Learning better together - inclusive.tki.org.nz · 5 I would like to acknowledge IHC and,...

Learning better togetherWorking towards inclusive education in New Zealand schools

Dr Jude MacArthur

Contents

Foreword................................................................................................................................................................................3

About.the.author....................................................................................................................................................................4

Acknowledgements................................................................................................................................................................5

Executive.summary.................................................................................................................................................................6

Introduction:.An.end.to.segregation......................................................................................................................................7

1.–.Improving.the.school.experiences.of.disabled.children...................................................................................................8

Theaimofthisbook......................................................................................................................................................................9

Language......................................................................................................................................................................................9

Research.....................................................................................................................................................................................�0

2.–.Medical.and.social.models.of.disability.........................................................................................................................12

Themedicalmodel......................................................................................................................................................................��

Thesocialmodel.........................................................................................................................................................................�3

3.–.What.inclusion.means.....................................................................................................................................................14

. Presence,participationandachievement......................................................................................................................................�4

Acommitmenttokeyvalues........................................................................................................................................................�5

Identifyingbarrierstolearningandparticipation..........................................................................................................................�6

Involvingthecommunity.............................................................................................................................................................�7

Whatinclusionisnot...................................................................................................................................................................�7

4.–.Maori.and.inclusion.in.Aotearoa.New.Zealand..............................................................................................................20

5.–.Education.policy.and.inclusive.education......................................................................................................................22.

6.–.Inclusive.school.culture.and.the.Index.for.Inclusion......................................................................................................26

Developinganinclusiveschoolculture.........................................................................................................................................�6

TheIndexforInclusion................................................................................................................................................................�6

7.–.Inclusive.classroom.practices.........................................................................................................................................28

Professionaldevelopment............................................................................................................................................................�8

Communitiesofpractice..............................................................................................................................................................�8

Qualityteachingfordiversestudents...........................................................................................................................................�8

8.–.Human.rights.and.social.justice.....................................................................................................................................30.

TheNewZealandDisabilityStrategy............................................................................................................................................30

TheUnitedNationsConventionontheRightsoftheChild...........................................................................................................3�

TheUnitedNationsConventionontheRightsofPersonswithDisabilities.....................................................................................3�

Socialjustice...............................................................................................................................................................................3�

9.–.Support.for.the.development.of.inclusive.schools........................................................................................................34.

Comparisonsofdisabledstudents’learninginspecialandregulareducationsettings...................................................................34

Thetransitionofstudentstoadultlife..........................................................................................................................................36

Comparisonsofdisabledstudents’socialexperiencesinspecialandregulareducationsettings....................................................36

Disabledstudents’socialexperiencesinregularschools...............................................................................................................37

Disabledstudents’perspectivesontheirlearningandsocialexperiencesinregularschools...........................................................38

Concludingcomments.................................................................................................................................................................43

10.–.Moving.forward............................................................................................................................................................44

Actionsinschoolstopromoteinclusion.......................................................................................................................................44

Teachereducation.......................................................................................................................................................................44

Leadership..................................................................................................................................................................................44

11.–.Conclusion....................................................................................................................................................................46

References............................................................................................................................................................................47

Resources.for.parents,.teachers.and.interested.others........................................................................................................57

Internationalconventions............................................................................................................................................................57

MinistryofEducationpublications...............................................................................................................................................57

Relevantwebsites.......................................................................................................................................................................57

Appendix.A:.Reasons.from.the.CSIE.against.segregated.schooling.....................................................................................61

Appendix.B:.12.Maori.cultural.values..................................................................................................................................64

Contents

May�009

IHCwasfortunatetobeabletocommissioneducationresearcher

DrJudeMacArthurtowritethisbookoninclusiveeducation.

Theresultisacomprehensiveandscholarlypresentationofthe

theoryandpracticeofinclusiveeducationtoday,inNewZealand

andoverseas.

ForthefirsttimeinNewZealand,Learningbettertogetherputs

togetheracoherentpictureofwhatweasdisabledstudents,

advocates,parents,teachers,principals,communityleaders,ministry

officials,policymakersandpoliticianscanaspiretoinschools.

Learningbettertogethergivesusthetoolsweneedtomakesure

thatnobodygetsleftoutatschool.IHCbelievesthatinclusive

schoolswillleadtoinclusivecommunitieswheredisabledpeople

belong,aresupportedandcontribute.

Butinclusiveeducationisnotalwayswellunderstood.

Thisbookbreaksgroundinclarifyingthedebateabouthow

inclusiveeducationcanworkinpractice.Itlooksatthefailure

ofremedialtreatmentfor‘difference’or‘deviance’andoutlines

awayofseeingdisabilitythatallowsforhigherexpectations

andgreaterachievements.

Itgivesspecificguidancetoschoolsonhowtoachievebetter

learningforallstudentsinclassrooms,andisawake-upcall

topolicymakersinNewZealandwhoarebeingleftbehindby

developmentsoverseas.Italsogivesavoicetodisabledstudents

whohavecontributedtoresearchonimprovinginclusioninschools.

IHCisgratefulforthisanalysisthatmakesastrongcaseformore

inclusiveeducationinNewZealand.Weinviteeveryonewhois

interestedtotakethetimetolearnmoreabouthowdisabled

studentscanaspireandachieve.

DonaldThompson

IHCNewZealandInc

NationalPresident

Contents Foreword

DrJudeMacArthurisanindependentresearcherbasedinDunedin,

workingintheareaofeducationanddisability.Herresearch

interestsincludetheschoolexperiencesandidentityofdisabled

childrenandyoungpeople,andtheimplicationsforschools.

DrMacArthur’sworkinglifebeganintheclassroomasaprimary

teacher,followedby�4yearsattheUniversityofOtagowhereher

workaslecturerineducationfocusedoninclusiveeducationand

disabilityissues.From�000to�006shewasaseniorresearcher

attheDonaldBeasleyInstituteinDunedin,wheresheworkedon

severalresearchprojectsfortheMinistryofEducation.Sherecently

participatedasanadvisorintheCurriculumExemplarsandLearners

withSpecialEducationNeedsprojectfortheMinistryofEducation

andUniversityofCanterbury.

DrMacArthuriscurrentlyworkingonaresearchprojectfundedby

theMarsdenFund,andundertakenwithMichaelGaffney(Children’s

IssuesCentre,Dunedin),DrBerniKelly(Queen’sUniversity,Belfast)

andSarahSharp(formerlyoftheDonaldBeasleyInstitute,Dunedin),

calledDisabledandNon-DisabledChildren’sConstructionof

Identity–theInfluenceofSchoolExperiences.

DrMacArthurcanbecontactedat:teamalloo@xtra.co.nz

About.the.author

IwouldliketoacknowledgeIHCand,particularly,Directorof

AdvocacyTrishGrantforrecognisingthatresearchsupportsthe

developmentofinclusiveeducationinNewZealandschools.

InfundingthisbookandtheassociatedDVD,IHCiscontributing

toabetterunderstandingaboutwhatinclusionis,andwhyour

schoolsystemneedstochangesothatallstudentsparticipate

andlearninregularschools.

SpecialthankstoProfessorKeithBallardforhisthoroughand

incisivereviewofthispublication.Keith’sknowledgeand

experiencemadeasignificantcontributiontothequalityand

credibilityofthiswork.

SpecialthanksalsotoMereBerryman,ManagerofPoutama

Pounamu(MinistryofEducation,GSE),forhergenerousand

valuablefeedbackonChapter4,‘Maoriandinclusionin

AotearoaNewZealand’.

Chapter9,‘Supportandideasforthedevelopmentofinclusive

schools’,drawsinpartonresearchreportedinaliteraturereview

completedin�005fortheNewZealandMinistryofEducation’s

researchprogramme,EnhancingEffectivePracticeinSpecial

EducationforStudentswithHighandVeryHighNeeds.Thismaterial

hasbeenupdatedherewiththeadditionofresearchpublished

since�004.IwishtothanktheMinistryofEducationforagreeing

totheuseofthismaterial.Itisemphasisedthatwhiletheliterature

reviewwascommissionedandfundedbytheMinistryofEducation,

thisfundinginnowayimpliesendorsementoragreementby

theministry.Theliteraturereviewwascompletedbyateamof

researchers.SpecialthankstoDrBerniKelly(Queen’sUniversity,

Belfast);DrNancyHiggins(DonaldBeasleyInstitute,Dunedin);Dr

HazelPhillips(VictoriaUniversity,Wellington);DrTrevorMcDonald

(EducationAssociates,SanDiego);DrMissyMortonandSusan

Jackman(UniversityofCanterbury).

ThanksalsototheNewZealandRoyalSociety’sMarsdenFund

fortheirgenerousfundingoftheresearchprojectDisabledand

Non-DisabledChildren’sConstructionofIdentity–theInfluence

ofSchoolExperiences(researchteam:DrJudeMacArthur,Michael

Gaffney,DrBerniKellyandSarahSharp).Thisprojectprovided

uswithauniqueopportunitytoexploreindepththeschool

experiencesofdisabledstudentsastheymadethetransitionfrom

primarytosecondaryschool;tounderstandwhatschoolislike

fromtheirpointofview;andtoappreciatetheperspectivesand

experiencesoftheirfamiliesandtheirteachers.Someofthedata

fromthisprojectisincludedinthispublication,andthepublication

overallisinformedbythemanyhoursspentobservinginclassrooms

andschoolgrounds,andbyouranalysisoftheday-to-dayrealityof

schoollife.

JudeMacArthur

About.the.author Acknowledgements

Inclusiveeducationstandsincontrastto‘special’education,

wheredisabledstudentsareeducatedinseparateschoolsor

classes,ortreatedverydifferentlyintheclassroomtoregular

students.

Withinclusiveeducation,allchildrenareentitledtoaplaceintheir

localschool,theyparticipatefully,andtheyachieve.

Inclusiveeducationmeansthatbarrierstoeachstudent’slearning

areidentified,andresourcesandsupportareinplacetoovercome

anybarriers.Inclusivevaluessuchasequity,participation,

community,compassion,respectfordiversityandentitlement

toeducationareavitalfoundationininclusiveschools.

Researchshowsthatdisabledstudentsintheregularclassroom

dobetterthantheirpeersinspecialeducationinmathematicsand

literacy,friendships,communicationandbehaviour.Thesehigher

achievementscontinueintoadultlife.

Researchsuggeststhatallstudentsdobetterininclusive

classrooms.Everyonebenefitsfromthechangesinteachingand

learningneededforteacherstoworksuccessfullywithamixed

groupofstudents.

Inclusiveeducationhasbeenwidelyresearchedinternationallyover

thepastfewdecades,andanumberofcountriesaremovingin

thisdirection.

Whilemoredisabledstudentsareattendingregularschoolsin

NewZealand,nostepshavebeentakenheretodevelopan

inclusiveeducationsystem.Referencestoinclusiveeducationhave

beendroppedfromrecentMinistryofEducationpolicystatements.

ChangesareneededinNewZealand’seducationpolicyand

leadership,schoolorganisationandclassroompractice,andteacher

educationinordertoachievethebenefitsofinclusiveeducation.

Executive.summary

IHCcommissionedresearchintoinclusiveeducationbecausemuch

hasbeenwrittenonthesubject,butthepiecesofthepuzzlehad

notbeenputtogetherinaNewZealandcontext.

IHCisdelightedwiththeresult.Thisbook,InclusiveEducation,

andanassociatedDVDillustrateinclusiveeducationinpracticein

NewZealandtoday.

Inclusiveeducationisessentialifdisabledchildrenareto

achievetheirbasichumanrighttoadecenteducation–andlive

meaningful,productiveandsuccessfullivesinNewZealand.

Thisresearchoutlinesthethinkingbehindinclusiveeducation,how

itworksintheclassroom,andwhatparentscanaspiretofortheir

disabledchildren.Itguidesschoolsandteachersonhowtomake

inclusiveeducationhappenintheirclassrooms.

Forpolicymakersandgovernmentalorganisations,itspotlights

thecentralissuesinthedebateaboutsegregationversusinclusive

educationandcallsonthemtomakeinclusiveeducationapriority

forallNewZealandchildren.

Unfortunately,whilesomeNewZealandschoolsarecreating

inclusiveenvironmentsfordisabledstudents,inclusiveeducationis

notapriorityatseniorlevelsineducation.Withoutleadership,most

parentshavetofighthardtomakesuretheirchildren,whoarein

regularschools,getsupport,havefriendsandlearnwell.

Disabledchildrenandyoungpeoplesaytheywanttobeatschool

withtheirpeersfromtheircommunities,butsometimestheyare

bulliedandleftoutofthingsatschool.Teachersfaceaquandary

whentheydon’thavetheknowledgeorresourcestoteacha

diversegroupofstudents,includingthosewhoaredisabled.

Toachieveinclusiveeducationforallchildren,changeisessential–

weneedbettereducationpolicies,morepositivevaluesand

practicesinschools,andweneedtolistentowhatdisabled

studentsthemselvessay.

IHCbelievesthatdespitethedifficulties,theonlywayforwardis

throughinclusiveeducation.Itstimehascome.Inclusiveeducation

offershopeforgreaterachievementbygreaternumbersofstudents.

Allchildrencanprosperinaresponsive,safeandsupportive

learningenvironment.

RalphJones

ChiefExecutive

IHCNewZealandInc

Executive.summary An.end.to.segregationIntroduction

Inclusiveeducation(or‘inclusion’)isaninternationalresponseto

theviewthat allchildrenhavetherighttoeducationalopportunity.

Itinvolvessignificantchangesinthinkingandactionineducation,

fromthelevelofeducationpolicythroughtoclassroompractice,

sothatteacherscanreachouttoeverychildintheirclassroom.

Inclusionisconcernedwiththeeducationofallchildrenand

youngpeople,andparticularlywiththosewhoaresociallyand/or

academicallyexcludedatschool(Ainscow,�999).Forexample,

somechildrenandyoungpeopleineconomicallypoorcountries

donothaveaccesstoeducationatall,whileinothercountries

studentsmayleaveschoolwithoutqualifications,beplacedin

‘special’segregatedplacesawayfromtheirpeers,orchooseto

leaveschoolbecauseschoolseemsirrelevanttotheirlives.

Thedifficultiesfacedbythesestudentsandothersprovideuswith

anincentivetolookathowschoolscanbechangedandteaching

approachesimproved‘inwaysthatwillleadthemtorespond

differentlytostudentdiversity–seeingindividualdifferencesnot

asproblemstobefixed,butasopportunitiesforexperimentationin

ordertodevelopmoreeffectivepractices’(Ainscow,�008,p�4�).

Disabledchildrenandyoungpeopleareatthecentreofwhat

educationresearcherRogerSlee(�005)describesas‘the

battlegroundofschoolingfordisabledstudents’(p�54).Disabled

studentshaveahistoryofbeingexcludedineducationinavariety

ofways.Historically,parentsandothersinternationallyhave

foughtforchildren’sbasicrightstoreceiveaneducationwhen

governmentsprovidednoaccessatall.Segregatedplaces,suchas

specialschools,unitsandclasses,weregovernmentresponsesto

parentrequestsforeducationfortheirchildren.Theseinitialbattles

needtobeunderstoodandappreciatedaspartofthehistoryof

gainingaccesstoeducationfordisabledstudents.

However,researchineducationanddisabilityoverthepastthree

decadeshashighlightedsomemajorproblemswithspecial

educationthinkingandprovision,including:

theassociationofdisabilitywithnegativeunderstandings

about‘deviance’and‘difference’

theseparationofdisabledpeoplefromthecommunity

socialandacademicdisadvantageascommonexperiences

ofdisabledpeople.(MacArthur,Kelly,Higgins,Phillips,McDonald,Morton

andJackman,�005;Rustemier,�004.)

Thesepointsareexploredinmoredetailthroughoutthisbook.

Variousaccountsfromdisabledpeoplethemselves,including

disabledresearchers,outlinetheirexperienceofsegregated

schoolingandspecialeducation,andthestrugglesthatthey,their

familiesandadvocateshaveputupwithinordertohaveaplace

inthecommunity,inneighbourhoodschoolsandinearlychildhood

settings(Ballard,�994,�999,�004a;BallardandMcDonald,�999;Brown,�999a,

�999b;Higgins,�00�;HigginsandBallard,�000;Kearney,�009;MacArthur,�004;

MacArthur,DightandPurdue,�00�;MacArthur,PurdueandBallard,�003;Purdue,�004;

Purdue,BallardandMacArthur,�00�,forsomeNewZealandaccounts;andSlee,�005,

forreferencestootherinternationalaccounts).

Theseconcernsarenotlimitedtosegregatedsettings,andthe

researchalsodescribesdisabledstudentsinregularschoolsand

classroomswhoexperiencerealchallengesastheynegotiatea

difficultschoolday(Ballard,�994,�999;Kaverman,�998;MacArthur,Sharp,Kelly

andGaffney,�007;MacArthur,Sharp,GaffneyandKelly,�007,forsomeNewZealand

examples).Itistheseconcernsthathaveledtoquestionsaboutthe

rightsofdisabledchildrenandyoungpeopletoadecenteducation

intheirlocalschool,andtothedevelopmentinternationallyof

‘inclusiveeducation’.

InAotearoaNewZealand,IHCsupportsmanyfamilieswhowant

theirdisabledsonsanddaughterstobeincludedandtaughtin

theirlocalschool.Toomanyofthesefamilieshaveexperienced

discrimination–theirchildrenhavebeendeniedaccesstoagood

qualityeducation.InclusiveeducationiscentraltoIHC’sphilosophy,

emphasisingasitdoestherightsofalldisabledpeopletoliveand

fullyparticipateinthecommunityacrosstheirlifespan.

Educationshapesanddefinesourcommunitiesandisthekeyto

anordinaryandsatisfyinglifefordisabledpeople.Inclusiveschools

contributetoinclusivecommunities.Ininclusivecommunities,the

barrierstocommunityparticipationexperiencedbydisabledpeople

andtheirfamiliesarereducedbecausesuchcommunitiesexpect,

understandandrespondtodiversityinpositiveandsupportiveways.

1 Improving.the.school.experiences.of.disabled.children

Improving.the.school.experiences.of.disabled.children

Questionsabouthowtoaddressthelimitationsof‘special

education’andpromotechangeinschoolstoincludeandsupport

theeducationofallstudentswereaddressedattheSalamanca

WorldConferenceonSpecialNeedsEducationin�994.Thiswas

attendedby94governments,non-governmentalorganisations

andUNagencies(UNESCOInstituteforEducation,�994).The

SalamancaStatementthatemergedfromthismeetingpromoted

inclusiveeducationasanecessarypartofachievinganinclusive

society.Itdescribedinclusiveschoolsasavitalingredienttocombat

discriminationandbuildinclusivesocietieswherethereis‘education

forall’(p.iv).Theagreementprovidedanimportantstartingpointfor

thenext�0yearsofeffortsbymanycountriestomoveeducational

policyandpracticeinamoreinclusivedirection(Ainscow,�008).

However,inclusiveeducationisnotalwayswellunderstoodand

therearemanydifferentviewpointsaboutwhatitisandwhatit

lookslikeinpractice.Partlythisconfusioncomesfromthefactthat

inclusioncanbedefinedinanumberofways,dependingonthe

natureoftheschoolandcommunityinwhichitisbeingdeveloped

(Ainscow,�008).

Butconfusionalsoarisesbecauseideasaboutinclusionarenot

alwaysinformedbyeducationresearch.Forexample,inclusionhas

beeninappropriatelydescribedastheplacementofstudentswith

disabilitiesintoregularschoolswithoutanyrequirementforchange

inschoolsoreducationsystems.Ithasevenbeenassociatedwith

theeducationofdisabledchildreninseparateplacesusing‘special

education’approachestoteaching(ConnorandFerri,�007;Slee,�00�,�005).

Theseinaccurateviewpointsmakeitdifficultforinterestedgroupsto

communicateclearly,andforthosewantinganinclusiveeducation

systemtoadvocateforchange(Ainscow,BoothandDyson,�006;Higgins,

MacArthurandMorton,�008;Higgins,MacArthurandRietveld,�006).

The.aim.of.this.book

Thisbookaimstoprovidereaderswithclaritybypresentinga

currentperspectiveoninclusionasitisdescribedintheresearch

literatureineducation.Themeaningandfeaturesofinclusionare

exploredastheyrelatetopolicy,schoolcultureandschoolchange,

andteachingpracticeinclassrooms.

Tounderstandthedevelopmentofinclusivethinkingineducation,

itisalsoimportanttounderstandsegregationandexclusionin

education.Thisbookalsoconsiderstheimpactofsegregated

schoolingversusinclusiveapproachesondisabledstudents’learning

andsocialexperiences.

