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Individual’s demand curve: Individual’s demand curve:
Why does Why does it slopes downward?it slopes downward?
Why do people demand goods and Why do people demand goods and services?services?• Receive satisfaction or pleasure from Receive satisfaction or pleasure from
consuming the good.consuming the good.• Economists terms this satisfaction Economists terms this satisfaction utilityutility..
Theory of DemandTheory of Demand
THE LAW OF DEMANDTHE LAW OF DEMAND
Two explanations...Two explanations... Income Effect
A lower price A lower price increase the increase the consumer’s real incomeconsumer’s real income, they are , they are “better off.”“better off.” Substitution Effect
A lower price relative to other goods A lower price relative to other goods the consumer substitutes more of this the consumer substitutes more of this product for other alternatives.product for other alternatives.
Theory of Consumer BehaviorTheory of Consumer Behavior
A Typical Consumer...A Typical Consumer...
• Exhibits Rational BehaviorExhibits Rational Behavior
• Knows Clear-Cut PreferencesKnows Clear-Cut Preferences
• Subject to a Budget ConstraintSubject to a Budget Constraint
• Responds to Price ChangesResponds to Price Changes
Consumer BehaviorConsumer Behavior In economics, we are not try to explain why In economics, we are not try to explain why
people get utility from certain goods.people get utility from certain goods. We take that as a given.We take that as a given.
Example:Example:• Some people like country music, others hate it.Some people like country music, others hate it.• Economists say, “Economists say, “givengiven an individual’s preferences an individual’s preferences
about country music, how many country music about country music, how many country music CD’s might they purchase. At alternative CD’s might they purchase. At alternative relativerelative prices.”prices.”
PreferencesUtilityUtility is the benefit or satisfaction is the benefit or satisfaction that a person gets from the that a person gets from the consumption of a good or serviceconsumption of a good or serviceThe units of measurement of utility are The units of measurement of utility are arbitrary--like the units of arbitrary--like the units of measurement of temperaturemeasurement of temperature
UtilsUtils Utility is measured in units called “utilsUtility is measured in units called “utils”” Economists once believed there would Economists once believed there would
be machines that we could attach to be machines that we could attach to people and measure how many utils they people and measure how many utils they received from consumption -- but that received from consumption -- but that never really panned outnever really panned out
So we use utils as an “ordinal” measureSo we use utils as an “ordinal” measure
The actual number of utils doesn’t matter, The actual number of utils doesn’t matter, just the relationship between them.just the relationship between them.
For this reason, we can’t compare utils For this reason, we can’t compare utils between people. We can only compare utils between people. We can only compare utils between goods and services for one person.between goods and services for one person.
Consumer BehaviorConsumer Behavior
Total and Marginal UtilityTotal and Marginal Utility Total UtilityTotal Utility (TU) - relates (TU) - relates
consumption of a good to the utility consumption of a good to the utility derived from consuming a good. derived from consuming a good. (This could be many units of a good)(This could be many units of a good)
Marginal UtilityMarginal Utility (MU) - the change in (MU) - the change in total utility when consumption of a total utility when consumption of a good changes by one unit.good changes by one unit.• MU = MU = TU / TU / Q consumed of a good Q consumed of a good
Law of Diminishing Law of Diminishing Marginal UtilityMarginal Utility
Law of Diminishing Marginal UtilityLaw of Diminishing Marginal Utility - - eventually, a point is reached where eventually, a point is reached where the marginal utility obtained by the marginal utility obtained by consuming additional units of a good consuming additional units of a good starts to decline, ceteris paribus.starts to decline, ceteris paribus.
Law of Diminishing Law of Diminishing Marginal UtilityMarginal Utility
ExampleExample• If I’m really hungry, I get a lot of If I’m really hungry, I get a lot of
satisfaction from first slice of pizza.satisfaction from first slice of pizza.• If I keep eating pizza, the satisfaction If I keep eating pizza, the satisfaction
from the 8th slice would be much less from the 8th slice would be much less than that of the first slice.than that of the first slice.
