Moral Reasoning and Ethical Theories

4 E T H I C A L T H E O R I E S

1 Utilitarianism : Mill &

Others

2 Duty Ethics : Kant

3 Rights Ethics : Locke

4 Virtue Ethics : Aristotle

1) U T I L I T A R I A N I S M • Those actions which produce the

maximum benefit for the

greatest number of people ( Ex.

Democracy )

• Emphasizes on maximizing the

well being of the society as a

whole and not on that of an

individual

U T I L I T A R I A N I S M • Tries to achieve a balance between the

Good and Bad consequences of an

action

• Tries to maximize the well being of

society and emphasizes what will

provide the most benefit to the largest

group of people

• This method is fundamental to many

types of engineering analysis, including

Risk – Benefit Analysis and Cost –

Benefit Analysis

D R A W B A C K S • Sometimes what is best for the

community as a whole is bad for

certain individual in the

community

• It is often impossible to know in

advance which decision will lead

to the most good

P R O B L E M S • Difficult to quantify benefits for

all those affected

• “Greatest Good” difficult to

apply to an all – inclusive

population

• Some gets “Shafted” –

approach justifies perpetrating

injustice on individuals

3 A P P R O A C H E S

• Cost Benefit

• Act

Utilitarian

• Rule

Utilitarian

1) COST BENEFIT APPROACH • In a Project, Costs & Benefits are

assessed

• Projects with highest ration of

Benefits to Costs will be implemented

• Easy to estimate the cost but difficult

to predict the Benefit in tangible

terms

• It is important to ensure that those

who benefit are also those who pay

the cost

2) A C T U T I L I T A R I A N I S M • It focuses on individual actions rather

than Rules

• Well known proponent was “John

Stuart Mill”

• Mill felt that individual actions should

be judged based on whether the most

Good was produced in a given

situation and rules shall be broken if

doing so will lead to the most Good

R U L E U T I L I T A R I A N I S M • It differs from Act utilitarianism as

it holds that Moral Rules are most

important

• It contends that adhering to rules

might not always maximize good in

a particular situation. Overall

adhering to moral rules will

ultimately lead to the most Good

D U T Y E T H I C S ( K A N T )• Contends that certain acts ( or

duties ) shall be performed because

they are inherently ethical

These actions can be listed

( Honesty, fairness )

• Concludes that individuals who

recognize their ethical duties will

choose ethically correct moral

actions

• May not always lead to Maximization

of Good to society

E X A M P L E S O F D U T Y E T H I C S

1 Be Honest

2 Be Fair

3 Do not hurt Others

4 Keep your promises

5 Obey the Law

This leads to “ R e s p e c t

for H u m a n i t y ”

RIGHTS ETHICS - LOCKE • Formulated by John Locke

• It holds that people have

fundamental rights that other

people have a duty to respect

• Any act that violates an

individual’s moral rights is ethically

unacceptable

• Duty Ethics & Rights Ethics are just

two sides of the same coin

R I G H T S E T H I C SE x :

• Charter of Human Rights and

Freedom

• Rights to a Harassment Free

Discrimination - Free Environment

D r a w b a c k

• How to prioritize the rights of

different individuals ?

• It often promotes rights of

individuals at the cost of society

P R O B L E M S W I T H D U T Y & R I G H T S E T H I C S • Basic right of one person ( group )

may conflict with that of others

• Ex. Dam construction project

Individuals objection is overlooked

as per utilitarianism & not by

Rights Ethics

Rights Ethics can result in project

termination although it is Good to

society

ie Rights Ethics favour

individual while

Utilitarianism favours

society as a whole

Now the Question is

Which Theory to use ?

Fortunately, many - a - times all

these theories lead to the same

conclusion

Ex : Chemical Plant that

discharges a hazardous waste

into Ground Water

U t i l i t a r i a n T h e o r y :

Doesn’t permit this as it causes

‘ N o G o o d ’ to

society

P O I N T T O T H E S A M E C O N C L U S

I O N

R i g h t s E t h i c s :

Says it causes harm to many

individual ( unethical )

V i r t u e E t h i c s :

