Journal of Teacher Action Research 1 JTAR...JTAR About the Journal Founded in 2013, the Journal of...

JournalofTeacherActionResearch1

JournalofTeacherActionResearch-Volume6,Issue1,2019,practicalteacherresearch.com,ISSN#2332-2233

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JTAR JournalofTeacherActionResearchVolume6,Issue1,2019

ExaminingtheInstructionalDesignofInteractiveandCollaborativeLearning 4OpportunitiesRachelKarchmer-KleinElizabethSoslauJannSuttonComparingCooperativeLearningStrategiesinAssessmentInstruction 21JosephA.MayoDoesMindfulnessStrengthenSelf-efficacyinFirstGradeStudents? 32KristenL.LoganErikK.Laursen“Letthepeoplesing!”-ActionResearchExploringTeachers’MusicalConfidence 44WhenEngagingLearnersin‘SingingWellbeing’DaphneRicksonJoAtkinsonDianneReynoldsRobertLeggUsingFirstAuthor©WritingCurriculumwithStudentswithAutismSpectrum 63DisorderKristieAsaro-SaddlerJessicaColes

JTAR AbouttheJournal

Foundedin2013,theJournalofTeacherActionResearch(ISSN:2332-2233)isapeer-reviewedonlinejournalindexedwithEBSCOthatseekspracticalresearchthatcanbeimplementedinPre-Kindergarten

throughPost-Secondaryclassrooms.Theprimaryfunctionofthisjournalistoprovideclassroomteachersandresearchersameansforsharingclassroompractices.

Thejournalacceptsarticlesforpeer-reviewthatdescribeclassroompracticewhichpositivelyimpactsstudentlearning.Wedefineteacheractionresearchasteachers(atalllevels)studyingtheirpracticeand/ortheirstudents'learninginamethodicalwayinordertoinformclassroompractice.Articlessubmittedtothejournalshoulddemonstrateanactionresearchfocuswithintenttoimprovethe

author’spractice.

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Co-EditorsGilbertNaizer,Ph.D. AprilSanders,Ph.D.

TexasA&MUniversity-Commerce SpringHillCollege

AssociateEditorsLauraIsbell,Ph.D. TamiMorton,Ph.D. SusanWilliams

TexasA&MUniversity-Commerce TexasA&MUniversity-CommerceTexasA&MUniversity-Commerce

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ChaseYoung,Ph.D.SamHoustonStateUniversity

www.practicalteacherresearch.com

THEJOURNALOFTEACHERACTIONRESEARCH 4

JournalofTeacherActionResearch- Volume6,Issue1,Fall2019,<practicalteacherresearch.com>,ISSN#2332-2233©JTAR.AllRights

EXAMININGTHEINSTRUCTIONALDESIGNOFINTERACTIVEANDCOLLABORATIVELEARNINGOPPORTUNITIESRachelKarchmer-Klein

UniversityofDelaware

ElizabethSoslau

UniversityofDelaware

JannSutton

UniversityofNorthFlorida

AbstractAs interest in fully online programs increases at institutions of higher education, faculty members must adapt their pedagogical practices to successfully integrate the digital tools available for teaching and learning. This action research study examined if and how faculty in a school of education designed instruction that leveraged digital tools to provide collaborative and interactive learning opportunities in an online program in teacher leadership. Framed by tenets of a sociocultural perspective and the technological affordances of multimodality, collaboration, and interactivity, a variety of data was qualitatively analyzed. Findings revealed interactivity was established when instructional design explicitly guided students to interact with others. Interactivity was also established when students were given opportunities to apply content learned in class, analyze their actions, and report on the experiences to others using multiple modes accessible through digital tools. Related to collaboration, analysis indicated that program design encumbered the implementation of collaborative activities due to large class enrollment and the short duration of the academic semester. These findings will inform future revisions to the program under study as well as be shared with other faculty who are charged with designing online courses but may not have online pedagogical expertise.

Keywords:teacheractionresearch,technologicalaffordance,instructionaldesign,highereducation,onlinelearning

Introduction

Asinterestinfullyonlineprogramsincreasesatinstitutionsofhighereducation,facultymustadapttheirpedagogicalpracticestosuccessfullyintegratethedigitaltoolsavailableforteachingandlearning(AdamsBeckeretal.,2017).Simplyconnectingstudentstoinstructorsandclassmatesusingtechnologydoesnotresultinthoughtfulcollaborationand

interactivity,indicatorsofeffectiveonlineteachingpractices(Beach&O’Brien,2015).Instead,focusshouldbeplacedonhowinstructionisdesignedtocreatethesemeaningfullearningopportunitiesthatmeetcourseobjectives(Karchmer-Klein,Mouza,Shinas,&Park,2017).

Mostonlinecoursesinhighereducationaredeliveredthroughalearningmanagementsystem(LMS),apassword-protectedcloud-basedarchitecturethatprovidesacommononlinelocationtoexchangeinformationforteachingandlearning(Kroner,2014).EachLMS(e.g.,Canvas,Blackboard)encompassesasetofmultimodaldigitaltoolswithuniquetechnologicalaffordances.Forinstance,manyincorporateapeerreviewtoolthatfacilitatesinteractivitybetweenclassmatesthroughwrittenlanguage,images,audioandvideo.Thetoolcanbeeasilyintegratedintoanonlinecourse,butthewayinwhichthelearningopportunityisdesignedwillultimatelyinfluencethedepthandbreadthofstudentlearning,notthetechnologyitself.

Instructionaldesigntypicallyrestsoncourseinstructorswhoareexpertsintheirfieldsofstudy,butmaynotbeexpertpedagoguesofteachingandlearning(Ko&Rossen,2017).This,inturn,mayleadtoanoverrelianceonteacher-directedlearningactivities(Koedinger,Booth,&Klahr,2013;Rientieset.al.,2012).Forinstance,whenstudyingpatternsintheinstructionaldesignof157onlinelearningmodules,ToetenelandRienties(2016)founddidacticteachingmethods,whereinformationwastransferredelectronicallyfrominstructortostudent,werethemostcommonlyintegrated.

Asteachereducatorswhoresearchandimplementtraditionalanddigitalpedagogicalapproaches,wesetouttoexaminetheinstructionaldesignofcoursesinourown100%onlineteacherleadershipgraduateprogram.Thisactionresearchprojectwasimportanttoconductbecausethelessonslearnedcouldbeusedtoinformnotonlyourownpractice,butotherfacultywhoarechargedwithdesigningonlinecoursesbutmaynothaveonlinepedagogicalexpertise.Toachievethisaim,weexploredthefollowingresearchquestion:Inwhatwaysdidonlinefaculty’sinstructionaldecision-makingsupport,ornotsupport,collaborationandinteractivityamongstonlinecourseparticipants?

TheoreticalFramework

Thisstudydrawsupontenetsofasocioculturalperspective,specificallysocialconstructivism(Vygotsky,1978)andsituatedlearningtheory(SL)(Brown,Collins,&Duguid,1989).Socialconstructivismsuggestslearnersdevelopthroughtheirinteractionswithotherpeople’svalues,beliefs,andwaysofthinking(Tracey&Morrow,2017).SLsuggestslearningdevelopsinauthenticcontextswiththeapplicationofcontenttoreallifeexperiences(Herrington&Oliver,2000).Theselensesareespeciallyusefulwhendirectlyappliedtopromotecollaborativelearningopportunitiesamongststudentsincourseworkthatdoesnotincludefacetofaceinstruction.Inthisway,instructorsdeliberatelyandpurposefullydesigninstructionthatrequiresgroupproblem-solvingandengagementindiscussionsaboutrelatableexperiencethatwouldotherwisebeunachievablethroughautodidacticlearningorothernon-peercollaborativeapproaches(Oztok,2016;Vygotsky,1978).

LiteratureReview

EachLMSencompassesasetofmultimodaldigitaltoolswithuniquetechnologicalaffordances(Beach,Anson,Breuch,&Reynolds,2014).Threeofthemostcommonlyidentifiedintheresearchliteraturearemultimodality,interactivity,andcollaboration(Karchmer-Kleinetal.,2017;Beach&O’Brien,2015).Whenfacultybetterunderstandtheseaffordances,theyarebetterequippedtoleveragetheminwaysthatcreatecontextswherecollaborativeandinteractivelearningopportunitiesflourish.

Multimodality.Modesaresignsorsymbolsthatcommunicatemeaning(Kalantzis,Cope&Cloonan,2010).LMSsincorporateseveraltypesoftoolsthatallowfortheconsumptionandproductionofmultimodalmaterials.Canvas,forinstance,allowsteachersandstudentstoembedvideo,audio,staticimages,andhyperlinks.Combiningmodes(e.g.,wordsandaudio)inonlineactivities,suchasdiscussionposts,transformsthelearningenvironmentbyinterjectingnon-verbalcuesinwaysthatallowparticipantstoexperienceeachotherashumansratherthancomputer-generatedwordsonascreen(Lee,2004).Researchexamininginstructormultimodalfeedbackindicatesvalueinitsuse.Forinstance,studentsreportedlyfindaudioandvideocommentsmorepersonal(Henderson&Phillips,2015)andeasiertocomprehend(West&Turner,2016)thanwrittenfeedback.Moreover,thereisevidencethatstudentswhoreceive,process,andinterpretcontentpresentedthroughmultiplemodesscorehigheronassessmentmeasuresthanthosewholearnfromasinglemode(Frisby,Limperos,Record,Downs&Kercsmar,2013).

Interactivity.Interactivityisabouttheexchangeofideasandperspectiveswithothers.Inaneducationalsetting,interactivitycantakeplacebetweenstudents,studentsandinstructors,aswellasstudentsandcontent(Moore,2013).ResearchershavestudiedtheinteractivityaffordedthroughLMSdigitaltoolssuchasonlinediscussionboards(Kent,Laso&Rafaeli,2016),peerreview(Sullivan&Watson,2015),andvideoconferencing(Martin&Parker,2014).Ineachcase,findingsemphasizethecriticalroleofthoughtfulinstructionaldesign.Martin,WangandSadaf(2018),forexample,examinedgraduatestudents’perceptionsofhowtheyuseddigitaltoolstointeractwithinstructors.Althoughpreviousstudiesindicatedthatsynchronousaudioandvisualchatscouldfacilitatecommunitybuilding,(Reushle&Loch,2008),participantsinthisworkdidnotperceivethemashelpful.Instead,studentsreportedthesessions’purposeswerenotwell-articulatednordidtheymeettheirlearningneeds.Thus,althoughtheLMSconferencetoolaffordedopportunitiesforinteractivity,thedesignofthestudent-instructoractivityfellshort.

Collaboration.Collaborationistheprocessbywhichmembersofagroupnegotiate,share,andconstructmeaninginresponsetostimuli.Theincreasedvisibilityofone’sownworkandtheopportunitiestoexpresscreativitythroughcollaborativeonlineactivitieshavebeenfoundtomotivateandusefullyengagestudents(Trentin,2009).Inastudyofgraduateeducationaltechnologymajors,Karpova,CorreiaandBaran(2009)foundthatstudentsweremotivatedtolearnnewtechnologiestocollaboratewhenotheronlinecommunicationeffortsfailed.Studentsquicklydeterminedthatthelackofnon-verbalcuesinasynchronouswrittencollaborativedigitalsettingswasproblematic.Toalleviatetheissue,studentsinitiatedtheuseoftheLMS’svideofunctiontotheycouldtalkasagroupinreal-time.

Likeinteractivity,studentsseemtobemoreinvestedwhencollaborativetasksarewelldefinedandscaffoldedtosupporttheirunderstandingofgroupdynamics.Kear,Woodthorpe,RobertsonandHutchison(2010)foundthiswhenstudyingtheuseofwikisinanonlinecourseinhighereducation.SimilartoGoogleDocs,wikisarecollaborativedigitalwritingspaceswherestudentsmustdivideresponsibilitiesassociatedwiththeassignedtasksandhowtorespectfullyrespondandreviseclassmates’workgiventheopennatureofthewritingprocess.Kearetal.,(2010)foundthatthelackofpreparednessonhowtouseawikiinfluencedthequalityofstudentworkandstudentsfelthighriskabouttheirengagementintheactivity.

Takentogether,theseaffordancescanbeusedtobuildsociallearningenvironments.Whenaffordancesareleveragedsuccessfully,bothaforementionedtheoreticalframesaresatisfied.Thatis,socialconstructivismcanbeseenintheinstructors’creationofacollaborativeonlinelearningenvironmentthatenableuserstomakemeaninginwaysthatwouldnothavebeenpossiblehadtheynotengagedinthesynergisticonlinespace.Instructors’onlinecoursedesignalsoextendsbeyondsocialconstructivismbysituatingthelearningandmeaningmakingprocessinahighlycontextualizedsettingthatmimicsthefuturelivedexperiencesofthelearnersintheirauthenticsettings,thusincorporatingthesignaturecomponentsofsituatedlearningtheory.

Methodology

ResearchContext.TheMasterofEducationinTeacherLeadership(MEdTL)isafullyonlineprogramdesignedforfull-timecertifiedteacherswhoseektofillschoolleadershiprolessuchasinstructionalspecialist,datacoach,andteachermentor.CourseworkisalignedwiththeTeacherLeaderModelStandards(TeacherLeaderExploratoryConsortium,2011)andMiddleStatesCommissiononHigherEducation.

TheMEdTLwaschosenasthefocusforthisactionresearchstudyfortworeasons.First,thefacultywerehighlydedicatedtotheprogram’ssuccessandvaluedtheroleoftechnologyincandidatelearning.Moreover,theywereexpertsinnotonlytheircontentareas,butalsopedagogy,giventheirexperienceandresearchasteachereducators.Second,itwasthefirstfullyonlinegraduateprogramofferedbytheuniversity’sSchoolofEducation.Thisstudywasseenasanopportunitytoidentifystrengthsandweaknessesandmakemodificationsasneeded.

MEdTLcandidatescompleteten,three-creditcoursestaughtasynchronouslyinseven-weeksessionsusingCanvas(LMS).ItwasdecidedbyfacultythatallcourseswouldbeorganizedaroundaSituatedLearning(SL)modelthatdirectlyconnectedcandidates’professionalexperiencestograduatecoursecontent(Clarke&Hollingsworth,2002).Therefore,arequirementofadmissionwascurrentemploymentinaprofessionalsettingallowingcandidatestopracticeleadershipskillslearnedinclass.Individualcourseshadlargeenrollmentsof45-65candidates.

Participants.Datawerecollectedfromfourfull-timefacultywhohelddoctoratedegreesineducation(pseudonymsreplaceparticipants’realnamesinthisarticle).Theparticipants,threefemalesandonemale,allCaucasian,hadanaverageof21yearsoverallteachingexperience,anaverageof14yearsofexperienceashighereducationfaculty,andanaverageofalmost6yearsofonlineteachingexperience.Theirfieldsofexpertiseincluded

pedagogicaldecision-makingacrosscontentareas,literacyeducation,actionresearch,andmobilecomputingenvironments.Thefacultymembersdidnothaveanyformaltrainingtoteachonline,describingthemselvesas“self-taught”andmainlyrelyingontheirpedagogicalexpertisecoupledwithpeersupporttoguidethedevelopmentoftheircourses(seeTable1forparticipantandcourseinformation).

Table1:DemographicInformationasReportedbyFaculty

GenderFacultyMember

(Pseudonym)HighestDegree

YearsofTeachingExperience

YearsTeachingOnline

Male Dr.Bower Ph.D. 29 4

Female Dr.Kostner Ph.D. 23 13

Female Dr.Merrin Ed.D. 20 5

Female Dr.Santos Ph.D. 13 1

Positionality.RachelandElizabeth,twoofthethreeauthorsofthismanuscript,werealsofacultyinstructorsintheprogram.Jann,thethirdauthor,wasadoctoralcandidate.Mirroringtheworkofactionresearchers(Herr&Anderson,2005),self-studyadvocates(Tidwell,etal.,2009),andadoptingateacherasinquirystance(Feiman-Nemser,2012)enabledustoexamineourownpracticethroughtheexternalizationandjointexaminationofourdesignexperiences.

Tosecurecredibilityandconfirmability(Herr&Anderson,2005)andtomakeuseofour‘collaborativeresources’(Melrose,2001),JannwassolelyresponsibleforthefirstwaveofdataanalysisandRachelandElizabethinitiallytookontheroleofinformant(Eisner,1998).Additionalvaliditycriteriasuchastransferabilityandecologicalvaliditywerestrengthenedbyclearlysituatingthisstudyinthecontextfromwhichthedatawereculled;therebyallowingresearchconsumersfromhighereducation,andonlinecourseinstructors,todrawparallelstotheirowncontexts(Guba&Lincoln,1981;Bloomberg&Volpe,2008).

DataSourcesandAnalysis

LMSDigitalTools.Beforeexploringthefaculty’sdecision-makingaroundtheavailableonlinelearningtools(i.e.,Pages,Discussions,PeerReview,Collaborations),thetoolsthemselveswereanalyzedagainstaffordances(multimodal,interactivity,andcollaboration)followinganinductiveanddeductiveprocess(Patton,2015).Wereaddescriptionsofthetools’capabilitiesontheCanvaswebsiteandconductedindependentreviewsbyutilizingtheminwayswewerefamiliarwithinourownwork.Next,wemetandreferredtoournotestoidentifyspecificinstancesofif/howthetoolsincludedtheaforementioned

affordances.Oncewereachedagreementaboutthedigitaltools’affordances,weillustratedtheanalysis(seeTable2).

Table2:LMSToolsandAffordancesLeveragedbyInstructors

Tool TypesofActivitiesWritten

Language

OralLanguage

Visual

Interactivity

Collaboration

Pages ProvidecontentthroughCanvasorotherapplications. X X X X

Discussions Providespacetotalkwithclassmatesandinstructor X X X X X X

PeerReview Provideopportunitytopeerreviewwork X X X X X

Collaborations Providespacetocollaborateonthesamedocument X X X X X

Modules.Tolimitthepooltoamanageablecorpusofcodabledata,participantswereaskedtoidentifyonemodulefromeachclasstheydesignedwhichwasmostrepresentativeoftheirentirecourseintermsoftechnologicaltoolsusedandattentiontooverallcourselearninggoals.Atotalofeightcoursemoduleswereidentified.Thenumberofactivitieswithinamodulerangedfromeighttoseventeen.

Tobeginanalysis,tableswereconstructedusingthefollowingheadings:(a)learningobjective,(b)activity,(c)digitaltool,and(d)technologicalaffordances.Thefirstthree

columnswereimmediatelyfilledforeachmodule.Second,weworkedindividuallyandthencollaborativelytoconductdeductiveanalysisofthemodulesusingthetechnologicalaffordances(multimodality,interactivityandcollaboration)asaprioricodes.Thisprocessconsistedoflookingacrossthelearningobjectives,activities’descriptions,andtheselecteddigitaltoolsandcross-codingandaxial-codingagainsttheaffordances(Patton,2015).Thirdly,wesystematicallyexaminedtheactivitiestoidentifysimilaritiesanddifferencesamongandbetweenthemtoidentifypatternsrelatedtoifandhowtheactivitiesprovidedopportunitiestocollaborateandinteract.Table3isanexampleofacodedsetofactivitieswithinonemodule.

Table3:ExampleofCodingActivitiesWithinaModule

LearningObjective Activity CanvasDigitalTool

LeveragedAffordance

Tounderstandanddemonstrateknowledgeof

differentcoachingmodels.

Readarticlesandwatchvideoonpeercoaching. Pages Multimodality

Readarticlesandwatchvideooncontent-specific

coaching.Pages Multimodality

Readarticlesandwatchvideoonmentoring. Pages Multimodality

Readarticlesandwatch

videooncognitivecoaching.

Pages Multimodality

Watchvideoanddeterminecoachingtype

implemented.Postresponseindiscussionboardwithevidence

supportingyouranswers.Respondtoatleastoneclassmate’spostwith

questions,affirmations,orhealthydebate.

Discussions MultimodalityInteractivity

Interviews.Jannconductedsemi-structuredinterviewswitheachfacultyparticipantwiththepurposeoflearningmoreabouttheinstructors’decision-making,perceptionsofonlineteaching,andtheirassessmentoftheoverallmoduledesignincludinghowtheLMStoolswereusedtofacilitatestudentlearning.Interviewsweretranscribedverbatim,copiedinto

NVivosoftware,andanalyzedusinganaprioricodingsystemalignedtothetechnologicalaffordancesofmultimodality,interactivityandcollaboration.

OverallAnalysis.Onceeachdatasetwasanalyzed,usingtheconstantcomparisonmethod,wecross-comparedtheconsistencyoffindings(Patton,2015).Forexample,wecomparedandcontrastedhowparticipantsdescribedtheirmoduledesignwiththeanalysisofhowweidentifiedthetechnologicalaffordanceswereleveragedwithinthemoduleactivities.Nexttofurtherexamineourfindings,Jannconductedmember-checkingwithparticipants(Lincoln&Guba,1985).Shedraftedafullreportoutliningthemesalongwithdataexamplesandsharedthedocumentwiththefaculty.Toreacha75%member-checkrate,Jannmetwiththreeofthefourparticipantsfor90-minutestodiscussreactionstothereport,clarificationofpoints,andtheopportunitytoanswerquestions.Overall,resultsfromthemembercheckservedtoconfirmtheoriginalanalysis.