Law of Diminishing MULaw of Diminishing MU
Notes about the Law of Diminishing MUNotes about the Law of Diminishing MU Law tells us that Law tells us that eventuallyeventually the marginal the marginal
utility curve will be downward sloping.utility curve will be downward sloping. Slope of the total utility curve is equal to Slope of the total utility curve is equal to
marginal utilitymarginal utility
Total UtilityTotal Utility
TU
Q
TU
TU
QMU = MU = TU / TU / QQ
Shape of TUShape of TU
Positive slope (in the decision range)Positive slope (in the decision range)• Consumer only purchases a good if gets Consumer only purchases a good if gets
some positive amount of utility (rational some positive amount of utility (rational behavior)behavior)
Slope gets flatter as Q increaseSlope gets flatter as Q increase
– Law of diminishing marginal utilityLaw of diminishing marginal utility
Total UtilityTotal Utility
TU
Q
TUTU
TU
Q
TU
Q
Slope DecreasesSlope DecreasesMU DecreasesMU Decreases
Shape of MUShape of MU
Eventually downward slopingEventually downward sloping • Law of diminishing marginal utilityLaw of diminishing marginal utility
Positive (in the decision range)Positive (in the decision range)• Rational behaviorRational behavior
• Consumer only purchases a good if Consumer only purchases a good if they get some positive utility from it.they get some positive utility from it.
Marginal UtilityMarginal Utility
MU
QMU
Total and Marginal UtilityTotal and Marginal UtilityHamburgersHamburgersconsumedconsumedper mealper meal
TotalTotalUtilityUtility
MarginalMarginalutilityutility(2)(2)
0011223344556677
001010
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 70 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Units consumed per mealUnits consumed per meal
Units consumed per mealUnits consumed per meal
3030
2020
1010
To
tal
Uti
lity
(u
tils
)T
ota
l U
tili
ty (
uti
ls)
Mar
gin
al
Uti
lity
(u
tils
)M
arg
ina
l U
tili
ty (
uti
ls)
1010 88 66 44 22 00 -2-2
TUTU
1 2 3 4 5 6 71 2 3 4 5 6 7
Total and Marginal UtilityTotal and Marginal UtilityHamburgersHamburgersconsumedconsumedper mealper meal
TotalTotalUtilityUtility
MarginalMarginalutilityutility(2)(2)
0011223344556677
0010101818
1010 88
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 70 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Units consumed per mealUnits consumed per meal
Units consumed per mealUnits consumed per meal
3030
2020
1010
To
tal
Uti
lity
(u
tils
)T
ota
l U
tili
ty (
uti
ls)
Mar
gin
al
Uti
lity
(u
tils
)M
arg
ina
l U
tili
ty (
uti
ls)
1010 88 66 44 22 00 -2-2
TUTU
MUMU 1 2 3 4 5 6 71 2 3 4 5 6 7
Total and Marginal UtilityTotal and Marginal UtilityHamburgersHamburgersconsumedconsumedper mealper meal
TotalTotalUtilityUtility
MarginalMarginalutilityutility(2)(2)
0011223344556677
001010181824242828303030302828
1010 88 66 44 22 00 -2-2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 70 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Units consumed per mealUnits consumed per meal
Units consumed per mealUnits consumed per meal
3030
2020
1010
To
tal
Uti
lity
(u
tils
)T
ota
l U
tili
ty (
uti
ls)
Mar
gin
al
Uti
lity
(u
tils
)M
arg
ina
l U
tili
ty (
uti
ls)
1010 88 66 44 22 00 -2-2
TUTU
MUMU 1 2 3 4 5 6 71 2 3 4 5 6 7
Utility Maximizing RuleUtility Maximizing Rule
The consumer’s money incomeThe consumer’s money incomeshould be allocated so that theshould be allocated so that thelast dollar spentlast dollar spent on each product on each productpurchased purchased yields the same amountyields the same amountof extra (marginal) utilityof extra (marginal) utility..
