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8/6/2019 Lecture 6 Learning .
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Learning
Definition
Significance
Theories
Strategies of reinforcement
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Learning is an important variable in humanLearning is an important variable in human
behaviour.behaviour.
Organisations survival and success dependOrganisations survival and success depend
upon continuous learning of employeesupon continuous learning of employees
Through learning opportunities, employeesThrough learning opportunities, employees
acquire knowledge, attitudes , skills andacquire knowledge, attitudes , skills andstay motivatedstay motivated
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Learning
Learning
Any relatively permanent change inbehavior that occurs as a result of
experience.
In other words, learning is understood as theIn other words, learning is understood as themodification of behaviour through practice, trainingmodification of behaviour through practice, training
or experienceor experience
It is to be remembered that learning involvesIt is to be remembered that learning involvesmodification of behaviour and all behaviourmodification of behaviour and all behaviour
modification is not learningmodification is not learning
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Nature of Learning (Components)
Learning involves change although change
may be for good or bad
Change should be relatively permanent
It should be reflected in behaviour It should occur as a result ofexperience,
practice or training
The practice or experience must be
reinforced in order for learning to sustain
Learning occurs through out ones life and
not restricted to schools, and educational
institutions
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Theories of Learning
Theories of Learning
Classical Conditioning
A type of conditioning in which an
individual responds to some stimulus that
would not ordinarily produce such aresponse.
Repeated actions lead to desired
behaviour
stimulus-Response
connection
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Ivan Pavlov popularized this Classical
Conditioning
He made use of dog to demonstrate the
conditioning
classical conditioning is a form of learning
where two stimuli become associated so
strongly that the presence of only one of thestimuli will elicit the same response as if
both were present.
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Key Concepts
Unconditioned stimulus (meat) Unconditioned response (salivation)
Conditioned stimulus (Bell)
Conditioned response (salivation in reaction to the bell
alone)
Key Concepts
Unconditioned stimulus (meat) Unconditioned response (salivation)
Conditioned stimulus (Bell)
Conditioned response (salivation in reaction to the bell
alone)
Unconditioned
Stimulus (natural)
Conditioned
stimulus (neutral)
Conditioned response (learning)
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Classical Conditioning (Contd)
In an organisational setting, there are varietyof behaviours we can see classical
conditioning work
Organisations are spending lot of time on ads
to provide the link of the information value of a
stimulus to prospective customer s buying
behaviour. For instance, Fabindias promotionof its products
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Evaluation of Classical conditioning
It represents only a small part ofhuman
learning
They only explain simple reflexive behaviour
and not complex one
Organisations are employing this concept toincrease the sales of their products
Has got limited scope in OB
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Theories of Learning (contd)Theories of Learning (contd)
Key Concepts
Conditioned (learned) behavior
Reinforcement
Key Concepts
Conditioned (learned) behavior
Reinforcement
Operant Conditioning
A type of conditioning in which desired voluntary
behavior leads to a reward or prevents a
punishment.
stimulus-
response
connection
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This was popularised by B.F.Skinner
Behaviouris a function ofconsequences Behaviour is likely to be repeated if the
consequences are favourable. It will not be
repeated if the consequences are unfavourable
A behavior followed by a reinforcing stimulusresults in an increased probability of that
behavior occurring in the future
Operant conditioning is when you do one thing,
another thing happens, and you therefore learnto do the first thing in order to cause the
second thing to happen
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Examples of Operant Behaviors
and Their Consequences
works and is paid.
is late to work and is docked pay.
enters a restaurant and eats.
enters a football stadium and watches a
football game.
enters a grocery store and buys food.
BEHAVIORS CONSEQUENCES
The Individual
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Operant Conditioning (Contd)
Boss assures his subordinate that he would berewarded in the next performance appraisal,
provided employee works overtime. If he
worked hard , he will be rewarded by the
manager and worker repeats his hard work with
enthusiasm. This is an illustration of operant
conditioning
In CC, individual is reactive and in OC ,he is pro
active. There is no choice in CC and in OC,
there is a choice. Response is elicited in CC
and it is emitted in OC
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Cognitive Theory of learning This theory assumes that organism learns the
meaning of various objects and events and learned
responses depending upon the meaning assigned
to stimuli. Learner forms a cognitive structure in memory
which preserves and organizes information about
the various events that occur in a learning situation
The role of an organism in receiving , memorizing ,
retrieving and interpreting stimuli and reacting is
recognized and emphasized.
Theories of Learning (contd)Theories of Learning (contd)
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Cognitive Theory (Contd)
This theory is very much alive and
relevant
Expectations , attributions and locus ofcontrol are all cognitive concepts and
represent the purposefulness of
Organisational Behaviour
There is a relationship between
cognitions and behaviour
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Theories of Learning (contd)Theories of Learning (contd)
Social-Learning Theory
People can learn through observation
and direct experience.
This is called observational learning
This emphasises the ability of an individual to
learn by observing models-parents, teachers,
bosses, peers and others. Many patterns of
behaviour are learned by watching the behaviourof others and observing its consequences for
them.
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Social Learning Theory
This theory is an extension of operant
conditioning and it involves observational
learning and the importance of perception in
learning.
The influence of model is central here.
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Four processes determine the influence. They are
1. Attentional process: people learn from a model
only when they recognise & pay attention to its
critical features.