Results

RequirementsScaffoldedInteractivity.AnexaminationofcandidateworkwithinCanvasindicatedtwoimportantfindingsrelatedtointeractionsamongandbetweencandidatesandinstructors.First,allinteractions,suchascandidates’discussionboardpostsandclassmates’responseswerepresentedusingwrittenlanguageunlessthedirectionsspecificallyrequiredtheuseofadifferentmode.Inotherwords,candidateschosetorespondtoclassactivitiesusingtypedwordsratherthanaudioorvideo.ThisfindingwasnoteworthybecausetheCanvastoolsencompassedmultimodalaffordancesallowingcandidatestoseamlesslyrespondwithachoiceofmodes.Moreover,themajorityofinstructorfeedbacktocandidateswasprovidedwithtypedwrittenlanguagealthough,again,theCanvasgradingfeatureallowedforvideooraudioresponses.Dr.Kostnerwastheonlyinstructorwhodesignedinstructionthatencouraged,andsometimesrequired,candidatestorespondwithaudioorvideo.Herinterestandexperiencewithdigitaltoolsseemedtoinfluenceherinstructionaldesign.Sheexplainedinherinterview,“Ilikeusingdifferentdigitaltoolsandchallengingcandidatestopresenttheirthinkinginvariousways,especiallysincemanycandidatescommunicateviatextandreadfromwebpagesratherthantraditionallyprintedbooks.”

Analysisalsorevealedinteractivitymostlytookplacebetweencandidatesonlywhenitwasrequired.Forexample,instructorsdesignedtwotypesofactivitiesthatutilizedtheCanvasDiscussionstool.Reflectivepostswerewrittenbycandidatesinresponsetoteacher-createdpromptsafterreading,viewing,andparticipatingincoursecontentandactivities.Althoughtheinstructorcouldprovidecommentsandclassmateswereencouragedtorespond,therewasnoexpectationthesewouldoccur.Wedidnotfindanyinstancesofcandidatesrespondingtoreflectivepostsinthemodulesexaminedforthisstudy.

Discussionposts,ontheotherhand,werelikereflectivepostsbutrequiredcandidatestorespondtoatleastoneclassmate.Inotherwords,thereweregradesattached.Inallinstancesthatweexaminedforthisstudy,candidatesrespondedtoatleastoneclassmate’spostandfulfilledthisrequirement.Althoughthedepthandbreatheoftheinteractivityseemedtobedependentuponhowtheinstructordesignedtheactivity.Forexample,Table

4includesexcerptsfromgradingrubricsusedtoassesscandidates’responsestoclassmates’discussionboardpostsinthreedifferentclasses:

Table4:ExampleofGradingRubricsforDiscussionPosts

Course Criteria NoCredit HalfCredit FullCredit

#1 Responsetoclassmate

Doesnotrespondtoclassmate

Responseto1classmate

Responsetoatleast2

classmates

#2 ResponsivenessDoesnot

interactwithclassmates

Responserefersto2otherclassmates’opinions

Responsereferstoother

classmates’opinionsaswellasreadings

Responseexplicitly

respondstogroupmemberposts,and

substantivelybuildsonthembyfurthering

theirargument,constructivelyofferingadifferent

perspective,orposing

questionslikelytofurtherpeers'thinkingabout

theissue.

Responsefulfillsalldimensionsofcriteria

ResponsedoesnotrespondtogrouppostsOR

doesnotsubstantivelybuildonthem

Responseexplicitly

respondstogroupmemberposts,and

substantivelybuildsonthembyfurthering

theirargument,constructivelyofferingadifferent

perspective,orposing

questionslikelytofurtherpeers'thinkingabout

theissue.

Thereareobviousdifferencesbetweentherubrics.Rubrics#1and#2mentiontheexactnumberofresponsesthatneedtobepostedtoreceivecreditwhereasRubric#3isvague.Rubric#3providesmoredetailedcriteria,explicitlystatingthetypesoffeedbacktheinstructorwouldtoevaluatetheresponse.Analyzingcandidateworkwasoutsideofthescopeofthispapersowedonotshareactualpostsinthispaper.However,theanalysisoftherubricsandotheraspectsoftheinstructionaldesignindicatethatcandidatesfollowedthedirectionspresentedtothemwheninteractingwithclassmatesintheseonlinecourses.

SituatedLearningScaffoldedInteractivity.Dr.Merrindescribedtheapplicationofcontenttorealworldexamplesas“somethingtakenveryseriouslyintheprogram”andshedescribedassignmentsas“notabstractbutreallytangiblethingsthatarerelevantto

[candidates’]dailyjobsandresponsibilities.”AnalysisrevealedthatinstructiondesignedaroundsuchSLopportunitiesscaffoldedinteractivityintheMEdTLcourses.

OnetypeofSLdesignrequiredcandidatestoconnecttheirprofessionalexperiencestocoursereadingsandvideosbyrespondingtoteacher-createdprompts.Closeanalysisrevealedthemajorityofpromptsdidnotmerelyrequirecandidatestodescribetheirprofessionalsettingsinrelationtothetopic,butratherextendtheirthinkingtoconsiderchallenges,alternativeapproaches,orotherperspectives.Forexample,afterwatchingvideosandreadingarticlesonethicalactionresearchaswellasconductingacritiqueofanactionresearcharticle,candidateswereaskedtorespondtothefollowingprompt:“Whatinnovationshaveyouimplementedthatdonotseemtobeworkinginthewaysthatyouhadanticipated?”Anotherexampleisfromacourseonstatecurriculumstandardswherecandidateslearnedhowupdatedstandardsrequiredshiftsinteachingandlearning.Thepromptwas:

Describethekindsofchangesthatyouhavealreadymadeinyourschoolorclassroom--orthatyoufeelyoumustmake--inordertomeetthedemandsofthestatestandards.Clearlyidentifythechangesthatyoumadeorwillhavetomake,whyyoumadethem(orhavetomakethem),andwhetherornotyouoryourcolleaguesarehavingdifficulties/discussions/argumentsaboutthesechanges,andthenatureofthosediscussions.

Again,thispromptwentbeyondsummarizingwhatwaslearnedfromclassresourcestorequiringcandidatestomakecomplexconnectionstotheirprofessionalsettingsfromtheroleofteacherleader.

Insomeinstances,theresponsestoteacher-createdpromptswerecompletedinpublicdiscussionboardsaccessibletoclassmates,promotinginteractivityamongthembysparkingdebate,agreement,oradditionalquestions.Inothercases,candidates’responseswerepostedprivatelywithintheCanvasAssignmentstool,whichallowedinteractivitytotakeplacebetweenthecandidateandinstructor.

AnothertypeofSLdesignthatprecipitatedinteractivityinvitedMEdTLcandidates’colleaguesorotherexpertsintotheonlinelearningspaceTheseactivitiesreflectedSLsincetheinformationdrawncamefrompeoplewhosharedsimilarprofessionalsettings.Forexample,inacourseontechnology-basedcollaborationsMEdTLcandidatescreatedaProfessionalLearningNetworkfocusedonaproblemofpractice(PoP)identifiedintheirschool.Candidateswererequiredtosurveycolleaguesandreportbacktheirfindings,explaininghowtheynarroweddowntheirPoPandhowitwasapplicable.ThisactivityprecipitatedinteractivitybetweenMEdTLcandidatesandtheircolleagues.

AthirdwayinteractivitywasscaffoldedbySLwaswhentheinstructionaldesignleveragedmultimodality,specificallyvideoandaudio.Forinstance,acoachingcourserequiredcandidatestovideotapethemselvesleadingaprofessionaldevelopmentconversationwithacolleague.CandidatesuploadedthevideosdirectlyintothePeerReviewtoolinCanvaswhereclassmatesanalyzedtheconversationsandprovidedverbalfeedbackusingtheaudiofeatureastheyevaluatedthevideo.Usingvideoallowedtheinstructorandclassmatestomaketheirownassessmentsofcontentapplicationratherthanrelyingsolelyonthe

candidates’accountsofwhattookplace.Dr.Kostnerexplained,“Videoisapowerfultoolespeciallywhenwe’reaskingcandidatestodescribetheirownpractice.Ithelpsthemlookattheirworkmoreobjectivelyanditalsohelpstheirclassmatesdothesame.”

ParticipantsagreedthatframingactivitiesfromaSLlensbenefittedlearninginatleasttwoways.First,SLprovidedinstructorswithwindowsintocandidates’professionalcontexts.Inturn,instructorsfelttheyhadmoreinsightsaboutchallengescandidatesconfrontedwhenattemptingtoimplementcontentfromthecourseworkandtheycouldprovideindividualizedfeedback.Second,instructorsfeltsharingreal-lifeexperiencesscaffoldedgroupcohesion,creatingsocialsettingswherecandidatescouldmakesenseofthestoriesclassmatestoldabouttheirexperiencesrelatedtocoursecontent.Dr.BowerexplainedthathepurposelybuiltSLactivitiesintohiscoursessothatcandidateslearnedmoreabouteachother.Hestatedthisapproachledto“morerobustinteractions”inclass.

ProgramDesignInfluencedCollaboration.Inthisstudy,collaborationwascodedwhenanactivityrequiredagroupofcandidatestoanalyzeandapplycontenttodevelopasynthesizedoutcomerepresentingtheircombinedefforts.Usingthisdefinition,collaborationwasevidentinonlyonemoduleoutoftheeightanalyzed.Acourseonequityissuesrequiredcandidatestobrainstormresponsestoacasestudyandcreateaplanofactionbasedontheircollectivethinking.Specifically,theinstructionsguidedcandidatestouseacollaborativewritingtool,suchasGoogleDocs,orvideoconferencingtool,suchasCanvasCollaborations,toworktogetherto“buildconsensusabouttheidealresponsethatrepresentsthegroup’sthinking.”

Givenonlyonemoduleoutofeightreflectedcollaboration,MEdTLinstructorswereaskedabouttheirviewsofonlinecollaborationduringtheirinterviewsandthemember-checkingmeeting.Therewasagreementbytheparticipantsthatcandidateswouldbenefitfromworkingtogetheronclassprojects,especiallysincethecandidatedemographicsreflectedarangeofbackgroundexperiencesandprofessionalsettings.Dr.Merrinnoted,“Mostofmyfacetofaceclasstimeiscollaborative.Candidatesturnandtalkallthetime,sharingideasandbuildingconsensus.”However,instructorsidentifiedtwochallengestoleveragingthecollaborativeaffordanceswithinthedigitalenvironment.

AsthefirstfullyonlineprogramintheSchoolofEducationthatservedasthesettingforthisstudy,theadministrationdeterminedcourseenrollmentswouldnotbelimitedinorderforittobefinanciallyviable.Thus,45-65candidateswereregisteredineachcourse.Toputthisinperspective,face-to-facegraduatecoursesatthisinstitutionweretypicallycappedat20candidates.Althoughtheyweredeeplyinvestedintheprogram,facultyvoicedconcernovermanaginglargenumbersofcandidates,especiallyinanonlineenvironmentwheretheyneededtorelyondigitaltoolstoscaffoldthecollaboration.

Thesecondchallengewastheshortdurationoftheonlinesemester.Eachthree-creditcourseranforsevenweeksyetcoveredthesameamountofcontentasintheregular14-weeksemester.Facultyfounditdifficulttointroducecandidatestocontent,providesituatedlearningactivities,assessunderstanding,andprovideopportunitiestocollaboratewithinsuchacondensedamountoftime.AsDr.Santosexplained,“Thereisalotofbackandforthbetweeninstructorandcandidate[inmyclass].SowithlargeenrollmentsI’mgoingtohave60somethingcandidatesthatIamgoingtohavetohelpwiththeirworkand

it’saseven-weeksemester.Ijustdon’tknowhowtodoit.”Insum,althoughCanvastoolsallowedforcollaborationtotakeplace,participantsreportedlychosenottoleveragethisaffordanceduetoprogramdesign.

Discussion

A Inthisstudywedidnotevaluatetheeffectivenessofthelearningactivitiesnorcandidates’engagementinthecourse,thereforewedonotpresumeanimpactonstudentlearning.Instead,wefocusonthreeinsightsthatcaninformrevisionstoourinstructionaldesign.

Findingsindicatedthewaylearningopportunitiesweredesignedinfluencedcandidates’useofmultimodality.Thiswasevidentinthatthemajorityofcandidateresponsesandclassinteractionswerecomposedwithwrittenlanguage,unlessdirectionsspecificallyrequiredtheuseofadifferentmode.Sincewedidnotinterviewcandidateswecannotsayforcertainwhytheyreliedmostlyontypedwords.Perhapstheywereunsure,unaware,ordisinterestedinrepresentingtheirknowledgewithmodesotherthanwords.Similarly,whenfacultyrequiredinteractivity,suchasrespondingtoclassmates’postsonthediscussionboards,candidatesengagedintheseactivities.Yet,whentheywerenotrequiredbutgivenspacetointeract,fewcandidatesdid.Overall,thesefindingstaughtusthatfacultymustcloselyexaminetheaffordancesofthedigitaltoolstheyintegrateintotheirinstruction,decideiftherearemodesorinteractionscandidateswouldbenefitfrom,andtheninvitecandidatestorepresenttheirknowledgeindifferentways.Activitiesshouldthenbestructuredaroundtheintegrationofthesedecisionswithclearandexplicitinstructions.Byrestructuringactivitiesintheseways,lessondesigncantransitiononlinecoursesfromisolatedspacestosocial,interactivelearningcommunities(Lee,2004).Additionally,instructorsshouldmodelhowtoleveragemultimodality,collaborationandinteractivitywithintheLMS.Thiswouldprovidecandidateswithconcreteexamplesfromwhichtheycouldlearn.Ofcourse,thisrequiresfacultytoinvestinprofessionaldevelopmentopportunitiesthatexplicatehowonlineteachingdiffersfromtraditionalfacetofacepedagogy.

FindingsalsoindicatedSLprecipitatedinteractivityinonlinecoursesbyprovidingconcretestartingpointsfordiscussions.SLencouragedcandidatestosharetheirindividualprofessionalstoriesandactivelyconnectthesestoriestocoursecontent.Interestingly,instructorsalsoleveragedmultimodalitytoinviteothersintothelearningexperiencethroughvideoandaudiorepresentations.ThisfindingtaughtusthatframingcoursesaroundSLwasagooddecision,butthatthetoolsforcollaborationarenotyetbeingoptimizedbycandidatesorinstructors,particularlyastheypertaintocommunicationfordiscussionusingmodesotherthantypedwords.

Accordingtofaculty,programlogisticsalsoseemedtoinfluenceinstructionaldesign.Facultyvoicedconcernswithintegratingcollaborativeprojectsduetoclasssizeandtheshortdurationofthesemester.Theseobstaclesreflectedtherealitiesofteachingonlineatthisuniversity.Theyalsohighlightedatensionbetweenresearch-basedteachingpracticesanduniversity-mandatedpolicies.Forexample,althoughtheyunderstoodtheimportanceofcollaboration,thefacultymostlyshiedawayfromgradedgroupactivitiesbecausethemanagementwastoocumbersome,especiallywhenclassenrollmentexceeded50

candidates.Thistensionisnotuniquetothisparticularsetting.Universitiesaroundtheworldareprioritizingstudent-centered,hands-onlearningopportunitiesoverrotememorization,yetnotprovidingfacultywiththeprofessionaldevelopmentorsupporttore-envisionclassroompractices(AdamsBeckeretal.,2017).Althoughthereisnoconsensusabouthowmanystudentsareoptimalinanonlinecourse,researchindicates“14%morehoursarerequiredtoteachthesamenumberofstudentsonlineatadistancethaninthetraditionalclassroom”(Tomei,2006,539).Asadministratorsmakeenrollmentdecisionsbasedonfinancialneeds,itiscriticaltoconsiderwhatcompromisesmustbemadetosustainthelevelofstudentenrollment.

Inlightofthesefindings,wesharepreliminarystepsweplantotaketoimproveourinstructionaldesign.First,weplantolobbyouradministrationforsmallclasssizes,whichwouldmakegradingcollaborativeprojectslessunwieldly.Second,weplantoencourageourcandidatestoleveragemultimodalityaffordedbythetechnology.Finally,wewillconductacoursemappingexerciseacrossallsevenmodulesfromalltencourses,wherewecollaborativelyidentifythefeaturesofourcourseassignmentsthatareaimedatpromotingcollaborationandconnectionstohighlycontextualizedlived-experiences.

LimitationsandFurtherResearch

Thisworkshouldbeviewedinrelationtothreelimitations.First,aprimarysourceofdatawascontentfromeightdifferentcoursemodules,onlyasubsetofinstructionalcontentwithineachcourse.Inturn,theremayhavebeencollaborativeand/orinteractiveopportunitiesthatwerenotexamined.Additionally,thismethodremovedtheactivitiesfromthecontextoftheentirecourse.Itwouldbeusefultoconductasystematicstudyofanentirecoursetoevaluatethefullgamutofactivities.Second,sincewefocusedonlearningopportunitiesandnotlearningoutcomesinthisspecificinquiry,candidatedatawerenotcollected.Priorresearchindicatesthatmuchcanbelearnedfromstudentperspectivesatanygradelevel(e.g.,Coiro&Dobler,2007;Jimenez&Meyer,2016).Suchanapproachinfuturestudieswouldinfusetheirimportantvoices.Third,weexaminedcoursesdesignedbyexpertsinthefieldofeducationforaparticulareducationprogram.Moreover,threeoutoffourparticipantshadexperiencedesigningfullyonlinecourses.Thus,theresultswilllikelydifferwhenexploringonlinelearningenvironmentsdesignedbyfacultywithexpertiseoutsidethefieldofeducationorwithlesstechnologyexperience.Conclusion

Accordingtothe2017NMCHorizonReportHigherEdEdition,“Technologyanddigitaltoolshavebecomeubiquitous,buttheycanbeineffectiveordangerouswhentheyarenotintegratedintothelearningprocessinmeaningfulways”(AdamsBeckeretal.,2017,p.7).Designingonlineinstruction,however,isacomplexanddemandingtaskthatwillnotoccurwithoutsystematicexplicitinstructioninthepedagogiesassociatedwithdigitalteaching.Wesuggesthighereducationfacultyengageinsimilartypesofprogramreviewasdescribedinthispaperandalsobegivenopportunitiestostrengthentheirunderstandingsofonlineinstructionaldesign.

AbouttheAuthors

RachelKarchmer-Klein,Ph.D.isanAssociateProfessorattheUniversityofDelawarewheresheteachesundergraduate,graduate,anddoctorallevelcoursesinliteracyandeducationaltechnology.HerresearchagendafocusesontherelationshipsbetweenInternettechnologiesandreadingandwriting,withparticularemphasisonthepracticalimplicationsoftechnologyuseinK-16education.Shetaughtherfirstonlinecoursein2003andnowcoordinatesandteachesintwofullyonlinegraduateprogramsineducation.Dr.Karchmer-Klein’sworkhasbeenpublishedinjournalssuchasReadingResearchQuarterly,ActioninTeacherEducation,JournalofDigitalLearninginTeacherEducation,andJournalofResearchonTechnologyinEducation.Email:karchmer@udel.edu

ElizabethSoslau,Ph.D.isanAssociateProfessorintheSchoolofEducationattheUniversityofDelaware. Herresearchfocusesonthedevelopmentofadaptiveteachingexpertise,buildingintersubjectivitybetweenteachereducatorsandstudentteachers,andpromotingteachers’agencyandequityliteracy.Dr.Soslau’sworkhasbeenpublishedinjournalssuchastheJournalofTeacherEducation,TeachingandTeacherEducation, ActioninTeacherEducation,andEducationalActionResearch.Herclinicalworkincludescoordinatingthestudentteachingpracticum,providingfieldinstructioninurbanschools,andteachinggraduateandundergraduatecoursesindiversityandequity,aswellasactionresearchmethodsforteachers.AsapastmiddleschoolteacherwiththePhiladelphiaSchoolDistrict,sheremainscommittedtoinitiativesthatsupportuniversityandpubliceducationpartnerships.Email:esoslau@udel.edu

JannMarieSutton,Ed.D.isaninstructionaldesignerwiththeCenterforInstructionandResearchTechnologyattheUniversityofNorthFloridawhereshecollaborateswithfacultytoidentifyandapplyrigorouspedagogicalconceptsandprinciplestoteachinginitiatives.ProjecthighlightsincludecultivatingpedagogicalstrategiesintheUnitedStates,SouthAfrica,Haiti,andBosniaandHerzegovina.Herresearchinterestsencompassexamininginstructionaldesignstrategies,investigatingonlineteachingactivitiesforlargeonlineclassesandgroupwork,andevaluatingdigitaltools.Dr.Sutton’sworkhasbeenpublishedintheJournalofManagementEducationandtheJournalofOnlineLearningandTeaching.Email:j.sutton@unf.edu

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COMPARINGCOOPERATIVELEARNINGSTRATEGIESINASSESSMENTINSTRUCTIONJosephA.Mayo

GordonStateCollege

AbstractAsafollow-uptoapriorexploratoryinvestigationofcooperativelearninginteachingassessmenttoearly-childhood-educationmajors,thepresentstudysystematicallycomparesthepedagogicalefficacyoftwovariantsofcooperativelearning.Inthefirstcooperativelearningcondition,studentsreprisedthesimulatedclassroompracticeevidencedintheCooperativeAssessmentPortfolio(CAP)assignmentusedinthepreviousstudy.Inthesecondcondition,studentscompletedaCooperativeAssessmentCaseAnalysis(CACA)assignmentwithdistinguishingfeaturesofcase-basedlearning.Onallquantitativeandqualitativemeasures,resultsfavoredtheCAPoverCACAassignment.Findingsarediscussedinlightofsocialconstructivistpedagogyandfuturedirectionsforresearch.