Utility is Utility is maximizedmaximized when: when:all the consumer’s income is spent, all the consumer’s income is spent, and the and the marginal utility per dollar marginal utility per dollar spentspent is equal for all goodsis equal for all goods
The The marginal utility per dollar spentmarginal utility per dollar spent is is the marginal utility derived from the last the marginal utility derived from the last unit of a good consumed unit of a good consumed divided by the divided by the price of the good.price of the good.
Maximizing UtilityMaximizing Utility
Utility Maximization RuleUtility Maximization Rule
MU of product AMU of product A MU of product BMU of product B
Price of APrice of A Price of BPrice of B==
Utility Maximization RuleUtility Maximization Rule
MU of product AMU of product A MU of product BMU of product B
Price of APrice of A Price of BPrice of B>>
If this is true:If this is true:
Buy more A and MUBuy more A and MUAA
Utility Maximization RuleUtility Maximization Rule
MU of product AMU of product A MU of product BMU of product B
Price of APrice of A Price of BPrice of B<<If this is true:If this is true:
Buy more B and MUBuy more B and MUBB
Consumer ChoiceConsumer Choice For instance, I would much rather have a For instance, I would much rather have a Range Rover instead of my Ford ExplorerRange Rover instead of my Ford Explorer If I want to maximize my utility, If I want to maximize my utility, why don’t I buy a Range why don’t I buy a Range
Rover?Rover?
– Because it costs a lot more than the Ford ExplorerBecause it costs a lot more than the Ford Explorer– Because I have only so much moneyBecause I have only so much money
So if I want to maximize my utility, I don’t just pick the thing So if I want to maximize my utility, I don’t just pick the thing that gives me the most pleasure. that gives me the most pleasure.
I have to weigh the relative price of products and my I have to weigh the relative price of products and my income in my decisionincome in my decision..
Consumer Choice
The consumer must make The consumer must make judgements based on:judgements based on:
• The prices of productsThe prices of products• His or her preferencesHis or her preferences• His or her IncomeHis or her Income
Consumer ChoiceConsumer ChoiceIn order to make a decision I will need to In order to make a decision I will need to
convert utility to convert utility to utility per dollarutility per dollar.. This way, I can see that even though the This way, I can see that even though the
Range Rover gives me more utility, Range Rover gives me more utility, I get more utility per dollar from the Ford I get more utility per dollar from the Ford
Explorer.Explorer. So if I want to spend my So if I want to spend my money wisely, money wisely,
I buy the thing that gives me more utility I buy the thing that gives me more utility per dollar.per dollar.
Consumer Maximization
MUMUFF/P/PFF > MU > MURR/P/PRR
100,000/20,000 > 200,000/70,000100,000/20,000 > 200,000/70,000
5/1 > 2.9/15/1 > 2.9/1
Consumer MaximizationConsumer Maximization
Let’s say I walk over to the Putnum Let’s say I walk over to the Putnum Student Center for lunch and they Student Center for lunch and they have Chicken Tacos and Rocky Road have Chicken Tacos and Rocky Road Ice Cream. Ice Cream.
The The Tacos are $1 each and the Ice Tacos are $1 each and the Ice Cream is $2 a scoopCream is $2 a scoop.. I have $7 in my I have $7 in my pocket What do I buy?pocket What do I buy?
I have $7 to spend.Ice Cream costs $2Tacos cost $1 I can afford
7 Tacos3.5 Ice Creams
My Budget ConstraintMy Budget Constraint
Ice Cream
Tac
os
0
77
55
33
11
1 2 3 41 2 3 4
Consumer MaximizationConsumer Maximization
Remember, I want to choose the Remember, I want to choose the combination of Tacos and Ice Cream combination of Tacos and Ice Cream that gives me the greatest possible that gives me the greatest possible utility for my $7utility for my $7
Consider the following table, which Consider the following table, which states the total utility I get from all states the total utility I get from all possible quantities of Tacos and Ice possible quantities of Tacos and Ice CreamCream
Utility TableUtility Table
0 0 -- 0 --
1 24 29
2 44 46
3 60 56
4 70 58
5 72 59
6 72 59
QuantityQuantity Total Util.Total Util. Marginal Util.Marginal Util. Total Util.Total Util. Marginal Util.Marginal Util.Rocky RoadRocky Road TacosTacos
Utility TableUtility Table
0 0 -- 0 --
1 24 24 29 29
2 44 20 46 17
3 60 16 56 10
4 70 10 58 2
5 72 2 59 1
6 72 0 59 0
QuantityQuantity Total Util.Total Util. Marginal Util.Marginal Util. Total Util.Total Util. Marginal Util.Marginal Util.