Discharging Waste into GW

is irresponsible & harmful

act

V I R T U E E T H I C S • Focuses on the Type of person we

should strive to be

• Actions which reflect good

character traits ( Virtues ) are

inherently right

• Actions which reflect bad

character traits ( Vices ) are

inherently wrong

• More tied to individual behaviour

than to that of an organization

A R I S T O T L E ’ S V I R T U E E T H I C S

• It makes proper balance between

of conduct, emotion, desire and

attitude

• This he refers as “G o l d e n M e a

n”

• That is between the extremes of

“T o o M u c h” ( Excess ) or

“ T o o L i t t l e ”

( deficiency )

• Viz. Truthfulness, Generosity,

friendliness etc

U S E O F E T H I C A L T H E O R I E S

I m p o r t a n t U s e s

• Understanding Moral Dilemmas

• Justifying Professional

Obligation and Ideals

• Relating Ordinary & Professional

Morality D I S C U S S I O N F O L L O W S

1) R E S O L V I N G M O R A L D I L E M M A S

• U t i l i t a r i a n i s m :

Construes Dilemma in terms of

Competing Goods & Public

Safety

• V i r t u e E t h i c s :

In terms of competing ideals &

relationship

Loyalty to employers vs to public

D u t y E t h i c s :

Duty to protect public

affected by the work and to

respect employer’s authority

R i g h t E t h i c s :

Rights of the people vs rights

of Management

2 Provides more precise sense of

kind of information needed to

solve the moral dilemma

3 Offers ways to Rank the relevant

moral considerations in the

order of importance and provide

guidance in solving them

4 Helps to identify the full

moral ramifications of

alternative course of

actions

5 By providing framework for

moral development, the theories

strengthen our ability to

reach balanced judgments

Further Ethical Theories are

also useful in justifying the

obligations of Professionals

( Engineers )

1. Acquire Moral Obligation

Concerning Safety by being

Subject to Laws

2. Acquire special obligation by

joining a professional society

thereby agree to live by society’s

code

3. Acquire Safety obligations

through contractual Agreement

4. Promise tacitly the public on

his responsibility to protect the

safety of society

3 T Y P E S O F I N Q U I R Y Engineering Ethics Combines

Inquiries into Values,

Meanings & Facts

(a) N o r m a t i v e

Inquiry

(b) C o n c e p t u a l

Inquiry

(c) F a c t u a l

Inquiry

a) N O R M A T I V E I N Q U I R YIt aims at identifying & justifying

the morally desirable norms or

standards that ought to guide

individuals or groups

Ex :

(i) When whistle blowing shall be

resorted to

(ii) Judgment in Acceptable Risks

etc

b) C O N C E P T U A L I N Q U I R I E S

• Directed towards clarifying the

meaning of concepts, principles

and issues in Engineering Ethics

Ex : What does “ S a f e t y ” mean

and how is it related to

Risk ?

What is Bribe ?

What is a profession & a

professional etc.,

c) F A C T U A L I N Q U I R I E S • Also known as “ D e s c r i p t i

v e I n q u i r i e s ” seek to

uncover information bearing

upon value issues

• Where possible, researchers

attempt to conduct factual

enquiries using proven Scientific

Techniques

• Factual inquiries involve

what is actually known about a

case ie what the facts are ?

• Ofcourse, Facts can be

controversial

Ex : Global Warming process is

only barely / partly understood and

the need to curtail emission of

these has become a controversial

issue

M O R A L D E V E L O P M E N T

2 Theories

Exist

1. Kohlberg’s

Theory

2. Carol Gilligan’s

Theory

K O H L B E R G ’ S T H E O R Y

Six stages of Moral

Development that

could be classified into

3 identifiable level

Level 1 : Pre conventional (Self

Centric)

Ex : Children and Few Adults

O r i e n t a t i o n :

Stage 1 : Obedience /

Punishment

Behave according to socially

acceptable norms because they are

imposed on you. This is compelled

by threat of Punishment

Stage 2 : Individualism

Characterized by “Right

Behaviour means in acting one’s

own interest”

Level 2 : Conventional ( Family /

Society Centric )

Ex : My Family, Group & Society

Stage 3 : Good Boy / Good Girl

Characterized by an attitude that

seek to do those things that gain

the approval of others

Stage 4 : Law and Order

Abiding by Law & responding to the

obligations of duty

Highly Motivated to Please

Others

Level 3 : Post conventional

( Principle Centric )