Keywords:cooperativelearning,socialconstructivism,constructivistpedagogy,educationalassessment,earlychildhoodeducation,post-secondaryclassroomresearch,actionresearch

Introduction

Recentdecadeshavewitnessedanincreaseinactive-learningpedagogiesincollegeclassrooms(Fink,2004).Cooperativelearningcontinuestoholdaprominentplaceinthischangingclassroomlandscape(e.g.,Davidson&Major,2014;Gillies,2016;Healy,Doran,&McCutcheon,2018;Love,Dietrich,Fitzgerald,&Gordon,2014).Amongthemostresearchedofalltopicsintheteachingliterature,asignificantbodyofevidencesupportscooperativelearningasameansforstudentstooptimizetheirownlearningwhilefacilitatingtheacademicperformanceoftheirclassmates(Johnson,Johnson,&Holubec,2008).Asastructuredapplicationofcollaborativelearning,themeritsofcooperativelearningatthecollegelevelcanbeclassifiedundertwobroadcategories:academicandsocioemotional(Jones&Jones,2008).Morespecifically,cooperativelearningencourageshigher-orderreasoning,goal-setting,idea-generation,group-to-individuallearningtransfer,promotiveinteraction,positiveinterdependence,andinterpersonalcompetence(Johnson,Johnson,&Smith,2014;Mayo,2010;Williams,2007).Cooperativelearning,astheunderlyingpedagogicalbasisforthepresentstudy,haslongstandingtheoreticalrootswithintheconstructivisttradition.SocialinterdependencetheoryderivesfromtheconfluenceofKurtKoffka’s(1935/1999),KurtLewin’s(1935,1948),andMortonDeutsch’s(1949)shared

recognitionofgroupsasdynamicinitiatorsofvaryinglevelsofinterdependenceamongindividualgroupmembers.Vygotsky(1962/1986)builtuponthisperspectivewithhissocioculturaltheoryofdevelopment.AccordingtoVygotsky,thereisinterplaybetweencognitiveprocessesandsocialactivitiessuchthatsocialinteractionbecomesessentialtoactiveknowledgeconstructiononanintrapersonallevel.Inpractice,cooperativelearningbringstogetherthebasicelementsofthesetheoreticalstances.Groupsofstudentsworktogethertolearn,whileeachindividualbecomespersonallyaccountableforhisorherownlearningwithinthegroupcontext(Brame&Biel,2015).

LiteratureReview

BackgroundandPurposeofthePresentStudy.Inapriorexploratoryinvestigation,Iaskedgroupsofstudentstocompleteanend-of-semesterproject,calledtheCooperativeAssessmentPortfolio,injunior-levelassessmentclassesforearly-childhood-education(ECE)majors(Mayo,2013).ThestudyfocusedontheextenttowhichthisassignmentservedasaformativelearningtoolforECEcandidatesinsuccessfullydesigningteacher-developedstrategiesforassessingthelearningofyoungchildren.Students’performanceontheassignmentdemonstratedassessmentproficiencyasappliedtosimulatedclassroompractice.Moreover,students’surveyedperceptionstowardcompletingtheassignmentpointedtoitseffectivenessinbothpromotingmasteryofacademiccontentandfosteringproductivegroupinteraction.TheobservedsuccessoftheCooperativeAssessmentPortfoliointhispilotstudyservedasaspringboardformyundertakingthepresentinvestigation.

Thepurposeofthecurrentstudyistosystematicallycomparethepedagogicalefficacyoftwogroup-basedassignmentsusingcase-basedlearning(CBL):theCooperativeAssessmentPortfolio(CAP)examinedintheaforementionedpreliminaryinvestigationandtheCooperativeAssessmentCaseAnalysis(CACA).CBLtypicallyincorporatescollaborative-learningprocessesthatpermitstudentstosolveproblemsandreflectontheirexperiences(Hmelo-Silver,2004).TheprimarypurposeofCBListoteachstudentstoapplytheoreticalknowledge(Ching,2014).Inthecontextofteachereducation,themannerinwhichCBLaccomplishestheseintersectingeducationalaimscanbesummarizedasfollows:

[CBL]providesgenerativecontextsforprospectiveandcertifiedteacherstoworktogetherinsmallcollaborativegroups.Together,theyanalyzeproblems,discussoptions,andmakeinformeddecisionstosolveproblemsbasedonauthenticteachingsituationswithreal,multifacetedchallenges(DeSimone,2014,p.17).

Withinthegroup-centeredandapplied-theoreticalfocusofCBL,boththeCAPandCACAassignmentsareaimedatpermittingstudentsvariedopportunitiestodemonstrateaworkingunderstandingofthefactorsunderlyingwell-conceivedteacher-developedassessmentstrategies.WiththeCAPassignment,studentsengageinsimulatedclassroompracticebycreatingtheirownclassroomassessments.Incontrast,studentscompletingtheCACAassignmentcritiquealready-createdclassroomassessmentsasanexerciseinprofessionaldecision-making.

InspiteofCBL’swidespreaduseinteachereducation,therehasbeenrelativelylittlepublishedresearchonCBL-reliantinstructionalmethodologiesoroutcomesrelateddirectlytoteacherpreparation(Goeke,2008).Thepresentstudyaimstoaddtothisareaofresearch.Italsoseekstomakeanoriginalcontributiontotheteachereducationliteraturethroughsystematiccomparisonoftwocooperative-learningassignmentsintheframeworkofteachingECEassessment.

Methodology

Participants.Participantswere96ECEbaccalaureatecandidatesenrolledinfourequivalent-enrolledsectionsofajunior-levelcourseinECEassessmentforwhichIservedasinstructor.Classes,whichweretaughtatapublicstatecollegeinthesoutheasternUnitedStates,occurredinanacceleratedfour-weeksummersemester(twohoursofinstructionperday,fivedaysaweek).Twoclasssectionswereofferedineachoftwoconsecutivesummerterms.

Theparticipantpoolconsistedof87femalesand9males.Theracialdemographicwasapproximately85%Caucasian,13%African-American,and2%multiracial.Participantsrangedinagefrom21to43years(M=23.98).Roughly60%ofparticipantswerefirst-generationundergraduates,withnearlytwothirdsholdingafull-orpart-timejobwhileenrolledinthecourse.Allparticipantshadcompletedtwosemestersofclassroomfieldexperienceinpre-kindergartenthroughfifthgradebeforetakingthecourse.

Design.Iusedanindependent,two-group,quasi-experimentaldesigninwhichintactclasseswereassignedtooneoftwoconditions.Inoneconditionthattookplaceovertheinitialsummerofthestudy,50studentscompletedtheCAPinfulfillmentoftheirterm-lengthprojectrequirement.Inanothercondition,46studentscompletedtheCACAastheirterm-lengthprojectinthesecondsummeroftheinvestigation.Therewerenoappreciabledifferencesbetweenconditionsonthebasisofage,gender,orGPA.Additionally,Iheldcoursecontent,testingformat,andotherrelevantinstructionalvariablesconstantbetweenconditions.

CourseDescription.Thelearningobjectivesofthecoursewerebroadlyinclusiveasrelatestoearly-childhoodassessmenttopics;however,theprincipalfocusofthepresentstudywasstudents’understandinganddevelopmentofappropriatestrategiesforassessingthelearningofyoungchildrenfrompre-kindergartenthroughgradefive.Thisprimaryfocus—whichwascanvassedinboththeCAPandCACAassignments—includeddecidingaccuratelywhattoassessandhowtoassessit,withemphasisonthecognitivedomainoftherevisedversionofBloom’staxonomyofeducationalobjectives(Krathwohl,2002).Italsoencompassedthedetectionandpreventionofbiaswhenassessingchildrenwithspecialneedsandchildrenfromculturallyandlinguisticallydifferentbackgrounds.

Iadministeredaunitexamatmidtermineachofthetwoconditions.Thisexamcontained50conceptuallyappliedmultiple-choicequestionsfromthenon-principalfocalareasofthecourse,includingtheoriesembeddedinassessmentpractices,testvalidityandreliability,interpretingstandardizedtests,andapplyingpropertest-preparationpracticestowardhigh-

stakesstandardizedtesting.Attheconclusionofthesemester,Iadministeredasecondunitexamtostudentsineachconditionthatservedasthecurrentinvestigation’sdependentmeasureforcomparativestatisticaltesting.Thissecondexamalsoconsistedof50conceptuallyappliedmultiple-choicequestions,butthesequestionspertainedtothechieffocalpointsofthestudythatwereaddressedinboththeCAPandCACAassignments.Inordertominimizethepossibilityofexperimentereffectsincomposingthesecondexam,Iselectedallmultiple-choicequestionsfromconceptuallybasedtest-bankitems.Consistentwithconsiderationssurroundingbothtestsecurityandalternate-formreliability,Imatchedquestionsonbothcontentandlevelofdifficultyintheprocessofselectingitemsforinclusiononfourdifferent-but-comparableexamversions(oneforeachofthefourparticipatingclasssections).

InstructionalProcedures(CAPCondition).IntheCAPcondition,theinitialthreeweeksofthesemesterconsistedofin-depthclassroominstructionovertheentiregamutofassessmenttopics(bothprincipalandnon-principalfocalpointsasdescribedunderCourseDescription).Throughoutthefinalweekofthesemester,studentsworkedinclasswithinpre-assignedgroupsoffourorfiveindividualstocompletetheCAPassignmentwithslightproceduralmodificationsfromthepreviouspreliminaryinvestigation(Mayo,2013).Thesemodifications,whichincludedeliminatingaffectiveassessmentandplacinggreateremphasisonabsence-of-biasinassessment,werepredicatedlargelyoninstructivestudentfeedbackfrompriorsummativecourseevaluations.Onceassignedtotheircorrespondinggroups,studentsmetpreliminarilytoselectindividualstoserveintheflexibleandrotatingcapacitiesoffacilitator,recorder,andotherdefinedroles.

IncompletingtheCAPassignment,eachgroupselectedthegradelevel(s),subjectarea(s),andspecifictopic(s)toincorporateintotheportfolio.Eachgroupalsoestablishedacollaborativedivisionoflaborinwhicheachmemberwasexposedtoarepresentativesamplingofeveryassessmentstrategyoutlinedbelow:

1. selected-responseassessment[20binary-choice(true-false)items;10multiplebinary-choiceitemsintwosetsof5;20multiple-choiceitems;and10matchingquestionsintwosetsof5]

2. constructed-responseassessment(20short-answeritemsandtwodifferentessayitemswithanaccompanyinganalyticscoringrubricforeach)

3. performanceassessment(oneconceptmap,case-studyanalysis,analogicalreasoningproject,andautobiographicaland/orbiographicaljournalingassignment,withaconcomitantanalyticscoringrubricforeachassignment)

4. portfolioassessment(fivehypotheticalworksamplesrelatedtotargetedskillsand/orknowledgeforprospectivestudentstomaster,alongwithasingleanalyticrubriconwhichallworksamplescouldbescored)

Studentscomposedanswerkeysforallselected-responseandshort-answerconstructed-responseitems.Forconstructed-responseessays,performanceassessment,andtheportfolio-assessmentitems,studentsdesignedprototypicalresponsesuponwhichtheybasedtheirassociatedscoringrubrics.

Alongwithdemonstratedmasteryofeachassessmentstrategy,theevaluativecriteriaforscoringeachgroup’sassignmentincludedanappliedunderstandingofBloom’staxonomy(knowledgeandcognitive-processdimensions)andabsence-of-biasinassessmentplusevidenceofacollaborativedivisionoflabor.Iratedstudentsonallevaluativecriteriaexceptforcollaborativedivisionoflabor,whichwasreservedsolelyforstudentsincorrespondinggroupstoevaluate.Onthedivision-of-laborscore,studentsineachgroupratedoneanotherintermsofindividualcontributionstothegroup(e.g.,effort,cooperation,anddedicationtoteamwork),withthegroup’saverageperpersonusedforindividualscoringpurposes.PeerratingsoccurredonaLikertscalerangingfrom1=unsatisfactoryto5=exceptional.Iaffordedadditionalopportunityforstudentstooffertheirevaluativecomments.Ikeptallpeerratingsanonymoustootherstudents.

TheCAPassignmentcountedforonethirdofthefinalcourseaverage.Incalculatingeachstudent’sgradeforthisassignment,Iweightedallofthefollowingeightevaluativecriteriaequallyincalculatingthecumulativegradeforeachstudent:(1)Bloom’sknowledgeandcognitive-processdimensionspercontentstandard;(2)absence-of-biasinassessment;(3)averagewithin-grouppeerratingperrespectivestudent;(4)selected-responseassessment;(5)constructed-responseassessment(shortanswer);(6)constructed-responseassessment(essay);(7)performanceassessment;and(8)portfolioassessment.Inassigninggradesforeachevaluativecriterion,Ireliedonanumerical-ratingsystemwithsimilaranchorsasthestudents’peerratings(1=unsatisfactoryto5=exceptional).Icollapsedallevaluativecriteriaontoagradingsummarysheet,whichalsoincludedspaceforaconcisesynopsisofmyevaluativecommentsandaschemeforconvertingrubricpoint-totalstograde-levelpercentages.Forclarification,Idistributedandreviewedthecontentofthissummarysheetduringthefirstclassmeeting.Oncegradingwascompleted,Ireturnedthesesheetstorespectivestudentsattheendofthesemester.

CACACondition.IntheCACAcondition,thefirstthreeweeksofthesemesterinvolvedthesameclassroominstructionasoccurringintheCAPcondition.SimilartotheCAPcondition,studentsworkedinclassduringthefinalweekofthesemester—inpre-assignedgroupsoffourorfive—tocompletetheCACAassignment.AsintheCAPcondition,studentsintheCACAconditionmetbrieflyaftergroupswereassignedtochooseindividualstoactinvariousflexibleandrotatingroleswithineachgroup.

IntheCACAcondition,Iaskedeachgrouptowritecritiquesofaseriesoffictitiousreferencecasesthatreflectedalloftheteacher-developedassessmentstrategiescanvassedintheCAPassignment:selected-response,constructed-response(shortanswer),constructed-response(essay),performance,andportfolioassessment.IncompletingtheCACAassignment,IalsorequiredstudentstoaddressthesameconsiderationsasthoseobservedintheCAPcondition,includingBloom’sknowledgeandcognitive-processdimensions,absence-of-biasinassessment,andacollaborativedivisionoflaborwithineachgroup.

Idesignedallcasesasnarrativeexperiential-learningexercisesbasedontheprincipalfocalpointsofassessmentcanvassedinthecourse.Casesoriginatedfromtwosources.Thefirstsourceinvolvedmyowninstructor-createdcasesthatincludedvarioustypesoferrorsinassessmentpractice.Thesecondsourcederivedfromappropriatelyreferencedadaptations

ofcasescenariosappearingasappliedassessmentexerciseswithinleadingtextbooks,workbooks,andotherpublicationswithintherealmofeducationalassessment.Insomesituations,thesecasesalreadyincorporatedoneormoreerrorsthatstudentscouldidentifyanddiscussintheirCACAassignments.Inotherinstances,assessmentblunderswerenotpresent.Ineitherevent,Imodifiedcasecontent—rangingfrommoderatelyforerror-inclusivecasestoextensivelyforcorrectcaseapplications—suchthaterrorsofomissionand/orcommissionwereintroduced.Asimple,illustrativeexampleofaconstructed-response(shortanswer)itemforsecond-gradersappearsnext.Thislanguage-artsitem—whichincludesinitalicsabriefdiscussionoftheaccompanyingassessmenterror—isadaptedfromextended-applicationsexercisesappearingattheconclusionofPopham’s(2014)classroom-assessmenttextbook:

Theselettersareallvowels:A,E,O,andU.Whatistheonemissingvowel?____________

Althoughtheintendedcorrectansweris“I,”“Y”and“W”areoccasionallyacceptedasvowels.Therefore,thisitemviolatesoneofthebasictenetsofdevelopingsoundshort-answeritems,namely,theintendedcorrectresponsemustbeunique.

Iusedthesamepeer-andinstructor-ratingscalesandproceduresintheCACAconditionthathadbeenusedintheCAPcondition.IincorporatedallevaluativeinformationintothesamegradingsummarysheetthathadbeenutilizedintheCAPcondition.Onceagain,IdistributedandreviewedthisgradingsheetatthestartofthesemesterandthenreturnedittostudentsafterIhadcompletedgradingatthesemester’sconclusion.AswiththeCAPassignment,theCACAassignmentwasalsoworthonethirdofthefinalcourseaverage.

Results

ComparativeStatisticalTesting.Asdescribedinmethodology,thedependentmeasurewasstudents’scoresontheend-of-semesterunitexamthataddressedmaterialrelatedtothemajorcontentconcentrationsinthecourse(teacher-developedassessmentsinconjunctionwithbothBloom’staxonomyofthecognitivedomainandabsenceofbiasinassessment).ThemeansandstandarddeviationsforstudentscoresineachconditionareCACA(M=80.92,SD=10.36)andCAP(M=84.88,SD=8.65).Iusedindependent-groupst-testingtocomparestudentscoresintheCACAconditionwiththoseintheCAPcondition.ResultsshowthatstudentperformanceintheCAPlearningconditiondifferedsignificantlyfromperformanceintheCACAcondition,t(94)=2.04,p<.05.

QuestionnaireData.Igaugedstudents’perceptionsofcompletingcorrespondingassignmentsintheCACAandCAPAconditionswithananonymous10-itemquestionnairethatcombineda5-pointLikertratingscale(notatalleffective=1tohighlyeffective=5)withseveralquestionsaboutrespectiveassignmentstowhichstudentsrespondednarratively.Iaskedstudentstoratenumericallytheexperienceofcompletingtheassignmentinquestionintermsofhoweffectivelyitaccomplishedatotalof10educationalobjectives.Ialsoaskedstudentstocommentnarrativelyonwhattheylikedbestandleastabouttherespectiveassignments,alongwithwhethertheywouldrecommendthatassignmenttootherstudents.Students’numericalratingsareshowninTable1.

Table1:Students’NumericalRatingsoftheCooperativeAssessmentCaseAnalysis(CACA)andCooperativeAssessmentPortfolio(CAP)Assignments

QuestionnaireItem MSD

CACA(n=46)

CAP(n=50)

Thinkingbeyondtheclassroom 3.83 .70

4.72 .61

Fosteringparticipationinlearning 3.66 .48

4.58 .42

Increasingpracticalrelevanceofinformation 3.74 .62

4.88 .31

Facilitatingunderstandingofcoursecontent 4.01 .39

4.56 .51

Increasingmotivationtolearn 3.45 .80

4.27 .54

Promotingintellectualchallenge 3.62 .53

4.44 .46

Stimulatinginterestinthesubjectmatter 3.36 .75

4.31 .49

Distinguishingbetweenvariedassessments 3.71 .43

4.67 .63

Recognizingtheimportanceofabsence-of-bias 3.50 .72

4.39 .58

ApplyingBloom’sTaxonomy(cognitivedomain) 3.55 .68

4.78 .42

Questionnaireratingscoincidedwiththeresultsofcomparativestatisticaltesting.StudentspreferredtheCAPtotheCACAassignmentacrossallsurveyedmeasures.Students’narrativecommentswerealsoconsistentwiththeirnumericalratings.Althoughapproximately60%ofrespondentsintheCACAconditioncommentedaboutthecooperativecase-analysisassignment’sgeneralutilityinbolsteringunderstandingofthetargetedcoursecontent,onlyabouthalfthatnumbersaidthattheywouldrecommendittootherstudents.Incontrast,morethan90%ofrespondentsintheCAPconditionassertedthattheywouldrecommendthecooperativeportfolioassignmenttootherstudents.InresponsetowhatstudentslikedbestabouttheCAPassignment,thevastmajoritystatedthatitprovidedvaluablehands-onexperiencethatshouldlaterbenefitthemintheirfutureteachingresponsibilities.Manyof

theserespondentsalsoremarkedthattheyhadneverrealizedhowmuchtimeandenergywentintocreatinggoodteacher-developedassessments.Notunexpectedly,themajorcriticismofbothassignmentswastheperceivedworkloadassociatedwiththeircompletion.StudentsintheCAPconditionvoicedthiscriticismmostoften;however,manyofthesesamerespondentsqualifiedtheirconcernbynotingthattheendproductwasbothpersonallygratifyingandworththeconcertedeffort.

