–SE, but is also partly
Fig. 5. Field sketches of Tortonian–Pliocene deformation features in the Granada Basin, outcrops in Fig. 2 (dip = direction and dip; ST =
striation; R = Riedel shear; j = joint). All faults indicate (N)W–S(W) extension. A: Normal faults and joints in Tortonian calcarenites (station 20,
note vertical displacement). Left normal fault has been reactivated as dextral strike-slip fault. B: Synsedimentary normal growth faults in
lacustrine marlstones with lignitic layers of Late Messinian to earliest Pliocene age (hammer for scale; station 32). C: Normal faults in Messinian
to Early Pliocene marlstones (station 32). D: Synsedimentary normal growth fault in lacustrine marlstones with lignitic layers of Late Messinian
to earliest Pliocene age (station 32).
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E–W directed. The minimum compression direction
(r3) is subvertical (Fig. 6). The evolution of fault
planes is related to thrusting and folding in the main
Alpine orogenic phase. Compressional structures
(thrusts, high-angle reverse and strike-slip faults) de-
veloped during the Lower to Middle Miocene and
were found only in parts of the Internal or External
Zone. Locally, structures (oblique normal faults, thrust
faults and folds) deviate from the major NW–SE
directed deformation trend and suggest both transfer
faulting and complex ramp-flat geometries in the area.
Some of the outcrops in the External zone, which
include the Rio Fardes region (Fig. 2, station 13),
show dominant NE–SW sinistral strike-slip and
minor thrust faults, which form a compressional flow-
er structure in this area (Fig. 6B, station 13). The
Casablanca section in the External Zone is characte-
rized by shallow dipping thrust faults with a top to NE
sense of shear (Fig. 6B, station 19). Thrust faults are
associated with minor back-thrusts and sinistral strike-
slip faults. The corridor between Loja and Vinuela is
dominated by W directed thrusting (Fig. 6). Stations
10 and 20 are situated close to the IEBZ (Internal-
External Boundary Zone). Both show a compressive
sinistral strike-slip setting during Phase D1. Due to
the age, Phase D1 is not observed in the Neogene
sediments of the Granada Basin.
3.1.2. Tortonian–Early Pliocene deformation (radial
extension, phase D2)
The compressive phase is followed by a major
extensional phase D2 with varying extension direc-
Fig. 6. Lower-Middle Miocene deformation phase related to thrusting and the nappe emplacement in the External Betic Cordilleras. Observed is a horizontal maximum compression
direction varying from NE–NW. The cumulative pseudo fault-plane solutions (beachball diagrams) sum up several separated fault-slip data of outcrops (see also Table 1; white =
compression; black = extension). Inset: upper stereoplot shows all cumulative P-subhorizontal, B-, and T-axes of the stations ( P-axes = r1-direction = black dots; B-axes =
r2-direction = open squares; T-axes = r3-direction = filled triangles). Middle and lower stereoplots show individual fault-striae data; station 13 is dominated by NE trending strike-slip
faults, whereas station 19 shows NE and SW shallow-dipping thrust planes.
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Fig. 7. Middle Miocene–Pliocene deformation phase related to the collapse of the thrust wedge and the initiation of the Neogene basin formation in the External Betic Cordilleras.
Observed is a vertical maximum compression direction leading to NW–SE extension (see Fig. 6 for legend). Inset: upper stereoplot shows all cumulative P-, B-, and T-axes of the
stations. Middle and lower stereoplots show individual fault-striae data; both stations are dominated by NE trending conjugate sets of normal faults.
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Fig. 8. Pliocene–Recent deformation phase related to the collapse of the thrust wedge and the ongoing of the Neogene basin formation in the External Betic Cordilleras. Observed is a
vertical maximum compression direction leading to major NE–SW extension (see Fig. 6 for legend). Inset: upper stereoplot shows all cumulative P-, B-, and T-axes of the stations.
Middle and lower stereoplots show individual fault-striae data; both stations are dominated by NW trending conjugate sets of normal faults.
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Fig. 9. Pliocene–Recent deformation phase related to the convergence of the Eurasian and African Plate. Observed is a horizontal maximum compression direction leading to SE–NW
compression (see Fig. 6 for legend) and coeval NE–SW extension. Inset: upper stereoplot shows all cumulative P-, B-, and T-axes of the stations. Middle and lower stereoplots show
individual fault-striae data; both stations are dominated by N–S and E–W trending conjugate sets of strike-slip faults.
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K.R. Reicherter, G. Peters / Tectonophysics 405 (2005) 191–212 207
tions, but dominantly NW–SE directed, also N–S and
E–W directed (Fig. 7). High-angle normal faults in
Paleozoic to Neogene rocks, striking NW–SE and
NE–SW, are abundant in the entire study area. The
different sets of high-angle normal faults indicate E–
W, NW–SE or N–S orientated extension and vertical
maximum compression (phase D2, r1 subvertical, r3
subhorizontal NW–SE, radial, Fig. 7B). Stations 10
and 12, both in series of the External Zone, exhibit
sets of conjugate normal faults, and minor ENE–
WSW trending, steeply dipping, transtensional, sinis-
tral strike-slip faults (Fig. 7B).