Rocky RoadRocky Road TacosTacos
Consumer ChoiceConsumer Choice We need to find the marginal utility per dollar for both We need to find the marginal utility per dollar for both
goods.goods. Consider the first scoop of ice cream - it gives us 12 Consider the first scoop of ice cream - it gives us 12
utils per dollar. The first taco gives us 29 utils per utils per dollar. The first taco gives us 29 utils per dollar. dollar.
MU/$ Ice Cream < MU/$ TacoMU/$ Ice Cream < MU/$ Taco
24/2 = 12/1 < 29/124/2 = 12/1 < 29/1 So I want to buy the taco. So I want to buy the taco. Now I have $6 left.Now I have $6 left.
Utility Table
0 0 -- 0 --
1 24 24 29 29
2 44 20 46 17
3 60 16 56 10
4 70 10 58 2
5 72 2 59 1
6 72 0 59 0
QuantityQuantity Total Util.Total Util. Marginal Util.Marginal Util. Total Util.Total Util. Marginal Util.Marginal Util.Rocky RoadRocky Road TacosTacos
Now I have to compare my second taco Now I have to compare my second taco (17 utils/$) with the first scoop of ice (17 utils/$) with the first scoop of ice cream (12 utils/$). cream (12 utils/$).
MU/$ Ice Cream < MU/$ TacoMU/$ Ice Cream < MU/$ Taco24/2 = 12/1 < 17/124/2 = 12/1 < 17/1
I will want to buy the second taco. I will want to buy the second taco. I have $5 left.I have $5 left.
Consumer ChoiceConsumer Choice
0 0 -- 0 --
1 24 24 29 29
2 44 20 46 17
3 60 16 56 10
4 70 10 58 2
5 72 2 59 1
6 72 0 59 0
QuantityQuantity Total Util.Total Util. Marginal Util.Marginal Util. Total Util.Total Util. Marginal Util.Marginal Util.Rocky RoadRocky Road TacosTacos
Utility Table
Now I have to compare the third taco Now I have to compare the third taco
(10 utils/$) with the first scoop of ice cream (10 utils/$) with the first scoop of ice cream (12 utils/$). (12 utils/$).
MU/$MU/$ Ice Cream > MU/$ TacoIce Cream > MU/$ Taco 24/2 = 12/1 > 10/124/2 = 12/1 > 10/1
I will want to buy the ice cream. I will want to buy the ice cream. I have $3 left.I have $3 left.
Consumer ChoiceConsumer Choice
0 0 -- 0 --
1 24 24 29 29
2 44 20 46 17
3 60 16 56 10
4 70 10 58 2
5 72 2 59 1
6 72 0 59 0
QuantityQuantity Total Util.Total Util. Marginal Util.Marginal Util. Total Util.Total Util. Marginal Util.Marginal Util.Rocky RoadRocky Road TacosTacos
Utility Table
Now I have to compare the third taco Now I have to compare the third taco (10 utils/$) with the second scoop of (10 utils/$) with the second scoop of ice cream (10 utils/$). It doesn’t matter ice cream (10 utils/$). It doesn’t matter which I pick, since they make me which I pick, since they make me equally happy. equally happy. MU/$ Ice Cream = MU/$ Taco
20/2 = 10/1 = 10/1I’ll take the taco. Now I have $2 Left.I’ll take the taco. Now I have $2 Left.