Discussion

Withinthebroadcontextofunderstandingandapplyingvariedtypesofteacher-developedassessments,thepresentresultsshowthattheCACAassignmentdidnotcompareasfavorablyastheCAPcounterpartonthejointmeasuresofcomparativestatisticaltestingandanalysisofsurveyedattitudinaldata.Thecorereasonwhythisoccurredmightrelatetofundamentaldifferencesintheunderlyingfoundationsofthesetwotypesofcooperativelearning.

TheCACAandCAPassignmentsarevariantformsofsocialconstructivistpedagogy(Mayo,2010)thatencouragesmallgroupsofstudentstoworktogethertocreatesharedunderstanding.Inthesetypesofassignments,studentscollaboratetoproduce,notreproduceknowledge(Millis,2002).TheCACAassignmentalignswiththelongstandingtraditionofusingcase-basedlearninginnumerousundergraduatedisciplinesasameansoflinkingknowledgeandpracticethroughdevelopingstudents’criticalthinkingandappliedreasoningskills.(e.g.,Allchin,2013;Floyd&Bodur,2005;Heitzmann,2008;Kaddoura,2011;Mayo,2002,2004;Pariseau&Kezim,2007).BoththeCACAandCAPassignmentsqualifyasproblem-centeredapproachesthatadvocateforauthenticapplicationsofcoursecontentintheframeworkofactiveandinteractivelearning.Yettheseassignmentstakedifferingroutestotheseeducationaloutcomes.Asmentionedbrieflyintheliteraturereview,theCACAassignmentusescasestudiestointroducepracticalexamplesandanalogouscontextsforanalysis,critique,andvicariouslearningandpracticeinprofessionaldecision-making.Ontheotherhand,theCAPassignmentreliesonactualsimulatedclassroompracticethatoffersstudentsampleopportunitiestocreatetheirownassessmentstodemonstrateappliedunderstandingofsoundprinciplesoftestconstruction.Ofthetwoapproaches,then,theCAPismoreinherentlyactiveinpractice.Thisconclusionisnotonlysupportedbyrelatedpedagogicalfindingsinotheracademicdisciplines(e.g.,Jeffries,2005),butitalsoupheldinthepresentstudybystudents’perceptionsoftheCAPassignmentasfosteringdemonstrablygreaterparticipationinlearningthantheCACAassignment(seeTable1).

Conclusion

Overall,theresultsofthepresentstudyvalidatethemeritsofcooperativelearninginECEassessmentinstructionthatemphasizessimulatedclassroompracticeasavehicleforpromotingwhatHmeloandGuzdial(1996)describedmorethantwodecadesagoasknowledge-building-for-action.Additionalresearch,involvingassignmentssimilarinnaturebutperhapsdifferentinscopetotheterm-lengthCAPassignment,mightshowifthese

findingsalsoapplytoassessmentinstructioninmiddle-gradesorsecondaryeducationprograms.Anotherpotentiallyinvitingdirectionforfutureresearchonpre-servicestudents’assessmentinstructionmightinvolveasystematicexaminationofthepedagogicalefficacyofahybridcooperative-learningapproachthatintegrateskeyelementsofboththeCAPandCACAassignmentsfromthecurrentinvestigation.Asaproposedexample,studentsmightbeginwithcarefullyplannedcaseanalysesasawaytoscaffoldlearningexperiences(seeHmelo&Guzdial,1996)inpreparationforlatersimulatedclassroompractice.

AbouttheAuthor

JosephA.Mayo,Ed.D.iscurrentlyaProfessorofPsychologyatGordonStateCollegeinBarnesville,Georgia,whohasbeenteachingandconductingclassroom-centeredresearchinhighereducationforoverthreedecades.Hisprimaryresearchinterestiseffectiveundergraduateteachingstrategieswithanemphasisonconstructivistclassroomapplications.Heistherecipientofbothstatewideandnationalawardsforhisongoingcontributionstothescholarshipofteachingandlearning.Email:joe_m@gordonstate.edu

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DOESMINDFULNESSSTRENGTHENSELF-EFFICACYINFIRSTGRADESTUDENTS?KirstenL.Logan

UniversityofRichmond

ErikK.Laursen

UniversityofRichmond

AbstractExternalandinternalstressorsofteninfluenceyoungchildren’ssenseofself-efficacyandresiliencynegatively.Practicingmindfulnesswithintheclassroommaybeoneinterventionthatcanhelpstudentsstrengthenthesocial-emotionalskillsinvolvedinself-efficacyandresiliency.Thisstudyusedamixedmethodsapproachtogatherquantitativeandqualitativedatafromsixfirst-gradestudentswhoparticipatedinadailymindfulnesspractice.Thedatawereanalyzedusingdescriptivestatisticstodetermineiftheirperceptionsofself-efficacyandresiliencyimprovedfromweekonetoweeksixofthestudy.Logico-inductivedataanalyseswereusedtoidentifycommonthemesinstudentinterviews.Studentsfavoredthemindfulnessactivitiesandsharedbenefitssuchasfeelingcalm,happy,andasenseofself-control.Thesix-weektimeframeandsmallsamplesizearepossiblelimitationsforthisresearchstudytoshowsignificantdifferencesthroughthequantitativedataanalysis.

Keywords:teacheractionresearch,mindfulness,resiliency,self-efficacy,social-emotionallearning

Introduction

DuringKirsten’stimeasateacher,shehadobservedthatherstudents’lowsenseofself-efficacyappearedtoimpedetheirlearning.Commonbehaviorsrelatedtolowself-efficacyincludealowlevelofperseverance,i.e.,situationsinwhichstudentsbecomeeasilyfrustratedbymistakesorunknownanswers,self-talkfocusingonstudents’inabilitytocompleteatask,andalackofestablishing,workingtoward,andreflectingongoalswithintheclassroom.Kirstennoticedthatthesebehaviorswereovertakingmuchofthecoreinstructionaltimeforherstudents.Agreatdealoftheschooldayfocusedonthesenegativebehaviorsandprovidinginterventionstoaddressthembeforeeffectivelearningcouldoccur.Kirstenwasthereforeinterestedinfindingwaystostrengthenherstudents’self-efficacybyinvestigatingthefollowingquestion:Doesmindfulnessstrengthenself-efficacyinfirstgradestudents?

Thepurposeofthisstudywastoexploreiftheimplementationofdailymindfulnesspracticesintheclassroomhaveapositiveeffectonfirstgradestudents’self-efficacy.Overasix-weekperiod,allstudentsinKirsten’sclassroomparticipatedinmindfulnesspracticesduringthemorningmeetingtime.Datawerecollectedfromsixstudentswhoparticipatedinone-on-oneinterviewsandcompletedaquestionnairethreetimes;atthebeginning,midpoint,andendofthestudy.

LiteratureReview

Mindfulnessisgaininginfluenceineducationandabodyofresearchoutlinesthebenefitsofimplementingmindfulnesspracticesintoclassroomsettings(e.g.,Costello&Lawler,2014;Harpin,Rossi,Kim,&Swanson,2016;Moreno,2017).Studentsfacemanychallengesthatcompetefortheirattentionduringschoolhours.MalowandAustin(2016)observedthatstudentstressandanxietycontinuetorise.Asaresult,educatorsmusttakeonthecrucialroletoexplicitlyteachstudentshowtomanagestrongemotionsbeforetheyimpedetheirsuccess.Harpinetal.(2016)identifiedaneedforstudents,specificallywithinurbansettings,tostrengthentheirabilitiestocopewithadversityandtoimprovetheirfocustobemoresuccessfulinschool.

Mindfulnesspracticeisonestrategytosupportstudentsindealingwithstressandanxiety.Mindfulnessis“thecognitiveabilitytopayattentiontothepresentmomentwithoutjudgmentorattachmenttoadesiredoutcome”(Kelleretal.,2017,p.508).Studentscanutilizemindfulnessbytakingastructured,peaceful,reflectivetimetopracticekeepingtheirthoughtsinthepresent.Mindfulnessinvolvesthreeinterconnectingcomponentsthatincludeintention,attention,andattitude.GreasonandCashwell(2009)describedmindfulnessasastateofbeingattentivetoexperienceswithanattitudeofopennessandacceptance.Kielty,Gilligan,andStaton(2017)emphasizedthatmindfulnessisapracticeinwhichindividualsfocusonthecurrentexperiencesratherthanbeingon“auto-pilot.”Increasingacademicdemands,coupledwiththelackofcopingskillstodealwithexternalstressors,oftenleadstoaconstantstateofstressthatcreatesbarriersforstudentsuccess.

Theabilitytopracticemindfulnessinanopenandacceptingwayisnotaninnateskill.Educatorsmustfosteraninvitingenvironmentforstudentstopracticemindfulnessaswellasstrategicallyteachstudentshowtomanagestrongemotionsbeforethesestrongemotionsunderminetheiracademic,social,andbehavioralsuccess(Malow&Austin,2016).TheNationalScientificCouncilontheDevelopingChild(2015)statesthatadultsmustbuildcapabilitiesneededtomanagestresswithinchildren,includingtheabilitytofocusattention,problemsolve,plan,adjusttonewcircumstances,regulatebehavior,andcontrolimpulses.Whenstudentsparticipateinanenvironmentthatfostersmindfulness,thebarriersthatstandbetweenthemandtheiracademic,social,andbehavioralsuccessoftendiminish.

ResiliencyandSelf-Efficacy.Students’abilitytocontroltheiremotions,thoughts,andbehaviorsisessentialforsuccessinschoolandinlife(Thierryetal.,2016).Prolongedandunresolvedinternalandexternalstressinhibitsstudentsfromdevelopingastrongsenseof

self-efficacyandresiliency.However,mindfulnesscanbeutilizedtostrengthenbothareas.Social-emotionallearning(SEL)curriculumsfocusondevelopingtheabilitytorecognizeone’sownemotions,aswellastheemotionsofothers,whileprovidingthenecessaryskillstocommunicateemotionalunderstanding(Malow&Austin,2016).SELcurriculumsfostertheimplementationofmindfulnessandthedevelopmentofresiliencyinstudents.MalowandAustin(2016)definedresiliencyas,“thedegreetowhichanindividual’spersonalresourcesmatchorexceedtheirreactivitytointernalorexternalstress”(p.83).Self-efficacy,definedas,“one’sbeliefsorjudgmentabouthisorhercapabilities”(Greason&Cashwell,2009,p.3),isalsonurturedwithinSELcurriculums.

Self-efficacydevelopmentistheorizedtooccurthroughfourprimarysources,includingmasteryexperiences,vicariouslearning,verbalpersuasion,andchangesinemotionalarousal(Greason&Cashwell,2009).Mindfulnessisapracticethatcanbeusedintheclassroomwiththesefoursourcesofself-efficacydevelopmentinmind.Theopen-endednatureofmindfulnessallowsstudentstofeelasenseofmasteryintheirownuniqueway,whilecontinuouslylearningnewstrategiesandpractices.

Mindfulnessallowsstudentstorecognizetheadverseeffectsof“mindtraps”andoffersaperiodofreflection,stillness,andpeace(Costello&Lawler,2014).Mindtrapsarementalhabitsthatincreasestress,suchasnegativeself-talkinwhichchildrenarehardonthemselves.Thesehabitscanincludeself-criticizing,wherestudentsperceivethemselvestobeworthlessorinadequate(Costello&Lawler,2014).Mindfulnesspracticescanhelpstudentsovercomethenegativeinfluenceofmindtrapsontheirperceptionsofself-efficacyandresiliency.

Inadditiontoresiliencyandself-efficacy,self-regulationandemotionalawarenessarecriticalskillsforstudentstomastertoallowthemtolearnefficiently,workwellwithothers,anddecreaseanxietyanddepression(Kelleretal.,2017).Mindfulnesspromotestheseskillsthroughdirectinstructionandteachesstudentsstrategiestheycanindependentlyutilizewithintheirdailyroutines.Withdailypractice,mindfulnesscanpositivelysupportemotionalself-regulation,whichconsequentlyimprovesthelikelihoodofacademicsuccess(Kelleretal.,2017).

BrainDevelopmentandNeuroplasticity.Criticalperiodsinachild’sdevelopmentaretimesduringwhichpositiveexperiencescanprovideoptimalbraindevelopment.However,iftheseexperiencesareabsentorreplacedbynegativeexperiences,healthybraindevelopmentcanbedisrupted(Lally,2012).Earlychildhoodisacriticalperiodinwhichthebrainismalleableandeasilyshapedbythechild’senvironment.Knowingthatbraindevelopmentisshapedbyearlyexperiences,muchofwhatgetsinthewayoflearninginlateryearsistheresultofskillsthatwereunderdevelopedorneglectedinearlychildhood.Ifstudentsareexpectedtobesuccessfulinschool,teachersmustprovideexperiencesthatsupporthealthybraindevelopment.Lally(2012)describesexperience-createdexpectationsthatimpactbraindevelopmentas“brainshaping”experiences.Theseexperiencesfluctuate

greatlyfromstudenttostudentandcanpresentawidecollectionofvariablesthatinterferewithlearning,suchasstressorsorenvironmentalfactors.

Mindfulnesssupportsstudents’developmentofskillsthatarenecessaryforschoolsuccess.Stress-reducingpractices,suchasmindfulness,cancontributetopositivebraindevelopmentandfunctioningwhilealsoreducingtheexpressionofpro-inflammatorygenes(NationalScientificCouncilontheDevelopingChild,2015).Overtime,dailymindfulnesspracticescanleadtohealthybraindevelopmentinchildrenandfillinthe“gaps”thatmayexistinmanystudents.Mindfulnesspractices,inconjunctionwiththebrain’sneuroplasticity,allowchildrentocontinuouslydevelopandstrengthenskills,suchassustainedattention,focus,andcalmnessintheschoolsetting(Kieltyetal.,2017).Researchhasalsoshownthatmindfulnesscanstrengthenneuralsystemsthatsupportemotional,cognitive,andbehavioralregulation(Thierryetal.,2016).

Awarenessofbraindevelopmentallowseducatorstoplanactivitiesthatstrengthenunderdevelopedskillsandsupportstudentsforlearningandacademicsuccess.Forexample,childrenbenefitfromlearninghowtoslowdowntheirthinkingtogivetheirbraintimetooverridenegativeresponsestoshutdownoractout(Moreno,2017).Mindfulnessoffersstudentsstrategiestoslowdowntheirthinkingandgivesthemtimetoreflectandrespond,ratherthannegativelyreactingtostressfulevents.Moreno(2017)showedthatsix-year-oldchildrenwhoparticipatedinmindfulnesspracticestrengthenedtheircapacitytoslowdowntheirthinkingandreflect.Kieltyetal.(2017)demonstratedthepositiveinfluenceofmindfulnessformiddleschoolstudentswhowereaskedtopracticemindfulbreathingtocalmtheamygdalaand“freeup”thepre-frontalcortexbeforeengaginginhigh-stakestesting.

GrowthMindsetandPositivePsychology.Mindfulnessprovidesopportunitiesforstudentstocultivateandpracticeagrowthmindset.Apersonwithagrowthmindsetcanbedescribedasanindividualwhobelievestheirintelligenceandabilitiescanbecontinuouslydevelopedandenhanced(Kieltyetal.,2017).Bothmindfulnessandagrowthmindsetfosterapositiveattitudethatiscenteredonpracticeratherthanperfection.Theopennatureofmindfulnessallowsforfeedbackandopportunitiestopracticeovercomingadversityandsetbacks.Mindfulnessalsoenablesstudentswithanoptimisticattitudeandwithbasictrustduringtimesofuncertainty(Malow&Austin,2016).

Positivepsychologyis“employingstructuredinterventionstobuildresiliencywiththegoalofbufferingsymptomsofemotionaldysregulation”(Malow&Austin,2016,p.84).Mindfulnessisoneexampleofastructuredinterventiontosupportpositivepsychologicalfeelings.Mindfulnesscanalsoaidinalleviatingdistressthroughself-regulatoryprocesses,suchasmindfulbreathing.Cultivatingthepositivityandoptimismalongsidemindfulnessallowsforopportunitiesforgrowth.Moreno(2012)describedmindfulnessbeingrootedinthebeautyoffailure,wherestudentsworktorecognizethatratherthananendpoint,mindfulnessfocusesonrepeatedengagementwithacycleoffocus-lossandfocus-refocus.Withagrowthmindset,failurepresentsitselfasacontinuedopportunitytostartanew,

ratherthanafixedstoppingpoint.Routhier-Martin,Roberts,andBlanch(2017)stressedthatthepurposeofmindfulnessisnotforstudentstoforgetorrepresstheirstressorsorweaknesses,butrathertoacknowledgetheseareasforimprovementandpracticetheabilitytofocusonschoolworkinstead.

Insummary,social-emotionallearningandbraindevelopmentarefoundationalbuildingblocksforstudentstosucceedinschoolandinlife.Earlyexperiences,whetherpositiveornegative,impactbraindevelopment.Thelackofpositiveexperiencesinearlychildhoodcanimpedestudentsuccessandcreateaneedforinterventionslaterinlife.Mindfulnesspracticesintheclassroomareonetypeofinterventionstrategythatcanprovidestudentswithskillstodevelopandcultivateresiliency,astrongersenseofself-efficacy,emotionalawareness,andself-regulation.Pairingmindfulnesswithagrowthmindsetallowsforanoptimisticoutlookforgrowthinallstudents,nomattertheirbackgroundorseverityofstressorspresentintheirlives.Educatorswhoestablishmindfulnessroutinesandprocedureshelpstudentsunderstandthattheirintelligenceismalleableratherthanfixedandcanprovidestudentswithtoolsandstrategiestoovercomeadversitywithintheclassroomenvironment.Inaddition,teacherswhopracticemindfulnessthemselvescanhelpnurturemindfulnesswithintheirstudents.

Methodology

Design.Thisstudyusedamixed-methodmethodologycollectingdatafromsixstudentsonaLikertscalestylequestionnaireandfrominterviews.Open-endedquestionsandfollowuppromptswereusedtoexplorestudents’perceptionsofself-efficacyandtheimpactofthemindfulnessintervention.Interviewswererecorded,transcribed,andanalyzedforcommonthemes.Allinterviewsandquestionnaireswerecompletedinaquietspotintheclassroom,awayfromotherstudents.

ParticipantsandProcedure.All15studentsinKirsten’sfirst-gradeclassroomparticipatedinguidedmindfulnesspracticesoverasix-weekperiodusingaudioandvideoclipsfromGoNoodle(n.d.)andCalm(n.d.).Sixstudents,threemalesandthreefemales,wereselectedtocompleteaten-itemquestionnaireandtobeinterviewedtoexploretheirperceptionsofself-efficacy.Thesurveyincludedtenquestionswiththreepossibleresponses,yes,sometimes,andno.Acompositescorewasgiventoeachofthequestionnairesbyconvertingthesmilefacetothreepoints,theneutralfacetotwopoints,andthefrowningfacetoonepoint,yieldingapossiblescoreforeachstudentbetween10and30points.Ascoreof30indicateahighlevelofself-efficacyandalowerscorealesserdegreeofself-efficacy.Kirstenselectedthesesixstudentsbecauseoftheiropennesstoengageinone-on-oneconversationswithher.

Thequestionnaireincludedtenquestionsaskingstudentstoreflectontheirperceptionsoftheirself-efficacyandresiliencyskills.Thestudentscompletedthequestionnaireatthebeginningofthestudy,atthemidpoint(weekthree),andattheendofthestudyaftersixweeks.Thethree-pointLikertscaleutilizedsymbolsforthefirstgradestudentstoeasily

answerthequestions:asmilefaceforyes,aneutralfaceforsometimes,andafrowningfaceforno(seeTable1).

Table1:StudentQuestionnaire

Sometimes

1Iworkhardinschool.

2IcannameatleastonethingIamgoodat.

3Itrymybestatschooleveryday.

4 Icansolvemostproblemsbymyself.

5 Icanfinishallmyschoolwork.

6 IcancalmmyselfdownwhenIamangryorfrustrated.

7 Ipayattentiontomyteacherinclass.

8 IaskforhelpwhenIneedit.

9 Ikeeptrying,evenwhenthingsgethardortough.

10Icanmakeagoalformyselftoworktowards.