NW extension affected the oldest formations of the
Neogene Granada Basin (stations 31, 32, 33), asso-
ciated with coeval deviations of the local stress field
(e.g., station 31, with N–S directed compression, also
station 23 of the External Zone with two individual
subsets). Faults of phase D2 are mostly synsedimen-
tary high-angle normal faults in Tortonian to earliest
Pliocene sediments (Fig. 5), which enabled the dating
of the onset of the NW–SE directed extension in the
Late Miocene. The high normal faults displace the
IEBZ significantly in the Zafarraya area (stations 20,
21) and, hence, is a younger tectonic feature (Reich-
erter et al., 2003).
3.1.3. Pliocene-Recent deformation (SW directed
extension and SE compression, phase D3)
The youngest stress tensor group D3 has been
divided into two dominant sub-sets after P–T-sepa-
ration: (3a) with r1 subvertical, r3 subhorizontal
NE–SW directed, associated with normal faulting
(Fig. 8); and (3b) with r1 subhorizontal NW directed
and with r3 subhorizontal NE–SW directed, associ-
ated with strike-slip faulting (Fig. 9). The extension
direction is constant during phase 3 (Figs. 8 and
9B), and parallels the orogen. The P–T axis distri-
bution is characterized by sharp maxima (Fig. 8B) in
sub-set 3a, the extension dominated faulting. The
sub-set of phase 3b shows a NW–SE trending gir-
dle-like distribution of P- and B-axes. The P-axes
plot close to the circle border (shallow dips, r1-
direction is subhorizontal), whereas the B-axes (r2-
direction) are subvertical and scatter around the cen-
ter of the circle.
Older NW–SE striking high-angle normal faults
were reactivated during the NW–SE directed subho-
rizontal maximum compression in the Betic Cordil-
leras (Figs. 8 and 9). NW–SE striking faults are
mostly normal faults or dextral strike-slip faults, oc-
casionally oblique with a dextral sense of movement,
which form conjugate sets (Fig. 8B, stations 8 and
19). New faults developed in Pliocene to Quaternary
sediments, mainly striking E–W with a dextral sense
of shear and N–S with a sinistral sense of shear (Fig.
9B, stations 15 and 30). The high normal Ventas de
Zafarraya Fault (stations 20, 21) is reactivated dex-
trally during this younger phase (Reicherter, 2001;
Munoz et al., 2002).
4. Discussion and conclusions
Paleostress and structural analysis on small-scale
faults in the central part of the Betic Cordilleras,
from the Mediterranean coast east of Malaga to the
Guadalquivir Basin, allows one to establish the tim-
ing and orientation of stress regimes since the Early
Miocene. Brittle fault populations, folds, joints, and
satellite lineations in different lithologies and strati-
graphic units were studied and analyzed. Four tensor
groups were distinguished and correlate with three
distinct phases in the Late Oligocene–Aquitanian to
Recent tectonic evolution of the Betic Cordilleras
(Fig. 10):
Phase D1: Thrusting-related N–S to E–W com-
pressional structures in the Internal and External
Zones of the Betic Cordilleras correlated to a top-
to-N to NW and, partly, top-to-W directed thrusting
of the nappes, including large scale folding. Strike-
slip faults are also observed. The data are consider-
ably variable, but are consistent with NW thrusting
and NE trending fold axes. This tectonic phase could
represent continent–continent collision of the Iberian
(Eurasian) plate and the Alboran Domain, which is
considered to constitute a microplate during the Me-
sozoic and early Cenozoic (e.g., Sanz de Galdeano,
1990; Reicherter et al., 1994; Platt et al., 2003). In
addition, Galindo-Zaldıvar et al. (1993) reported E–
W compression for the Burdigalian with a switch to
approximately N–S compression during the Langhian
to Serravalian.
Phase D2: NW dominated extension is characte-
rized by large-scale normal faulting. Both orogen
parallel extension and orogen perpendicular exten-
sion are observed, and could represent the collapse
Fig. 10. The evolution of the local stresses (main compression and extension directions) and related tectonic phases in the Central Betic Cordilleras since the Aquitanian to Recent (EZ
= External Zone; AD = Alboran Domain; NB = Neogene basins; GB = Granada Basin). Main fault directions and kinematics of the central Betic Cordilleras, based on fault-slip data,
joints and satellite lineations. The general Betic ENE-trend (in gray) is not frequently observed in the younger sedimentary successions. Reactivation of pre-existing faults is
frequently common. Barbs indicate dip direction of faults. Note that Phases 3a and 3b are coeval.