2. Retention processes: extent to which one
remembers the models action after the model isno longer available.
3. Motor reproduction processes: our ability to
act on the memory representations4. Reinforcement processes: extent to which one
repeats the above behaviours if positive
incentives are provided.
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Theories of Learning (contd)Theories of Learning (contd)
Key Concepts
Reinforcement is required to change behavior.
Some rewards are more effective than others.
The timing of reinforcement affects learningspeed and permanence.
Key Concepts
Reinforcement is required to change behavior.
Some rewards are more effective than others.
The timing of reinforcement affects learningspeed and permanence.
Shaping Behavior
Systematically reinforcing each successive step
that moves an individual closer to the desired
response.
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Reinforcement
This refers to the psychological process ofmotivating a person
It will be any action that the person findsrewarding. Common reinforcement gestures
include pat on the back, increase in pay,
given a day off or a citation
This is something which enhances the
strength of the response and prompts the
repetitions of the behaviour
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Types of ReinforcementTypes of Reinforcement
Positive reinforcement
Providing a reward for a desired behavior.
Negative reinforcement
Removing an unpleasant consequence when
the desired behavior occurs. Punishment
Applying an undesirable condition to
eliminate an undesirable behavior.
Extinction
Withholding reinforcement of a behavior to
cause its cessation.
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Positive Reinforcement
This strengthens and enhances behaviour by
presenting a desirable consequence. A
manager praises his subordinate for his
quality work performance and if thesubordinate continues to produce quality
work and this is type of positive
reinforcement
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Principles ofPositive Reinforcement
Contingent reinforcementonly reinforcedesired behavior
Immediate reinforcementreinforce
immediately after desired behavior occurs
Reinforcement sizea larger amount of
reinforcement has a greater effect
Reinforcement deprivationdeprivation
increases effect on future behavior
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Example of Contingent Reinforcement
Manager compliments
employee for
accomplishments
Manager and
employee
set goal
Does
employee
achieve goal?
Manager is silent
or reprimands
employee
YES
NO
ReinforcementContingenton Consequence
EmployeeTaskBehavior
Antecedent(precedes thebehavior)
Consequences(result of thebehavior)
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Organisational
RewardsUsed by Organizations
MATERIAL REWARDSPayPay raisesStock optionsProfit sharingDeferred compensation
Bonuses/bonus plansIncentive plansExpense accounts
SUPPLEMENTAL BENEFITS
Company automobiles
Health insurance plans
Pension contributions
Vacation and sick leave
Recreation facilitiesChild-care support
Club privileges
Parental leave
STATUS SYMBOLS
Corner offices
Offices with windows
Carpeting
Drapes
PaintingsWatches
Rings
Private restrooms
SOCIAL/INTER-PERSONAL REWARDSPraise
Developmental feedbackSmiles, pats on the back,other nonverbal signalsRequests for suggestionsInvitations to coffee/lunchWall plaques
REWARDS FROMTHE TASKSense of achievement
Jobs with more responsibilityJob autonomy/self-directionPerforming important tasks
SELF-ADMINISTEREDREWARDSSelf-congratulation
Self-recognitionSelf-praiseSelf-development throughexpanded knowledge/skills
Greater sense of self-worth
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Negative Reinforcement
Any unpleasant event that precedes the
employee behaviour is removed when the
desired behaviour occurs. Such procedures
will increase the likelihood of the desiredbehaviour to occur
Managers make use of negative
reinforcement when an employee does not
perform something which is desirable or
necessary
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Schedules of ReinforcementSchedules of Reinforcement
Continuous Reinforcement
A desired behavior is
reinforced each time it is
demonstrated.
Intermittent Reinforcement
A desired behavior is
reinforced often enough tomake the behavior worth
repeating but not every time it
is demonstrated.
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Intermittent Reinforcement:
Can be of a ratio or interval type.
Ratio schedules depend on how many
responses the subject makes. The individual isreinforced after giving a certain number of
specific types of behaviour.
Interval schedules depend on how much time
has passed since the previous reinforcement.
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Schedules of Reinforcement (contd)Schedules of Reinforcement (contd)
Fixed-Interval Schedule
Rewards are spaced at
uniform time intervals.
Eg. Salary
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Variable-Interval Schedule
Rewards are initiated after a fixed
or constant number of responses.
Eg. A series of randomly timed
unannounced visits to a company
office by the corporate audit staff.
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Fixed-ratio schedule:
Rewards are initiated after a fixedor a constant number of
responses.
Eg. Piece-rate incentive plan
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Variable-ratio schedule:
The reward varies relative to the
behaviour of the individual.Eg. Salespeople on commission.
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Fixed-ratio
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How to Make Punishment Effective
Praise in public, punish in private
Pinpoint and specifically describe the
undesirable behavior to be avoided
Develop alternative desired behavior
Balance the use of pleasant and unpleasant
events
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Learning and Organisational Behaviour
There is little Organisational behaviour notdirectly or indirectly influenced by learning
Skills, knowledge, attitude , manners etc are
learned
The specific application of learning to OB
include using lotteries to reduce absenteeism,
enhancing employee discipline, developing
training programmes in order to provide a
model for the trainees to emulate and to
practice behaviours
Principles of learning also facilitate manager
to learn effectively
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