Disabledchildrenandyoungpeoplecanalsobeexcludedinregular

schools,when,forexample,theyareignoredbytheirteachersand

bypeers;whentheeffectsoftheirimpairmentsarenotunderstood;

whentheyarebullied;orwhenthereareinsufficientresourcesand

supportsfortheirteacherstoteachthemwell.Someoftherecent

researchondisabledstudents’schoolexperiencesisalsoreviewed,

toshowhowstudentknowledgeandideasmaysupportschoolsto

changesotheyareunderstandingof,andresponsiveto,diversity.

Language.

Theterm‘student’isusedinthisbooktorefertochildrenandyoung

peopleparticipatingintheschoolsystem.Consistentwiththestated

preferenceoftheinternationaldisabledpersons’movement,and

thesocialmodelofdisability,theterm‘disabledstudent’isused,

ratherthan‘studentswithdisabilities’.Inplacingtheworddisabled

first,thetermdisabledpersonordisabledstudentemphasisesthe

pointthatpeoplewithimpairmentsaredisabled–anddiscriminated

againstwhentheyliveinanunresponsivesocietywheretheyare

treatedunequally,orwhentheyaretaughtinschoolsthatdonot

acknowledgeandrespondtodiversityinitsstudentgroup.

Theterms‘special’and‘regular’educationareusedtorefertotwo

differenttypesofeducationsettingsfordisabledstudents.‘Special

education’usuallyreferstoseparateplacesfordisabledstudents

tolearnandincludesspecialschools,unitsandclasses.Theterm

specialeducationalsoreferstoaparticularwayofthinkingabout

disabledstudentsthatsuggeststhattheyare‘different’andinneed

ofspecialistapproachesatschool.Theseapproaches(suchashigh

levelsof�:�teacheraidesupport,andfrequentwithdrawalfor

specialistteachingapproachesandtherapies)separateoutdisabled

studentsfromtheirpeers,andcanbefoundinanyNewZealand

school.Theterm‘regulareducation’referstoordinaryschoolsand

classroomsattendedbymostchildren.Thesearetheschoolsand

classroomsthatneedtobecomeinclusivesettings.

Research

Thisisaresearch-basedbook.Inclusiveeducationisexplored

throughanappreciationofresearchinthefieldsofeducationand

disability.Theresearchthatsupportsaparticularfinding,statement,

conclusionorargumentisincludedinbracketsinthetext,and

referencestothisworkarelistedattheend.Thisisasmallbook

thatcoversarangeoftopics.Interestedreaderswhowantto

exploreanyideasandissuesindeptharereferredtothereference

listandbibliography.

��

Howwethinkaboutdisabilityisveryimportantinanydiscussion

abouttheinclusionofdisabledpeopleinthecommunityand

inregularschools(Ash,Bellew,Davies,NewmanandRichardson,�005).It’s

thereforeusefultolookattwomodelsthatareoftenusedtoshow

howthinkingaboutdisabilityhasbeenshaped–the‘medical

model’andthe‘socialmodel’ofdisability(ReiserandMason,�99�).

The.medical.model

Themedicalmodelofdisabilityassociatesdisabilitywithdamage

anddisease.Peoplewhothinkintermsofthemedicalmodelsee

disabilityasaprobleminthedisabledpersonthatcomesfrom

theirimpairment(thatis,theirdifficultyinseeingorhearingwell,

beingunabletomoveeasily,orneedingmoretimetolearnand

understand).Inthemedical-modelapproachtodisability,disabled

peoplearethoughtofas‘deviant’becausetheyareconsidered

tobedifferent(innegativeways)fromwhattherestofsociety

considers‘normal’.

Inasocietywheremedical-modelthinkingiscommon,theaimisto

eliminateorreducethesedifferencesthroughremedialtreatments.

So,disabledpeopleare‘objects’tobe‘treated’andchangedin

accordwiththestandardscommonlyacceptedbysociety.Failure

tochangebecomesprimarilytheproblemofdisabledpeople

themselves(Ashetal,�005,p�36).

Peopleworkingintheeducationsystemwhousemedical-model

thinkingviewthechallengesfacedbydisabledstudentsascoming

fromtheirimpairments(oftendescribedastheir‘deficits’or

‘problems’),ratherthanfrominadequaciesintheclassroomor

school.Thepurposeofeducationfordisabledstudentsistherefore

consideredtoberemediation–‘fixing’orchangingstudentsto

makethem‘morenormal’.

Thiskindofthinkinghasmeantthatallovertheworlddisabledchildren

andyoungpeoplehavebeencategorisedandlabelledaccordingtothe

typeor‘severity’oftheirdisability,andseparatedoutfromnondisabled

studentssotheycanhave‘specialised’teaching.

Thisapproachhasremoveddisabledchildrenfromregular

educationinneighbourhoodschools,andhasmeantthatthese

regularschoolshavenotbeenrequiredtochangeinorderto

meettheneedsofallthechildrenandyoungpeopleintheirlocal

community.Themedicalmodelsaysthatthechildisimpaired.

Theeducationsystemhascreatedspecialeducationforthese

impairedchildren.

Thegrowthofspecialeducationandofspecialeducationlanguage

andpracticesthatseparateoutdisabledstudentscomesmainly

fromadeep-seated,medical-modelwayofthinking(McDonnell,�00�).

NewZealandresearcherKeithBallard(�004a)hastalkedaboutthe

powerofsuchlanguagetoexcludedisabledchildren.Wordsthat

havebecomefamiliarinrelationtodisabledstudentsarethose

suchas‘specialeducation’,‘specialneeds’,‘problem’,‘difficulty’,

‘intervention’,‘therapy’,‘disorder’,‘diagnosis’,‘placement’

(asSlee,�005,pointsout,nondisabledstudentsareenrolledin

schools,butdisabledstudentsare‘placed’).Withthesecomea

stringofimpairment-relatedlabelsoftenusedtodefinedisabled

children(asin‘Heisautistic’).

Thesewordscarryamessagethatstudentsaredifferent,unable

andinneedofspecialistcare.Ineducation,theyarewordsthat

candeterminewhois‘in’andwhois‘out’(Slee,�00�).

Suchlanguagecanbepowerfulinlabellingandstigmatising

disabledpeopleasnothuman,as‘notlikeme’,andtherefore

eligibletobeexcluded(Ballard,�004b).Itisnotsurprising,then,

thatsometeachershavelowexpectationsfordisabledstudents’

learning,andmayconsiderthemselvesunableoruntrainedto

teachdisabledstudentsintheirclassrooms.Becausesuchlanguage

carriesamessagethatexclusionineducationisappropriatefor

disabledstudents,Ballard(�004a)arguesthatitmustberesistedand

rejected.Instead,languageusedineducationtodescribestudents

andtheirlearningshouldrecognisethatdisabledstudentsare

activeandcompetentchildrenandyoungpeoplewiththesame

rightsasothers.

Deficit-focusedideasaboutanystudentsareverypowerful,andcan

stronglyinfluencewhatteachersandotherstaffdoateverylevel

inanyschool(Ainscowetal,�006;Bishop,Berryman,Cavanagh,andTeddy,�007).

Medical.and.social.models.of.disability2

Medical.and.social.models.of.disability

Ainscowandhiscolleagues(�006)pointoutthatthewayinwhichteachingmethodsaredesigned,selectedandusedinclassroomscomesfromthewayteachersandothersviewthechildrenandyoungpeopletheyworkwith.Ifteachersbelievethatdisabledstudentsareinneedoffixing,orare‘deficient’insomeway,theywillnotbeeffectiveteachers.

Worktowardsinclusiveeducationthereforerequiresacompleteshiftawayfromideasabout‘specialeducation’.Aslongas‘special’educationisseenasthewaytoteachdisabledchildrenandyoungpeople,attentionistakenawayfromthemoreimportantquestionthatmanyoftheirparents,caregiversandwhanauinNewZealandareasking:Whydoregularschoolssooftenfailtoteachdisabledstudentssuccessfully?(Ainscow,�008;Ainscow,BoothandDyson,�006;Ballard,

�004a;Slee,�00�,�005.)

The.social.model.

Thesocialmodelofdisabilityoffersanalternativetomedical-model

thinkingandpractice.Thesocialmodelofdisabilityisnowwidely

usedinternationally,andemphasisestheideathat‘disability’is

constructedbyasocietythatisoverlyconcernedwith‘normality’.

Fromasocialmodelpointofview,theexperienceofdisabilitydoes

notcomefromimpairment,thatis,frombodilyexperiences,suchas

difficultymovingone’sbody,orexperiencingchallengeswithvision

orhearing.Instead,theexperienceofdisabilitycomesfromliving

inasocietythatviewssomepeopleasabnormalandthenfailsto

respondtoorsupportthem.

Disabledpeoplewholiveinasocietythatviewstheminthis

wayfaceanumberofbarrierstotheirfullparticipationinthe

community,becausetheyareconsidereddifferentandunabletofit

inwiththerestof‘us’.Becausesocietyisnotpreparedtochange,

disabledpeopleareoppressedanddiscriminatedagainst.

Thesocialmodelsuggeststhatitisnotdisabledpeoplewhoshould

havetochangetofitsociety’sideasabout‘normality’,ratherit

issocietythatneedstochange,togetridofideasaboutnormal

andabnormal,andtobemorerespectfultowardsandinclusiveof

diversity(Ashetal,�005).

Ineducation,thesocialmodelsupportsthedevelopmentof

inclusiveeducationbyturningattentiontothewaysinwhich

regularschoolscansupportdisabledstudentstolearnandhave

positivesocialrelationships.Researcherswhosupportasocial

modelofdisability‘…arguethatinclusiveeducationencourages

personalandsocialrelationshipsandattitudesbasedonaview

thatdisabilityispartof,notoutside,theordinaryrangeofhuman

diversity’(Ashetal,�005,p�36).Thisideahashelpedresearchers

toappreciatethatanimportantfoundationforinclusionis

thecommitmenttoasetofinclusivevalues(suchasequity,

participationandrespectfordiversity)inschoolsandcommunities

(Ainscow,BoothandDyson,�006).

Thesocialmodelalsohelpsustoappreciatethatstudentsinregular

schoolswhohaveimpairmentswillexperiencedisabilitywhen

theyareexcludedfromthepeergroup,bulliedbypeers,ignoredin

theclassroom,ordonothaveaccesstothehumanandmaterial

resourcesneededtosupporttheirparticipationandlearning.

Teacherswhotakeamedical-modelapproachwillattribute

students’learningchallengesortheirfailuretomakefriendsat

schooltotheirimpairment,andfew,ifany,attemptswillbemade

tochangetheschool,classroomorteachingapproaches.

Whileteachersmayneedtoconsidertheeffectsofastudent’s

impairmentontheirlearningandsocialexperiences,thesocial

modeldrawsattentiontotheneedtoidentifybarrierstolearning

andparticipationatschool,suchasbullyingorbeingignoredor

alackofresources,andtoconsiderhowthesebarrierscanbe

reducedoreliminated.Thesekeyideasaboutinclusivevalues

andbarrierstolearningandparticipationarecentralinthinking

aboutinclusiveeducationandareexploredmorefullyinthe

followingchapter.

Inclusionisnotsomethingthatcanbeeasilydefined.Infact,

researchersworkingwithschoolstosupportthedevelopmentof

inclusiveapproachestoteachingandlearning,saythatitisneither

possiblenordesirabletotrytocomeupwithafixeddefinition,

becauseinclusionmeansdifferentthingstodifferentgroupsin

differentcontexts.However,itisstillpossibletoexplaininbroad

termswhatinclusionisabout.

Britishresearchers,MelAinscow,TonyBoothandAlanDyson

(�006)haveworkedwith�5primaryandsecondaryschoolsinthe

UnitedKingdom,aspartoftheirresearchonimprovingschools

anddevelopinginclusion.Readersinterestedinamoredetailed

understandingofhowcultures,policiesandpracticesaredeveloped

inschoolsworkingtowardsinclusionarereferredtotheirexcellent

book,ortoasummaryoftheauthors’researchfindings

(www.tlrp.org).Theirworkiscentraltothissectionbecauseitallows

ustothinkaboutthemeaningofinclusionthroughtheday-to-day

experiencesofteachersandotherstaffinschools.

Ainscowetal(�006)describetheinclusiveschoolasonethathas

notreachedaperfectstate,butratherisonthemove.Inclusion

isthoughtofasaprocessofimprovingschools.Thoseinvolvedin

educationstrivetoovercomebarrierstolearningandparticipation

atalllevelsoftheeducationsystem–educationalpolicy,school

organisationandstructure,andteachingideasandpractices.

Schoolsystemsthatareworkingtowardsinclusionthereforefocus

onchangeinordertoimproveallstudents’educationexperiences

(Booth,�00�;EducationQueensland,�00�).Inclusionisadeliberateapproach

ineducationthatinvolvesparticularvalues,andappliestoall

learners,toallbarriersandtoallformsofmarginalisation,exclusion

andunderachievement(Ainscowetal,�006).

Presence,.participation.and.achievement.

Inclusionrequiresthatallstudentsareacceptedandtakeafulland

activepartinschoollifeasvaluedmembersofordinaryclassrooms

inregularschools(Ballard,�004a;Slee�00�).

Thisideahasledtoanemphasisonstudents’presence,

participationandachievementineducation.

Schoolsoperateindifferentcontextsandfacedifferentissuesthat

areofparticularsignificanceindifferentplacesandatdifferent

times.Becauseofthis,schoolswillworktowardsinclusionin

differentways,butwhatiscommonisthatteachersandotherstaff

worktogethertowardsacommongoal.

Presence

Presencereferstotheplaceofchildrenandyoungpeopleintheir

localregularschool.Beingpresentinordinaryclassroomsalongside

peersinaregularschoolisacriticalfeatureofinclusion.Students

canonlydevelopasenseofbelongingintheirlocalcommunityand

learntobepartofthatcommunitybybeingpresentintheirlocal

communityandschool.

Participation

Participationreferstotheextenttowhichstudentsactuallytake

partandbenefitfromtheirinvolvementinthelifeoftheschool

throughbothcurricularandextra-curricularactivities.Ainscow(�008)

describesoneschoolthatcollectedevidenceofstudentparticipation

byinterviewingstudentsthemselvesabouttheirinvolvementin

theschool.Theschoolusedthestudentexperiencesandideasas

thestimulusforstaffdevelopmentfocusedonimprovingstudent

participation.

Ideasaboutstudents’participationatschoolcanalsobelinkedto

theUnitedNationsConventionontheRightsoftheChild(UNCRC)

(UnitedNations,�989).Children’sparticipationrightsarebasedon

recognitionofchildrenasfullhumanbeingswithrights,dignityand

identitiesthatshouldberespected.

Mostimportantly,childrenhavetherighttobeconsultedand

takenaccountof,tophysicalintegrity,toaccesstoinformation,to

freedomofspeechandopinion,andtoparticipateinandchallenge

decisionsmadeontheirbehalf(Smith,�997).Teachersmightconsider

theextenttowhichtheserightsarerespected.

Doallchildrenintheirschoolhaveopportunitiestousetheserights

toexercisepoweranddecision-makingresponsibilities?

What.inclusion.means3

Inthecaseofdisabledstudents,teachersmaywanttoconsider

whetherteachers’valuesleadthemtorespectorignoretheir

students’viewsintheteachingprocess.Forexample,from

talkingwithsomeNewZealandstudents,MacArthur,Sharp,Kelly

andGaffney(�007)foundthatdisabledchildren’srightstofully

participateatschoolcouldbeatrisk.Becausethestudentswere

seenasbothchildrenanddisabled,theywereunlikelytobeseen

ascompetenttocontributetodecision-makingprocessesthat

affectedthem.

InNewZealandandelsewhere,inclusionhasoftenbeenseenas

concernedonlywiththeeducationofdisabledstudents.However,

Ainscowetal(�006),amongothers,suggestthatthisisnotahelpful

waytothinkaboutinclusionasitlimitsthosewhoneedattention.

NewZealandresearcherKeithBallard(�009)saysthatafocuson

disabilityisimportantbecausedisabledchildrensooftenexperience

exclusionandlowexpectations.Nonetheless,theideaofinclusion

wouldmakenosenseifonlyonegroupofstudentswereattended

to.Inclusion,therefore,mustattendtoanybarriertoparticipation

andasamatterofsocialjusticemustchallengebarriersexperienced

byanychildinanyschool.

Achievement

Schoolshaveanimportantroletoplayinrecognisingand

compensatingforunequalsituationsandinequalityofopportunity

foranyoftheirstudents,particularlywheretheyarevulnerableto

beingdevaluedandexcluded(Slee,�005).Thiscouldincludestudents

whoarefromarangeofethnic,culturalandreligiousbackgrounds;

studentswithdisabilities;studentswhomoveschoolsoftenor

donotattendschoolregularly;studentswholiveinpoverty;and

studentswhoaregayorlesbian.Ainscowetal(�006)emphasisethat

inclusionandexclusionarelinked,andthatdevelopmentstowards

inclusionmustalsoinvolvetheactivecombatingofexclusionfor

thesestudents.

Afocusonachievementforallstudentsmeansthatschoolsare

alerttotheexperiencesofalltheirstudents,andareresponsive

wheninequalityofresourcesorexperienceisanissueofconcern.

Fordisabledstudents,teachersmay,forexample,needtolearn

aboutdisabilityissuesandseekinputfromdisabilityadvocateson

humanrightsandsocialjustice.

Schoolsmayalsoneedtoensurethattheassessmenttoolsthey

usetoevaluatetheirstudents’progressarerelevantandresponsive

tothestudentsthemselves,andacknowledgelearninginpositive

ways(Higgins,�005).Atthetimeofwritingthisbook,theNew

ZealandMinistryofEducationwasdevelopingasetofcurriculum

exemplarsforsomedisabledstudentsthatarecreditbased(thatis,

studentsareviewedascapable,andassessmentfocusesonpositive

changesinstudents).Theassessmentprocessinvolvesteachers

usingadescriptivenarrativeapproachthatencouragesthemtobe

sensitivetotheirstudents’progressinrelationtobothachievement

objectivesandkeycompetencies.

A.commitment.to.key.values

Researchersinterestedininclusionhaveconsistentlyemphasised

thatinclusionisstronglybasedonacommitmenttokeyvaluesand

principlesthatapplytoallstudents–andtoallthepolicies,plans

andapproachesusedtoteach(Ainscow,etal,Ballard,�004a;Booth,Nesand

Stromstadt,�003).Themainfocusneedstobeonvalues,ratherthan

ontryingtoidentifyparticular‘inclusive’teachingpractices.Thisis

becausevaluesshapewhatteachersthinkanddo:thewaythey

viewtheirstudents;theircommunity;theirschoolanditspurpose;

theirworkintheclassroom;andtheoverallaimsofeducation

withinthecommunityandsocietyasawhole.

Thedevelopmentofinclusioninvolvesmakingthesevaluesexplicit,

understandingwhattheymean,andlearninghowtorelatewhat

isdoneineducationtothem.Throughthisprocess,schoolsand

widerschoolsystemsdevelopthepolicies,practices,systemsand

structuresthatbringthesevaluestolifeandgivethemmeaning.

OnthebasisoftheirworkwithschoolsintheUnitedKingdom,

Ainscowandcolleagues(�006)describeasetofvaluesthatarethebasis

foractionandfuturedirectionswhenschoolsareworkingtowards

inclusion.However,theyemphasisethatthisisnotastaticlist.

Thesevaluesareconstantlybeingquestioned,discussedand

developed,andtheirexactmeaningandwhattheylooklike

inpracticeisopentonegotiationwithinandbetweenschools.

Someofthesevalues,suchassustainabilityandthevaluingof

internationalcommunities,haveobviousglobalsignificance.They

encourageschoolstothinkabouthowtheytoocontributetothe

creationandmaintenanceofhealthycommunities,bothlocallyand

beyondtheboundariesoftheirowncountry.Theirdevelopinglist

includesthefollowing:

Equity–understandingwhat‘equalityofopportunity’and

‘inequality’means.

Participation–beingwithandcollaboratingwithothers;

activeengagementandinvolvementinmakingdecisions;

recognisingandvaluingavarietyofidentitiessopeopleare

acceptedforwhotheyare.

Community–thesocialroleofeducationincreatingand

maintainingcommunitiesisvalued;communitiesand

educationalinstitutionscanmutuallysustaineachother;

citizenshipandglobalcitizenship(whichgoesbeyond

thefamilyandnationstate);cultivatingfeelingsofpublic

service.

Compassion

Respectfordiversity

Sustainability–thefundamentalaimofeducationisto

preparechildrenandyoungpeopleforsustainableways

oflifewithinsustainablecommunitiesandenvironments.

Inclusionshouldthereforebeconcernedwithunderstanding

globalwarmingandresponsestoit.

Entitlement–therecognitionandconvictionthatchildren

andyoungpeoplehaverightstoabroadeducation,

appropriatesupportandtoattendanceattheirlocalschool.