Thequalitativedatawerecollectedthroughfouropen-endedinterviewquestionsandfollow-upquestionswereusedtoexpandonstudents’thinking.Theinterviewswereadministeredatthesamethreepointsthroughouttheresearchstudyasthequestionnaire.Theinterviewswererecorded,transcribed,andanalyzedforcommonthemesinstudentresponsesusingthelogico-inductiveprocess(Mertler,2019)tomakesenseofthenarrativedata.Theinterviewquestionsincludedthefollowing:

1. Whatisyourfavoritepartofdoingmindfulnessactivities?

2. Domindfulnessactivitiesmakeyoufeellikeyouhaveself-control?Ifyes,howso?

3. Whatmindfulnessstrategieshaveyouusedthroughouttheschoolday?

4. Whatfeelingsdoyoufeelwhenwedomindfulnessactivities?

Results

Thesurveydatafromthequestionnairewassummarizedforthesixstudentsandthemeanandrangewereusedtocompareparticipants’answersbetweenthethreetimesthequestionnairewasadministered(Table2).Theresultsshowthattwostudentsincreasedtheirself-efficacyscoresoverthesixweeks,whilefourshowedadecrease.Themeanvariedslightlybetweenthethreesurveysandtherangebetweenstudentsdecreasedfromanine-pointrangewithinthefirstweektoafive-pointrangewithinthesixthweekofthestudy.Theresultssuggestthatthestudentsperceivedthemindfulnesspracticesfavorablywithameanscoreconsistentlyabove25,butdonotindicatethatstudentsincreasedtheirperceptionoverthesix-weekperiodoftheintervention.

Table2:StudentResponsestoQuestionnaire

Student Week1 Week3 Week6

M 30 28 26

E 21 25 26

H 29 29 30

K 28 21 26

A 26 26 25

L 25 24 25

Mean 26.5 25.5 26.3

Range 9 8 5

Aftertheinterviewsweretranscribed,commonstatementswerecoded.Usinglogico-inductiveanalysis(Mertler,2019)patternsandtrendswereidentifiedfromthestudentinterviews.Twopatternsemergedfromthestudentresponses.In15ofthe18interviewsstudentsidentifiedfeelingcalmafterparticipatinginamindfulnesspractice.Fiveofthesixstudentsfeltthatmindfulnesshelpedthemcalmdown.StudentHsaid,“they[themindfulnesspractices}calmmybodydown,”andStudentLfeltthat“ithelpsourbrainscalm.”Feelinghappyduringthemindfulnesspracticewasanotherpatterndiscoveredinten

interviewsasillustratedbyStudentL’scomment:“Itfeelslikeayummystrawberry.”Thefollowingtrendswerenotedfromacrossallinterviews,studentssharedthattheywereinterestedintryingthemindfulnessactivities.Fouroutofsixparticipantssaidthatmindfulnessactivitiesmadethemfeeltheyhadself-controlattheendofweekone.Attheendofweekthree,allstudentsreportedfeelingcalmwhenpracticingmindfulness,andfivestudentsreportedthattheactivitiesmadethemfeeltheyhadself-control.Attheendofweeksix,allstudentsreportedthatmindfulnessactivitiesprovidedthemwithasenseofself-control.Whenaskedwhatspecificidentifymindfulnessstrategiesstudentsusedthroughouttheschoolday,studentswereunabletoidentifyspecificstrategies.Insummary,studentswereeagertotryandwerereceptivetomindfulnessactivitiesandexpressedthattheyfeltastrongsenseofself-efficacyfollowingthemindfulnesspractices.

Thepurposeofthisstudywastoexploreifdailymindfulnesspracticesstrengthensself-efficacyinfirstgradestudents.Theresultsofthesurveysshowthatthesixstudentswhoparticipatedinthestudydidnotincreasetheirself-efficacyoverthesix-weekperiodofthestudy.However,intheinterviews,studentsexpressedthatmindfulnesspracticesmadethemhappyandhelpedthemcalmtheirbodiesandbrainsleadingtoasenseofself-control.Research(e.g.,Abdel-Khaleketal.,2014,Tahmasbipour,2017,Zakeretal.,2016),thoughnotdonewithelementarystudents,showastrongrelationshipbetweenhappinessandself-efficacy.Additionally,calmnessandself-controlareessentialelementsofself-efficacy.Insummary,theresultsofthestudentinterviewsshowthatstudentsexperiencedhappiness,calmness,andself-controlafterparticipatinginmindfulnesspractices,allessentialelementstodevelopingself-efficacy.

Discussion

Kirstenwaseagertoimplementmindfulnesswithinherfirst-gradeclassroom.Althoughshehadreceivednoformaltraininginmindfulnesspriortotheimplementationofthisstudy,sheresearchedbestpracticesandstrategiesthatwouldbeappropriateforherfirstgradestudents.Oneofthegreatesttakeawaysofhavingtheroleas“mindfulleader”forherstudentsisthepatienceherstudentsshowedintheclassroom.Shebeganthemindfulnessactivitieswithanopenmindset,whichallowedhertoguidethestudentsthroughthepracticeswithoutexpectingthatallstudentswouldreactinthesamemanner.Somestudentsshowedreluctancetoparticipateinthemindfulnessactivities,butwithhergrowthmindset,Kirstensawgrowthinallherstudentsduringthissix-weekperiod.Workingwithyoungerstudents,thepracticesweretakenmoreseriouslyandintentionallybytheendofthisstudybyallstudents.Studentsweremoreopenandwillingtosharetheirreflectionsduringthemorningmeetingtimeaswell.Theoverallcultureofthestudents’reflectivenaturewasonepositivebenefitthatKirstenobservedthroughoutthestudy.

Limitations

Thepresentstudyhasseverallimitations.Withasamplesizeofsixstudentsfromthesameschoolandreceivingmindfulnessactivitiesthroughthesamemethod,thefindingscannotbegeneralizedtoagreaterpopulation.Further,Kirsten’sdualroleasateacherandresearchermayhaveinfluencedthestudents’answersonthequestionnaires,despitebeing

madeawarethattheiranswerwasinnowaygoingtoinfluencetheiracademicgrade.Theshorttimeframeofthisstudymayalsolimitthestudybynotallowingstudentssufficienttimetopracticeandreflectontheimpactofmindfulnessactivities.Finally,askingsix-andseven-yearoldstudentstoreflectontheirperceptionsthroughthequestionnaireandinterviewquestionsmaynothavebeendevelopmentallyappropriateforallparticipants,e.g.,“Icanmakeagoalformyselftoworktowards.”

Implications

Thisstudyprovidedinsighttotherolemindfulnessactivitieshaveintheclassroomsetting.Studentswereeagerandwillingtoparticipateindailymindfulnessactivitiesandclassdiscussions.Werecommendthatteachersintroducemindfulnessactivitiesatthebeginningoftheschoolyear,pairingthemwithothersocial-emotionallearningconceptssuchasfosteringagrowthmindsetandcharacterstrengths(ViaInstituteonCharacter,n.d.).Implementingmindfulnessactivitiesisonestrategytohelpstudentsstrengthenself-efficacyandresiliency.

Teacherswhowishtoimplementmindfulnesspracticeswithintheclassroommustfosterandcreateanopenandinvitingclassroomcultureforstudentstopracticemindfulness.Theclassroomschedulemustallowforperiodsofcalmnessforstudentstopracticemeditationandreflection.Aspracticingmindfulnessandself-reflectionarenotinnateskills,especiallyforyoungstudents,werecommendthatteachersspendseveralweeksatthebeginningoftheschoolyearintroducingthetopicofbeingmindfulandfosteringagrowthmindset.Studentscanbeencouragedtoprogressattheirownpacethroughoutthemindfulnessjourney.Wealsorecommendedthatteacherssetasideatimeofdaytopracticeamindfulnessactivityfortheclass.Asstudentsgrowmorecomfortablewiththestrategieslearnedinthescheduledmindfulnessactivities,studentsshouldalsobegivenopportunitiestoapplythesestrategiesthroughouttheschoolday.Intentionalconversations(Laursen,2018)and“teachablemoments”shouldbeutilizedforstudentstoidentifyperiodsofthedayinwhichmindfulnesspracticescanbeutilized.Inelementarygrades,theteachercanserveasthemodelbyusinga“thinkingoutloud”modelinwhichtheteacherexplicitlydemonstratesaperiodofthedayinwhichamindfulnesspractice,suchasdeepbreathingorabodyscan,canbeusedintheclassroom.

Conclusion

Weencourageschoolleaderstoprovideteacherswhoarewillingandreadytotakeontheincorporationofmindfulnesspracticeswithprofessionaldevelopmentonbeinga“mindfulleader.”Thereareprofessionaldevelopmentworkshopsandonlineclassesthatcanbeutilizedforteacherstobecomefamiliarwithdifferentprogramsandmindfulnessactivities.Teacherswhopracticeandfamiliarizethemselveswithmindfulnessfirstwillhaveasmoothertransitionimplementingitwithintheirownclassroom.

Finally,wesuggestthatteachersreflectonstudents’perceptionsofmindfulnessactivitiesandtheimpactonstudents’self-efficacyandresiliency.Follow-upresearchonwaysto

measurestudentperceptionsofmindfulnesspracticesissuggestedtobestfittheagegroupofstudentswhoareparticipatinginmindfulnesspractices.

AbouttheAuthors

KirstenL.Logan,M.Ed.iscurrentlyafirstgradeteacherinVirginia.ShereceivedherundergraduatedegreefromAshlandUniversityinAshland,OhioinEarlyChildhoodEducationandhermaster’sdegreeinCurriculumandInstructionfromtheUniversityofRichmondinRichmond,Virginia.Herresearchinterestsincludegrowthmindset,mindfulness,positivebehaviorinterventions,andsocialemotionallearningcurricula.Email:kirsten.logan7@gmail.com

ErikK.Laursen,Ph.D.isanAdjunctAssociateProfessorintheDepartmentofEducationattheUniversityofRichmond.Heteachestheactionresearchcourseandworkswithhisgraduatestudentstopublishtheresultsoftheirclassroom-basedprojects.Hisresearchinterestsareinpositiveeducation,caringrelationships,andcharacterstrengths.Healsoteacheseducatorsinyouthworkersintraumainformedpractices.Dr.LaursenreceivedhisdoctoraldegreefromVirginiaCommonwealthUniversity.Email: elaursen@richmond.edu

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“LETTHEPEOPLESING!”–ACTIONRESEARCHEXPLORINGTEACHERS’MUSICALCONFIDENCEWHENENGAGINGLEARNERSIN‘SINGINGFORWELLBEING’DaphneRickson

NewZealandSchoolofMusic-TeKōkī ,VictoriaUniversityofWellington

JoAtkinson

MarshlandSchool

DianneReynolds

WaitākiriSchool

RobertLegg

HeadofMusic,IcknieldCommunityCollege,UnitedKingdom

AbstractTheexaminationandreconstructionofpersonalbeliefsandchangeinpracticethatcomeswithactionresearchcanbeintellectuallyandemotionallydemanding.Actionresearchexploringtheprocessof“singingforwellbeing,”ataChristchurchprimaryschoolseverelyaffectedbythe2010-2011earthquakes,uncoveredtheinterestingdichotomythatteacherswhowerepassionateaboutengagingchildreninsingingwereuncomfortablesingingthemselves.Acriticalactionresearchorientationgaveteachersimpetusandtimetodiscoverandreflectontheirpersonalhistories,toengagewithrelevantliterature,andtoexplorestrategiestoincreasetheirconfidencetoengageinmusicactivitieswithlearners.Learningthatmusicalconfidencecanbeseverelyaffectedbythenegativejudgementsofothers,andthatlackofteacherconfidenceintheartsiswidespread(Bainger,2010),validatedtheirexperiences,increasedtheirself-understanding,andenabledthemtosingwiththeirlearnerswithincreasingconfidence.Ourfindingsreinforcedthehypothesisthatunpackingnegativeexperiencescanbealmostasimportantinsomecasesasacquiringknowledgeandskillsinmusic.

Keywords:teacheractionresearch,teachers,musicalconfidence,singing,wellbeing

Introduction

WaitākiriSchoolinChristchurchopenedin2014,aspartofthelargerrestructuringofChristchurchschoolsfollowingthe2010-2011earthquakes.Atthattime,ourteachersbegantoengagelearnersinsingingeverydaytodevelopandmaintainasenseofcommunity,andtopromoteenjoymentandreadinesstolearn.Despiteexperiencingsignificantongoingchallengesassociatedwithapost-earthquakeenvironment,well-beingandengagementdataindicatedthatlearnerscontinuedtofeelsafe,valuedandsupported.Membersoftheschoolcommunityjoineduniversityresearchersinanactionresearchprojecttoexaminethewaysinwhichthesingingwasfacilitatedandsustained,andtheperceivedrelationshipbetweensingingandwell-being.Wehavereportedthesefindingselsewhere(Rickson,Legg&Reynolds,2018;Rickson,Reynolds&Legg,2018),andinthispaperfocusononeaspectofourtwo-yearactionresearchproject;specifically,ourexplorationofteachers’self-efficacywithregardtosinging.

Theschoolhasbeendesignedtopromotecollaborativeteachinginflexiblelearningspaces.Itiscomprisedofsixlearningstudios;eachdesignedtocaterforapproximately115childrenworkingwith4-5teachersandonetotwolearningassistants.Ourteacher-researcherswerepassionateaboutsinging,stronglybelievedthatsingingwassupportingthewell-beingoflearnersinourschool,andwerecommittedtomaintainingdailysinginginthelearningstudios.Yetthedialogicactionresearchprocessallowedthemtorecognisethatdespitetheirpassionforengaginglearnersindailysinging,sixoftheeightwerenotconfidentsingersthemselves.Itseemedtheywereabletosuccessfullyfacilitatethedailysinging,despitehavinglowself-efficacywithregardtomusic,byconstructingacleardifferentiationbetween‘singingforwellbeing’and‘musiceducation’,andpromotingsingingforwell-beingasfunactivitywhichinvolvedfewexpectations(Rickson,Legg&Reynolds,2018).Engaginginwhatmightbedescribedasa‘spin-offcycle’(McNiff,1988)ouractionresearchtookacriticalturnaswebegantoexaminetheprocessesthatwereinhibitingteachers’abilitytosingingfreelywithlearnersintheclassroom,andelsewhere.

LiteratureReview

Singingcanbehelpfulnotonlyinfosteringindividualwellbeinginsingers,butalsoinunitinggroups(Ilari,Chen-Hafteck&Crawford,2013).Participatingingroupsingingleadstocommonpurpose,developingcohesionwithinagroupculture,throughacommonsetofattitudesandbehaviour(Drummond,2012,p.305).Thesynchronisationofbodiesandvoicestoapulse,alongwithsharedemotionalexpression,canbepowerfulinpromotinggroupbonding(Kirschner&Tomasello,2010;Sutherland,2015),andperformingwithotherscangiveparticipantsasenseoffulfilment,prideandaccomplishment(Sutherland,2015).

Thevocalisationsofbabiesandtheircaregiversismusical(Barrett,2005;Trevarthen,2002;Wiggins,2015),and‘singing’emergesininfancyandcontinuestodevelopaschildreninteractwithothersintheirenvironments(Ilarietal.,2013;Welch,2005).Fromthesongsofchildrenwecandeducethatmusical‘ability’isuniversal(Campbell,2010;Ilari,Chen-

Hafteck&Crawford,2013)andthat,althoughweneedtotraininordertodevelopandexerciseourpotential,allpeoplehavethecapacitytobemusical(Lamont,2011).Thatis,wecanallenjoymusicthroughlistening,singing,andmoving,regardlessofwhetherwehavehadopportunitiestotakemusiclessons(Ilarietal.,2013;Thorn&Brasche,2015).Moreover,singingdoesnotrequiretheuseofexternalinstrumentsorhighlyspecialisedteachersandisthereforearelativelylowcostwayofengagingchildreninmusic(Lamont,Daubney&Spruce,2012).

Nevertheless,ourabilitytocontinuesingingbeyondpreschoolyearsisaffectedbyhowpeoplearoundusviewoursinging(Welch,2005).Ourviewofourmusicalselvesisbasedonourbeliefstakenfromsociety,andinordertorealizeourinbornmusicalabilitiesweneedtoestablishastrongmusicalidentitythatreinforcesabeliefthatwearemusical(Ilari,Chen-Hafteck&Crawford,2013).Culturalassociationsguideourthinkingaboutwhatwesoundlikewhensingingsoloorwithagroup,andwelearntoassessourselvesas‘good’or‘notsogood’singersinaccordingtooursocio-culturalcontexts(Ilari,Chen-Hafteck&Crawford,2013;Welch,2005).InWesternculturespeopleareoftenidentifiedas‘singers’or‘non-singers’andsinginginpublicisconsideredtobeaperformanceforthe‘talented’singer(Ilari,Chen-Hafteck&Crawford,2013;Welch,2005).Consequently,peoplewhosesingingdevelopmenthasbeenheldupinsomewayareoftencategorisedassomeonewho‘cannotsing’(Sloboda,Wise,&Peretz,2005)andastheygrowolder,manypeoplerefusetosinginanycircumstances,whileothersrefusetosingwheretheycanbeheard(West,2009).

Theviewsheldbysignificantothers,particularlymusicteachers,affectchildren’sself-conceptinpowerfulways(Abril,2007;Turton&Durrant,2002).Formativeexperienceswhicharenegativeordiscouragingcanhavelifelongdamagingeffects;includingthebeliefthatitistoolatetolearnmusicasanadult(Pitts,2015).Anumberofadultswhoarenolongermusicallyactivesuggesttheir‘lackoftalent’preventsthemfromengaginginmusic(Lamont,2011;Sloboda,Wise&Peretz,2005;Welch,2005)andmanyofthesepeoplealsoreportnegativeexperiencesatsomepointintheirchildhoodmusiceducation,suchasbeingtoldnottosingoutloudinprimaryschoolchoirs(Lamont,2011;Welch,2005).Lamontfoundthatnearly20%of530amateuradultmusic-makersfromaroundtheworldhadarelativelynegativemusicalidentitydespitethefactthattheywereactivelyinvolvedinmakingmusic(Lamont,2011).Singingisaverypersonalact(Ilari,Chen-Hafteck&Crawford,2013;Campbell,2010).Criticismofsingingabilitythereforeseemstohaveastrongerinfluenceonanindividual’sperceptionoftheirmusicalselfthancriticismofothermusicabilitiessuchasinstrumentalskills,becauseitfeelsmuchmorelikeapersonalattack(Swain&Bodkin-Allen,2014).Whenchildrenarelabelledasnon-singersitcanstigmatisethemforlifeandstopthemfromsinginginanycontext(Whidden,2008).

Teachersinclassrooms-eveninearlychildhoodsettings,wherechildrenareconstantlysinging–oftenlackconfidenceintheirownsingingabilities(Heyning,2011;Russell-Bowie,2009;Swain&Bodkin-Allen2017)andaremoreapprehensiveaboutteachingmusicthanmostotherschoolsubjects(Hargreaves,Lamont,Marshall,&Tarrant,2003;Heyning,2011;Russell-Bowie,2009;Thorn&Brasche,2015)becauseofthecomplexityofthedisciplineand

theirself-perceivedlackoftalentformusic(Thorn&Brasche,2015).Manyteachersstillbelievesingingisa‘gift’forthe‘talented’andthatonlymusicallytalentedpeoplecanteachmusicintheclassroom(Heyning,2011).Further,teacherswhomayhavelowself-efficacywithregardtosinging,arebattlingacrowdedcurriculum,arefeelingover-scrutinisedandlosingconfidence,andinourcasemanagingsignificantchallengesassociatedwithlivingandworkinginapost-earthquakeenvironment.

Ontheotherhand,teachersaregenerallymoreconfidenttosingwithchildrenthanwithadults,andwhentheyarepreparedtohaveagotheycanhaveapositiveexperience(ThornandBrasche,2015).Moreover,singingandothermusicalbehaviourscanimprovewithbothformalandinformalexperience(Sloboda,Wise,&Peretz,2005).Theincreasingpopularityofinclusivecommunitysinginggroupsforadultsforexample,maybebeginningtocountertheimpactthatnegativecriticismandjudgementhadonmanyadultsaschildren(Davidson2011;Lamont,2011).

Methodology

‘SingingforWell-being’wasatwo-yearActionResearch(AR)project,fundedbytheNewZealandgovernmentTeachingandLearningResearchInitiative(TLRI)andapprovedbyVictoriaUniversityofWellingtonhumanethicscommittee(Approval#22081).Actionresearchinthiscontextisasystematic,participatoryapproach,inwhicheducationpractitionersthemselvesaimtopromotepositivechangeintheirschoolcommunity(Hine&Lavery,2014;Mertler,2010).

Participants.Forthisparticularphaseofourproject,eightgeneralclassroomteachers,onespecialistmusicteacherandonekapahakatutor(KapahakaisthetermforMāoriperformingarts),collaboratedwithacoreresearchteaminvolvingtworesearchersfromVictoriaUniversityofWellingtonandtheDeputyPrincipalofWaitākiriSchool.