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of the thickened thrust wedge. Faulting due to this
phase is observed along the entire transect and
appears not to be localized at faults along the
basin margins. Timing of the extensional event is
well constrained by synsedimentary deformed Tor-
tonian and Messinian sediments in the Granada
Basin (Fig. 5). Phase 2 is probably related to the
rapid exhumation of the intensely metamorphosed
rock series of the Internal Zones, i.e. the Nevado-
Filabride and Alpujarride-Complexes, and hence re-
lated to the ongoing gravitational collapse of the
Betic Cordilleras and the formation of the Alboran
Basin and intramontane basins (Azanon and Crespo-
Blanc, 2000). The time calibration of the regional
stress field D2 was further constrained considering
data of adjacent areas from Galindo-Zaldıvar et al.
(1993, 1999), Reicherter and Michel (1993), Reich-
erter (1999), Ruano et al. (2000) and Ruano (2003).
NW–SE directed extension probably occurred from
the Tortonian on and was contemporaneous with
intramontane basin formation (e.g., Sanz de Gal-
deano, 1985, 1990). NW–SE extension has also
been reported from the Eastern Betic Cordilleras
during the Tortonian (Stapel et al., 1996; Huibregtse
et al., 1998; Jonk and Biermann, 2002). Fault-slip
data from the Rif and the Atlas of Morocco show
also NW directed extension during the Tortonian
(Ait Brahim et al., 2002).
Neogene basin formation in the central Betic
Cordilleras is not related to large strike-slip move-
ments along the Cadiz–Alicante Fault that, on some
maps, is shown to extend to Cadiz (e.g., De Smet,
1984; Leblanc and Olivier, 1984; Sanz de Galdeano,
1990). In the Rio Fardes area, along the northern
margin of the Granada Basin and further west (sta-
tions 13, 14, 18, 22, 24, 27; Fig. 6), fault slip data
do not reveal any dextral strike-slip movements; on
the contrary, kinematic indicators suggest sinistral
strike-slip. The Cadiz–Alicante Fault seems to die
out west of the Tiscar Fault (Fig. 1) and cannot be
traced as a discrete structure through the central
Betic Cordilleras, as already evidenced by Platt et
al. (2003). They noted also the absence of any
significant geological change nor the structural
style. Hence, the displacement on the Cadiz–Alicante
Fault was not large and is confined to the Mesozoic
and Tertiary cover nappes in the eastern part of the
Betics (Allerton et al., 1993).
Phase D3 : Strike-slip faults and extensional struc-
tures indicate NW–SE compression and NE–SW ex-
tension since the latest Messinian to Recent due to the
ongoing convergence of the Eurasian and African
Plates and coeval uplift in the Betic Cordilleras. The
reactivation of pre-existing fractures and faults is
frequently observed. The permutation of the principal
stress axes, mainly r1 and r2, reflects periodic strike-
slip and normal faulting in the Betic Cordilleras. The
recent stress field remained stable during the Pliocene
to Quaternary (D3). It is characterized by homoge-
neous NE–SW directed extension in the central Betic
Cordilleras. Such is not the case in the Eastern Betics,
where intense strike-slip deformation is observed
(Huibregtse et al., 1998; Jonk and Biermann, 2002;
Faulkner et al., 2003). The fault pattern, including
reactivation of inherited structures, fits the observa-
tions from seismic focal mechanisms (Herraiz et al.,
2000), which largely point to a vertical maximum
compression direction. In contrast, NW–SE directed
subhorizontal compression is coevally observed (Fig.
10; Galindo-Zaldıvar et al., 1999).
The permutation of r1 and r2, as shown in the P–
B–T-axis distribution (Fig. 9) suggests an interaction
between the convergence of Eurasia and Africa and
the ongoing uplift in the mountain ranges. Conver-
gence rates over the European African Convergence
Zone in the western Mediterranean are on the order of
4–5.6 mm/a (Jolivet et al., 1999). However they are
distributed between the High Atlas in Morocco and
the Variscan Iberian Meseta. The deformation history
of the Rif Cordillera and the Atlas in Morocco is
characterized by an comparable stress history (Ait
Brahim et al., 2002). Furthermore, the permutation
of the principal stress axes from vertical to subho-
rizontal and vice versa points to almost comparable
magnitudes of r1 and r2. The isostatic equilibrium of
the thrust wedge in the central Betic Cordilleras has
yet not been reached.
The interaction of endogenic forces (plate conver-
gence, uplift) with changing exogenic factors (e.g.
climatic changes, precipitation, erosional and deposi-
tional rates) seems to play a major role in the reacti-
vation of pre-existing faults and the generation of new
faults. Also, the decoupling along the mid-crustal
shear zone (Galindo-Zaldıvar et al., 1999), with
major detachments and block tilting, influences the
basinward shift of depocentres.
K.R. Reicherter, G. Peters / Tectonophysics 405 (2005) 191–212210
Acknowledgements
Financial support from the Deutsche Forschungs-
gemeinschaft is gratefully acknowledged (project Re
1361/3). U. Dyrssen is thanked for his help during
field work and data analysis. Thanks are extended to
J. Galindo-Zaldıvar, A. Jabaloy, P. Ruano and C. Sanz
de Galdeano (Univ. of Granada) for fruitful discus-
sions and joint field excursions. We are grateful to
Prof. I. Lerche (Univ. of Leipzig), who helped to
improve the English.
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