AsdescribedinChapter4,‘Maoriandinclusion,thebicultural

foundationsofAotearoaNewZealand’,andarecognitionofthe

TreatyofWaitangiasasocialjusticeconcern,meanthatcultural

valuesthatareparticularlysignificanttoMaoriwillalsohavea

centralplaceinourschools(BishopandGlynn,�999;Phillips,�005).

TheNewZealandCurriculum(MinistryofEducation,�007a,p�0)also

identifiesasetofkeyvaluesthataretobeencouraged,modelled

andexploredinschools.Schoolsareaskedtoencouragestudents

tohaverespectforoneself,othersandhumanrightsandtovalue:

excellence,byaiminghighandbyperseveringintheface

ofdifficulties

innovation,.inquiry.and.curiosity,bythinkingcritically,

creativelyandreflectively

diversity,asfoundinourdifferentcultures,languages

andheritages

equity,throughfairnessandsocialjustice

community.and.participationforthecommongood

ecological.sustainability,whichincludescareforthe

environment

integrity,whichincludesbeinghonest,responsible

andaccountable,andactingethically.

Thecurriculumnotesthatthewaysinwhichthesevaluesare

expressedineachschoolwillbeguidedbydialoguebetween

theschoolanditscommunity,andthatvalueswillbeevident

inaschool’sphilosophy,structures,curriculum,classroomand

relationships,andthrougheverydayactionsandinteractions

withinaschool.

Valuescanbeexpandedintoclustersthatencouragechildren

toexploretheirwidermeaning.Forexample,‘communityand

participationforthecommongood’isassociatedwithvaluesand

notionssuchaspeace,citizenshipandmanaakitanga(kindness,

hospitality).Othervaluesmightalsohaveaplace,forexample,

teachersmightwanttoconsidertheplaceintheirschoolandlocal

communityofvaluessuchasfreedom,achievementandspirituality

(Ainscowetal,�006).

Identifying.barriers.to.learning.and.participation.

Asdescribedearlier,teacherswhotakeamedical-modelapproach

lookforproblemsintheirstudents(suchastheirimpairmentinthe

caseofdisabledstudents),andexplaintheirstudents’failureat

schoolintermsoftheirperceived‘problems’.

Analternativeviewofstudentswhoaremarginalisedfromand

withinschoolsistoseethemasactiveandcapablelearners.When

studentsencounterdifficultieswiththeirlearning,teacherswhothink

inthiswaywilllookattheschoolandclassroomenvironment,and

considerthebarrierstolearningthatstudentsmaybeencountering.

Forexample,teachersmayconsiderwhetherstudentsfeelsafetoput

theirhandupinclassandparticipateinclassdiscussions,orwhether

theyfearbeingbulliedbecauseofthewaytheyspeak.Theymay

considerwhetherastudentcanwritequicklyenough,orwhether

theyneedalaptoptodotheirclasswork.Ortheymaylookatthe

structuresandattitudesintheschoolthatrelatetodisability,such

aswithdrawalforspecialistsupportortherapy,andaskwhether

separatingchildrenencouragesaviewthattheyareproblemstobe

fixedbyexperts,orwhetherthepracticesreinforceachild’sbelonging

inthegroupofallchildrenatschool.

Wheninclusioninvolvesidentifyingthebarriersthatstudentsfaceto

theirlearningandparticipationatschool,resourcesareprovidedto

schoolssothatteacherscansupportstudents.Inthisway,supportis

seenasanyandallactivitiesthatincreasethecapacityofschoolsto

respondtodiversityinthestudentgroup(Ainscowetal,�006).

Intheaboveexamples,ateachermayaddresstheissueofa

disabledstudent’sreluctancetospeakinclassbyseekingsupport

fromacolleaguetoworkouthowtocreateasocialenvironment

intheclassroominwhichdiversityisexpectedandsupported,and

wherebullyingdoesnothappen.Equallyanup-to-datelaptopmay

provetobeanefficientwaytosupportastudenttogetthrough

theirworkinclasstime,aswellasbeinga‘cool’devicethatattracts

theinvolvementofotherstudentsinclass.

Ifthebarrierscomefromstructuresthatseparatestudentsorfrom

negativeattitudesaboutdisabilityanddiversity,theschoolmay

needtoconfrontandexplorethesebyaskingdisabledstudents

fortheirviewsonthevarioussupportarrangementsintheschool.

Responsestothesequestionscouldbeusedtoconsidermore

inclusiveapproachesthatkeepdisabledstudentswiththeirpeers.

Identifyingbarriersinthiswaydoesnotdenythatastudent’s

impairmentcaninfluencetheirlearning.Teacherswhoarealertto

barrierswillalsoconsidertheimpactofstudents’impairments,

forexample,howastudentwithautismmayfeelinabusyand

noisyclassroom,orwhatcanbedonetoensureastudentwith

mobilitydifficultieshassufficienttimetomovebetweenclasses.

Involving.the.community

Stronglinkswiththelocalcommunityareacentralconcernof

inclusiveschools(Ainscowetal,�006;Slee,�005).Ainscowandcolleagues

remindusthatschoolsandtheirlocalcommunitieshavea

relationshipwheretheysupporteachother–schoolsprovide

educationalopportunities,butsodocommunities,andschoolscan

supportcommunitiesinthisrole.Thecloserelationshipbetween

alocalschoolanditscommunitymeansthatthedevelopmentof

schoolsisalsoconcernedwithaspirationsforthedevelopmentof

decentneighbourhoodsforall.Inclusionisthereforeconcernedwith

‘good’localschoolsthatencouragetheparticipationofallwithin

theircommunities(Ainscowetal,�006).

SchoolsinAotearoaNewZealandcandeveloparangeofways

toinvolveparents,caregiversandothercommunitymembersin

thedailylifeoftheschool,andinsodoingestablishstrongand

collaborativerelationshipsbetweenfamilies,schoolstaffand

others.Schoolboardsoftrusteesarerequiredtoundertakeregular

consultationwiththeirschoolcommunityaboutthevaluesthatare

significantandimportant.

Schoolcommunities,boardsoftrustees,andlocalcommunity

agenciesandgroupswithaninterestineducationcanalsobepart

ofschools’ongoingdiscussionsastheybeginworkingtowards

inclusion.Whereschoolsareparticularlyconcernedaboutimproving

theirteachinginrelationtodisabledstudents,interestedothers

couldincludedisabledadults(Slee,�005),youngdisabledschool

leavers,andparentsandcaregiversofdisabledchildren.

What.inclusion.is.not

Itisimportanttonotethattheterm‘inclusion’canbehijacked

andusedininappropriateandinaccurateways(SleeandAllan,�005).

Thismisusehasledtoconsiderableconfusionaboutwhatinclusion

reallyisand,insomesectors,hasresultedininclusionbeing

viewedasnothingmorethanawell-intentionedbutpie-in-the-sky

fad(ConnorandFerri,�007).Ourunderstandingsaboutinclusionare

improvedthroughanexplorationofwhatinclusionisnot.

Inclusion.is.not.the.re-labelling.of.‘special.education’.

Inclusioncannotoccurinsegregatedsettings,suchasspecial

schools,unitsandclasses.EducationresearchersRogerSleeand

JulieAlan(�005)notethatinclusionhasbeenmisinterpretedto

thepointwhereclaimshavebeenmadethatinclusionoccurs

whenaspecialschoolisrelocatedontothegroundsofaregular

schoolsothatstudentscansharesomeactivities.Theynotealso

that,inAustralia,somefacultiesofeducationinuniversitieshave

employedspecialeducatorstotrainnewteacherstobe‘inclusive’.

Similarly,theNewZealandEducationGazette,whichisreadbya

largenumberofteachers,hasdescribedas‘inclusive’asegregated

specialschoollocatedonthesiteofTempletonHospitalonthe

outskirtsofChristchurchcity(Feltham,�004).

Ideasaboutmakingregularschools‘morespecial’tosupport

inclusiongobackalongway,andhaveinfluencedthedevelopment

ofspecialunitsattachedtoregularschools.

However,theseviews(thatclaimtobe‘newconceptsofinclusion’)

simplyperpetuatethemyththatsegregatededucationin‘special’

placessuchasspecialschools,unitsandclassesarenecessaryfor

somestudents.Thispointhasbeenwidelycriticisedintheresearch

literature.

Specialeducationhasbeendescribed,notjustasaplace,butasa

deep-seatedwayofthinkingaboutdisabledstudentsthatleadsto

theirexclusionfromthefabricofeverydaylife,andadenialoftheir

rightstoadecenteducationintheirlocalschool(Adams,SwainandClark,

�000;Ballard,�004a;McDonnell,�00�;Slee,�00�).

Asdiscussedlaterinthisbook,theresearchalsoshowsthat,

despitethepromiseofmore‘specialised’teachingapproaches,

segregated‘specialeducation’approacheshaveactually

disadvantageddisabledchildren,bothacademicallyandsocially

(MacArthur,KellyandHiggins,�005).ItisforallofthesereasonsthatRoger

Slee(�00�),aninternationalresearcher,teachereducatorandalso

pastDeputyDirectorofEducationQueensland,hasarguedthatwe

needtoleavebehindall‘specialeducation’thinkingandpractice

whereveritoccurs,anddevelopeducationinregularschoolswhich

carefullyattendstothediverseneedsofallstudents.

Inclusion.is.not.the.same.as.simply.being.in.a.regular.

school

Inclusiveeducationcanonlybedevelopedinregularschools,but

itisimportanttoappreciatethatinclusiondoesnotoccursimply

becauseadisabledstudentattendstheirlocalschool.Special

educationandmedical-modelthinkingcanbefoundinsome

regularschools,andstudentscanfaceconsiderablebarrierstotheir

learningandparticipation(Ainscowetal,�006;Kearney,�009;MacArthur,Sharp,

KellyandGaffney,�007).Someexamplesofthesebarriersareprovided

inChapter9.Inclusioninvolvesfundamentalchangesinregular

educationsothatregularschoolscanteachallchildrenwell.

Inclusion.is.not.‘ideology’

Oftenthosepeoplewhowantaninclusiveeducationsystemare

criticisedforbeingmotivatedbyideologyratherthanevidence.

Yetthisviewisreadilychallengedbecauseinclusiveeducation

isactuallyacomplex,extensivelyresearched,andlegitimate

approachtoteachingandlearning,schoolorganisation,andpolicy

development.Internationally,thereareentireschooldistrictsthat

haverejectedsegregation,anddeliberatelyandspecificallyidentify

themselvesasinclusive(see,forexample,Hill,�00�,inrelationtoNewBrunswick,

Canada;CarringtonandRobinson,�00�;andSlee,�005,inrelationtoQueensland,

Australia).

Thetermideologicalissometimesusedtodenythestatusand

worthofanother’spositionwhileelevatingone’sownpositionon

segregationtoasuperiorvantagepoint.ThomasandLoxley(�007)

saythatlabellingargumentsaboutinclusionasideologicalisaway

ofdiscreditingothers’viewpointsbyimplyingthattheirpositionis

somehowpartisanranting,politicallycontentious,sloppyorsimply

false.Thisapproachtotheideaofinclusiveeducationisunhelpful.

Itputsanendtoopendiscussionabouttherightsofallchildren

andyoungpeopletoaqualityeducationthatenhancestheir

presentlifeinthecommunity,andpreparesthemwellforanadult

lifeinthefuture.Italsoputsanendtoimportantdiscussionsabout

howregularschoolscanmove,changeanddevelopinpositiveways

toimproveallstudents’learningandparticipation.

InNewZealand,theTreatyofWaitangi,asthefoundingdocument

ofNewZealand,needstobetakenintoaccount.TheTreatyis

concernedwithmattersofsocialjusticethroughtheconceptsof

partnership,participationandequality(BishopandGlynn,�999).The

NewZealandCurriculumrecognisestheTreatyofWaitangiasa

keyprincipleinthefoundationsofcurriculumdecision-making.

Thecurriculum:

…acknowledgestheprinciplesoftheTreatyofWaitangi

andthebiculturalfoundationsofAotearoaNewZealand.

Allstudentshavetheopportunitytoacquireknowledge

oftereoMaorimeonatikanga(Maorilanguage,customs

andpractices).

Nonetheless,Maoristudentsaremuchmorelikelytoexperience

exclusionatschoolthantheirnon-Maoripeers(Tuhiwai-Smith,�006).

ResearchershavenotedthatMaorichildrenhavebeenover

representedin‘special’education,excludingthemfromlearning

opportunitiesintheirlocalschoolsandcommunities(Bevan-Brown,

�003;McFarlane,�005;Phillips,�005).Onepossibleexplanationforsuch

exclusionisthatsomeschoolsandteachershavefailedtoaffirm

Maoristudents’culturalidentityintheirteaching(Bevan-Brown,�006;

McFarlane,�005).Researchershavealsodescribedhowteachersand

otherschoolstaffcaninterpretMaoristudents’schoolexperiences

as‘deficits’,andhavelowexpectationsfortheirlearningthatresult

inaself-fulfillingprophecyofstudentfailure(Bevan-Brown,�006;Bishop

andGlynn,�999;Bishop,Berryman,TiakiwaiandRichardson,�003;Bishop,Berryman,

CavanaghandTeddy,�007).

Bevan-Brown(�006)arguesthatMaoristudentswhohave

disabilitiesmaybefurtherdisadvantagedwhenfinancialconstraints

leadschoolstorejectsupportfromMaoriservices,andbya

competitiveenvironmentinschoolsthatconflictswithMaori

valuesandbeliefs.Furthermore,reviewsbyMasseyUniversityof

theSpecialEducation�000policyrevealedthatteachersworking

withMaoristudentswhohaddisabilitiesdidnotgenerallyconsider

Maoriculturetoberelevanttotheirteaching(MasseyUniversity,�00�).

Theworkreviewedhereisonlyaverysmallpartoftheresearch

availableinthisarea.However,ithighlightstheneedforeducation

professionalstochangethewaytheyworktoberesponsiveto

Maoriunderstandingsofdisabilityandeducationwithinawider

contextofcolonisation(Bevan-Brown,�003,�007;BishopandGlynn,�999;

McFarlane,�005;Phillips,�005).Astudyoffive‘sitesofpractice’inwhich

Maoristudentswithparticularlearningandbehaviouralneedswere

supportedbyacollaborativeteamapproachthatincludedtheir

whanau,MaoriandPakehaSESstaff(SpecialistEducationServices,

nowknownasGSE,GroupSpecialEducation)andothereducation

professionals,illustrateshowcommonlyheldvaluescanbethe

foundationforsuccessfuleducationpractice(Berryman,Glynn,Walker,

Rewiti,O’Brien,Boasa-Dean,Glynn,LangdonandWeiss,�00�).Acrossthefivesites

somecommongeneralfeaturesofsuccessfulpracticewerefound.

Theseincluded:

theachievementofeffectiveandbalancedworking

partnershipsbetweenparents/whanauandeducational

professionals,inwhicheachpartyacknowledgesand

supportstheexpertiseoftheother

thenegotiationofcollaborativeandculturallycompetent

approachestounderstandingandresolvingproblems

thedemonstrationofwillingnessbyprofessionalsand

parentstolistentonewideas,andtoworkbeyondtheir

experienceand/orculturalcomfortzone.

But,inadditiontothesefeatures,theauthorsidentifiedasetof

��Maoriculturalvaluesandcharacteristicsthatwerestrongly

evident–ngaturangatakitahimengamanawhakahaere,

kanohikitekanohi,wairuatanga,whanaungatanga,kotahitanga,

manaakitanga,mahitahi,manatangata,ako,wananga,arohaki

tetangataandmanamotuhake(Berryman,M.,Glynn,T.,Walker,R.,Rewiti,

M.,O’Brien,K.,Boasa-Dean,T.,Glynn,V.,Langdon,Y.andWeiss,S.,�00�.SESsitesfor

effectivespecialeducationpracticeforMaori,�00�.Wellington:DraftreporttotheSES

BoardandExecutiveTeam.)�.

Itwastheweavingtogetheroftheseimportantculturalvaluesand

practicesthatformedthebasisofeffectivepartnerships,anditwas

thesincerityandcommitmentbyPakehatounderstandthesevalues

thatmadeforeffectivecollaborativeworkwithMaori.

� Fortranslations,seeAppendixB,page64

Maori.and.inclusion..in.Aotearoa..New.Zealand..............................

��

Maori.and.inclusion..in.Aotearoa..New.Zealand..............................

RecentworkbyRussellBishopandcolleaguesatWaikatoUniversity

alsoillustratesthemeaningofinclusionasitappliestoschools

forallchildren(Bishopetal,�003;Bishopetal,�007).TheTeKotahitanga

ProjectinvestigatedtheexperiencesofYear9and�0Maori

studentsinregularschoolclassrooms.Teachers’deficit-oriented

viewsofMaorichildrenintheirclasseshadcreatedadownward

spiralling,self-fulfillingprophecyofMaoristudentunder-

achievementandfailure.Aprofessionaldevelopmentapproach

wasimplementedthatfocusedonculturallyresponsiveteaching

relationsintheclassroom,basedonMaorichildren’sperspectives

oftheireducationalexperiences.

Theself-determinationofMaoristudentswasplacedatthecentre

ofclassroomrelationshipsandinteractions,therebychanging

teachers’relationsandinteractionswiththeirstudents.Theresearch

teamshowedthatwhenclassroomrelationshipsandinteractions

wereattendedto,thelearning,behaviourandattendanceof

Maoristudentsimprovedalongwithimprovementsintheschools’

relationshipswithparents,whanauandcommunity.Teachers

involvedintheprojectalsonotedthatwhiletheprojectfocused

onMaoristudents,theteachingpracticesexploredintheresearch

projectimprovedtheteachingandlearningexperienceingeneral

forallstudents.

��

Itwillbehelpfultothoseatthelocallevelwhoareencouragingschoolsto

collaborate,ifnationalpolicyinitiativescontinuetoemphasisetheprinciple

ofcollaborationasbeingafundamentalelementofeffortstodevelopan

inclusiveeducationsystem.–Ainscowetal,�006,p�85

Schooldistrictsaroundtheworldthathavemovedtowards

inclusionhavegenerallydonesoonthebasisofapolicy

commitment.Policydrivesandsupportsthenecessarychangesto

teachereducationandprofessionaldevelopment,resourcesand

supportsforschools,schoolcultureandteachingpractice.In

NewBrunswick,Canada,forexample,ashifttoinclusive

educationcamefromachangeofgovernmentpolicythatsawthe

closureofinstitutionsforpeoplewithintellectualdisabilitiesand

amovetocommunity-basedservices.Segregatededucationsettings

alsoclosedandnewmodelsofsupportweresetupinregular

schoolssothatallchildrencouldbetaughtinordinaryclassrooms

(PorterandRichler,�99�;Hill,�00�).

Similarly,Queensland,Australia,embarkedonacollaborative

journeytoensurethataqualityeducationwasavailabletoall

students,beginningwithacommunitydiscussiondocumentabout

theentireeducationsystementitledThenextdecade:Adiscussion

aboutthefutureofQueenslandStateSchools(EducationQueensland,

�999).Schoolreformproceededwithwidecommunityconsultation

andthroughalong-termresearchstudythatlookedforproductive

andinclusiveapproachestoassessment,teachingandlearning,

andleadership(EducationQueensland�00�;Hulme,�00�).AStaffCollege

forInclusiveEducationwasestablishedtohighlightlocalinclusive

activityandsupportdifferentwaysofthinkingaboutinclusion.The

collegedrewsupportfrominternationalresearchersworkinginthe

areaofinclusion,asopposedto‘traditionalspecialeducationgurus’

(Slee,�005,p�54).TheestablishmentofaTaskforceonStudentswith

DisabilitieswasestablishedtoadvisetheMinisterforEducation:

Thetaskforcewasawayofbringingarangeofconstituents

tothetableinordertohostadiscussionthathadpreviously

beenconductedfrombehindbarricades.Relationsbetween

government,teacherunions,parentsanddisabilityadvocacy

groupsweredysfunctional.Thistaskforceenabledarange

ofviewstobeputandreceivedinaclimateofgrowing

understandingandrespect.Moreover,thevoicesofthose

whohithertowerenotinvitedtothetable,particularlyparents

anddisabledpeople,waslegitimized’(Slee,�005,p�55).