Method.Actionresearchisdynamicinnatureandisfrequentlydescribedasamessyorchaoticexperience(Nyanjom,2017;Mikkelsen2013).Researchersoftenbeginwithbroadquestionswhicharedevelopedandrefinedthroughcyclesofcriticalreflectionanddialogue,whichinturnleadtofurtheroralternativeaction(Cardno,2003).Eachcycleinvolvesplanning,acting,reflectinganddiscussingresults(Mertler,2010),whileengagingincontinuousexplorationoftherelevantliteraturewhichinforms,inspiresandclarifiesemergingfindings.Cyclesarenotlinear,butinvolvea“fluid,iterative,open,complex,andresponsiveprocess”(Cordeiro,Soares&Rittenmeyer,2017,p.397).Inaprocessofopendialogue,ideasthataretentativelyarticulatedinreflection,canbeexaminedmoresystematicallyinsubsequentphasesofactiveexploration.ActionResearchthereforeoffersopportunitiestodealwithanumberofproblemsatthesametimethroughthedevelopmentof‘spin-offcycles’(McNiff,1988).

Thispaperreportsonesuchphaseofourresearch,specificallyourexplorationofanearlyfindingthatdespitetheirpassionforsupportingchildrentosing,sixoutoftheeightclassroomteacherswhowereco-researchersonthisprojectwerenotconfidentsingersthemselves.Heyning(2011)arguesthatteacherswhoareconfidentandcompetentsingers

aremorelikelytoengagechildreninsinging,andtodoitsuccessfully.Yetatourschool,teacherswhoweredecidedlylackinginsingingconfidencewereabletointroduceandsustaindailysingingspecificallytoaddressthewell-beingofteachersandlearners.

ResearchQuestion.Weexaminedtheabovedichotomybysharingourpersonalhistories,engagingwiththeliterature,andcriticallyreflectingontheimpactofourvaluesandbeliefstoanswerthequestion“Whataretheprocessesthatareinhibitingteachers’abilitytosingingfreelywithlearnersintheclassroom,andelsewhere;andhowcansingingconfidencebeincreased.

Datagathering.Dataweredrawnfromtwosemi-structuredfocusgroupsinvolvingeightclassroomteachers,individualinterviewswithfourgeneralistteachersandtheschool’sspecialistmusicteacher,andengagementwiththeliterature.Focusgroupsandinterviewswereruninflexibleways,andinitialprompts/questionswerebroad(e.g.‘Canwetalkaboutourexperiencesoffacilitatingsingingintheclassroom?’)toallowparticipantstodiscussandtodeveloptheirownunderstandingofthingsthatwereimportanttothem(Liamputtong,2011).Itwascrucialtoallowparticipantstocontinuetalking,toshapethetopicandconversation,andtointroducesometimesunexpectedbutrelevantinformationthatwasmeaningfulandimportanttothem(Hesse-Biber&Leavy,2010).Thustheywereabletoproviderichdescriptionsoftheirexperiences,andtoacquirein-depthknowledgeaboutthethingsthattheyfeltwereimportant.Inthelaterfocusgroupandindividualinterviewswefocusedmoreonthechangeprocessusingpromptssuchas‘Tellmeaboutanychangesyouhavenoticedwithregardtoyourattitudeorimplementationofmusicwithyourlearners?’‘Howdidthosechangescomeabout?’‘Howimportantdoyouthinkthesechangesmightbeintermsofyourfuturethinking/developmentasteacherswhousemusicintheclassroom?’

DataAnalysis.Datawereanalysedbythefirstauthorusingaprocessofinductivethematicanalysis(Braun&Clarke,2013),andpeerreviewedbythefourthauthor.Theprocessinvolved:

• Transcribingtheaudiomaterialfromthefocusgroupsandinterviewsverbatim

• Returningmanuscriptstoparticipantsinvitingtheirchecking,editingandadditionalcomments

• Listeningtotheaudio,andreadingthetranscriptstobecomefamiliarwiththedata

• Identifyingrelevantchunksoftranscript,andgivingtheminitialcodes

• Transferringthechunksofdata,withinitialcodesinaseparatecolumn,toexcelsheets

• Combiningdatabycreatingamasterexcelsheet,andsortingaccordingtoinitialcodes

• Reviewingthecodes,andrenaming,combininganddevelopingnewcodes

• Sortingcodesintobroadcategories

• Examiningeachcategoryandapplyingsecondarycoding

• Sortingbysecondarycodes,anddevelopingdescriptionsofcodes

• Renaming,combininganddevelopingnewsecondarycodesasneeded

• Sortingaccordingtosecondarycodesandrevisingdescriptionstodevelopthemes(ideasgeneratedbyseveralparticipants),exceptions(ideasmentionedbyonlyoneperson),concepts(combinationsofideas),andstories(examplesfrompractice)

• Reproducingthemes,exceptionsandconceptsintheformoffindings

• Returningfindingstoparticipantsfortheircomment/editing.

ResultsandDiscussion

Acriticalactionresearchorientationisemployedwhentransformativeactionneedstobeprecededbycriticalthinkingandreflection(Kemmis,2014).Theprocessofexaminingpersonalexperiencesalongsidetheoriesreportedintheliteraturewascrucialtothepersonaltransformationthatteachersdescribed.Theparagraphsbelowthereforeincludeactionsandreflectionsinterspersedwithrelevantliterature.InitialProblem:Ifmusicisforeveryonewhydowefeelwearenotmusical?Webeganourresearchwiththeassumptionthatmusicalityisinnate.Teachersalreadyagreedthatmusicisforeveryone,notjustan‘elite’few,andthatsingingisan‘equalising’,‘accessible’andhighlymotivatingactivity.Welearntfromtheliteraturethatinfantsengageinmusicalinteractionwithcaregivers(Barrett,2005;Trevarthen,2002;Wiggins,2015);andyoungchildren,acrosscultures,engageinmusicalplay(Campbell,2010;Wiggins,2015).Childrenareinitiatorsofmusicalactivities(Burnard,2013),musicalideas(Wiggins,2007)andmusicalinnovations(Marsh,2009)andsingingisanatural,spontaneous,meansofcommunicationforthem(Bodkin-Allen,2009;Campbell,2010).Yetdespiteourunderstandingthatmusicianshipisinnate,sixofoureightgeneralclassroomteacher/researchersvariouslyclaimedtheywere‘notmusicians’,‘notmusical’,orthey‘couldn’tsing’.

Iwouldn’tknowifIwassinginganotecorrectlyornot.Idon’thavethatkindofear.Barbara,IndividualInterview

Action:Reflectingonone’sbeliefs.Jo,oneofourstudioteachers,recognisedshehadafearofsinging,whichstemmedfrombeingtold,"Youdon'tsingverywell",asachild.Shedescribedbecoming“frightenedofmusic”,“puttingupawall”anddeciding,“Rightthen!”,shewasnotgoingtodoitanymore.Atteacherscollege,shewasrequiredtolearntherecorderandguitar,andfeltshutdownevenfurtherbytutorswhoseemedtolackpassionfortheirsubject.Perhapsmoreimportantlysheexperiencedhermusicmoduleashighlyjudgemental.Shewasshockedwhenoneofhertutorstoldhernottosingbutto“humalong”towhatshedescribesasher"dreadfulmusicmaking".Ontheotherhand,Joadmitsthatsheenteredteacher'scollegealreadybelievingmusicwasanareashewasnotgoodat,andthatimprovementwouldbeunlikely.Yetsheloveslisteningtomusic,singinginprivate,dancing,andlisteningtochildrensinging.Sheevendescribedfeeling“desperatetosing"butstill“won’tlet(her)voicecomeout"ifotherpeoplearearound.

Suetoo,suggestedshelovessingingand“singsloud,inprivate.”WhenwebeganourresearchSuedescribedfeeling“abitoutofmydepthhere”.Sheexplained:

Ilearntpianoasachild,butI’mjustprivatewithmusic.IhadareallybadexperienceactuallywhenItrainedinitiallyasakindergartenteacher.Weallsattogetherinonegroupandweallhadtosing–thenitwaspointedouttouseverythingthatwedidwrong.Andeversincethatpoint,whenIwasprobablyabout18-19,Idon’tsing–unlessI’msingingwithwholelotofotherpeople.…Irememberitall.Sue,focusgroupcontribution

Action:Professionaldevelopmentworkshops.Itwasclearthatourteacherswereenthusiasticaboutfacilitatingdailysingingforwell-being,yetmosthadlittleconfidenceintheirabilitytosingortoteachchildrentosing.Welearntthatpreserviceandprofessionaldevelopmentprogrammescanbesuccessfulinincreasingteachers’confidenceandcompetencetoteachmusic(Heyning,2010;Pascoe,2007;Russell-Bowie,2013;Sinclair,Watkins&Jeanerett,2015).Forexample,skillandconfidencecanbeenhancedwhenteachersareinvolvedinweeklyonehoursingingsessionswithchildren(Heyning;2010),staffsinginggroups(Nyland,Ferris&Deans;2010),andcollaborationwithmentors(Bainger,2010;Jeanerett&Stevens-Ballenger,2013).Ourteamthereforeagreedthatthefourthauthor,(auniversitylecturer,researcher,andmusiceducator)andthefirstauthor,(amusictherapylecturer)wouldfacilitateaworkshopwhichfocusedonparticipatoryvocal/movementactivitiesthatteachersmightbeabletofacilitateinthestudiolearningenvironments.Severalteachersfeltuncomfortableengagingintheexercisesthatwereoffered(asindicatedinquotesbelow),andrejectedtheofferoffurtherprofessionaldevelopmentofthistype.Othersbuiltonitbyattendingateachers’workshopinthecommunitythatthefourthauthorwasfacilitating.Overallhowever,‘directlearning’suchasthatofferedthroughtheworkshop,wasnotassuccessfulinsupportingourteachersastheprocessofdocumenting,examiningandreflectingonthewaysinwhichtheywereengagingchildreninmusicintheclassroom.

Theskilldevelopmentcomeswithenjoymentovertime.Aspartoftheresearchprocesswetriedsomeskill-basedexercisesthattookusbacktochildhoodexperiencesthatsomeofuswerenotreadyfor–weweretransportedtofeelingsthat“youcan’tdothis.”Howeverfromthispointintime–withoutanypressure–teachersdecidedtogivetheirchildrensomedifferentmusicalopportunities.Ateacherfromeachteamwenttoamusiceducationworkshop.Theyenjoyedthatopportunityandittoosowedalittleseedthattheywereabletogoawayandthinkabout.Eventuallyoneteamworkedwithagroupofboysonabodypercussionpiecethattheyperformed;anotheronadrummingpiece;andtheyhavegivenchildrenother‘new’musicalexperiencestoo.Theydidthatbecausethechildrenwerereallyinterestedandmotivated,andthechildrenandteachersalllearnt.Andwhiletheseactivitieswerefun,theywouldalsohavemadeanimportantcontributiontothechildren’smusiceducation.Dianna,individualinterview

Action:Facingandchallengingfearsthroughacollaborativeprocessofcriticalreflection.JoandSue’shistoriesprovideconvincingevidencethatearlynegativeinteractionswithotherssignificantlyimpactedontheirsingingconfidence.Theirstoriesreinforcethebeliefthatlackofsingingconfidencecanberelatedtonegativeexperiencesinchildhoodoradolescence;includingpublichumiliationinfrontofclassmates,orbeingaskedtomouththewordsinsteadofsinging(Bainger,2009;Bodkin,1999;Swain&Bodkin-Allen,2014).However,theprocessofcriticallyreflectingontheirexperiencesenabledJoandSuetofaceandtochallengetheirfears.Jorecognisedthatlearnerswouldnotjudgehersingingasshemighthavepreviouslyanticipated.Shewasawarebeforewebeganourresearchthatshedidn’tsinginfrontofthechildren,butbelieveditwasn’taproblem.Theresearchprocesshelpedherre-evaluate.

"(Iwasthinkinginitially)‘don’tchangemyideas.ThisishowIhavetobe’.ButIfeellikeIhaveactuallyowneduptothatandthought,‘Ohactuallyyouareright’".Jo,interview

Asshebegantolookmorecloselyatherroleinfacilitatingsingingforwellbeing,Jobegantounderstandtheimportanceofmodellingwhatsheexpectsfromthechildren.Shehas“steppedoutofhercomfortzone”,to"behavedifferentlytowardthesinging…(andisnow)bouncingandsmilingandthepointingtothewords...inagoodway".Jobegantorecognisethatherloveofmusicanddancefreedhertoengagepassionatelyduringmusicactivitiesandwasdeterminedthatshewouldnotpassherfearofsingingontothechildren.“Ifelt(theresearchwastellingus)thatwecan’tbeagoodteachersofsingingifwefeelfrightenedofsingingourselves,infrontofacrowd.And,andIfeltquiteoffendedbythatattheendofthe(first)year.(But)Ithought‘Hangonaminute,Iloveboppingaround.That’smy'thing',youknow.AndIlovetosinginthecarbymyself.AndI’velearntthroughthisprocesshowtosinginfront(ofothers).AndI’llsinginfrontofthechildren.Jo,focusgroupcontributionAction:Drawingonthesupportofcolleagues.Joalsonoticedthatsomeofhercolleagueswhoalsofeltthey"don'tsingwell"continuedtosingwiththechildren.Thewaysinwhichmoreconfidentteachershavebeenmodelling'courage'andsupportingandmotivatingeachothertoleadandparticipateinsinging,hasincreasedJo’scomfortwithsinging.

Ithoughtworkingasateamwasimportant;because,Iwouldn’thaveenjoyeditasmuch,ifIwasparticipatingonmyowninmyownlittleclassroom.AndIthinkwatchingtheseguys(otherteachers)whoareobviouslymusical,andSueexpressingearlyonthatshewasn’tverycomfortablemademefeelalittlebitbetterthatIwasn’talone.AndthenIwatchedSuesteppingoutofhercomfortzone.AttheendoftheyearwedidaperformancewhichIdon’tthinkwewouldnormallyhavedone…anditwasfantastic.Jo,focusgroupcontribution

Johasbeguntodanceinthestudioswithotherstaff,whilechildrenaresinging,andthinksitisgreatfun.Sheisawarethatwhenchildrenseeteachersenjoyingthemselvestheysinglouderandtheylaughwhiletheyaresinging.Theenjoymentpromoteswellbeing.Joalsobelievedthehighernumberofchildreninlearningstudioenvironments,comparedwith

regularclassrooms,madeasignificantpositivedifferencetoherexperienceoffacilitatingsinging.

“Ifthesingingisnotveryloud,nobodysingsup.It'sjustreallyquiet,which(isn't)actuallythatenjoyable...(Ontheotherhand)theloudertheygettheloudertheygetandtheloudertheyget....Andthesoundof120children...blowsmeaway‘cosIlovetolistentochildrensing".Jo,individualinterview

ItispossiblethatJo’spreferenceforloudnessmighthavebeenrelatedtoherfearofbeingheard,andthe'safety'sheperceiveswhen‘hiding’inabiggroup.Shesuggestedwhenchildrenareinasmallergrouptheymightwanttosing,butfeelunabletobecause"(when)no-oneelseissinging...Ican’t.Ihavetogo".'Havingtogo'or'runningaway'seemstobeametaphorforJo’sfearofmusicandherchildhooddecisionthatshewasnotgoingtodoitanymore.Morerecently,Jotriedtolearnthedrumsfromanotherteacherbutstoppedbecauseshefeltshe"reallywasn'tverygood".

It’saslowprocessbecauseit’smyfeartootogetover.Istillwantthosechildrentosing.Iwouldneversortof,walkaroundasthough(it'snotagoodthing)thatpeoplewillhearyou.I’dneverputthatontochildren.Sodoeshowwefeelabout(our)singingimpactonthesingingandwellbeingofourchildren?Ithinkweplayarole.Ifwearefrightenedofsomethingweensurethatthosechildrenaren’t,youknow.Wetakemoreofadvancedthinkingtomakesurethatthey’renotfeelingthewayIdo....Alotofteachingislikethatisn’tit?You’vegotarolethatyou’replaying”.Jo,individualinterview

Action:Promotingpositiveparticipation.Teacherself-efficacyisdependentonbothconfidenceandcompetence.Teachers’beliefsabouttheircompetence,theirschoolcontext,andthepressurestheyexperiencewithregardtothecurriculum,aswellastheirbeliefsregardingthebenefitsoftheartsforlearners,canbehighlyinfluentialintheirabilitiestoteachmusiceffectively(Garvis&Pendegast,2010).Wehavealreadysuggestedthatwhatteachersbelieveabouttheircapacityforinitiatingandimplementingmusicalideascanunderpinorimpedetheirpotentialtoengageinfurthermusiceducation(Wiggins,2015).However,inourcase,whilesingingconfidenceandconfidencetoteachmusicwaslow,teacherswereextremelyconfidentintheirabilitiestosuccessfullyfacilitatesingingforwell-being,i.e.singingforfun.Thiswascrucial,becauseifanexperienceisperceivedtobesuccessful,self-efficacyisraised,andifitisperceivedtobeafailure,self-efficacyislowered(Garvis,Twigg&Pendegast,2011).Teachersalsostressedtheimportanceofchildrenbelievingtheycanbesuccessfulatsinginginordertogainasenseofachievement,andthemotivationtocontinue.Howevertheysuggested‘success’isaboutchildrenbeingabletoparticipateintheirownway(e.g.listening,moving,aswellasorinsteadofsinging).Theyarguedstronglythat‘technicalmusiclearning’wasnotappropriateinthecontextofsingingforwell-being;andthatsingingforwell-beingshouldnotbe‘taught’;ratheritshouldjustbe“purespontaneousenjoyment”(Rickson,Legg&Reynolds,2018).Thiswasimportantbecauseitcontributedtoagrowingbodyofknowledgethatsuggestswhenaimingforpsychosocialwell-being

benefits,activitiesthatfocusonexpressionandfunshouldbeencouragedtoenablelearnerstoexperiencemusicasengaging,enjoyableandusefulintermsofcommunicatingfeelings(Crooke&McFerran,2014).Ontheotherhandwealsoconcludedthatbyfocusingonpositiveparticipationratherthanskill-basedlearning,thepotentialexistsforsingingintheclassroomtocontributepositivelytobotheducationandwell-beingagendas(Rickson,Legg&Reynolds,2018),andthedevelopmentoflifelongmusicallearning(Higgins,2015).

IwasinachoirallthewaythroughprimaryschoolbutIactuallydon’tthinkofmyselfasaverygoodsinger.Idon’tthinkIsingintune,butthatdoesn’tstopmesingingbecauseIabsolutelyloveit!AndIdon’tthinkthat’sabadthing,infrontofthekids,ifyoucan’tsingthatwellthenit’salwaysgoodtoshowthat.Carmen,focusgroupcontribution

Thesinginghasofferedopportunitiesforallkidstobeinvolvedasactiveparticipants,themusicwedidattheendoflastyearwassimilarlygivingthosekidsago–thosewhomightnotnormallybeperceivedasbeingmusical,andgivingthemapurpose,makingitfun.Andthoughweweren’tteachingthemnotationandthosesortsofthings,Iwasusingmusicaltermslike4/4andtheywerelearningrhythmsandbeatssotheywerestilllearningthoseconceptsinafun,purposefulway.Matt,focusgroupcontribution

(Theresearchprocess)hasgrownmyappreciationofthemusicthatthekidsareinvolvedwith.…Toseetheenjoymentthey’vegotfromsomeofthoseoldersongs,andtheengagement,whereaswewouldbeinclinedtogowithwhatthekidschoosethinkingthatthat’swhat’sgoingtogivethemthemostenjoyment.Butit’snotactuallybeenthatwayandit’sbroadenedtheirmusicalappreciationaswell.…Whathelpedwasknowingtheprocessthattheywouldbegoingthrough,andthefeelingsthattheywouldgothrough.Soweworkedthroughthosethingsaswebecamemoreconfident.Sue,focusgroupcontribution

Ourexperiencesofhavingconversationsaroundsingingforwellbeing–justthepureenjoymentofit–gotmixedupwiththinkingthatmusiceducationiscompletelydifferent.Butweknowwecanenjoysingalongsandstilltakeopportunitiestoincreaseourenjoymentandwellbeingbytakingthesingingtoanotherlevelwithnewsongsthatwemightnotalwayssing,orwithaddingharmoniesandsoon.Wedon’tneedtojudgepeoplewhodon’tgotothatnextlevel,buttakingthoseopportunitiescanenhancethepositiveresponsesthatsingingcanevoke.Itmightbethedifferencebetweenhappinessand‘goosebumps’forexample.Dianna,individualinterview

Reflection:Understandingtheactionresearchprocess.Theemphasisourteachersputontakinga‘non-judgemental’and‘non-pressurizing’approachtosingingforwell-beingmightalsoberelatedtotheirpersonalexperiencesoffeelingpressurizedtosing,and/orbeingjudgedtobeinadequate.Peoplewholabelthemselves‘non-singers’areanxiousabout

singing,oftenresistitinfearofbeingjudged(Abril,2007;Ruddock&Leong,2005;Sloboda,2005).Moreover,Joarguedthatpeoplehavehighexpectationsofteachersgenerally;theyarealwaysbeing'judged',andjudgedontheperformanceofothers,and“cannotputatoeoutofline”.Sheistherefore“alwaysworriedaboutwhether(she)isgoodenough”.However,theactionresearchprocessenabledindividualteachersinourstudynotonlytograduallyunderstandvariousaspectsoftheirfacilitationofsinging,includingthewaysinwhichtheirhistorieshaveimpactedontheirrelationshipwithsinging,butalsotomakecontinuousprogressindevelopingtheirstrengthsasreflectivepractitioners.