Consumer ChoiceConsumer Choice
0 0 -- 0 --
1 24 24 29 29
2 44 20 46 17
3 60 16 56 10
4 70 10 58 2
5 72 2 59 1
6 72 0 59 0
QuantityQuantity Total Util.Total Util. Marginal Util.Marginal Util. Total Util.Total Util. Marginal Util.Marginal Util.Rocky RoadRocky Road TacosTacos
Utility Table
Now I have to compare the fourth taco Now I have to compare the fourth taco (2 utils/$) to the second scoop of ice cream (10 (2 utils/$) to the second scoop of ice cream (10
utils/$). I will want to buy the ice cream. I have utils/$). I will want to buy the ice cream. I have no more money.no more money.
I bought 3 tacos which give a total utility of 56 I bought 3 tacos which give a total utility of 56 and 2 scoops of ice cream which give a total and 2 scoops of ice cream which give a total utility of 44. My total utility from lunch isutility of 44. My total utility from lunch is 56 + 56 + 44 =10044 =100..
There is no other combination of tacos and ice There is no other combination of tacos and ice cream that give a greater utility for $7.cream that give a greater utility for $7.
Consumer ChoiceConsumer Choice
My Maximum satisfaction is at:Ice Cream = 2 Tacos = 3
Ice Cream
Tac
os
0
77
55
33
11
1 2 3 41 2 3 4
Consumer MaximizationConsumer Maximization
MaximumMaximumUtilityUtility
0 0 -- 0 --
1 24 24 29 29
2 44 20 46 17
3 60 16 56 10
4 70 10 58 2
5 72 2 59 1
6 72 0 59 0
QuantityQuantity Total Util.Total Util. Marginal Util.Marginal Util. Total Util.Total Util. Marginal Util.Marginal Util.Rocky RoadRocky Road TacosTacos
Utility Table
Consumer MaximizationConsumer Maximization
What if the price of the ice cream What if the price of the ice cream dropped to $1 a scoop.dropped to $1 a scoop.
Note that when the price went down, Note that when the price went down, I bought more - THIS IS WHERE THE I bought more - THIS IS WHERE THE LAW OF DEMAND COMES FROM.LAW OF DEMAND COMES FROM.
Consumer MaximizationConsumer Maximization
MUMUAA/P/PAA = MU = MUBB/P/PBB = MU = MUCC/P/PCC
What if the Price of good B falls?What if the Price of good B falls?
MUMUAA/P/PAA < MU < MUBB/P/PBB > MU > MUCC/P/PCC
The consumer should purchase The consumer should purchase more of product B, as the more of product B, as the demand curve predicts.demand curve predicts.
Consumer MaximizationConsumer Maximization
Thus, the Marginal Utility theory of consumer maximization
explains the Law of Demand
Consumer MaximizationConsumer Maximization
Consumer SurplusConsumer Surplus Consumer SurplusConsumer Surplus - the difference between the - the difference between the
price buyers pay for a good and the maximum price buyers pay for a good and the maximum amount they would be willing to pay for the good.amount they would be willing to pay for the good.
Example:Example:• I’m willing to pay $30 for a case of BeerI’m willing to pay $30 for a case of Beer• Beer is on sale for $20 a caseBeer is on sale for $20 a case• Consumer surplus = $10Consumer surplus = $10
Consumer SurplusConsumer Surplus
DDQ
P
0
Consumer SurplusConsumer Surplus
S
DQ
P
0
$20
3
Consumer SurplusConsumer Surplus
SS
DDQ
P
0
$20
31
$30
Consumer SurplusConsumer Surplus for the first for the first case of Beercase of Beer
Consumer SurplusConsumer Surplus
SS
DDQ
P
0
$20
31 2
$30
$25
Consumer Surplus Consumer Surplus for the second case for the second case of Beerof Beer
Another consumer Another consumer would pay $25would pay $25
Consumer SurplusConsumer Surplus
SS
DDQ
P
0Q*
P*
Total Consumer Total Consumer SurplusSurplus
Consumer Surplus Consumer Surplus is the area below the is the area below the demand curve and demand curve and above market price.above market price.
income effectsubstitution effectutilitytotal utilitymarginal utilitylaw of diminishing marginal utilityutility-maximizing ruleconsumer maximization behaviorconsumer surplus
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