InAotearoaNewZealand,nonationwidestepshavebeentaken

tospecificallydevelopaninclusiveeducationsystem.Instead,

educationalsupportfordisabledstudentsisprovidedunderthe

policyframeworkofSpecialEducation�000.Thepolicywas

launchedin�996withthepromisethatNewZealandwouldhave

aworld-classinclusiveeducationsystemfordisabledchildren

andyoungpeople(MinistryofEducation,�996),andtherehavebeen

severalreferencestoinclusiveeducationinMinistryofEducation

documentssincethattime(Higgins,MacArthurandMorton,�007).In�005,

forexample,theministrydescribedinclusionassupportingall

childrenintheirlocalschoolandreducingbarrierstolearning

andparticipation:

Inclusionineducationisvaluingallstudentsandstaff.Itinvolves

supportingallchildrenandyoungpeopletoparticipatein

thecultures,curriculaandcommunitiesoftheirlocalschool.

Barrierstolearningandparticipationforallchildren,irrespective

oftheirethnicity,culture,disabilityoranyotherfactorare

activelyreduced,sothatchildrenfeelasenseofbelongingand

communityintheireducationalcontext(MinistryofEducation,�005).

Followingonfromthis,oneoftheministry’sthreefocusedpathsin

itsStatementofIntent�007–�0��wastoleadandsupportchange

sothat‘theeducationsystemvalues,respectsandissuccessfulfor

allchildrenandyoungpeople,inparticularMaori,Pasifika,and

studentswithspecialeducationneeds’(MinistryofEducation,�007b,p30).

InitsNewZealandDisabilityStrategyImplementationWorkPlan,

�July�003–30June�004,theministryincludedundertheplan’s

‘InclusiveServiceProvision’,apromisetoidentifybarriersto

participationinlearningandimplementsupport;andtodevelop

aplanfortrainingboardsoftrustees,toraisetheirawarenessof

obligationsundertheNewZealandDisabilityStrategy.Desired

outcomesintheworkplanincludedastatementthat‘Children

andyoungpeoplewithspecialeducationneedsparticipatein

appropriateandinclusiveeducationsettingsthatmeetindividual

educationalneeds’(MinistryofEducation,�003,p7).

Education.policy.and..inclusive.education5

Education.policy.and..inclusive.education

Theseandotherreferencestoinclusiveeducationshowthatthe

ministryhas,attimes,hadsomeinterestinthearea.However,

atthetimeofwritingthisbook,thereseemstohavebeena

retreatfromthinkingaboutinclusion,asthereisnolongerany

specificreferencetoinclusiveeducationasanareaoffocusonthe

ministry’swebsite(Higginsetal,�007).Thecommitmenttoinclusionin

theStatementofIntent�007–�0��hasbeendroppedfromthe

ministry’slatestStatementofIntentin�008,andthepromiseof

aninclusiveeducationsystemhasyettobefulfilled.Theministry’s

‘special’educationpolicynowaimsto:

…improvelearningoutcomesforallchildrenandyoungpeople

withspecialeducationalneedsattheirlocalschool,early

childhoodcentre,orwherevertheyareeducated(Ministryof

Education,�008,italicsadded).

Thepolicythereforecontinuestobebasedonideasabout‘special

education’,andviewsarangeofoptions,includingsegregated

specialschools,unitsandclasses,tobeappropriate.Furthermore,

undertheMinistryofEducation’sSpecialEducationGuidelines

(�007c),thisrangeofoptionsissupposedtobethoroughlydiscussed

withparentsofdisabledchildrenwhendecisionsarebeingmade

abouttheirschoolplacement.However,theresearchsuggeststhat

parentsaremorelikelytomakedecisionsaboutwheretheirsons

anddaughterswithdisabilitiesaretaughtwithlittlesupport,

and/orwithconfusingguidancefromtheMinistryofEducation(Higgins,MacArthurandRietveld,�006;MasseyUniversity,�00�).

ThelackofaclearcommitmenttoinclusionbytheMinistryof

Educationisdisappointingbecauseresearchthatlookedatthe

implementationoftheministry’sSpecialEducation�000policy

showsthatdisabledstudentsmaynotbereceivingafairand

equitableeducation.Forexample,schoolshavebeendescribedas

generallyunder-resourcedtosupportstudentswithmoderateneeds,

andasstrugglingtomeettheneedsofstudentswhowereonthe

marginsoftheverificationprocess.TheSpecialEducationGrant

wasalsoconsideredtobeinadequate,particularlyin‘magnet’

schoolsthatwerewelcomingtodisabledstudents(BourkeandO’Neil,

�00�;Wylie,�000).

Schoolsdescribedhowtheycouldnotalwaysseethedifferences

betweenstudentswhowereverifiedashavingmoderateandhigh

needs,andthosewhowerenot,andfeltthattherewasalackof

supportforchildrenwhomissedoutonbeingverified,andfortheir

teachers(McAlpine,�999).Whereschoolswereabletoaccesssupport

fromGroupSpecialEducation,thesupportwasvalued.However,

accessingsuchprofessionalsupportwasgenerallyfoundtobe

difficult,andparentsandcaregiversdescribedhavingadversarial

relationshipswithprofessionalsbecauseoftheirneedtopushfor

support(Brown,�999a;MasseyUniversityCollegeofEducation,�00�).

Equally,schoolsandparentshavedescribedproblemsgetting

accesstothetherapies,withlittletimeavailableforconsultation

thatwouldhelpteacherstodeveloptheirteaching(Clark,MacArthur,

McDonald,Simmons-CarlssonandCaswell,�007).Wylie(�000)identifieda

needforprofessionaldevelopmentforteachersthatresponds

toschools’particularneeds,afindingthathasbeenrepeatedin

morerecentresearchinschools(MacArthur,Sharp,KellyandGaffney,�007).

Wyliealsodescribedagenerallackofteacherpreparationto

workinclassroomsthatincludeadiversegroupofstudents,and

recommendedthatallteachertraininginstitutionsberequiredto

incorporateinclusiveeducationpaperswithintheircoretraining

programme.

Furtherevidencethatdisabledandotherstudents’rightstoa

qualityeducationmaybeatriskcomesfromtheNewZealand

HumanRightsCommission(�004).Thecommissionnotesthe

presenceofdiscrimination,bullyingandharassmentin

NewZealandschools,particularlyoverrace,disability,sexual

orientationandgender,anddescribesoveralldisparatestandards

ofeducation,particularlyfordisabledchildrenandthosefrom

isolatedschoolsorpoorcommunities.

NewZealandresearchershavearguedthatsupportivenational

policiesbasedonacommitmenttoinclusiveeducationcanprovide

teachersandschoolswiththeleadership,guidance,supports,

resourcesandprofessionaldevelopmentneededtoworktowards

inclusionintheirownschools(Higgins,MacArthurandRietveld,�006;Higgins,

MacArthurandMorton,�007;Kearney,�009;KearneyandKane,�006).

Equally,unsupportivepoliciescanrestrictorevenundermine

schoolsintheirattemptstoimprove.Intheirworkwithschoolsin

theUnitedKingdom,forexample,Ainscowandcolleagues(�006)

foundthatgovernmentpolicies,suchasimposednationalliteracy

andnumeracystandards,requirementsthatschoolsmeetspecific

achievementtargets,combinedwithacompetitiveenvironment

withnarrowcriteriafordeterminingstudentsuccess,placed

barriersinthewayofschoolsworkingtowardsinclusion.When

achievementatschoolismeasuredonlyintermsofsuccessagainst

nationalstandards,somedisabledstudents(andothermarginalised

students)faceinsurmountablebarriers,andtheprovisionofextra

supportandresourcessimplyleadstothereinforcementoftheir

failure(Lloyd,�008).

Teacherscanalsobestretchedinanenvironmentthatdemands

schoolaccountabilityandtransparencythroughthecollectionof

largeamountsofstatisticalinformationonchildren’sprogress.

Whilesuchinformationcanbethelifebloodofcontinuous

improvement,careisneededtoensurethattheevidencecollected

isvaluableandusefulintheprocessofpositiveschoolchange,

or,asAinscow(�008)putsit,‘wemustlearntomeasurewhatwe

value,ratherthan,whatisoftenthecase,valuingwhatwecan

measure’(p�53).

Asanexample,hedescribesaschooldistrictinEnglandthat

hasdevelopeditsownInclusionStandard.Thestandardisan

instrumentforevaluatingtheprogressofschoolstowardsinclusion,

anditsmainsourceofevidenceisstudents’viewsontheirschool

experience.Ratherthanrequiringareviewofthequalityof

leadershipintheschool,itfocusesonthepresence,participation,

andachievementsofallstudents,becausethisiswhatgoodschool

leadershipaimsfor.Ratherthanaskingwhetherstudentswhoare

atriskofmarginalisationhaveopportunitiestoparticipate,schools

lookatwhetherornotstudentsactuallytakepartandbenefit

fromtheirinvolvement.Schoolsaskthestudentsthemselvesto

commentontheirschoolexperienceandthesecommentsbecome

thestimulusforschoolandstaffdevelopment.Thisschooldistrict

intendstohaveallofitsschoolsinvolvedintheuseoftheInclusion

Standard,andislookingatwaystodeveloplocalpolicythat

supportsschoolsinthedistricttoworktogethertodevelopmore

inclusiveschoolpractices.

Thecontinuedacceptanceofaspecialeducationpolicy,andarange

ofoptionsthatincludessegregation,showsthatexistingpolicyin

AotearoaNewZealandisatoddswithinternationalthinkingabout

inclusion,whichadvocatesspecialeducationbeingdismantledto

makewayforinclusiveeducationsystemsthatenrichlearningforall

children(Munoz,�007).Ainscow(�008)argues,then,thatwhileschools

canworkawayontheirowninclusiveprocesses,theseprocesses

aremuchmorelikelytobeeffectivewhentheyarepartofawider

strategyatgovernmentlevel.

Ainscowandcolleagues’workin�006alsoshowsthatschools

workingtowardsinclusionbenefitfromworkingcollaboratively

withotherschools.Thisarrangementallowsteachersandother

stafftodiscussissuesrelatedtoteachingandlearning;toshare

ideas;observeotherteachersintheirclassroomsandlearnfrom

eachother.Yetfortheseschools,thisapproachdidnotnecessarily

fitwithawidergovernmentagendathatencouragedcompetition

betweenschools.Theauthorsofthisprojectconcludedthat

supportivegovernmentpolicyisanimportantingredientinthemix

whenschoolsaredevelopinginclusiveapproaches:

Itwillbehelpfultothoseatthelocallevelwhoareencouraging

schoolstocollaborate,ifnationalpolicyinitiativescontinueto

emphasisetheprincipleofcollaborationasbeingafundamental

elementofeffortstodevelopaninclusiveeducationsystem(p�85).

Becomingmoreinclusiveisamatterofthinkingandtalking;

reviewingandrefiningpractice;andmakingattemptstodevelop

amoreinclusiveculture.–Ainscowetal,�006,p�39

Developing.an.inclusive.school.culture

Theresearchonschoolchangeindicatesthatprogresstowards

inclusionisstronglyinfluencedbyculturalfactorsinschools

(Ainscow,�008;Ainscowetal,�006;Zollers,RamanthanandYu,�999).School

culturesinvolvetheassumptionsandbeliefsthataresharedbystaff

todefinehowtheyviewthemselvesandtheirschool(Ainscow,�008).

Thesharedvaluesteachersholdinaschoolaboutdiversityand

disability,andtheextenttowhichtheyarepreparedasastaffto

teachallstudents,willdeterminetheextenttowhichallstudents

canparticipateandlearn.

Inthecaseofdisabledstudents,Ballard(�004a)suggeststhat

someschoolsdonotview‘difference’aspartof‘theordinary’

andthisideaisusedtoexcludedisabledstudentsfromlearning

opportunities.Inschoolswherethereisacultureof‘difference

asnotnormal’,disabledstudentsareseenasneeding‘special’

treatmentin‘special’places.Throughthisprocessofmakingsome

students‘notlikeus’,schoolsthemselvesactuallydefinewho

belongsandwhodoesnot.Oftenthesevaluesreflectthoseofthe

widersocietyinwhichschoolsareoperating.AlisonKearney’s(�009)

researchprovidesvividexamplesofsuchexclusioninNewZealand

schools,withteachersusingideasabout‘difference’toclass

disabledstudentsaslessdeserving(thantheirnon-disabledpeers)

ofqualityteachingandlearningexperiences.

IntheirstudyofBritishdisabledstudents’experiences,Davisand

Watson(�00�)havedescribedsimilarprocessesatwork.Some

teachersdidnotvaluediversity,andviewedtheirstudentsinterms

ofwhattheywereunabletodo.

Theattemptsbyteachersto‘correct’theirstudents’‘problems’were

soaversivetosomestudentsthatthestudentsthemselvesworked

hardtohidetheirdisabilityinordertoappear‘normal’.These

examplesshowhowschoolscanblamestudentsforfailingtofit

withtheirexistingcultureandsystems,whilenotbeingrequiredto

changeinanywaytorespondtothediverseneedsandexperiences

oftheirstudents

Ainscow(�008)suggestsadifferentwayofthinking,byarguing

thatthepresenceofstudentswhodonotfitwithaschool’scurrent

approachtolearningcanprovideanincentiveforschoolstoexplore

anewcollaborativeculturewhereteachersshareideasandsupport

eachotherintheirteaching.Suchcollaborativeprocessesprovide

teacherswithopportunitiestoexploretheirvaluesandbeliefs,

andtheconnectionsbetweenthesevaluesandthecurricularand

extra-curricularactivitiesoftheschoolandwidercommunity.Itis

thisprocessthatcontributestoagrowingcommitmentbyschools

toinclusion.

Severalstudieshavedescribedschoolsthathavedeveloped

inclusiveschoolculturesthatfosterrespectbyteacherstowards

studentdiversity,andthathavedismantledseparatespecial

educationstructures.Theseschoolsreorganisedtokeepstudents

together,andchannelledtheirenergiesintosupportsothat

ordinaryclassroomteacherscouldlearnaboutstudentdiversity.

Forexample,additionalsupportwasprovidedintheordinary

classroom,ratherthanthroughthewithdrawalofstudentsfrom

class.Schoolleaderswerecommittedtoinclusivevaluesandtoa

democraticmanagementstylethatencouragedseveralstafftotake

onleadershippositions(CarringtonandElkins,�00�;DysonandMilward,�000;

Walther-ThomasandDiPaola,�003;Zollersetal,�999).Stronglinkswithfamilies

andthewidercommunityofwhichtheschoolwasapartwerealso

evident,withafocusonsharedvalues(DysonandMilward,�000;Zollerset

al,�999).

The.Index.for.Inclusion.

TheIndexforInclusionisapracticalresourcethatguidesschools

throughaprocessofinclusiveschooldevelopment.TheIndexis

basedonthekeyideathatschoolscanchangebydeveloping

culturesinwhichallstudentsarerespected,andparticipate,learn

andachieve(Booth,�00�).DetailsabouttheIndexareavailablefrom

TheCentreforInclusiveEducation(www.csie.org.uk).TheIndexhas

alsobeenadaptedforuseinearlychildhoodeducation.

6 School.culture.and.the.Index.for.Inclusion

DevelopedbyBritishresearchersTonyBoothandMelAinscow

(�00�),andpublishedbytheCentreforStudiesonInclusive

Education,theIndexisasetofmaterialsdesignedtobuildonthe

knowledgeandexperiencethatteachersandotherstaffalready

haveintheirschools,andtochallengeallschoolstomoveforward

fromtheircurrentposition.Consistentwiththesocialmodelof

disability,theIndexdoesawaywiththeideathatitisastudent’s

‘specialneeds’thatleadtoeducationaldifficulty,andinsteaduses

theideathatsomechildrencanexperiencebarrierstotheirlearning

andparticipationatschool.Schoolsaresupportedtorecogniseand

reducebarrierstolearningbygatheringinformationabouttheir

ownschoolcultures,policiesandpractices(includingthevalues

thatunderpinallofthese).Everythingthatmakesupschoollifeis

scrutinisedinthisprocess,withschoolsbringingtogethertheviews

ofstudents,parents/caregivers,staff,governors(boardsoftrustees

inaNewZealandcontext)andothers,inordertosetnewpriorities

forschooldevelopment(Booth�00�).

Specifically,theIndexhasthreedimensions.Thefirstdimensionis

‘creatinginclusivecultures’(p67).Theothertwodimensionsare:

‘producinginclusivepolicies’(p67)and‘evolvinginclusivepractices’

(p67).Thesethreedimensionsevolvefurtherinto�4indicatorsor

aspirations,eachwithquestionsforclarificationtowhichschools

respond.Schoolscanaddorchangequestionstosuittheir

individualcircumstances.Theymayalsochoosetofocusonlyon

certainindicators.Onceaschooldecidestousetheindex,itworks

throughfourinteractingphases.

Theseare:

�. Findingoutabouttheschool

�. Producinganinclusiveschooldevelopmentplan

3. Implementingpriorities

4. Reviewingtheindexprocess(p70).

TheIndexcanbeusedbyclustersofschools,orwiththehelpof

outsidefacilitators,andisflexibleinthatitcanbeusedaspartof

schoolplanningor,forexample,tosimplyraiseteachers’awareness

aboutinclusion(Booth,�00�).IthasbeenpilotedinsixBritishprimary

andsecondaryschools,andmodifiedforanevaluationinanaction

researchprojectin�7schools(Booth,�00�).Thisresearchfoundthat

theIndexhelpedschoolstoidentifyissuesthatwereotherwise

overlooked,andsupportedthemtodevelopinclusivepractice.

ThevalueoftheIndexisclearinitsuptakeinternationally.The

BritishGovernmenthasplaceditineveryschoolinEngland,and

theWelshAssemblyhasdonethesameinWales.Ithasbeen

translatedinto��languagesandisusedin45countriestodate.

Consistentwithitsvisiontocreateinclusiveschoolsthroughout

thewholestate,EducationQueenslandinAustraliahasobtained

therightstousetheIndexinallofitsschools(Robinson,�003).A

studybyCarringtonandRobinson(�00�)documentingtheuseof

theIndexanditseffectonaprimaryschoolinQueenslandshowed

thatteachersbecamemorewillingtothinkaboutanddiscusstheir

teachingpracticewiththeircolleagues,feltlessisolatedasteachers,

andwereabletosharetheirsuccessstorieswitheachother.The

researchersalsonotedthattheschool’scollaborativeprofessional

developmentactivitiescontributedtoagrowthincollegiality,

respectandtrustbetweenteachers.TheNewZealandMinistryof

EducationhasalsotrialledtheIndexinsixschools(MinistryofEducation,

�003),althoughthereisnofurtherreferencetothisresearchonthe

ministry’swebsiteatthetimeofwritingthisbook.

Thischapterlooksatwhattheresearchtellsusabouthowteachers

candevelopmoreinclusiveteachingandlearningpracticesintheir

classrooms.

Professional.development

OnthebasisofworkwithBritishschoolsmovingtowardsinclusion,

Ainscow(�008)concludedthatteachersaremostlikelytomake

positivedevelopmentsintheirownpracticewhentheyareableto

lookcarefullyatwaysthatteachingcanbedonedifferently,andat

thedifferencebetweenwhattheycurrentlydoandwhattheywould

liketoachieveintheirclassroom.Havingopportunitiestoshare

experienceswithotherteachersandtoobserveotherteachersat

work(intheirownandinotherschools)isanimportantpartofthis

process.

Principalsandotherseniorstaffinschoolshaveakeyroletoplay

inencouragingtheircolleaguestothinkabouttheirteaching

approaches,tolearnfromthesurprises,andtodevelopa

continuouslyinquiringapproachtotheirclassroomworkthat

stimulatespositiveaction.Learningfromevidenceisalsoconsidered

tobeimportant,forexample,byreviewingvideorecordingsof

theirclassroomworkandlookingatevidencefrominterviewswith

studentsabouttheteachingandlearningarrangementsusedat

school.

Communities.of.practice.

Thedevelopmentofa‘communityofpractice’inschools,where

teachersandothersinvolvedineducation(includingresearchers)

worktogetheronasharedlearningenterpriseandcommontopic,

hasalsobeendescribedasaneffectivewayforteacherstolearn

inacollaborativegroup(Ainscow,�008;Ainscowetal,�006;Alton-Lee,�003;

Bishopetal,�007;Buysee,SparkmanandWesley,�003;MacArthurandHiggins,�007;

Slee,�005).

InaNewZealandstudy,forexample,educationresearchers

MacArthurandHiggins(�007)participatedinacommunityof

practicewithteachersusinganactionresearchapproachto

exploreschoolvaluesandteachingapproachesthatsupportthe

learningandsocialexperiencesofchildrenwhomovefrequently

betweenschools.Similarly,Higgins,MitchellandSanderson(�005)

workedwithteacherstodevelopajointdramaproject(Macbeth)

thatbroughttogetherdisabledstudentsinasecondaryschool’s

learningsupportcentrewiththeirpeersinthemainstream.The

projecthelpedtochallengeandturnaroundstudents’andteachers’

previouslynegativeperceptionsaboutdisabledstudentsinthe

school.