Theactionresearchhasbeenenjoyableoverall,becauseithasallowedustohavethinkingtime,toheareachother’sstories,andtohearteachers’learning.Ithaspromptedpeopletosharepersonalexperiences,earlyexperiences,notjusttheirownexperiencesofteachingmusic.Andsomeofourconversationshavebeendifficult.Butwewereabletouncoversomelongheldbeliefsthatteacherswerecarryingaboutmusic,andthiswasimportant….ItwashelpfultoreflectonsomeofmyownmusicexperiencesatschoolandtorealisewhyIholdsomeofthebeliefsthatInowdonow.Forexample,InevergotintothechoirsathighschoolbecauseIwas‘nevergoodenough’,butIwantchildrentobeabletohavethatexperiencenow,soImakesurethatanyonecancomeandsingatchoir.Dianna,individualinterview

Josuggeststheactionresearchprocessenabledhertosingwithherlearnersbytakingacognitiveapproach(tellingherselfitwaspartofherprofessionalroletodothis),acknowledgingherloveofmusic,anddrawingonthesupport(particularlymodelling)ofcolleagues.Allmembersoftheschoolcommunitywerealreadyworkingtogethertoachieveacommonpurposeandteachershaddevelopedastrongcultureofcollaboration(Fullan,1999).Ourteachers’sharedcommunicationandreflectionontheirexperiencesenabledthemtosafelychallengetheirbeliefs,togainfurtherself-understanding,andtotakesmallstepstowardsimprovingtheirsingingconfidence,byallowingthemtoestablishalearningcommunityspecificallytoexaminetheirdailysingingpractices.

Whenwebeganouractionresearch,wewouldhavebeenmakingassumptionsaboutwhatteammemberswerethinkingandfeeling.Webegansingingbrainbreakswithaneurologicalfocus;knowingthatsingingwouldbesomethingthatwouldstimulateotherareasofthebrainandhelpchildrentobereadyforlearning.That’swhywedidwhatwedid.Theteamscameonboardbecausetheywereinterestedinthesinging,theycouldseethepositivebenefitsthatsinginghadforthechildren–butwithoutrealisinghowmuchself-reflectiontheywouldendupdoingthemselves.Duringthisprocess,wehavelookednotonlyathowwefacilitatethesinging,orteachmusic,butalsoatourselves–andthisismorethanwewouldhaveanticipatedwhenwestartedonthisjourney.Theactionresearchprocesshelpedustochange.Dianna,individualinterview

Changetakestimetoberealized,andworksbestwhenitisnotimposed(Makoelle,2014).Ourteachersalreadyhadsubstantialchangeimposedonthemasaresultofsignificantandtraumaticevents,andwewereawarethatwewereworkinginasensitivesettingwhich

demandedwetakecarenotcauseunnecessarydistress(Dickson-Swiftetal.,2008;Liamputtong&Ezzy,2005;Mutch,2015).Itwascrucialthattheybeallowedtothinkontheirownaboutchangeratherthanhavingchangeimposedonthem(Richardsetal.2001).AsJosuggest,“peopleneedgentleencouragementandsupportinordertoengagewithmusicintheirowntimeandattheirownpace”.Actionresearchdoesnotalwaysleadtodramaticchangesinpractice,orevenmakeasignificantcontributiontoabodyofknowledge.Rather,individualpracticesandpractitionersarechangedasparticipantsengageininquiryinwhichconnectionsaremade–throughcriticalreflection–betweenpersonalexperiences,theoryandtheirprofessionalpractice.Reflectingdeeplyissomethingteachersrarelyhaveregulartimefor.

Theactionresearchmadeusdoit.Wemighthaveslackenedoff-(Anotherteachercutsin:“Wehadtothinkaboutitmore”)-Yes,wehadtothinkaboutitmorebecausewewerepartofsomethingthatwasbiggerthanus,wedon’tlikelettingpeopledownsoweputourbestfootforward.Soitmadeusthinklaterallytoo.Sue,focusgroupcontribution

Bythinkingandlearningabouttheirclassroomsingingpractices,andthebeliefsandvaluesthatunderpinthem,ourteachersmayhavebecomemoreconfidentintheirabilitytoputtheoryintopracticeacrossawiderrangeofcurriculumactivities.Theyhavebeenchallengedtoexaminetheirownbeliefsandvalues,havebecomemorereflective,analytical,andcritical,andwillbeabletoexpandtheirknowledgeandskillsasresearchersandasempoweredprofessionalswhocanself-monitormoreeffectively,inanongoingway.

Teachersdonotwanttostagnate,wedon’twanttostandstill;wewanttochallengeourselvesallthetime.Butwe’vebeenthroughagreatdealofchangeatWaitākiriSchoolbothbeforeandduringtheperiodofthisresearch–includingdevelopingourcollaborativeteachingandlearningapproach.Someofthechangehasbeenexternallyimposed,andsomeofitwasinternallyimposed,aswellasteachersengaginginself-challenge.Makingandmaintainingpositiveconnectionswithothersinourschoolcommunityhasbeenextremelyimportant.Theresearchenabledustoconnectwiththosearoundusbecausewewereallsingingandworkingontheactionresearchtogether.Dianna,individualinterview

Conclusion

Thissinglecasestudyfocusesonaschoolwhereteacherschosetoengagelearnersindailysingingtosupporttheirwell-beinginatraumaticpost-earthquakeenvironment.Whilereflectingonthework,severalteachersrecognisedthattheywerepassionateaboutengagingchildreninsingingyetwereuncomfortablesingingthemselves.Anactionresearchprocessgavethemtimeandspacetoreflectontheirpersonalhistories,toconsiderhowtheirmusicalconfidencehadbeenaffectedbythenegativejudgementsofothers,andtorecognisethattheirexperienceswerenotunique.Inthiswaytheirexperiencesandfeelingswerevalidated.

Thesuccessofteacherprofessionaldevelopmentdependsnotonlyontheirabilitytoreflectonanddeveloptheirconceptualizationsofknowledge,learningandteachingpractices(Thorn&Brasche,2015)butalsoontheirwillingnesstochallengeproblematicbeliefsanddevelopnewunderstandings(Nyberg,2015).Nyberggoesontosaythatresearchonprofessionaldevelopmentwithinartseducationhasfoundthatpractitionersarereluctanttoimplementchangesuggestednotonlybyauthoritiesandpolicymakersbutalsobypractitioners;andthatthoughtpatterns,aswellasbehaviour,needstochange(Neyberg,2015).However,examiningandreconstructingpersonalbeliefscanbeintellectuallyandemotionallydemanding.TeachersparticipatingintheSingingforWellbeingprojectdescribedjourneysoflistening,rebelling,gainingself-acceptanceandacceptancefromothers;andofwatching,listening,gainingconfidence,participating,increasingconfidenceandparticipatingfurther.Thustheydeemedtheworkworthwhile.

Thekeytoworthwhileteacher-conductedactionresearchrestsinthequestionsaddressedbytheprojectandtheextenttowhichtheresultsaremeaningfulandimportanttotheteachers-andnotnecessarilyinthemeansbywhichthoseresultsarerealized(Mertler,2010).Inourcasetheresearchprocesshelpedteachersgainadeepersenseofempathywithothersintheschoolcommunity,andtheywereabletousethisempathytosupportlearners.Theyfeltthattheresearchprocesssupportedtheireffortstocollaborateasthosewhoweremoreconfidentorcompetentwithparticularaspectsoftheprojectwereabletomodelandsupportothers;i.e.theylearntfromeachother.Mostimportantly,theircloseobservationsofchildrenlefttheminspiredbythewaysinwhichthelearnersmanagedthemselvesinextremelydifficultcircumstances,andhowsinging,alongwithphysicalmovementandhumour,appearedtosupporttheirwell-being.Wehaveincludedavideoputtogetherbylearnersandteacherswhichbringstogetherthesethreefactorsanddemonstrateshowtheysupportedwell-beinginourcommunity(https://youtu.be/GkOr7xq36EM).

Despitetheirlowself-efficacywithregardtosingingandteachingmusic,ourteacherswereabletoensurethatsingingprogrammesremainedaccessibleandenjoyable–and‘successful’inthewell-beingcontext.Ourfindingssuggestthatevenwithpoorself-efficacy,teachersareabletoengagelearnersinsingingbytakingthefocusawayfrommusiclearning.SimilarlyearlychildhoodteachersinSwain&Bodkin-Allen’s(2014)studywholackedconfidenceandconsideredthemselves‘tonedeaf’andunmusical,alsoreportedenjoyingorevenlovingsinging,andwerewillingtoparticipateinsingingactivities.However,whileourfindingssuggestthatunpackingnegativeexperiencescanbealmostasimportantinsomecasesasacquiringknowledgeandskillsinmusic(Bainger,2010)wewouldalsoarguethatmoreneedstobedonetoensurethatteachers–andindeedallpeople-areabletobeconfidentinusingtheirvoicestosing.

“Journeyingonawiderpathallowsustomovewithamorediversegroupoffellowtravellerswhoshapeourjourneyandwidenourperspectives”.

(Chapman,2015,p.27)

Acknowledgements:

ThisresearchwasfundedbytheNewZealandGovernmentTeachingandLearningInitiative(TLRI).TheauthorsgratefullyacknowledgetheTLRI;theWaitākiriSchoolcommunity,particularlystaffandlearnersinKorimakoandTravisstudios;andProfessorKatrinaMcFerran,MelbourneConservatoriumofMusic,TheUniversityofMelbourne,forherhelpfulmentoringofthisproject.

AbouttheAuthors

DaphneRickson,Ph.D.,isaSeniorLecturerinmusictherapyattheNewZealandSchoolofMusic-TeKōkī,VictoriaUniversityofWellington.Asamusictherapypractitionershehasovertwentyyearsofexperienceworkingwithlearnerswhohavediverseneeds,inarangeofspecialschoolsandmainstreamsettings.Shehasparticularinterestandexperienceintheuseofcollaborativeresearchapproaches,includingparticipatoryactionresearch.Email:daphne.rickson@vuw.ac.nz.

JoAtkinsonisanexperiencedclassroomteacher,andcurrentlyTeamLeader(KorimakoHub,Year5-6)atMarshlandSchool.Email:atkinson@marshland.school.nz.

DiannaReynoldsisanexperiencedclassroomteacher,musicspecialist,andcurrentDeputyPrincipalatWaitākiriSchool.Email:dianna.reynolds@waitakiri.school.nz.

RobertLegg,Ed.D.,studiedmusicandeducationatBristol,OxfordandDurhamuniversitiesintheUnitedKingdom,andatMcGillUniversityinCanada.Heplaysthecelloandthepiano,andisactiveasateacher,researcher,conductorandaccompanist.Hiswidelyperformedarrangementsandaward-winningoriginalcompositionsincludepart-songs,dramaticcantatasandcarols,aswellasmusicfororchestraandstringensembles.RoberthasworkedextensivelyinschoolsanduniversitiesinEngland,NewZealandandFrance.HisacademicwritingappearsinjournalssuchasMusicEducationResearch,PsychologyofMusic,ResearchinEducationandTheCurriculumJournalwhilehisbookchapters,journalismandreviewscanbefoundinmanyprofessionalperiodicals.Email:robertjlegg@gmail.com.

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UniversityofAlbany

JessicaColes

UniversityofAlbany

AbstractForindividualswithautismspectrumdisorder(ASD),writingcanpotentiallyaidinincreasedcommunication,socialization,andindependence.Yetthesestudentshistoricallyhavebeenexcludedfrompurposefulwritingactivitiesandinsteadhavereceivedlimitedliteracylearninginstruction.Inthisactionresearchproject,weobservedtheeffectsofahigh-qualitywritingcurriculumonthreeyoungstudentswithASD.Weutilizedaqualitativecasestudydesigntoanswerthefollowingquestion:WhataretheeffectsoftheFirstAuthor®WritingCurriculumandtechnologyprogramonthewritingandengagementofelementaryschoolstudentswithASD?ResultsindicatedthatallthreestudentsappearedtobenefitfromtheuseoftheFirstAuthor®.Theteacheralsoreportedfeelingmoreconfidentandpreparedtoteachwritingtoherstudents.Generalthemesincludedincreasedstudentengagement,willingnesstotransition,andincreasedqualityinteractionwithtechnologyandwithotherstudents/adults.Practicalimplications,limitations,andfutureresearchdirectionwillbeprovided.

Keywords:teacheractionresearch,autismspectrumdisorder,engagement,technology,writing

Introduction

Writingisameansofexpression,personalreflection,andself-discovery(Kluth&Chandler-Olcott,2008).Writingisoftenusedbothinandoutoftheschoolsettingasamethodofdemonstratingone’sunderstandingofcontent,sharingideas,andcommunicatingwithothers.Inthecurrentageoftextmessages,emailcommunications,andsocialmedia,studentsneedtobeawareofandabletousedifferentformsofwrittencommunication.Yetwritingoftenposesasachallengetomanyindividualswithandwithoutdisabilities;amongpeoplewhofacethesechallengesarethosewithautismspectrumdisorder(ASD).

ForindividualswithASD,writingisespeciallyimportantbecauseitcanaidinincreasedcommunication,socialization,andindependence(Wollak&Koppenhaver,2011).AlthoughsomepeoplewithASDareskilledwriterswhoeffectivelyusewritingasameansofcommunicationandexpression,manystudentswithASDstruggletowritewell.SpecificcharacteristicsofstudentswithASDmayinterferewiththeirabilitytoengageinthewritingprocess.Theseincludelanguagedelaysthatimpacttheirabilitytoproducewrittenproducts(Sturm,2012),difficultyutilizingwritingstrategiessuchasplanning,organizingandgeneratingcontent(Joseph&Konrad,2009),lackofself-regulation(Asaro-Saddler&Saddler,2010)andexecutivefunctioningskills(Carnahan,Williamson,&Christman,2011)requiredforwriting,andphysicaland/orsensoryimpairmentsthatmayimpacttheirabilitytoproducewrittenproducts(Wollak&Koppenhaver,2011).Thesecharacteristics,coupledwiththefactthatindividualswithASDoftenreceiveinadequateliteracyinstruction(Joseph&Konrad,2009),resultsintheirtendencytoperformwellbelowtheirpeersintheareaofwriting(Bishop,Sawyer,Alber-Morgan,&Boggs,2015).

LiteratureReview

Historically,studentswithASDhavebeenexcludedfrompurposefulwritingactivities(Carnahan,Williamson,Hollingshead,&Israel,2012)andinsteadhavereceivedlimitedliteracylearninginstruction,oftenfocusedonfunctionalskillssuchascopyingwordsandsentences,worksheets,andhandwritingdrill-and-practice(Asaro-Saddler,Arcidiacono,&Morris-Deyoe,2017;Sturm,2012).Thismayoccurforseveralreasons.First,manyeducatorscontinuetobelievethatalife-skills,functionalperspectiveismostappropriateforstudentswithASD(Ruppar,2015;Ruppar,Dymond,&Gaffney,2011)andthatwritinginstructionissuperfluous.Infact,oneofthegreatestbarrierstowritingforstudentswithASDisthattheirteachersdonotbelievetheyarecapableofbecomingwriters(Keefe&Copeland,2011;Sturm,2012).Inaddition,educatorsoftenlacktraininginhowtoprovideevidence-basedwritinginstruction(e.g.,Cutler&Graham,2008).Evenwithtraining,teachersoftendonothaveappropriatecurricularguides,appropriatewritingtools,andtimeallocatedinthedaytoprovideinstruction(Sturm,2012;Sturm,Cali,Nelson,&Staskowski,2012).Unfortunately,thisresultsinstudentswithASDlearningtowriteindecontextualizedenvironments,ratherthanthroughauthenticusesofliteracyskillsineverydayactivities(Ruppar,2015),anddoesnotallowthemtoreceivethesupportordeveloptheappropriateskillstheyneedtobecomeproficientwriters.

Researchhasfound,however,thatwhenprovidedwitheffective,evidence-basedinstruction,studentswithASDcandevelophigher-levelwritingskills.Forexample,areviewoftheliteraturewasconductedtoexploretheeffectivenessofwritinginterventionswithstudentswithASD(Pennington&Delano,2012),andfoundseveralpotentiallyeffectivewritinginterventions.Amongtheseistheself-regulatedstrategydevelopment(SRSD),anapproachthatcombinesstrategyinstructionwithpromptsforself-regulationsuchasgoalsettingandself-monitoring.StudiesusingthisinterventionfoundpositivefindingsinthepersuasivewritingandstorywritingofelementaryschoolstudentswithASD(seeAsaro-Saddler,2016forareview).OtherstudieshavehighlightedtheuseoftechnologyforstudentswithASDtowritestories(e.g.,Pennington,Collins,Stenhoff,Turner&Gunselman,

2014;Schneider,Codding,&Tryon,2013),namewriting(Moore,Anderson,Treccase,Deppeler,Furlonger,&Didden,2013),andcheckthespellingofwords(e.g.,Kagohara,Sigafoos,Achmadi,O’Reilly,&Lancioni,2012).

OnetechnologyprogramthathasrecentlybeenexploredwithstudentswithASDisFirstAuthor®WritingCurriculumandtechnologyprogram.ThisprogramwasdevelopedbyDr.JanetSturmspecificallyforbeginningwriterswithcomplexlearningneedssuchasASDanddesignedinconsiderationofUniversalDesignforLearning(UDL)principles(Sturm,2015).Itguidesstudentsthroughathree-stepwritingprocessofchoosingatopic,selectingapictureprompt,andwritingwiththesupportofbuilt-inaccommodationssuchaswordbanks,on-screenkeyboards,andself-regulationprompts.Mini-lessons,whichoccurforabout5-15minutes,focusononespecificskillfortheday(e.g.,addingaperiod)andaretaughtthroughexplicitinstruction(Sturm,2015).Lessonsincludeatipsheetconsistingofbothsimplewordsandpicturestohelpstudentsremembertheessentialinformation.Writingtimefollowsthemini-lesson,andthenstudentsaregiventheopportunitytosharetheirworkintheAuthor’sChair.Inonepilotstudy,preliminaryanalysesfoundthatsecondarystudentswithASDanddevelopmentaldisabilitieswhousedFirstAuthor®reportedmixedresults,indicatingthatstudentsshowedsomeimprovementsinwritingqualityandquantitywhenbeingtaughtusingFirstAuthor®(Asaro-Saddler,Muir-Knox,Meredith,&Akhmedjanova,2015).However,noknownpublishedstudyhasexploredtheeffectsoftheprogramonyoungbeginningwriters.

Methodology

ContextfortheCurrentStudy.Thefirstauthor,aspecialeducationteacheranddoctoralstudent,wantedtoprovideherstudentswithqualitywritinginstructioninwhichtheycouldengageappropriately.Sheworkedwiththesecondauthor,aresearcher,toimplementanactionresearchprojectinwhichtheycouldobservetheeffectsofFirstAuthor®WritingCurriculumontheyoungstudentswithASDinherclass.Specifically,aqualitativecasestudydesignwasutilizedtoanswerthefollowingquestion:WhataretheeffectsoftheFirstAuthor®WritingCurriculumandtechnologyprogramonthewritingandengagementofelementaryschoolstudentswithASD?

Participants.ParticipantsinthisstudywereOsvald,Palen,andChindi(pseudonyms),threemalesofEuropeanAmericandescentbetween5and8yearsold,andtheirteacher.Thestudents’IndividualizedEducationPrograms(IEP)eachlistedtheirprimarydiagnosisasASD,andtheywereplacedforpartoftheirdayinaself-containedprogramthatwasservingstudentswithcommunicationandcognitivedelays.Specifically,OsvaldandPalenspent80%oftheirtimeinthespecialeducationsetting,whileChindispent10%ofhistimethere.Theclassroomwascomprisedoftwelvestudents,oneduallycertifiedspecialeducation/literacyandelementaryeducationteacher,threeteachingaides,andoneteachingassistant(certifiedteacherandabletoprovidedirectinstruction).Studentparticipantswerereferredforthestudybythefirstauthor,whowastheirteacheratthetimeofthestudy.ThestudyoccurredinasuburbanelementaryschoolintheNortheasternUnitedStates.