Based on General Principles for

the Large Good

Stage 5 : Social Contract

Stage 6 : Principled Conscience

Kohlberg feels that this level is

not reached by Majority of adults

S 5 : Genuine interest in

welfare of others

S 6 : Respect for Universal

Principle & the demands

of Individual

Conscience Autonomous People, think on their own

In essence, Kohlberg believed that

“Moral Development” can be

promoted through Formal Education

and Social Interaction

Children develop through stages 1 &

2 and settle into 3 & 4

Only a minority of adults pass into

higher stages 5 & 6

CAROL GILLIGAN'S THEORY

No

Men Women

1

More interested to try & solve moral problems by applying Abstract Moral Principles

Try to preserve personal relationship with everyone involved in the situation

2

Resolve Moral Dilemmas by determining most important Moral Rule

Hence focus greater attention on the context & details of M Dilemma rather than simply invoking & ranking General Rules

Gillighan’s Recasting of Kohlberg 1 Preconventional : Self centric

2 Conjugational level : Sacrificial, Quite

often women are prone to fall a prey

& are willing to give up their personal

interest to serve needs of others

3 Post Conventional : Strikes a

Reasoned, Balance of ones own

interest with that of the others needs

- Based on Mutual Caring

M O R A L A U T O N O M Y• Autonomous individuals think for

themselves and do not assume

that customs are always right

• They seek to reason and live by

general principles

• Their motivation is to do what is

morally reasonable for its own

sake, maintaining integrity, self

respect and respect for others

SKILLS TO BE DEVELOPED for M A

1 Proficiency in recognizing moral

problems

2 Skill in comprehending, clarifying

& critically assessing opposing

views

3 Ability to form consistent &

comprehensive view points based

on relevant facts

4 Imaginative awareness of

alternative responses

5 Sensitive to genuine difficulties

6 Increased precision in the use of

common ethical language

7 Sense of appreciation for using

both Rational Dialogue and

Tolerance with morally reasonable

beings

8 Awakened sense of integrating

one’s Professional Life & Personal

Convictions ie Moral Integrity

A N E X A M P L E Martin Luther King Jr ( 1 9 6 3 )

“One who breaks an unjust law must

do so openly, lovingly and with a

willingness to accept the penalty.

I submit that an individual

who breaks a law that conscience

tells him is unjust and willingly

accepts the penalty is in reality

expressing the highest respect for

the law

M O R A L D I L E M M A S • Moral Dilemmas, at the very least,

involve conflicts between moral

Requirements

Why Does Moral Dilemma Arise ?

1 Problems of Vagueness

2 Problems of Conflicting Reasons

3 Problems of Disagreement

ie. You have moral reasons to do each

of 2 action but doing both is not

possible

S T E P S T O C O N F R O N T M O R A L D I L E M M A S

1 Identify the Moral Factors &

Reasons

2 Gather all available facts that

are pertinent

3 Rank the moral considerations

4 Consider alternative course of

action

5 Talk to colleagues

6 Arrive at a carefully reasoned

judgment

TYPES OF MORAL DILEMMAS1 Epistemic vs Ontological

Epistemic : Two or more moral

requirements & not knowing which

one takes precedence

2 Ontological

Two or more moral requirements

and neither is overridden. Both are

Genuines

2) SELF IMPOSED vs BY WORLD

S e l f I m p o s e d :

Arises by one’s own wrongdoing.

Promising to do things knowing

fully well they can’t be

I m p o s e d b y W o r l d :

Imposed by the world and not

arising rut of one’s action

D I F F I C U L T to R E S O L V E

3) O B L I G A T I O N vs

P R O H I B I T I O N D

I L E M M A O b l i g a t i o n :

More than one feasible

action is obligatory

P r o h i b i t i o n :

All feasible actions are

forbidden

M O R A L R E L A T I V I S M

• Moral relativists maintain

that moral disagreements

stem from the fact that

what is right for one is not

necessarily right for another

• Morality is purely relative

M O R A L A B S O L U T I S M • Moral Absolutists believe

that their moral

viewpoint is the only

legitimate one

• Religions fundamentalist

are absolutists

STUDY THE FOLLOWING ALSO 1 Moral Pluralion

2 Moral Disagreement

3 Ethical Egoism

4 Universalizability

5 Caring

6 Compassion

7 Value Based Ethics