InanotherNewZealandstudy,teachersandresearcherslookedat

thelinksbetweenteachers’actionsandtheirassumptionsabout

theirstudents,includingwhobelongsinaregularschooland

whodoesnot.Theresearchers(Alton-Lee,Rietveld,Klenner,Dalton,Diggins

andTown,�000)describeanapproachtotheinclusionofadisabled

studentataprimaryschoolwhereteachersweresupportedto

thinkaboutthe‘personaltragedy’modelofdisabilitytheywere

promotingthroughthesocialstudiescurriculum.Asaresultofthis

workwithsix-year-oldstudents,adisabledstudentwhohadbeen

isolatedandtauntedbyhispeersbecameanolderpeercoachand

anauthorityonanumberoftopics.Thestudyshowedhow,given

theopportunity,teacherscanexploretheirteachingpracticesand

thereasonsbehindtheminwaysthatallowthemtomoveonand

developbetterwaysofworkingintheirclassrooms.Asaresultof

thisproject,adisabledstudentwhohadbeenexcluded,becamea

memberofaclasscommunitythatwasnowworkingonwaystobe

inclusiveofdiversity.

Quality.teaching.for.diverse.students

NewZealandresearcherAdrienneAlton-Lee’s(�003)best-evidence

synthesisonQualityTeachingforDiverseStudentsinSchooling

deservesparticularmentionhereasitprovidesteachersinAotearoa

NewZealandwitharesourceandframeworkforunderstandingand

developingteachingpracticesintheirownschoolsthatfacilitate

learninginheterogeneousgroupsofstudents.Alton-Leedescribes

�0research-basedcharacteristicsofqualityteaching,includingthe

pointthatpedagogicalpracticesinclassroomswithdiversestudents

Inclusive.classroom.practices7

shouldenableclassesandotherlearninggroupingstoworkas

caring,inclusiveandcohesivelearningcommunities.

Caringandsupportiverelationshipsarevitaltodisabledstudents’

learningandwell-beingatschool,andAlton-Lee’sworkemphasises

thatlearningtakesplacewithinthesocialcontextofrelationships

withteachersandpeers.Students’learningandsocialexperiences

arecloselyinterrelated,andtheworkofteachersandschools

mustgivefullattentiontobothstudents’learningandtheirsocial

experiences–intheclassroom,inthewiderschoolandbeyondthe

schoolgates(MacArthurandGaffney,�00�;MacArthurandKelly,�004).

Inclusiveeducationcanalsobeunderstoodthroughanexploration

ofthereasonsforitsdevelopmentinthefirstplace.Asdiscussed

earlier,inclusionhasdevelopedpartlyoutofaconcernfor‘special’

educationpracticesthathavebeendeficitoriented,isolated

studentsfromtheirpeersandcommunities,andfailedtodeliverthe

qualitylearningandsocialexperiencesthatwerepromisedfroma

specialistapproach.However,argumentsrelatingtohumanrights

andsocialjusticehavealsobeenveryimportantinadvancingan

inclusiveapproachtoeducationinourschools.

Oneofthefoundationprinciplesforinclusiveeducationisthatitis

afundamentalhumanrighttobeavaluedandincludedmember

ofone’slocalcommunity.Schoolsareplaceswherechildrenand

youngpeoplespendmuchoftheirtime,andschoolsneedto

reflectstudents’rightstoafullysupportedinclusiveeducationthat

isconcernedwithaccesstoallaspectsofsociety,participation,

citizenship,civilrights,socialjustice,empowermentandself-

determination(Ballard,�004a,�007;ConnorandFerri,�007;GordonandMorton,

�008;Higgins,MacArthurandKelly,inpress).Fordisabledchildrenandyoung

people,thismeansenjoyingtheordinaryexperiencesofchildhood

andyouthalongsidetheirfamilies,whanauandfriends;andthat

theireducationenhancestheirtransitionintoafullandsatisfying

adultlifeinthecommunity.

Accesstoqualityeducationisalsoabasichumanright.TheNew

ZealandHumanRightsCommission(�004)describeseducationas

‘criticaltothedevelopmentofhumanpotential,totheenjoyment

ofthefullrangeofhumanrightsandtorespectfortherightsof

others.Educationalsoactsasaprotectorofchildren’srights.The

righttoeducationstraddlescivilandpoliticalrights,andeconomic,

socialandculturalrights’(p68).

Ataninternationallevel,arangeofhumanrightscovenantsand

conventionsprovidesupportforinclusiveeducation.

In�007,VernorMunoz,theUnitedNationsHumanRightsCouncil’s

SpecialRapporteurontheRighttoEducation,emphasisedthat

inclusiveeducationfittedwitharticle�5,paragraph�,ofthe

InternationalCovenantonEconomic,SocialandCulturalRights;

witharticles�3and�9oftheUnitedNationsConventiononthe

RightsoftheChild(UNCRC);withthe�994SalamancaStatement;

andwiththe�007UnitedNationsConventionontheRightsof

PersonswithDisabilities(UNCRPD).Munozarguesthatspecial

educationneedstobedismantledtomakewayforoneinclusive

educationsystem,becausespecialeducationparadigmsreinforce

prejudiceanddiscriminationtowardsdisabledpeople,whilethey

‘pushout(fromthemainstream)studentswhodonotmeasureup

toperformancegoals’(p7).

TheNewZealandDisabilityStrategy(Dalziel,�00�),theUNCRC,and

theUNCRPD(UnitedNations,�006)allprovideausefulrights-based

contextforthinkingabouthowandwhyNewZealandschoolscan

worktowardsinclusion.Morethanthis,theyprovideaguidance

imperativeforeducationpolicymakersinAotearoaNewZealandto

adoptamuchstrongerpositiononchildren’srights.Thedisability

strategyandtheUNCRPDarebothbasedonasocialmodelof

disabilityandfocusontheeliminationofbarriersinsociety–

includingineducation–toensurethatdisabledchildren,young

peopleandadultslearnandliveinasocietythatisinclusive.

The.New.Zealand.Disability.Strategy:.making.a.world.of.difference.–.whakanui.oranga

TheNewZealandDisabilityStrategyaimsforaninclusivesociety

byeliminatingbarrierstopeoplewithimpairmentsparticipatingin

andcontributingtosociety.ThestrategystatesthatNewZealand

willbeinclusivewhenwelivein‘asocietythathighlyvaluesour

livesandcontinuallyenhancesourfullparticipation’(Dalziel,�00�,

p7).Intheareaofeducation,thestrategyaimsto‘ensurethatno

childisdeniedaccesstotheirlocalregularschoolbecauseoftheir

impairment’(Dalziel,�00�,p�6).

Itprovidesaframeworktoensurethatgovernmentdepartments

andagenciesinvolveandconsiderpeoplewithdisabilitiesinall

aspectsoftheirwork.Schoolsarepartofthiswiderprocessunder

objectives3,4,�3,andtheirassociatedactions(Dalziel,�00�):

Objective3:Providethebesteducationfordisabledpeople.

Human.rights.and..social.justice8

Action3.3:Ensurethatteachersandothereducators

understandthelearningneedsofdisabledpeople.

Action3.6:Improveschools’responsivenesstoand

accountabilityfortheneedsofdisabledstudents(p�6).

Objective4:Provideopportunitiesinemploymentand

economicdevelopmentfordisabledpeople.

Action4.8:Encouragethedevelopmentofarangeof

employmentoptionsrecognisingthediverseneedsof

disabledpeople(p�7).

Objective�3:Enabledisabledchildrenandyouthtolead

fullandactivelives;affirmtherighttoagoodfutureand

toparticipateineducation,relationships,leisure,work,and

politicalprocesses;facilitatetheiractiveparticipationinthe

community(Dalziel,�00�,p�3).

Action�3.�:Ensureallagenciesthatsupportchildren,youth

andfamiliesworkcollaborativelytoensurethatservicesare

accessible,appropriateandwelcomingtodisabledchildren,

youthandtheirfamilies(p�7).

TheMinistryofEducationisrequiredtoprovidetheMinister

ofDisabilityIssueswithanannualworkplantoestablish

progresstowardsmeetingtheobjectivesandactionsofthe

DisabilityStrategy.

The.United.Nations.Convention.on.the.Rights..of.the.Child.

TheUNCRCiswrittenforallchildren,andassuchisentirely

relevanttodisabledchildren.NewZealandisasignatorytothis

importantconventionthatestablishestherightsofallchildrenin

NewZealandandelsewhere,althoughtheconventionisnotoften

discussedinrelationtotherightsofchildrenwithdisabilitiesin

thiscountry.Itiscriticalthattheconventionbecomesmorevisible

asthearticleshighlightimportantideasaboutchildren’srights

tonon-discrimination,equalopportunityandfullparticipation

incommunitysettings,includingschools(BrayandGates,�000).The

followingarticlesareparticularlyrelevanttotheplaceandfull

participationofdisabledchildrenandyoungpeopleintheirlocal

regularschool:

Article�emphasisestheprincipleofnon-discrimination

andthatallchildrenshouldenjoytheirrights.Children

withdisabilitiesshouldbegiventhesamepossibilityto

leadagoodlifeaseveryoneelse.

Article3supportsthebestinterestsofthechildasa

primaryconsiderationinallactionsconcerningchildren.

Thisarticlemeansthattheinterestsofparentsor

thestateshouldnotbetheprimaryconsideration.In

education,thisarticleisareminderthateducational

decisionsshouldbemadewithfullconsiderationgivento

thechild’srightstoreceiveahighqualityeducation.

Article��concernsrespectingtheviewsofthechild.This

articlereferstotherightofchildrentobeheardandto

havetheirviewstakenseriously.

Article�3appliesspecificallytodisabledchildrenand

statesthatdisabledchildrenshallenjoy‘afullanddecent

lifeinconditionswhichensuredignity,promoteself-

reliance,andfacilitatethechild’sactiveparticipationin

thecommunity’.Thisincludesrightstoaccesseducation.

Article�3alsoestablishesthedisabledchild’srightto

specialcare,freeofchargewhereverpossible,andraises

questionsabouttheavailabilityofresourcestosupport

fullparticipation.

NewZealand’strackrecordinrelationtotheconventionisnot

strong,withActionforChildrenandYouthinAotearoa(ACYA,

�003)reportingonthelackofimplementationoftheconvention

withregardtotherightsofdisabledchildrenandyoungpeople

inNewZealand.ACYArelatedtheseshortcomingstothelackof

responsibilitybetweenagencies,andtoinadequateservicesand

supportsthatmeanparentsareforcedtostrugglewithsystems

(includingeducationsystems)andadvocatefortheirchildren,rather

thanreceivingsupportsasofright.

The.United.Nations.Convention.on.the.Rights..of.Persons.with.Disabilities

On30March�007,NewZealandjoinedwith80otherStates

tosigntheUNCRPD.Theconventionrepresentsaworldwide

commitmenttoimprovetheopportunitiesfordisabledpeopleto

haveanordinarylifeonthesamebasisasotherpeople.Itsetsout

therightsofdisabledpeopleandacodeofimplementationfor

governments.Theconventionsaysthatgovernmentsshouldensure

thatdisabledpeoplehaveopportunities,choicesandrightsonthe

samebasisasnon-disabledpeople;shouldnotexperienceany

discriminationonthebasisoftheirimpairments;andshouldbeable

toenjoythefullrangeofhumanrightsthatotherpeopleenjoy.

Insteadofdisabilitybeingahealthorsocialwelfarematter,the

conventionpromotesaviewofdisabilityasahumanrightsissue.

Itisbasedonthesocialmodelofdisabilityandacknowledgesthat

societalbarriersandprejudicesarethemselvesdisabling,andthat

theparticipationofdisabledpeopleinsocietywillbeachievedby

removingthesebarriers.

Specificreferenceismadetoinclusiveeducationasagoalin

workingtowardsinclusivenessinthecommunity(oneofthemain

themesintheconvention).Ratherthanseparatingdisabledpeople

fromtherestofthecommunity,governmentsneedtoacknowledge

thatdisabledpeople,likeotherpeople,usuallyflourishbestwithin

thecommunity,ratherthanoutsideit,andhaveacontribution

tomake.

Thisfocusoninclusivenessextendsintoeducationwiththe

conventionestablishingtherightofdisabledpeopletoeducation

inarticle�4:

StatesPartiesrecognisetherightofpersonswithdisabilities

toeducation.Withaviewtorealisingthisrightwithout

discriminationandonthebasisofequalopportunity,States

Partiesshallensureaninclusiveeducationsystematall

levels…

Inrealisingthisright,StatesPartiesshallensurethat:

a) Personswithdisabilitiesarenotexcludedfromthe

generaleducationsystemonthebasisofdisability,and

thatchildrenwithdisabilitiesarenotexcludedfromfree

andcompulsoryprimaryeducation,orfromsecondary

education,onthebasisofdisability

b) Personswithdisabilitiescanaccessaninclusive,quality

andfreeprimaryeducationandsecondaryeducationon

anequalbasiswithothersinthecommunitiesinwhich

theylive

c) Reasonableaccommodationoftheindividual’s

requirementsisprovided

d) Personswithdisabilitiesreceivethesupportrequired,

withinthegeneraleducationsystem,tofacilitatetheir

effectiveeducation

e) Effectiveindividualisedsupportmeasuresareprovided

inenvironmentsthatmaximiseacademicandsocial

development,consistentwiththegoaloffullinclusion.

Atthetimeofwriting,NewZealandhadyettoratifythe

convention.Statesthatdoratifyneedtoensuretheircurrentand

futurelegislationandpoliciesareconsistentwithitsarticlesand

treatdisabledpeopleonthesamebasisasotherpeople.When

theconventionbecomesinternationallaw,itcanbereferredtoby

courtsintheirdecision-making.

Anewdisabilitycommitteehasbeencreatedbytheconvention

tomonitorimplementationbystates.Eachstatethatratifiesthe

conventionwillneedtoreporttothiscommitteeregularly,ina

similarwaytotheirreportsonotherconventions.

Social.justice

Socialjusticeinschoolsisconcernedwithfairness,andwith

valuingandsupportingallchildren,irrespectiveoftheirindividual

circumstances(Ainscow,�999;Ballard,�004a;Barton,�997).Asocialjustice

positiongivesrecognitiontothefactthatchildrenenterschoolwith

unequalsituationsandinequalityofopportunity,andthatschools

needtocompensateforthis.Socialjusticepositionsalsoemphasise

recognitionofandpositiveregardfordiversity,andtheimportance

ofpeoplebeingabletodeveloppositiveselfandgroupidentities

(suchasgayorlesbian,ordisabled).Inrelationtodisabledstudents

ineducation,Higgins,MacArthurandKelly(inpress)suggestthat

ideasaboutsocialjusticecanbetakenfurtherineducation,and

arguethatteacherscanexpressaconcernforsocialjusticethrough

theirteachingby:

�. supportingdisabledstudentstobeactiveintheshaping

oftheirownschoolexperiences(studentagency)

�. supportingdisabledstudentstodemonstratetheir

competenceandability

3. transformingandaffirmingideasaboutdiversityinthe

classroomsothatdisabledstudentsdevelopapositive

senseofthemselvesasdisabledchildrenandyoung

people.

Thislastpointisimportantbecauseitemphasisesthatteachers

canactivelysupportdisabledstudentsbycreatingclassroom

environmentswherediversityisrecognisedandrespondedtoin

positivewaysbystudentsandteachers.

Supportforinclusioncomesfromawiderangeofeducation

researchthatlooksattheexperiencesofdisabledstudentsat

school,andhowtheytransitiontoadultlife.Mostoftheresearch

inthisareahasfocusedontheexperiencesofstudentsinregular

schools;someoftheresearchiscomparative(thatis,itcompares

thelearningandsocialexperiencesofstudentsinregularversus

segregated,specialeducationsettings),andsomerecentresearch

hasbeguntolookatdisabledstudents’ownviewsontheir

experiencesofschool.Thislastgroupofstudiesisparticularly

valuablebecauseithighlightssomeofthechallengesstillfacing

disabledstudentsastheynegotiatetheirschoolday,andassuchit

providesteachersandschoolswithusefulinformationwithwhichto

developmoreinclusivepractices.

Itisimportanttonotethatthereisanimbalanceintheresearch

literature,asmoststudieshavebeencarriedoutinregularschools.

Veryfewrecentstudiesexaminedisabledstudents’experiences

inspecialschools.Thiscouldbebecauseresearchersaremainly

interestedintheteachingapproachesthatsupportstudents’

learningandsocialrelationshipsinregularschools.Butitisalso

possiblethatspecialeducationsettingsaresimply(anduncritically)

acceptedasbeingeffective,andthatitisthereforeuptoregular

educationsettingsto‘prove’thatincomparisontheyarejustas

goodorbetterthansegregatedoptions.Keepingthesepointsin

mind,theresearchdoesrevealsomehighlyconsistentmessages

aboutdisabledstudentslearningandsocialexperiencesinregular

andspecialeducationsettings.

Thischapterconsiderstheresearchondisabledstudents’learning

andsocialexperiencesinregularandspecialeducationsettings.

Someoftheresearchsummarisedherecomesfrompreviouswork

completedforaliteraturereviewaspartoftheNewZealand

MinistryofEducation’sresearchprogrammeEnhancingEffective

PracticeinSpecialEducationforStudentswithModerateandHigh

Needs(MacArthur,Kelly,Higgins,Phillips,McDonald,MortonandJackman,�005).

Additionalresearchpublishedsince�003hasbeenaddedto

thiswork.

Asimilaranalysisoftheresearchondisabledstudents’school

experienceswasundertakenin�004byDrSharonRustemierfor

TheCentreforStudiesinInclusiveEducation(CSIE),intheUnited

Kingdom.ThisworkissummarisedintheCSIEstatement‘Reasons

AgainstSegregatedSchooling’(seeAppendixA).CSIEalsolaunchedthe

IndexforInclusion.Rustemierfoundagrowingbodyofresearch

andpersonaltestimoniesfromdisabledpeoplethatsupportedthe

phasingoutofsegregationineducationandthedevelopmentof

fullysupportedinclusiveeducation.Shenotedtheconsistencyof

suchashiftwithkeyideasaboutnon-discrimination,equal

opportunityandparticipationfoundintheUNCRC,anddescribed

suchamoveineducationasahumanrightsimperative.Segregated

schoolinghasneverprovedtobesuperiortomainstreameducation,

andshefoundnocompellingevidencethatsegregated‘special’

educationprogrammeshavehadsignificantbenefitsforstudents.

Instead,segregationwasfoundtobeassociatedwithnegative

studentexperiences,includingreducedlearning,impoverishedsocial

experiencesandpoorpreparationforadultandcommunitylife.

Comparisons.of.disabled.students’.learning.in.special.and.regular.education.settings.

Someresearchcomparesthelearningofdisabledstudentsin

regularclassroomswithstudentsinspecialeducationsettings

(specialeducationsettingsincludeapproachesthatwithdraw

disabledstudentsfromregularclassrooms).Thiscomparative

researchhaslookedatstudents’academiclearninginmathematics,

readingandotherareasofthecurriculum,andatstudentbehaviour.

Disabledstudentshavebeenfoundtodobetteracademically

and,intermsoftheirbehaviour,inregularclassrooms(Buckley,�008;

Buckley,Bird,SachsandArcher,�006;Giangreco,�997;Ritter,�999;Reaetal,�00�;

WaldronandMcLeskey,�998;Turner,AlborzandGayle,�008).Reaandcolleagues

(�00�)foundthatinregularclassesinstructionfocusedmoreonthe

regulareducationcurriculum,whereasteachersusingwithdrawal

approaches,wherebystudentsaretakenoutoftheclassroomfor

specialistteaching,hadaremedialfocus.

9 Support.for.the..development.of.inclusive.schools

Someresearchisofparticularnote.InaNorthAmericanstudyof

primaryandsecondaryschools,FisherandMeyer(�00�)compared

thedevelopmentoftwogroupsofstudentswithintellectual

disabilities(�0inregulareducationand�0inspecialeducation

settings)overtwoyears.Theirresearchshowedthatstudentswith

‘moderateandsevereintellectualdisabilities’inregularclassrooms

madegreatergainsintheirsocialbehaviourandintheiroverall

developmentthanstudentsinspecialeducationsettings.Fisherand

Meyerpointoutthatitiscommonlyassumedthatstudents

willachievebetterresultsinspecialeducationsettingsbecause

ofthespecialistapproachestheyoffer,suchasintensiveteaching,

higherratiosofadultstochildren,andspeciallytrainedstaff.

However,theirresearchnowchallengesthisidea,andindicates

insteadthattheregularclassroomisthepreferredplacefor

disabledstudentstolearn.

Along-termstudybyagroupofBritishresearchersprovidesfurther

evidenceforimprovedlearningbystudentswithDownsyndrome

whoattendedregularclassrooms(Buckley,�008;Buckley,Bird,Sachsand

Archer,�006).Buckleyandcolleaguesreportondatacollectedfrom

astudyin�999lookingattheacademicandsociallivesof46

teenagers(�8studentsattendedspecialschools,and�8attended

regularschoolswheretheyweretaughtinregularclassrooms).

Theyoungpeopleinthetwogroupswereplacedinmainstream

orspecialschoolsonthebasisofwheretheylived;theywerefrom

similarsocialandfamilybackgroundsandwerelikelytobeof

similarpotentialabilitieswhentheystartedschool.

Thestudylookedatstudents’progressinspeechandlanguage,

literacy,socialisation,dailylivingskillsandbehaviour.Afollow-up

withthesestudentsasteenagersfoundthatallhadprogressedwith

ageonallthemeasuresexceptforcommunication.Communication

continuedtoimprovethroughteenageyearsforthechildrenin

regularclassrooms,butnotforthoseinspecialschools.Therewere

nosignificantdifferencesinoveralloutcomesfordailylivingskillsor

socialisation.However,thereweremuchlargerandsignificantgains

inexpressivelanguageandliteracyskillsfortheteenagerswho

weretaughtinregularclassrooms.Thesestudentsalsohadfewer

behaviouralchallengesthantheirpeersinspecialschools.

Theauthorswentontocomparethedatafromthisstudywith

similardatapublishedbytwooftheauthorsinanearlierstudy

in�987.Theresultsofthiscomparisonshowednoimprovements

inschoolachievementsinspecial(segregated)educationovera

�3-yearperiodintheUnitedKingdom(�986–�999).Buckleyand

colleaguesconcludethattheirfindingsprovideuncompromising

supportforinclusionandthatnoneoftheirstudieshaveprovided

evidenceforanyeducationaladvantagesofspecialeducation,only

disadvantages.

SimilarfindingscomefromanotherBritishstudybyTurner,Alborz

andGayle(�008)thatfollowedagroupof7�childrenwithDown

syndromebornbetween�973and�980.Datacollectedwhen

thechildrenwereagednine,�3and��yearsshowedthat

schoolplacementhadasignificanteffectonstudents’academic

achievement.ChildrenwithDownsyndromewhowereeducated

inregularclassroomshadhigherachievementsinreading,writing

andmathematicsthanthosetaughtinsegregatedspecialeducation

settings.Theseadvantagescontinuedonintoadultlife(Buckley,�008).

Howdoresearchersexplainstudents’improvedlearninginregular

classroomsascomparedwithsegregated,specialeducation

settings?Somesaythatteachersinregularschoolshavehigher

expectationsforstudentlearning;thatstudentshaveaccessto

appropriaterolemodels;andthereareincreasedopportunitiesfor

academicengagementandachievement(AldersonandGoodey,�998;

AldersonandGoodey,�999;Andrewsetal,�000;Alton-Lee,�003;Reaetal,�00�;

Walther-Thomasetal,�000).

Studentsalsohaveexpandedopportunitiestolearnbecausethey

haveaccesstothegeneralcurriculumandtowider-ranginglearning

andsocialenvironments(FisherandMeyer,�999;Grenot-Scheyeretal,�00�;

Jorgensen,�998;Kavermann,�998;Palmeretal,�00�).Buckleyandcolleagues

(�008)concludefromtheirresearchwithDownsyndromestudents

intheUnitedKingdomthatitisnotpossibletoprovidetop-level

learningenvironmentsinspecialschoolsandclassrooms,however

hardtheteacherswork.Theyarguethatlearningwithinatypically

developingpeergroupmaybeessentialforoptimalprogressfor

twomainreasons.

First,thetypicalspokenlanguageofthepeergroupprovidesa

stimulatinglanguagelearningenvironment.Second,theclassroom

learningenvironmentandcurriculummeanthatthepaceof

learninghasbeenmuchfasterforthoseinregularclasses–they

havebeeninallacademiclessonswithindividualsupportfortheir

learning.

Someresearchershavealsodescribedthebenefitsforallstudents,

andforteachers,whendisabledstudentsareinregularclasses.

Forexample,allstudentscanbenefitfromtheadditionalresources

providedintheregularclassroom.ArecentNorthAmericanstudy

foundthatnon-disabledstudentsinprimaryclasseswhereateacher

aideworkedwiththeirclassteachermadegreaterimprovementsin

theirreadingthantheirpeerswhowereinclasseswithnoteacher

aide(Ghandi,�007).Studentslearnthatdiversityispartoflife,andthat

teamworkandco-operationarerequiredinschoolsforallstudents

tolearnwell(FreedmanandAlkin,�000;Grenot-Scheyeretal,�998;Kavermann,

�998;TapasackandWalther-Thomas,�999;Staub,�998).Withtherightlevelof

supportandleadership,teachersdeveloptheirteachingskillsand

theirconfidenceforworkingwithadiversegroupofstudents,and

learnhowtoworkcollaborativelywithotherprofessionals(Kavermann,

�998;SalendandGarrick-Duhaney,�999;TapasackandWalther-Thomas,�999).

Toensurethatdisabledstudentsparticipatefullyandachievethe

fullbenefitsofinclusiveeducation,severalofthecomparative

studiesdescribedhereemphasisethatschoolsmustbeprovided

withtheguidanceandsupporttheyneedtounderstandinclusion,

andtoworktowardsit.Thismeansensuringthatschoolshavethe

resources,supportsandprofessionaldevelopmentopportunities

thatallowthemtocontinuouslyquestionandimprovetheirown

approachestoteachingandlearning.Italsomeansthatteacher

educationprogrammesmustpreparepre-serviceteacherstowork

ininclusiveschoolsthatincludeadiverserangeofchildren.

The.transition.of.students.from.school.to.adult.life

Howwelldisabledstudentsmakethetransitiontopost-schoollife

isalsoameasureoftheextenttowhichschoolshavesupported

disabledstudents’learning,andpreparedthemforlifeinthe

communityasanadult.Researchonstudents’experiencesasyoung

adultsinthecommunitypointstothebenefitsoflearninginregular

schoolsandclassrooms.Thesesettingsaredescribedasproviding

anaturalenvironmentwithbroadsocialexperiencesandarelevant

curriculumtodeveloptheskillsneededtoliveandworkinthe

community(DiGiacomo,�00�;Saxetal,�00�;WehmanandRevell,�997).

Incontrast,specialeducationsettingsaredescribedasisolating

studentswithdisabilitiesfromtheircommunitiesandfromtheir

non-disabledpeers(WehmanandRevell,�997).NewZealand’snational

statisticsshowhighlevelsofpost-schoolunemploymentforyoung

disabledadults,andthereforeitisnecessarytoensurethatdisabled

studentshaveaccesstorelevantvocationalcurriculaandtowork

experience.Planningforthetransitiontoadultlifeneedstobegin

earlyandbeintegratedintothecurriculumandclassroomteaching

(Bray,�003;Mirfin-Veitch,�003;Robinsonetal,�000).

Comparisons.of.disabled.students’.social.experiences.in.special.and.regular..education.settings

AnewNewZealandcurriculum(MinistryofEducation�007a)was

introducedtoschoolsin�008.Thiscurriculumhasitsfoundations

insocialrelationships,withanoverallvisionforyoungpeoplewho

willbeconfident,connected,activelyinvolved,lifelonglearners.

Connectnessreferstostudents’abilityto‘relatewelltoothers’(p8).

Thevaluestobeencouragedinclude‘equitythroughfairnessand

socialjustice’,and‘communityandparticipationforthecommon

good’(p�0).

Thesocialfoundationsoflearningarewidelyrecognised

internationally,andchildrenwhoexperiencedifficultiesmakingand

maintainingfriendshipsmayfacebarrierstotheirlearning(Alton-Lee

andNuthall,�99�;Deater-Deckard,�00�;GeorgeandBrowne,�000;Heiman,�000;Meyer

etal,�998;Morris,�00�).AdrienneAlton-Leehasdescribedchildren’sand

youngpeople’slearningasbeingsupported‘whenstructuresfor

caring,opportunitiesforcollaborativelearningandappreciationfor

diversityareestablishedinclassrooms’(Alton-Lee,�003,p�3).

Onthebasisofalargestudyofdisabledchildren’sday-to-day

lifeinBritain,researchersJohnDavisandNickWatson(�00�)have

alsopointedoutthatchildren’srightsaresupportedatschool

whenchildrenexperiencepositiverelationshipswiththeirpeers

andteachers,althoughdisabledresearcherJennyMorris(�00�)has

questionedwhetherthispointisrecognisedineducationpolicy

andpractice.Allofthesepointsindicatethatteachersneedtobe

concernedaboutthefriendshipsandothersocialrelationshipsofall

students,considertheextenttowhichstudents’socialexperiences

supporttheirlearning,andtaketheseissuesintoaccountintheir

planningandteaching.

Onlyasmallnumberofoverseasstudieshavecomparedthesocial

experiencesofstudentsinregularclassroomswithstudentstaught

inspecialeducationsettings.Theresearchshowsthatchildrenin

regularclassroomsareadvantagedsociallyovertheirpeersin

segregatedsettings.Studentsinregularclasseshavemore

opportunitiesforplannedandspontaneoussocialinteractionand

socialdevelopment,andlargerfriendshipnetworksthantheirpeers

inspecialeducationsettings(FreedmanandAlkin,�000;Dew-Hughesand

Blandford,�999;FisherandMeyer,�00�;NaakenandPijl,�00�).Theyaremore

sociallycompetent,matureandaccepted(Dew-HughesandBlandford,

�999);initiatemore,andhavehigherqualitysocialinteractionswith

theirpeers(Kennedyetal,�997;LeRoyandSimpson,�996).Dew-Hughesand

Blandfordalsofoundthatstudentsinspecialschoolsweredescribed

bytheirteachersassociallyimmatureandwereatriskbecausetheir

teachersbelievedthiswasinnate.

ThecomparativestudybyFisherandMeyer(�00�)described

earlierfoundthatstudentswith‘moderateandsevereintellectual

disabilities’inregularclasseshadhigherlevelsofsocialcompetence

thanstudentsinspecialeducationsettingsatfollow-up,although

onlythedifferencesondevelopmentalscoreswerelargeenoughto

bestatisticallysignificant.Theresearchersconcludedthatregular

schoolsare:

…atleastasgood,ifnotsomewhatbetterthanself-contained

placementsforthedevelopmentoftraditionaldomainsof

children’sdevelopmentandsocialcompetencemeasuredby

thesetwoassessments(p�7�).

Thestudiesdescribedabovesuggestthatitisthequalityofteaching

approachesinregularclassroomsthatresultsinimprovedsocial

experiencesfordisabledstudents.Inparticular,wherespecific

changeshavebeenmadetoteachingapproachesinregularclasses

inordertoincludediversegroupsofstudents,disabledstudents

havebenefitedsocially.

Disabled.students’.social.experiences.in..regular.schools

Muchoftheresearchlookingatdisabledchildren’ssocial

relationshipsatschoolisconcernedwithstudents’experiencesin

regularschools.Whilethecomparativeresearchdoesshowthat

studentsarebetteroffinregularschools,researchthathasbeen

doneinregularschoolsnonethelessshowsthatdisabledstudents

experiencesomedifficultiesinthisarea.Disabledstudentsare

describedasbeingvulnerabletoisolationandbullying(see,forexample,

ConnorsandStalker,�003foraUKperspective;andMacArthur,etal,�005;MacArthur

andGaffney,�00�;andRietveld,�999,foraNewZealandperspective).Somestudies

havefoundthatstudentsinregulareducationaremorelikelyto

interactwithadultsthanwithpeers(DavisandWatson,�00�;Dew-Hughes

andBlandford,�999;HallandMcGregor,�000).

Importantly,thisresearchalsoshowsthatwhatschoolsandteachers

dotosupportstudentswithdisabilitiesmakesadifferencetotheir

lives(MacArthuretal,�005).SomeNewZealandandinternational

literaturedoesdescribereciprocalfriendshipsbetweenpeoplewith

andwithoutdisabilitiesinschoolsandinothercommunitysettings,

andthisresearchshedssomelightonthefeaturesofclassrooms

andschoolsthatsupportpositivesocialexperiencesandfriendships

fordisabledstudents(EvansandMeyer,�00�;Grenot-Sheyer,FisherandStaub,

�00�;Lyle,�00�;Meyer,�00�;Meyer,Minondo,Fisher,Larson,Dunmore,Blackand

D’Aquanni,�998;RosettiandTashi,�00�;Watsonetal,�000).Theseresearchers

havesuggestedthatthereneedstobeachangeoffocusfrom

‘fixing’disabledstudents(byteachingthem‘socialskills’,for

example)tothinkingabouthowthewiderschoolenvironmentcan

supportallstudentstodevelopfriendshipsandpositiverelationships

witheachother.

Rietveld’s(�999)NewZealandresearchtakesupthischallenge.Her

workinclassroomswithnewentrantswhohaveDownsyndrome

showedthatsomestudentswithdisabilitiesweretreatedasobjects

bytheirnon-disabledpeersorasrecipientsofcharity.Sheargued

thatteachersneedtoensurerelationshipsareequalbysupporting

studentstoengageindirectandreciprocalinteractions;byensuring

allstudentshaveaccesstomaterials;byestablishinginthe

classroomanacceptanceofdiversity;andbyencouragingstudents

toexplorearangeofrelationships.Threestudieshavehighlighted

thecloseproximityofteacheraidesasaparticularbarrierto

studentsinteractingwitheachother(Lyle,�00�;MacArthur,Sharp,Kellyand

Gaffney,�007;Phillips,�997).

Theresearchalsodescribesdisabledstudentsasactivelytryingto

improvetheirownsituationatschoolbyseekingfriendshipsand

resistingbarrierstofriendshipthatpeersandadultssometimes

placeintheway(DavisandWatson,�00�;Howard,CohnandOrsmond,�006;

MacArthur,�00�;MacArthurandGaffney,�00�;MacArthur,Sharp,KellyandGaffney,

�007;MacArthur,Sharp,GaffneyandKelly,�007).

Lyle(�00�)exploredtheclosefriendshipsoftwogirlswithhighand

veryhighneedsintworegularNewZealandprimaryschools.

Thisstudyalsodescribestheactiveroleofchildren,supported

byteachersandparents,inestablishingandmaintainingvalued

friendships,andstressestheimportanceofbuildingaschool

environmentandcultureinwhichrelationshipsarevaluedby

teachersandothers,andwherestudentsaresupportedtohavetime

togetherunattendedbyadults.

Allofthesestudiesunderlinetheimportanceoflisteningtostudent

perspectives,withprimaryandsecondarystudentsidentifying

severalbarrierstofriendshipdevelopmentatschool,including:

studentswithdisabilitiessittinginadifferentpartofthe

classroom

doingdifferentwork;beinggroupedtogetheronthebasis

ofdisability,ratherthaningroupswithotherstudents

notparticipatinginschooltrips

eatinglunchandspendingbreaktimesinseparateplaces

rarelyhavingtimewithpeersthatisfreefromadult

supervision.

Thevulnerabilityofdisabledstudentstobullyingneedstobe

mentionedasestimatessuggestthatthesestudentsaremorethan

twiceaslikelytobebulliedthantheirnon-disabledpeers(Marini,

FairbairnandZuber,�00�).NewZealandresearchbyMacArthurand

Gaffney(�00�)showedthatadultswerenotalwaysawareofbullying

despitedisabledstudentscitingitasthethingtheyhatedmost

aboutschool,apointalsomadeinalaterstudy(MacArthurandKelly,

�004;MacArthur,Sharp,GaffneyandKelly,�007).

Studentsandparentsinthesestudiesfeltthatteachersgave

minimalsupporttohelpthemdealwithbullying,suggestingthat,in

workingtowardsinclusion,teachersneedtoconsiderthepossibility

ofunequalrelationshipsintheirschool–betweenstudents,but

alsobetweenstudentsandteachers.Thisresearchsuggeststhat

teachersneedtobealerttothepossibilityofbullyingandtake

seriouslystudents’experiencesastheyreportthem.Schoolsmay

alsoneedsupporttodevelopaninclusivecultureinwhichbullying

doesnotoccur,anddealwithideasaboutdifferenceanddiversityin

positiveandrespectfulways(MacArthur,Sharp,GaffneyandKelly,�007).

Disabled.students’.perspectives.on.their.learning.and.social.experiences.in.regular.schools.

Someresearchisconcernedspecificallywithstudents’views

ontheirschoolexperiencesandonschoolstructuresand

teachingapproachesthathelporhindertheirlearningandsocial

relationships.Students’uniqueperspectivesindicatethatworking

towardsinclusionalsoinvolveslisteningandrespondingtotheir

views(DavisandWatson,�00�;ConnorsandStalker,�003;HumphryandLewis,

�008;Lewis,ParsonsandRobertson,�006;MacArthur,Sharp,KellyandGaffney,�007;

MacArthur,Sharp,GaffneyandKelly,�007).Givingstudentsopportunitiesto

expresstheirviewsonmattersthataffectthemisarightunderthe

UnitedNationsConventionontheRightsoftheChild,andteachers

canusethisvaluablesourceofinformationtodevelopmore

inclusiveapproachesintheirclassroomsandschools.

The.effects.of.impairment.and.disability.

InaNewZealandstudythatfollowedninedisabledstudents

astheytransitionedfromprimarytosecondaryschool,students

describedanumberofareaswheretheyfeltschoolsneededto

changetobeinclusiveofdiversity(MacArthur,Sharp,KellyandGaffney,

�007;MacArthur,Sharp,GaffneyandKelly,�007).Studentssaidthatteachers

neededtohaveabetterunderstandingabouttheeffectsof

impairmentontheirschoollifeinordertohelpthemwiththeir

learning.Joanne,forexample,wasoftentoldoffforbeinglate

forclassathersecondaryschool.Shefounditnecessaryto

writealettertoherteacherstoexplainabouttheaspectsofher

impairmentthatmeantshewassometimeslate,orunableto

completeherclasswork.Inaninterestingreversalofrolesshe

tookonthetaskofeducatingherteachers,andconcludedwiththe

commentthatshehopedherletterhadhelpedthemtounderstand,

butifteachersneededfurtherinformationtheyshould‘feelfree

toask’.

Studentsinthisstudyalsodescribedtheeffectsofdisability–being

bullied,feelingsociallyisolated,andbeingexcludedfromclass

andculturalactivities.Emmasaidshefelt‘scared’tospeakinher

Year9classbecausehervoicesoundeddifferent,and,eventhough

shehadideastocontribute,shedidnotwanttoparticipatein

discussionsbecauseshewouldbeteased.

LukewassentoutofhisYear9classonseveraloccasionsbecause

hewas‘woundup’,butoftentheseeventswereprecededby

bullyingoutinthehallwayorschoolgrounds.Heusedhisschool’s

officialsystemstochallengebullyingwhenithappenedandsaid

that,whilethesecouldbeeffective,hewasnotalwaysbelieved.

Adamdescribedhowsometeachersdidnotalwaysunderstand

hisimpairment,andhewasveryupsetthatoneofhisteachers

wouldshoutathimwheneverhedidsomethingincorrectly.

Anotherteacherinhisschoolsupportedhisattemptstoimprove

hissituationbysuggestingheattendameetingwheretheissue

couldbeaddressed.Adamsaidhewaspleasedwiththeresultsof

thismeeting,whichhadgivenhimanopportunitytoairhisviews

andhadresultedintheteacher‘…gettingawordfromit,and

nowshe’sbehaving’.WhileAdam’steacherworkedwithhimto

resolvetheproblem,otherstudentsinthestudyweremorelikely

tofacechallengesontheirown,andfelttherewerefewifany

opportunitiestoexpresstheirviews.

Students’.views.on.their.learning.and.social.experiences

Typically,disabledstudentsreporthavingdifficultieswithfriendships

atschool,andoftendescribebeingisolatedandlonely.Students

inthesestudieswerealsoactivethemselvesinsocialandlearning

processes.Theyhadideasabouthowtodevelopfriendships

oraddressissuessuchasbullying,andabouthowtoimprove

theirownlearning.InarecentUKstudy,forexample,disabled

studentstalkedingreatdepthabouttheirschoolandcommunity

experiences,sometimessurprisingschoolstaffwiththecomplexity

andfullnessoftheirviews(Lewis,ParsonsandRobertson,�006).Successin

theseareaswasmostlikelywhenteacherslistenedtotheirstudentsandsupportedthem

intheseprocesses(MacArthur,�00�;MacArthuretal,�005).Listeningtostudent

viewsisthefirststep,andactingonthemisanessentialsecond

stepthatrequirestheinvestmentoftime,resourcesandexpertise

(Lewis,ParsonsandRobertson,�006).

TheEducable(�000)studywascarriedoutbyagroupofyoung

disabledpeoplewhointerviewedover50disabledstudentsinfour

specialschoolsinNorthernIreland.Theresearchersalsoincluded

sevenyoungpeoplewithintellectualdisabilitiesundertheageof

�5whohadbeeneducatedinspecialschools.

Studentsinterviewedsaidthatteachershadlowexpectationsfor

theirlearning.Theywerenotencouragedtoundertakeserious

study,andtheydescribedteachersasdisrespectfultowardsdisabled

studentsandasunderminingtheirabilitytoachievepost-school

aspirations.Theywantedtohavebroadersocialnetworksthat

wentbeyondtheirfamilies,todevelopknowledge,andgain

usefulqualificationsfortheirpost-schoollives.Studentsaskedfor

opportunitiestosharetheirownviewsontheirpersonalstrengths

andweaknesses,andofferanopinionontheamountofassistance

theyrequiredtoachievetheirpost-schoolaspirations.

Theresearchersstated:

Nooneexpectsustodowellinexamsandgoonto

haveacareerorevenadecentjob.Changingthismeans

challengingamindsetthatseesthedisabilitynottheperson

andthatfailstorecognisethatwhileitmighttakeayoung

personwithadisabilitylongertoachievegoalswecanstill

doit(Educable,�000,p56).

Allparticipantsinthestudyagreedthat:

…inanidealworld,whereallclasssizeswouldbesmaller

andallschoolsaccessible,thereshouldbenosuchthingas

segregatedschooling(p55).

InBallardandMcDonald’s(�999)NewZealandstudy,Marilyn,a

womaninherthirtieswhohadasignificantphysicaldisability,also

talkedabouttheimpactofbothhighandlowteacherexpectations

onheracademiclearningatsecondaryschool.Supportiveteachers

didnotseeherprimarilyassomeonewithadisability,whilein

contrastanunsupportivescienceteacherlimitedheropportunities

byexpectingherto‘justwatchandlearn’(p�00),ratherthanbe

activelyinvolved.Shefeltthatthisteacherexpectedpeoplewith

physicaldisabilitiestobeincompetentinscienceareas,anattitude

thatshedescribedas,‘reallysadbecause,especiallywhenyouhave

analternativewayoflookingatthings,youwouldmakeagreat

scientist’(p�00).

Inotherstudiesthatexplorestudents’experiencesprimarilyin

regularschools,teacheraidesareoftensingledout,withstudents

describingtoomuchadultcontrolovertheirlivesandtoomuch

closesupportthatpreventspeersfrombecominginvolved.Students

askedformoreprivacy,andforadultstobemoreconsiderateofthe

wayinwhichtheirpresenceinfluencestheirrelationshipswithnon-

disabledpeers(ConnorsandStalker,�003;DavisandWatson,�00�;Lewisetal,

�006;Lovitt,PlavinsandCushing,�999;MacArthurandGaffney,�00�;MacArthur,Sharp,

KellyandGaffney,�007;MacArthur,Sharp,GaffneyandKelly,�007).

Studentshavealsosaidthattheydislikethewayspecialeducation

supportrequiresthemtoassociatewithothersonthebasisof

disability,andseparatesthemfromtheirpeersinregularclasses

(DavisandWatson,�00�;Lovittetal,�999;Kavermann,�998;Klingneretal,�998;

MacArthur,Sharp,KellyandGaffney,�007;MacArthur,Sharp,GaffneyandKelly,�007;

PadeliaduandZigmond,�996;PugachandWesson,�995;VaughnandKlinger,�998).

Whilesomestudentsacknowledgethesupportiveenvironment

oftheseclasses,moststressthattheseapproachestolearning

arestigmatising;limittheiropportunitiesforlearning;causethem

tomissoutonchallenging,academic,andsocialactivities;and

limitopportunitiesforfriendship(MacArthuretal,�005).Forexample,

JoanneandEmma(aged�3)dislikedbeinggroupedtogetherin

theirregularsecondaryschoolclass,andcomplainedthatteachers

thoughtofthemasoneperson,evenmixingtheirnamesup.

Joannesaid:

Whenwegointogroupssometimespeopledon’twantme,

andsometimespeopledon’twantEmma,sowehavetobe

puttogetherandIthinkthatisstupid…sometimesmeand

Emmagetleftoutandstuff,andsothentheteacherthinks,

‘Allright,IwillputEmmaandJoanneinthisgroupsotheycan

worktogether’.AndIamlike,‘Butnothankyou,canIgointhis

group?’(MacArthur,Sharp,GaffneyandKelly,�007,p�8).

Studentsinthesestudiesdescribeanumberofotherbarriersthat

interferewiththeirattemptstomakefriends,includingpooraccess

tostudent-centredspacessuchasplayingfields,beingignoredby

otherstudentsandbeingbullied.

Bullyingisacommonconcernforstudentsinbothspecialand

regulareducationsettings,andinMacarthurandGaffney’s(�00�)

NewZealandstudy,disabledstudentsreportedthatinmostcases

teacherseitherdidnotwitnessbullyingorfailedtorespondto

reportsofbullying.Studentsatprimaryandsecondaryschool

expressedadesiretohavefriends,butexperiencedarange

ofbarriersinthisareaoftheirschoollife,includingaspectsof

impairment(suchaslowvision)thatmadeitdifficulttogetto

knowothers;poorunderstandingbyadultsatschoolabouthow

disabledchildrenexperienceschool;littlesupportfornon-disabled

peerstounderstandandgettoknowchildrenwithdisabilities;and

teacherattitudesandclassroompracticesthatidentifieddisabled

studentsasdifferentinnegativeways.Someschoolsinthisstudy,

andinalaterstudy(MacArthur,Sharp,Kelly,andGaffney,�007),didprioritise

andprovidesupportforstudents’friendshipsbybuildingaschool

cultureinwhichdiversitywasvaluedandunequalpowerrelations

betweenstudentswererejected.Someparentsidentifiedthese

schoolsasplaceswherebullyingsimplywouldnothappen.

Someresearchrecordsthepreferencesofdisabledstudentsto

havefriendswhoalsohaveadisability(MacArthurandGaffney,�00�;

Matheson,OlsenandWeisner,�007;D’Haem,�008).Mathesonetal(�007)

notethatthesefriendshipsoftenendwhenstudentstransitionto

adultlife,andsuggestthatschoolsandfamiliesmayneedtofind

opportunitiesforschool-basedfriendshipstocontinueoutofschool

andintoadulthood.BritishresearchersBuckleyetal(�006)noted

thattheonlybenefitofsegregatededucationintheirlong-term

studyseemedtobecontactwithapeergroupofsimilardisability,

buttheyconcludedthat‘consideringthesignificantdisadvantages

ofspecialeducation,thatneedisbettermetoutofschool,andin

betterplannedinclusion’(p6�).

Students’.experiences.of.‘difference’

Students’negativeexperiencesatschoolinthesestudieswereoften

associatedwiththeirimpairments,anditisnotsurprising,therefore,

thatstudentsgenerallyviewimpairmentasanegativeaspectof

theirself-identity.Inhisfirstyearatsecondaryschool,Lukerefused

toparticipateinSpecialOlympics,sayingthat,‘PeoplewillthinkI’m

retarded’(MacArthur,Sharp,GaffneyandKelly,�007,p�8).InHumphreyand

Lewis’sUKstudy(�008),studentswithautismdescribedthemselves

innegativetermswiththeoptionsofbeing‘beingdifferent’or

‘notnormal’underlyingtheirdescriptionsofthemselves.When

talkingabouthowhefeltabouthavingautism,onepupilreplied,

‘Sometimesit’slike,“makemenormal”’(p3�).

LikethestudentsinthestudybyMacArthuretal,thesestudents

constructedaviewofthemselvesandtheirimpairmentsthrough

theirrelationshipswithandfeedbackfromothers.Disabledstudents

experienceamultitudeofrelationshipsatschoolinwhichthey

aredefinedbytheirimpairment,despitetheirexpresswishtobe

astudentlikeeveryoneelse.OnestudentinHumphreyandLewis’

studyevensaidthatheregrettedthatschoolstaffhadeverbeen

toldthathehadAspergersyndrome:

I’dprefertheydidn’tknowbecauseeveryonetreatsme

differently,andIdon’tlikebeingtreateddifferently.But

Idon’tlikebeingtreateddifferentlyasifI’mretarded

but…That’showsomelookatitisthatI’mretardedand

Ireallydon’tlikethat,itreallybugsme(p3�).

Studentsdislikeanyarrangementsatschoolthatmakethem

feeldifferentinnegativeways,suchaslarge,noisyandoutdated

computerequipment;withdrawalfromclassforspecialistsupport;

andteacheraideswhosittoocloseanddon’tprovidethemwith

thespaceneededtobepartoftheclass.Joanne,�3,explainedthat

whileshefeltequalwithherpeers,structureslikeabilitygrouping

andwithdrawalfromherregularclassforspecialistsupportcould

threatenthisviewofherselfandmakeherfeeldifferent:

Joanne: IfeellikeIamanequal,andthatsetsmedowna

bitlikethinking,‘Ohwell,Ihavetogointhisgroup

becauseIamdifferent’.

Interviewer: Wouldyouratherjustbeintheotherclass?

Joanne: Yeah,justinthenormalhomeroomandlikeinthe

otherreadinggroup.

Interviewer: Doyougetanychancestosaythattoyourteachers?

Joanne: No,notreally.

(MacArthur,Sharp,GaffneyandKelly,�007,p�8.)

Theresearchdescribedinthissectionshowsthatdisabledstudents

expressastrongdesiretobeviewedandtreatedaspartofthe

groupofallstudentsatschool,andnottobetreatedinnegative

waysthatmakethemfeel‘different’.Theywanttheirteacherstoget

toknowthem,togivethemopportunitiestoexpresstheirviews,

havetheirviewslistenedto,andtotaketheseintoconsiderationin

theclassroomsothattheycanlearn,bepartofthepeergroup,and

participatefully.MacArthur,Sharp,KellyandGaffney(�007)suggest

thatteachersneedthekindofflexibleprofessionaldevelopment

opportunitiesofferedbytheIndexforInclusion.

Inparticular,teachersneedtimetotalkwiththeirstudentsand

theirfamiliesandwhanau;toshareideasandexperienceswith

otherteachers;andtoconsultwithcolleagueswhocanprovide

informationandsupportinrelationtotheeffectsofstudents’

impairments.Theoftenproblematicrelationshipsthatdisabled

studentsdescribewiththeirteachersandpeersatschoolare

furtherproofthatschoolsneedtochange.DavisandWatson(�00�)

agree,andpointoutthatthefosteringofrespectful,equitableand

supportiverelationshipsisavitalstartingpoint.Children’srightsare

exercisedthroughacceptingrelationshipswithothers,so‘anything

whichenablestheestablishmentandmaintenanceofempowering

relationships,willalsoacttosupporttherightsofchildren’(p��3).

In.summary

Disabledstudentstalkabouthavingdifficultieswith:

friendshipsandfeelinglonely,especiallyatbreaktimes

teacherswhohavelowexpectationsfortheirlearningand

donotencourageseriousstudy

toomuchadultcontrolovertheirlifeatschool

toomuchclosesupportfromteacheraides

notenoughprivacy

beinggroupedtogetheronthebasisofdisabilityfor

‘special’teaching.

Studentsalsodescribebarrierstomakingfriends:

notbeingabletogettotheplaceswhereotherstudents

gather

beingbullied

teachersnotunderstandinghowthingslikeimpairedvision

ordifficultieswithmobilitycanmakeithardtofindfriends

notenoughsupportbyteachersfornon-disabledstudents

tounderstandandgettoknowdisabledstudents

teacherattitudesandteachingapproachesthatmake

disabledstudentsappear‘different’innegativeways.

Studentsasktobepartofthegroupofallchildrenandyoung

peopleatschool,andtheywanttheirteachersto:

gettoknowthem

givethemopportunitiestotalkaboutwhatschoolislike

forthem

listentotheirviews

taketheirviewsintoconsiderationwhentheyareplanning

andteachingsotheycanlearn

supportthemtomakeschoolabetterplaceforthem

allowthemtobepartofthewholepeergroupandtobe

fullyinvolved.

Forthesethingstohappen,teachersneedtime:

totalkwiththeirstudentsandtheirfamiliesandwhanau

toshareideasandexperienceswithotherteachers

toconsultwithcolleagueswhocaninformthemaboutthe

effectsofstudents’impairmentsontheirlearning

developrespectfulandequalrelationshipsintheirschool.

Concluding.comments

Thefindingsfromcomparativeresearchstudiesdonotbearout

theassumptionsassociatedwith‘specialeducation’thatseparate

settingswillprovidemoreindividualisedinstruction,specialist

resourcesanddeliverabettereducationalandsocialexperience

forstudentswithdisabilities.Theprovisionofseparateschoolsand

classesinNewZealandforstudentswithdisabilitieswasoriginally

basedonwhatwereconsideredtobevalidunderstandingsabout

theneedforadifferentapproachtoteachingandlearning,in

settingswherestudentswouldbewellcaredforandsupported.

Indeed,concernsabouttheexclusionofdisabledstudentsare

responsibleforputting‘special’educationintomotion.

Itisalsoappreciatedthatstudentshavebeeneducatedinthese

settingswiththeverybestintentionsofthoseworkinginpolicyand

inschools,andmanyparentshavebeenencouragedtounderstand

thatspecialeducationwilldeliverthebestopportunitiesfortheir

childrentolearn.However,thereisnowoverwhelmingevidence

oftheshortcomingsofsegregation,anddissatisfactioninmany

quartersaboutthewaythingsarefordisabledchildrenandyoung

peopleineducation.

Theresearchthatislocatedinregularschools,andparticularly

researchthatlooksatdisabledstudents’ownviewsoftheirschool

life,holdsmuchpromise.

Thisworkhighlightsareaswherestudentsfeeltheirteachers

areprovidingthemwithgoodsupport,butitalsoidentifiesthe

challenges–areaswherestudentsfeeltheyarebeingtreated

unfairly;wheretheirlearningisnotwellsupported;andwhere

theyarestrugglingwithfriendsandothersocialrelationships.

Theseperspectivesprovideavaluableknowledgebaseforteachers

andschoolstoexplorebetterwaysofworkinginclassroomsso

thatdisabledstudentsbelong,havefriendsandlearnwell.

Actions.in.schools.to.promote.inclusion

Asystematicliteraturereview,carriedoutbyDyson,Howesand

Roberts(�00�)intheUnitedKingdom,lookedattheeffectivenessof

actionbyschoolstopromoteinclusion.Thereviewledtoanumber

ofrecommendationsforpolicyandpracticeinthedevelopmentof

inclusiveschools,whichAinscow(�008)hassummarised.

Inrelationtopolicyandleadershipthereviewerssuggestedthat:

�. Attentionshouldbepaidtothedevelopmentofinclusive

culturesandtothebuildingofsomedegreeofconsensus

aroundinclusivevaluesintheschoolcommunity.

�. Principalsandotherschoolleadersshouldbeselectedand

trainedinlightoftheircommitmenttoinclusivevaluesand

theircapacitytoleadinaparticularmanner.

3. Theexternalpolicyenvironmentshouldbecompatible

withinclusivedevelopmentsifitistosupportratherthan

undermineeffortsbyschools.

Inrelationtoschoolorganisationandclassroompractice,

theauthorsrecommendedthefollowinggeneralprinciples:

4. Theremovalofstructuralbarriersbetweendifferentgroups

ofstudentsandstaff.

5. Thedismantlingofseparateprogrammes,servicesand

specialisms.

6. Thedevelopmentofteachingapproachesthatallowstudents

tolearntogetherratherthanseparately.

7. Thebuildingofcloserelationswithparentsandcommunities

basedonasharedcommitmenttoinclusivevalues.

Teacher.education

Thisbookhasmadeonlyslightmentionofteachereducation,butthis

isnotastatementonitsimportance.Clearly,thesurvivalandfurther

developmentofinclusiveeducationisreliantontheemergenceofnew

teacherswhounderstandinclusionanditsfoundationsinvalues,social

justiceandhumanrights.IntheirbookentitledDevelopingInclusive

TeacherEducation,Booth,NesandStromstadt(�003)notethatstudent

teacherslearnfromtheculturesandpoliciesoftheinstitutionsthey

studyin,andthatmanystudentsenterteachingwithlittleknowledge

aboutinclusion,andlittlepreparationtochallengethebarriersto

inclusivedevelopmentthattheywillfacewhentheystartteaching.

Asinschools,theseauthorssuggestthattertiaryinstitutionsalsoneed

tochangetoovercomebarrierstoinclusiveteachereducation.

Studentteachersmayneedto:

lookoutforlanguageandotherbarrierstoinclusioninthe

curriculum

bealerttoeducationpoliciesthatconflictwithinclusion

bepreparedtodiscussinclusionintermsoftheideas,culture,

valuesandattitudespromotedintheirownteachereducation

institutions

replacedeficit-orientedideasaboutdisabledandother

childrenwiththosethatfocusonbarrierstolearningand

participationinschool

learnabouttheprocessofinclusiveschooldevelopmentwithin

theirownschool.

Leadership

Inclusionisincreasinglybeingseenasakeychallengeforleaders

ineducationasourschoolsmorecloselyreflectthediversityofour

communities,andleadershipinschoolswillinvolvebuildingthe

capacityofschoolstoproblem-solvetogetherandrespondtoan

increasinglywiderangeofissues(Ainscow,�008;Cavanagh,�008;Glynn,�008;

Slee,�005).Thisimpliesaneedfornewapproachestoschoolleadership

thatallowschoolstodevelopacommonpurpose(whywearehere).

Inthisregard,interactiveapproachesthatincludestudentsand

teachersmaybethewayahead,withprincipalstakingontherole

of‘leaderofleaders’intheirschools(p�5�).

10 Moving.forward

Changehasbeenalongtimecoming.Manyoftheissuesabout

segregationand‘special’educationdescribedinthisbookhave

beenraisedintheresearchliteratureofthepastthreedecades.

Thereisnowanoverwhelmingbodyofresearchthatsupportsan

endtosegregationand‘special’educationthinking.Andwhilethe

fieldof‘specialeducation’hasprovidedmuchdebate,ithasled

tolittleactiontowardsocialchangefordisabledpeople(Connorand

Ferri,�007).

Incontrast,inclusiveeducationhasbeenscrutinised,conceptualised,

describedandexploredintheresearchliteraturetoapointwhere

therehasbeenaremarkablematuringofideas.Inparticular,the

researchthatexploresinclusionthroughtheday-to-daypractices

ofteachersandotherschoolstaff,andresearchthatgivespriority

totheviewsandexperiencesofdisabledstudents,providesarich

foundationfromwhichtomoveforward.

Therearesomestickingpoints(Slee,�005,p�59)withtheresearch

recognisingthatregularschoolsstillhavesomewaytogobefore

allchildrenarewelcomeandincludedasfullyparticipating

members.Someofthebarriersremainingcomefrompoliciesthat

donotyetcommittoinclusionandhampertheprogressofteachers

andschoolsworkingonaninclusionagenda.

Otherbarrierscomefromvalues,schoolstructuresandpractices

thatstillassociatediversitywithnegativeinterpretationsabout

devianceanddifference.Yetotherscomefromafailuretolisten

totheviewsofdisabledstudentsastheynegotiatetheirschool

life.However,asSlee(�005)pointsout,‘Manyofourneighbourhood

schoolsarenotgoodplacesevenforthosechildrenwhoseright

toadeskthereinisneverquestioned’(p�57).Clearly,thesolution

tothestickingpointsisnottoreturntotheflawedsystemof

specialeducation,ortokeepchannellingmoreandmorechildren

whoareconsideredas‘notfitting’regularschoolsintosegregated

places.Stickingpointsareanimpetustodobetterforallchildren

andyoungpeopleinourregularneighbourhoodschools.

Theresearchpresentedhereshowsthatnewapproachesare

neededsothatallteachersviewdisabledandothermarginalised

studentsinpositivewaysthatenhancetheirsenseofself-identity,

theirlearningandbelongingatschoolandinthecommunity.

Thisisthetaskofademocraticsocietythathasastrongfoundation

inhumanrights.

Movingtoinclusioninvolvesplayinganewgameineducationin

whichschoolsandschoolsystemsfocusonbuildingbarrier-free,

flexible,responsive,safeandsupportivelearningenvironments,and

whereallstudentsparticipatefully(Cavanagh,�008;Lloyd,�008).Ainscow

(�008)arguesthatwhatisneededtomoveforwardisanemphasis

onsociallearningwithinparticularschoolandcommunitycontexts.

Positivechangesforstudentswillonlycomefromchangesinthe

behaviourofadultsastheycollaboratewithintheirownschooland

withotherschools,anduseevidencetosharegoodpracticesand

stimulatethedevelopmentoftheirownteaching.Avitalstarting

pointforchangeistolookatthevaluesheldbyadultsworking

atalllevelsofoureducationsystem,andthetaken-for-granted

assumptionsaboutstudents’capabilitiesthatliebehindexisting

policiesandpractices.

11 Conclusion

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Alderson,P.andGoodey,C.(�999.)‘Autisminspecialandinclusive

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Slee,R.(�00�.)‘Socialjusticeandthechangingdirectionsin

educationalresearch:Thecaseofinclusiveeducation.’UK:

InternationalJournalofInclusiveEducation,5,(�–3),�67–�77.

Slee,R.(�005).‘Educationandthepoliticsofrecognition.Inclusive

education–anAustraliansnapshot.’InD.Mitchell,(ed),

Contextualisinginclusiveeducation:Evaluatingoldandnew

internationalperspectives.London:Routledge.pp�39–�65.

Slee,RandAllen,J.(�005.)‘Excludingtheincluded.’InJ.Rix,K.

Simmons,M.Nind,andK.Sheehy(eds),Policyandpowerin

inclusiveeducation.London:RoutledgeFalmer.pp�3–�4.

Staub,D.(�998.)Delicatethreads:Friendshipsbetweenchildren

withandwithoutspecialneedsininclusivesettings.Bethesda,

MD,USA:WoodbineHouse.

Tapasack,R.andWalther-Thomas,C.(�999.)‘Evaluationofa

first-yearinclusionprogram:Studentperceptionsandclassroom

performance.’USA:RemedialandSpecialEducation,�0,(4).

pp��6–��5.

Thomas,G.andLoxley,A.(�007.)Deconstructingspecialeducation

andconstructinginclusion.�ndEdition.NewYork:McGraw-Hill-

OpenUniversityPress.

TuhiwaiSmith,L.(�006.)‘Researchinginthemargins:Issues

forMaoriresearchers–Adiscussionpaper.’NewZealand:

Alternative.AnInternationalJournalofIndigenousScholarship,

SpecialSupplement.pp4–�7.

Turner,S.,Alborz,A.andGayle,V.(�008.)‘Predictorsofacademic

attainmentsofyoungpeoplewithDown’ssyndrome.’UK:Journal

ofIntellectualDisabilityResearch,5�(5).pp380–39�.

UnitedNations.(�989.)ConventionontheRightsoftheChild.

NewYork.RetrievedFebruary�009from:

untreaty.un.org/English/TreatyEvent�00�/pdf/03e.pdf

UnitedNations.(�006.)ConventionontheRightsofPersonswith

Disabilities.NewYork.RetrievedFebruary�009from:

www.ozida.gov.tr/ozcalisma/convention.pdf

UnitedNationsEducational,ScientificandCulturalOrganisation

InstituteforEducation.(�994.)Finalreport:Worldconference

onspecialneedseducation:Accessandquality.Paris.

Vaughn,S.andKlingner,J.K.(�998.)‘Students’perceptionsof

inclusionandresourceroomsettings.’USA:TheJournal

ofSpecialEducation,3�,(�).pp79–88.

Walther-Thomas,C.andDiPaola,M.F.(�003.)‘Whatinstructional

leadersneedtoknowaboutspecialeducation.’InW.Owings

andL.Kaplan(eds),Bestpractices,bestthinking,andemerging

issuesinschoolleadership.ThousandOak,USA:CorwinPress.

pp��5–�36.

Waldron,N.L.andMcLeskey,J.(�998.)‘Theeffectsofaninclusive

schoolprogramonstudentswithmildandseverelearning

disabilities.’USA:ExceptionalChildren,64.pp395–405.

Watson,N.,Shakespeare,T.,Cunningham-Burley,S.,Barnes,C.,

Corker,M.,Davis,J.andPriestley,M.(�000.)Lifeasadisabled

child:Aqualitativestudyofyoungpeople’sexperiencesand

perspectives.Unpublishedreport,DepartmentofNursing

Studies,UniversityofEdinburgh.

Wehman,P.,andRevell,W.G.(�997.)‘Transitionintosupported

employmentforyoungadultswithseveredisabilities:current

practicesandfuturedirections.’USA:JournalofVocational

Rehabilitation,8.pp65–74.

Wylie,C.(�000.)Pickingupthepieces:ReviewofSpecialEducation

�000.Wellington:NZCER

Zollers,N.J.,Ramanathan,A.K.andYu,M.(�999.)‘Therelationship

betweenschoolcultureandinclusion:howaninclusiveculture

supportsinclusiveeducation.’UK:QualitativeStudiesin

Education,��(�).pp�57–�74.

The.United.Nations.Convention.on.the.Rights.of.Persons.

with.Disabilities

Theconventiontextcanbefoundat:

www.un.org/disabilities/convention/conventionfull.shtml

Informationabouttheconventioncanbefoundat:

www.un.org/disabilities/convention/index.shtml

Informationontheconventionandotherdisability-related

informationcanbefoundonthewebsiteofUnitedNationsEnable:

www.un.org/disabilities/index.asp

Achild-friendlyversionoftheconventioncanbefoundat:

www.unicef.org/Child_friendly_CRPD.pdf

The.United.Nations.Convention.on.the.Rights.of.the.Child

TheUNICEFwebsiteprovidesanaccessibleandusefuldescription

oftheUNConventionontheRightsoftheChild:whatitis,itslegal

implicationsandwhatitmeansinpracticetoensurethatchildren’s

rightsareunderstoodandmet–www.unicef.org/crc

Topicscoveredinclude:

Thehumanrightsframework

Protectingandrealisingchildren’srights

Understandingtheconvention

Optionalprotocolstotheconvention

Usingtheconventionandprotocolsforchildren.

Ministry.of.Education.publications

RelevantNewZealandMinistryofEducationpublicationsand

resourcescanbefoundat:

www.minedu.govt.nz/educationSectors/SpecialEducation/

PublicationsAndResources.aspx

Theseinclude:

Meeting.Special.Education.Needs.at.School..www.minedu.govt.nz/educationSectors/SpecialEducation/

PublicationsAndResources/MeetingSpecialEducationNeedsAtSchool.

Aresourceaboutspecialeducationforschoolboardsoftrustees.

Sectionsincluderolesandresponsibilities,provisionofresources,

supportservices,policyandlegislation.

Enhancing.Effective.Practice.in.Special.Education..www.minedu.govt.nz/educationSectors/SpecialEducation/

ResearchAndStatistics/EnhancingEffectivePracticeInSpecial

Education.aspx

Athree-yearresearchprojectthatfocusedondevelopingteacher

knowledgeandidentifyingeffectiveteachingpracticeforstudents

withspecialeducationneeds.TheEnhancingEffectivePracticein

SpecialEducation(EEPiSE)projectwaspartofabroaderministry

policyfocusoneffectiveteachingtomeetthediverseneedsof

alllearners.Specifically,theprojectaimedtodevelopteacher

knowledgeandshareideasonhowtosupportlearnerswhorequire

significantadaptationtothecurriculumcontentinregularschools,

school-basedclassesforstudentswithspecialeducationneeds,kura

kaupapaMaoriandspecialschools.

Autism.Spectrum.Disorders.Resource.for.Teachers.

www.minedu.govt.nz/educationSectors/SpecialEducation/

PublicationsAndResources/AutismSpectrumDisordersResource-

ForTeachers.aspx

Relevant.websites

Thefollowingwebsitesfocusoninclusiveeducationand/or

disabilityissues.Theyofferideas,research,informationonguidance

andlegislation,linkswithrelevantorganisations,and/orother

materialsandresourcesthatparentsandNewZealandschools

mayfinduseful.

International.conventions

ImagestilltobesortedResources.for.parents,.

teachers.and.interested.others

New.Zealand.websites

IHC Code for New Zealand Schools

ThecodehasbeenwrittenbyIHCfortheeducationcommunity.

InclusioniscentraltoIHC’sphilosophyandisseenasarequirement

ifpeoplearetoleadsatisfyinglivesinthecommunity.Thecodecan

beusedbyschoolstoenhanceunderstandingbetweenparents

andschools;asasourceofconciseinformationaboutinclusion;for

discussionwithinthewidercommunity;andasatooltoadvocate

fortherights,inclusionandwelfareofallpeoplewithanintellectual

disabilitytosupportthemtoleadsatisfyinglivesinthecommunity.

www.ihc.org.nz/Default.aspx?tabid=�587

The Inclusive Education Action Group (IEAG)

TheIEAGisagroupofpeoplecommittedtoensuringthatall

disabledchildren,youngpeopleandadultsparticipatefullyintheir

local,regulareducationalsetting.Werecognisethatdisabledpeople

areoftendeniedtherighttoparticipateineducationalongside

otherpeopleoftheirage.Throughourworkweaimtopromote

knowledge,attitudes,policiesandpracticesthatfacilitateinclusive

educationsothatalldisabledchildren,youthandadultswillhave

equalopportunitiestolearnandflourish.Interestedreadersare

invitedtobecomeamemberofIEAG.

www.ieag.org.nz

Action for Children and Youth Aotearoa Inc.

ACYAisacoalitionofnon-governmentalorganisations,familiesand

individualswhosepurposeistopromotethewell-beingofchildren

andyoungpeopleinAotearoaNewZealandthrough:

educationandadvocacyontherightsofchildrenandyoung

people

encouragingtheGovernmenttoactonthe

recommendationsoftheUnitedNationsConventiononthe

RightsoftheChild.

www.acya.org.nz

International.websites

Centre for Studies on Inclusive Education

TheCentreforStudiesonInclusiveEducation(CSIE)isan

independentcentre,setupinBristol,England,in�98�,actively

supportinginclusiveeducationasahumanrightofeverychild.Itis

fundedbydonationsfromcharitabletrustsandfoundations,with

additionalincomefromsaleofpublicationsandsmallgrantsfor

researchorotherprojects.CSIE’sworkisdrivenbyacommitmentto

overcomebarrierstolearningandparticipationforallchildrenand

youngpeople.Theiractivitiesincludelobbyingandcampaigning,

research,training,consultancyanddisseminationofinformation.

CSIEpublishesTheIndexforInclusion.

TheIndexforInclusion

ThissiteprovidesanoverviewoftheIndexforInclusionreferredto

inthisbook,andcoversthefollowing:

Introduction

Definitions

Usingthematerials

Sampleindicatorsandquestions

Thetwoauthorsintroducetheindex

TranslationsoftheIndex.

ProfessorTonyBooth,Indexauthor,andCSIEhaverecently

launchedarevisionoftheschoolsversionoftheIndex.Thenew,

revisededitionisexpectedtobeavailableearlyin�0�0.The

aimistofurtherdevelopthispopularresourcesothatitreflects

thecurrenteducationalcontextandbecomesevenmoreeasily

accessibleanduser-friendlyforbusyschoolstaff.

www.csie.org.uk/publications/inclusion-index-explained.shtml

TheIndexcanalsobeorderedon-linethroughtheCSIEwebsite

www.csie.org.uk

The Center on Human Policy, New York State

TheCHPisaSyracuseUniversity-basedpolicy,researchand

advocacyorganisationinvolvedinthenationalmovementtoinsure

therightsofpeoplewithdisabilities.Sinceitsfounding,thecentre

hasbeeninvolvedinthestudyandpromotionofopensettings

(inclusivecommunityopportunities)forpeoplewithdisabilities.

Thecentre’sstaffandassociatesincludeeducators,humanservices

professionals,peoplewithdisabilities,graduatestudentsandfamily

membersofchildrenandyouthwithdisabilities.Thecentrehasan

AdvocacyBoardcomposedofpeoplewithdisabilities,parentsand

interestedcitizensthatservesasanindependentvoiceonbehalf

oftherightsofpeoplewithdisabilitiesinthecommunity.The

centreisinvolvedwithabroadrangeoflocal,statewide,national

andinternationalactivities,includingpolicystudies,research,

informationandreferral,advocacy,trainingandconsultation,and

informationdissemination.

thechp.syr.edu

disabilitystudies.syr.edu/resources/otherdisabilityresources.

aspx#inclusive_education

Inclusion Europe (The European Association of

Societies of Persons with Intellectual Disabilities and

their Families)

InclusionEuropeisanon-profitorganisationthatcampaignsforthe

rightsandinterestsofpeoplewithintellectualdisabilitiesandtheir

familiesthroughoutEurope.Respect,solidarityandinclusionarethe

fundamentalvaluessharedbyallmembersofthismovementofand

forpeoplewithintellectualdisabilitiesandtheirfamilies.

Itfightsfor:

humanrightsforpeoplewithintellectualdisabilities

inclusioninsociety

non-discrimination.

Activities:

InclusionEuropeco-ordinatesactivitiesinmanyEuropeancountries,

includingconferences,workinggroupsandexchangemeetings.

ItrespondstoEuropeanpolicyproposalsandprovidesinformation

abouttheneedsofpeoplewithintellectualdisabilities.Inclusion

EuropeadvisestheEuropeanCommissionandmembersofthe

EuropeanParliamentondisabilityissues.

www.inclusion-europe.org

The Inclusive Schools Network: supporting inclusive

education worldwide

TheInclusiveSchoolsNetwork(ISN)isaweb-basedresource

forfamilies,schoolsandcommunitiesthatpromotesinclusive

educationalpractices.ThisresourcehasgrownoutofInclusive

SchoolsWeek™,aninternationallyrecognisedannualevent

sponsoredbyEducationDevelopmentCenter,Inc.ISN’smission

is‘toencourage,emboldenandempowerpeopletodesignand

implementeffectiveinclusiveschools,bysharinginsightsand

bestpracticesandbyprovidingopportunitiesforconnection’.

ISNprovidesyear-roundopportunitiesforfamiliesandeducators

aroundtheworldtonetworkandbuildtheirknowledgeofinclusive

education.

www.inclusiveschools.org

The National Centre on Secondary Education and

Transition – creating opportunities for youth with

disabilities to achieve successful futures

TheNationalCenteronSecondaryEducationandTransition(NCSET)

co-ordinatesnationalresources,offerstechnicalassistance,and

disseminatesinformationrelatedtosecondaryeducationand

transitionforyouthwithdisabilitiesinordertocreateopportunities

foryouthtoachievesuccessfulfutures.NCSETisheadquartered

attheInstituteonCommunityIntegrationintheUniversityof

Minnesota’sCollegeofEducationandHumanDevelopment.

www.ncset.org

My school, my family, my life: Telling it like it is.

Disability Rights Commission and the University

of Birmingham

Thisisthereportofastudydetailingtheexperiencesofdisabled

children,youngpeopleandtheirfamiliesinGreatBritainin�006.

Thereportdrawsonthemainfindingsandrecommendations

fromfourlinkedprojects(�004–6),fundedandpublishedbythe

DisabilityRightsCommission,andcarriedoutbyateamfromthe

UniversityofBirmingham,intotheexperiencesofdisabledchildren,

youngpeopleandtheirfamilies.Thesecasestudiesweregathered

inEngland,ScotlandandWalesfromarangeofmainstreamprimary

andsecondaryschools,specialistunitswithinmainstreamschools,

collegesoffurthereducationandspecialschools.Theagesofthe

childrenandyoungpeoplerangedfromnineto�9andtheyhad

arangeofimpairments.Acentralaimoftheresearchwasto

identifythekeyconcernsandprioritiesfordisabledchildrenand

youngpeopleinGreatBritaininrelationtotheirexperiencesof

education(particularlytransitionsbetweenphasesofschooling

andpost-school).

Followingfromthis,theworkaimedtoidentifythebarriersfacedby

youngdisabledpeopleineducationincludingevidenceofprejudice

anddiscrimination.Importantly,italsosoughttoidentifywaysof

overcomingthesebarriers,toexploreexamplesofgoodpractice

andtoinvestigatefactorsassociatedwithpositiveexperiencesof

educationalinstitutions.

www.library.nhs.uk/learningdisabilities/ViewResource.aspx?

resID=�68633

UNICEF – child-friendly schools

UNICEFhasdevelopedaframeworkforrights-based,child-friendly

educationalsystemsandschoolsthatarecharacterisedas‘inclusive,

healthyandprotectiveforallchildren,effectivewithchildren,and

involvedwithfamiliesandcommunities–andchildren’(Shaeffer,

�999).Withinthisframework:

Theschoolisasignificantpersonalandsocial

environmentinthelivesofitsstudents.Achild-friendly

schoolensureseverychildanenvironmentthatis

physicallysafe,emotionallysecureandpsychologically

enabling.

Teachersarethesinglemostimportantfactorin

creatinganeffectiveandinclusiveclassroom.

Childrenarenaturallearners,butthiscapacitytolearn

canbeunderminedandsometimesdestroyed.Achild-

friendlyschoolrecognises,encouragesandsupports

children’sgrowingcapacitiesaslearnersbyproviding

aschoolculture,teachingbehavioursandcurriculum

contentthatarefocusedonlearningandthelearner.

Theabilityofaschooltobeandtocallitselfchild-

friendlyisdirectlylinkedtothesupport,participation

andcollaborationitreceivesfromfamilies.

Child-friendlyschoolsaimtodevelopalearning

environmentinwhichchildrenaremotivatedandable

tolearn.Staffmembersarefriendlyandwelcomingto

childrenandattendtoalltheirhealthandsafetyneeds.

Arights-based,child-friendlyschoolhastwobasiccharacteristics:

Itisachild-seekingschool–activelyidentifyingexcluded

childrentogetthemenrolledinschoolandincludedin

learning;treatingchildrenassubjectswithrightsandthe

stateasduty-bearerswithobligationstofulfiltheserights;

anddemonstrating,promoting,andhelpingtomonitorthe

rightsandwell-beingofallchildreninthecommunity.

Itisachild-centredschool–actinginthebestinterests

ofthechild,leadingtotherealisationofthechild’sfull

potential,andconcernedbothaboutthe‘whole’child

(includingherhealth,nutritionalstatus,andwell-being)

andaboutwhathappenstochildren–intheirfamiliesand

communities–beforetheyenterschoolandafterthey

leaveit.

www.unicef.org/lifeskills/index_7�60.html#A%�0Framework%

�0for%�0Rights-Based,%�0Child-Friendlyschools

Reasons.from.the.CSIE.against.segregated.schooling

Appendix.A

ThefollowingdefinitionsaretakenfromSESsitesforeffective

ReprintedwithpermissionfromCSIEwww.csie.org.uk

ThefollowingdefinitionsaretakenfromSESsitesforeffective

Appendix.B

specialeducationpracticeforMaori,�00�.Wellington:Draftreport

totheSESBoardandExecutiveTeam,byBerryman,M.,Glynn,

T.,Walker,R.,Rewiti,M.,O’Brien,K.,Boasa-Dean,T.,Glynn,V.,

Langdon,Y.andWeiss,S.(�00�.)

Ngaturangatakitahimengamanawhakahaere–specific

individualrolesandresponsibilitiesrequiredtoachieveindividual

andgroupoutcomes.

Kanohikitekanohi–theMaoriculturalpreferenceofdealingwith

peopleinaface-to-facesituation.

Wairuatanga–beliefsandpracticesthatinvolvethespiritual

dimension.Peoplewhoemanatewairuatangaareseentohavea

uniqueidentityinvolvingspiritualwarmthandenergy.

Whanaungatanga–theprocessofestablishinglinksormaking

connectionswithpeopleonemeetsbyidentifyinginculturally

appropriateways,whakapapalinkages,pointsofengagement,or

otherrelationships.

Kotahitanga–thecollectiveresponsetowardsacommonlyheld

vision,goalorothersuchpurposeoroutcome.Tribalunityis

anexampleofkotahitanga.Kotahitangaalsomeansaccepting

responsibilityforeachother’sactions.

Manaakitanga–theculturalobligationtoexpresslove,caring

and/orsupporttowardsotherswithoutanexpectationofreciprocal

benefits.

Mahitahi–workingtogetherasonetowardsthesameobjectiveor

commonpurpose.

Manatangata–theauthorityonegains,accordingtotheirability,

todevelopandmaintainskills.

Ako–thereciprocalsharingofknowledge,skillsandexperiences.

Wananga–thesharingofknowledgethroughcollectivemeetings

inwhichviewsareexchanged,andknowledgeisshared,practised

andlearned.

Arohakitetangata–aqualityofgoodnessexpressedbyloveand

caringforpeopleandlivingthings.Apersonwitharohaexpresses

genuineconcernsanddemonstratesthislovebysharingitwith

peoplewithoutdiscrimination.

Manamotuhake–inmoderntimesmanahastakenonmany

meanings,suchaslegitimisationandauthority,andcanrelateto

anindividualorgroup’sabilitytoparticipateatthelocalandglobal

level.Manamotuhakeinvolvesthedevelopmentofpersonalor

groupidentityandindependence.

12.Maori.cultural.valuesAppendix.B

12.Maori.cultural.values

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