Materials.FirstAuthorWritingCurriculum®(FirstAuthor®)wasusedwiththeparticipantsinthisstudy.TheFirstAuthor®packageincludedacurriculumguidewith80minilessons,aninstructionguidewith63tipsheets,assessmentguide,classroomposters,teacherresourceCD,andwritingsoftware.Thelessons,whicharedesignedfordevelopingwriters,eachbeganwithashortmini-lesson,followedbyindependentwritingtime,andendedwithAuthor’sChair,whichwasanopportunityforstudentstosharetheirwritingwiththegroup.

FirstAuthor®softwareofferedseveralassistivefeaturesduringthewritingprocess.First,studentsweredirectedtoaplanningscreenthatsupportstopicselectionbyprovidingphotoimagesthatcanbeindividualizedbytheteacher.Studentsselectedaphotoandwerethentakentothecomposingscreen.Thecomposingscreenhadon-screenkeyboardsandwordbanksthatincludedtopicspecificwordsinadditiontohighfrequencyandfrequentlymisspelledvocabulary.Areadaloudfeatureandself-regulatoryprompts(e.g.,verbalcuestocontinuewriting)werealsoprovided.Thefinalscreenreadthestudents’workaloudandincludeda“publish”option,whichcreatedabookcoverwithphotosandauthor’sname.

Othermaterialsincludedaclassroomdesktopcomputerorpencilandpaperusedforwriting,aMacbookPro®laptoptovideorecordeachlesson,andaugmentativecommunicationprogram,Proloquo2Go®whichwasaccessibleonaniPad®toeachstudentduringthelessons.Thisprogramwasutilizedbystudentsasapartoftheirdailyroutine;therefore,itwasprovidedduringthewritinglessonsaswell.

Procedures.Theteacherworkedone-tooneonwritingdailywitheachofthethreeparticipants.Eachlessonwascomposedoftwoparts:aminilessonfromtheFirstAuthor®Curriculum,andthenwritingtime,inwhichthestudentsusedtheskillfromtheminilessontoguidetheirwriting.Duringwritingtime,studentshadtheoptiontostartanewpieceorfinishonetheyhadalreadybeenworkingon.Afterthestudentscompletedtheirwritingtheyprinteditandcouldeithertakeithomeorputitintheclassroomlibrary.Therewerenotimeconstraintsputonthemini-lessonorwritingtime;however,mini-lessonsweredesignedtobenolongerthan15minutes.

Eachsessionvaried,dependingonthetopic,student’sinterest,motivationandengagement.Throughouttheimplementationofthewritingintervention,studentsreceivedthesamelessoneitheronceormultipletimes,attheteacher’sdiscretion.Thiswasimportantbecausethestudents’writingsuccess,engagementandachievementwastheultimategoalforthestudy,andmovingontothenextlesson,ifthestudenthadnottrulymasteredthegoalfromthepreviouslesson,wouldnothavebeenethical.Eachlessonwasrecordedforlateranalysis,andtheteachercompletedfieldnotesaftereachlesson(seebelow).

DataCollectionandAnalysis.Datawerecollectedover10monthsduringtheacademicschoolyear(September-June)andcontainedmultiplecomponents:FirstAuthor®TeacherManagementsoftware,videoobservationsofeachsessionforeachstudent,andfieldnotesfromtheteacherforeachlesson.

TheFirstAuthor®TeacherManagementSoftwareautomaticallymeasuredstudent’swritingachievement.ThesoftwareincludedmeasuressuchasTopicDiversity,whichmeasuredand

quantifiedthevarioustopicsthewriterself-selected;totalintelligiblewords(TIW),whichmeasuredoverallintelligibilityofthestudent’swordsandwrittenfluency;andtotaluniquewords(TUW),whichmeasuredtheoverallvocabularydiversity.

Eachlesson(mini-lessonandwriting)wasvideorecorded.Foreachstudent60minutesofpre-selectedvideorecordingwastranscribed.Thevideosegmentswereselectedatrandom;somewereoftheminilesson,somewereofthewritingsession,andsomewereacompilationofboth.Afterthetranscriptionswerecompletedanotherresearchercomparedthetranscriptionstothevideosforreliabilityandvalidity.Transcriptswereusedtoidentifywritingbehaviorsandengagement.Afterwatchingandtranscribingthevideos,researcherscreatedalistofcodesbasedonbehaviorstheynotedwhilewatchingthevideos,aswellaspreviousresearchregardingengagementofindividualswithASD.Researcherswentthroughthetranscriptionsandcodedthestudent’sbehavior.SeeTable1foralistofthecodesdevelopedandused.

Table1:ListofCodes

Code Description

VerbalinitiationStudentsinitiatedaverbalcommentaboutthelessontopic

Othernon-verbalinitiation Studentinitiatedbypointingtoanobjectorapicturetocommunicatewhattheywanted

Verbalresponse Studentsverballyrespondedtoarequestorquestion

Othernon-verbalresponse Studentsrespondedtoarequestorquestionbypointingtoanobjectorapicturetocommunicatewhattheywanted

Echolalia Studentrepeatedwhattheteacherwassayingorrepeatedaphrasetheycommonlyusedthatwasnotrelevanttothelesson

Physicalaggression Studenthit,kicked,swipedorthrewanobject.

Stimming Studentengagedinrepetitivebehaviors(physicalorverbal).

Eyecontact Studentlookedattheteacherintheeyesorlookedatthescreenwhenasked.

Waiting Studentwasinthedesignatedinstructionareaanddelayingbehavioralimpulses.

Escaping/leavingworkarea Studentleft(ortriedtoleave)theinstructionalareawithoutpermission

Disengaged Studentgaveofftopicresponsesorstaredoffintothedistance

Distractedbyexternalstimuli

Studentwasunabletoconcentrateonthemini-lessonorwritingbecauseofanotherstudentorenvironmentalsituation

Note:Codesinwhichthechildwasconsideredtobe“engaged”inthelessonarebolded,whilenon-boldeditemswerebehaviorsinwhichthechildwasconsideredtobe“notengaged.”

Fieldnotesweretakenduringandaftereachlessonofthestudy.Thefieldnotesincludedbothdescriptiveandreflectiveinformationaboutthestudentandsession.Thenoteswereorganizedandcompletedinresponsetoquestions.Thiswasimportantbecauseitallowedtheteachertocollectnotesonthesameinformationforeachstudent,asopposedtoarandomnarrativeaboutthesession.Thenotesincludedthedate,studentname,title/lessonnumberandattempt,didthestudentwriteduringthelesson,whatdidtheywrite,whatwasthetopic,howmanywordswerewritten,thelevelofassistance,studentbehaviorsandadditionalcommentsandobservations.Thesenotes,combinedwithvideotranscripts,allowedresearcherstoexaminethewaysinwhichtheparticipantsengagedwithFirstAuthor®.

Results

Therewereavarietyofcomplexfindingsworthnotinginregardstothisstudy.Specificthemesemergedfromthedataacrossallthreestudentparticipants,aswellasamongindividualstudents.AllthreestudentsandtheteacherseemedtobenefitfromtheuseoftheFirstAuthor®,andtheclassroomwasabetterplaceforusingit.Generalthemesincludedincreasedstudentengagement,willingnesstotransition,andincreasedqualityinteractionwithtechnologyandwithotherstudents/adults.Specifically,engagementwasnotedtobeaveryimportanttheme.Uponviewingthevideos,studentswereengagedinanaverageof67%ofthetime,withOsvaldengaged82.7%ofthetime,Palen63.2%andChindi57.2%.Overallimprovementsinwriting,suchasincreasedtopicdiversityandquantityofwriting,werealsonoted.Wewillnowdiscussspecificfindingsforeachparticipant.

Osvald.OsvaldbenefitedmostfromtheFirstAuthor®Writer’sCurriculum.Specifically,Osvaldshowedanincreaseintopicdiversity,increasedtimewriting,moreopportunitiestowrite,increasedacademiclanguage,increasedqualityofwriting,decreasedproblembehaviorsandeasiertransitionsfrompreferredactivitiestowriting.Osvald’sinteractionswithwritingpriortoFirstAuthor®weredeliveredviaastructuredtasksysteminwhichhewouldcompleteacertainnumberofwritingactivities(handwritingworksheetsandhandwritingskills)eachday.Hestruggledtogenerateideasforwritingandfatiguedquicklywhenaskedtowritesentences.Hiswritingexperienceswerelimitedanddrivenbyhislackofinterestinthetask.

DuringtheFirstAuthor®sessions,Osvaldusedplanningmethods,suchasbrainstormingandmakinglists,toimprovehiswriting.Hewasabletoprogressfromneedingwordbankstofacilitatehiswriting/typingtowritingwithoutusingwordbanksanddevelopingphrasesindependently.ResultsalsoindicatedthatOsvaldhadincreasedtopicdiversity.PriortoFirstAuthor®hestruggledtochoosetopicsonhisown;however,oncehewasabletoseethatwhateverhewasthinkingofcouldbetypedintothesoftwareandanimagewouldcomeup,hebegantochooseavarietyoftopics.Thevarietyoftopicsallowedtheteacherandreadersofhisworkadeeperandricheraccessonwhatwas“goingoninsideofhishead”,whichwasespeciallyimportantduetohislackoflanguage.Osvald’swritingqualityalsoincreased.SincethiscurriculumrequiredOsvaldtowritequalitypieceseveryday,hewrotemorestorieswhenengaginginFirstAuthor®.PriortousingthesoftwareOsvald,hadneverwrittenastory.Duringthestudy,Osvaldwillinglywrotenumerousstoriesduringonesessiononvarioustopics.Hiswritingexperienceexpandedbeyondhandwritingtoqualitywritingexperiences.

FirstAuthor®WritingCurriculumalsohadanimpactonOsvald’sbehavior.Hehadabehaviorplanthattargetedphysicalaggressionsandelopement(runningaway),sincehewasaveraging45physicalaggressionsaday.Whenweimplementedtheintervention,ontheotherhand,wereportedanaverageof7physicalaggressions,andtheyweremainlyduringonesession.TheteacherreportedthatbecauseofOsvald’sdecreasedphysicalaggressionswhenusingFirstAuthor®shewasabletohavemorequalityacademicinteractionswithhim.TheteacheralsoreportedthatOsvald’sacademiclanguageincreased.Hewasreportedusingphraseslike“let’swrite,”and“Iamawriter.”

TheteacherreportedthatOsvaldtransitionedtowritingwithgreaterease.Priortothestudy,Osvaldwouldelope,cry,scream,orengageinselfinjuriousbehaviorswhenitwastimetotransitionfromapreferredactivitytowriting.DuringFirstAuthor,Osvaldwouldtransitionwillinglyandwouldevenasktowriteduringhisbreaks.Osvaldalsobegantoviewwritingasacollaborativeandpersonalexperienceandnotanisolatedone.Hewouldcollaborateduringplanning,hewouldinteractwiththecomputerduringwritingandlookatothers’stories,andwhenfinishedhewouldreadhiswritingstohispeersfromtheauthor’schair.Healsobegantakinghisstorieshome,andhismotherwouldintegratethemintohisbedtimeroutine.

Palen.PalenalsobenefitedfromtheFirstAuthor®Writer’sCurriculum.Heshowedanincreaseintopicdiversity,increasedtimewriting,moreopportunitiestowrite,increasedacademiclanguage,increasedqualityofwriting,andeasiertransitionsfrompreferredactivitiestowriting.LikeOsvald,Palen’sinteractionswithwritingpriortoFirstAuthor®alsoconsistedofwritingviaastructuredtasksysteminwhichhewouldcompleteacertainnumberofwritingactivities(handwritingworksheets,iPadwritingactivities,Velcrosentenceconstruction)eachday.Hestruggledtogenerateideasforwritingandfatiguedquicklywhenaskedtowritesentencesbyhand.

OneofthegreatestfindingswithPalenwasthesignificantincreaseintopicdiversity.PriortoFirstAuthor®theteacherreportedPalenstrugglingtoattachtopicstowritingandtotheconceptthatyouwritesentencestodescribeyourtopic.Aftermini-lessonsandwritingsessions,Palenquicklywasabletonavigatethesoftwareandwouldsearchtopicsthathehadlearnedaboutearlierintheday.HistopicsrangedfromStarburststoremotecontrolcars.Palenalsowrotemore.Heengagedinwritingforlongerperiodsoftime,andwrotenumerousstoriespersession;sessionsinwhichPalenwrote6stories,forexample,werenotunusual.Palen’sacademiclanguagewasalsonotedtoincrease.Theteacherreportedthathewouldaskforhiswritingtipsheetandwouldverballyidentifypunctuationheneededfortheendofsentences.Palen’ssuccessinFirstAuthor®carriedovertohisfamilylife.HisfamilyaskedthatwritinggoalsbeputonhisIEPmovingforward,andheevengiftedhisprinted-outstoriestofamilyfriendsandsiblingsforHanukah.PalentransitionedeasiertowritingwhenitwasFirstAuthor®writingtime,andbeganviewingwritingasapersonalexperience.

Chindi.ChindialsobenefitedfromFirstAuthor®WritingCurriculum,howeverhislackoftypingabilitypreventedhimfrombenefittingasmuchashispeersdid.Forexample,Chindididnotknowhowtomaneuverthemouse,sotheteacherhadtoguidehishand,whichinherentlyremoved100%ofthechoiceduringhistimeonthecomputer.Morespecifically,ifChindiwantedtoexitthesoftware,hecouldnotbecausehecouldnotmovethemouse.Hisstimmingandlackoftechnologicalskillsnegativelyimpactedtheamountofacademicachievementandengagementhehad.Hedidnotknowhowtotype,sothetypingportionofthelessonswereheavilyprompted.FirstAuthor®didprovideChindiwithanincreasedamountofwritingopportunitiesthough.PriortoFirstAuthor®,Chindiwrotewithhisclass,butduringFirstAuthor®hewasabletowritebothduringtimewithhisclassandduringhis1:1timewiththeteacher.Hewasobservedtowriteineverylesson.

TheteacherreportedthatChindihadanincreaseintopicdiversity,from0to28uniquetopics.Onoccasion,hewroteonthesametopicmorethanonce.PriortoFirstAuthor®WritingCurriculumChindididnotsuggesthisownwritingtopics.Whenhewasabletousethesoftware,hewasabletoverbalizetotheteacherorpointtowhathewantedtowriteabout.Hewroteaboutthingslikehisfamilyskiing,teapartiesandDisneyWorld.Chindi’sparticipationinFirstAuthor®carriedovertohisfamilylife.Hewouldbringhisstorieshomeandputthemonhisbookshelfathome,andhisparentsaskedforwritinggoalsforhisIEPforthenextyear.Chindiwasveryproudwhenhegottoreadhisstoryinhiskindergartengeneraleducationclassroom.

Teacher.Throughoutthedurationofthestudytheteachertookavarietyoffieldnotesandreflections.ImplementationoftheFirstAuthor®WritingCurriculumprovidedsignificantsupportfortheteacher.Throughouttheinterventiontheteacher’sresultsshowedthemesofincreasedreflection,increasedqualityinteractionswiththestudents,increasedqualityofhomeandschoolconnections,increasedpreparedness,andefficacyasaneducator.

Inregardstoefficacyasaneducator,theteacherreportedfeelingbetterpreparedtoteachherstudentsbecauseoftheresourcesthatthecurriculumincluded.Theteachercouldfocusmoreondeliverythancontent,whichmadethecontentmoreaccessibletothestudents.Morespecifically,thetraditionalstandardsdonotnecessarilyspeaktotheneedsofthestudents,andtheydonotaddressstudentswithsignificantcognitiveabilities.Thiscurriculumwasspecific,intentionalandsequential,whichallowedfortheteachertospendtimetakingthatcontentandfindingawayforittoconnectwithstudentsinsteadofdesigningthecontentaswell.Theteacherwashappier,moreconfident,andsatisfiedwiththeteachingofthesestudents,becausethestudentswerebeingexposedtorigorousandqualityinstruction.

Connectionswithstudentswerealsoimpactedbythecurriculum.Theteacherhadascripttofollowthatconnecteddirectlywiththewritingskillsstudentswereaskedtolearn.Theteacherreportedbeingabletoovertlymodelsuccessfulacademicinteractionswithstudentsforotherstaff.Morespecifically,thestaffandadministratorswereabletoseethestudentsdoingsomethingacademicallyrigorous,andithelpedchangeperceptionsandpossiblyimproveinteractionsbetweenstudentsandparaprofessionals.

Discussion

InthisstudywesoughttoexaminetheeffectsoftheFirstAuthor®WritingCurriculumonthewritingandengagementofthreeelementaryschoolstudentswithASD.Resultsindicatedthatforthestudentsinthisstudy,writingmovedfromhandwritingandtracingletterstoactuallywritingstoriesbasedontheirpreferredandself-selectedtopics.Thisrepresentedashiftinthinkingaboutwhatwritingwasforthesethreestudents,andwhattheywerecapableofaswriters.

Findingsfromthisstudyindicatethattheparticipantswerehighlyengagedduringthemini-lessonsandwritingtime.Thisisapromisingfinding,sincestudentswithASDoftenhavedifficultyengagingduringinstructionaltime(Sparapani,Morgan,Reinhardt,Schatschneider,&Wetherby,2016).Studentsseemedtorequirelessredirectionandwereabletotransitionmorequicklyfromapreferredactivitytowritingtime.

Thestudentswerealsoobservedtobewritingmore,apositivefindinggiventhatmanystudentswithASDdonotoftenengageintypicalwritingactivities.Inonestudy,forinstance,Ruppar(2015)foundthatstudentswithASDandotherintellectualdisabilitiesspentminimaltime(only11%)oftheiridentifiedliteracyblockengagedinwriting,withonlyoneoffourteachersobservedtoincludewritinginclassliteracyactivities.Therefore,thefactthatstudentswereengagedinpersonallymeaningfulauthenticwritingexperienceswascommendable.Additionally,thestudentswerenotedtoincreasetheirtopicdiversity.Thiswasanespeciallyencouragingfindingastheparticipantsinthisstudy,likemanypeoplewithASD,hadspecificintereststhattheytendedtowanttodiscussallthetime(Gunn&Delafield-Butt,2016).Thefactthattheycouldusethesoftwaretobrainstormandhavepicturestosupporttheirideaswasabenefit.

TheteacherinthisstudyreportedfeelingmoreconfidentandpreparedtoteachherstudentswhenusingtheFirstAuthor®WritingCurriculum,apositivefindinggiventhatmanyteachers,bothspecialandgeneraleducation,donotfeelpreparedtoteachwritingtotheirstudents(Cutler&Graham,2008).ProgramssuchasFirstAuthor®mayhelptofillagapformanyteachersofstudentswithcomplexsupportneedswhobelievethattheydonothavetheappropriatecurriculumormaterialstoteachwritingtothispopulation(Sturm,2012;Sturm,Cali,Nelson,&Staskowski,2012).

Anunanticipatedoutcomeofthisstudywasthewayinwhichuseoftheprogramenhancedhome/schoolrelationships.Parentswerereadingtheirchildren’sstoriesathomeandonestudentactuallygavehisstoriesaspresents.Inaddition,twoofthethreeparticipants’familiesaskedthatindividualgoalsinwritingbeaddedtotheirchildren’sIEPs.Thiswasanespeciallyexcitingfinding,becauseitrepresentedthefactthattheparentsnowbelievedtheirchildrenwerecapableofbeingwriters,whichtheyhadnotthoughtbefore.

LimitationsandImplications

Sincethiswasaqualitative,exploratorystudy,therewasnodataexaminingthegainsinwritingachievementandengagementpriortoandafterusingtheFirstAuthor®WritingCurriculum.Futureresearchshouldconsiderutilizingsingle-caseorgroupdesignstudiesthatexaminetheeffectivenessoftheprogramonyoungwriterswithASD.Inaddition,itisunknownwhetherthewritinglessonsorthetechnologyhadagreatereffectonthestudents’abilitytoattendandimprovewritingoutcomes.Futureresearchdirectlycomparingtechnologywithpaper/pencilwritingtaskswillhelpdeterminewhetherthelessonsorthesoftwareprogramalonemayhaveanimpactonstudents’writing.Similarly,althoughstudentswerehighlyengagedduringboththemini-lessonsandwhileusingthesoftware,itmightbeinterestingtonotetrendsinstudents’engagementacrossthesetwoaspectsoftheprogram(i.e.,duringwhichpartofthelessonweretheymore/lessengaged).

Conclusion

ThefindingsofthisactionresearchprojectaddtoasmallbutgrowingbodyofresearchonwritingforstudentswithASD.Usingaqualitativecasestudymethodallowedformorein-depth,richobservationoftheeffectsoftheprogrambeyondquantitativeoutcomes.WehopethatthisstudymaydrawattentiontothepossibilitythatstudentswithASDandconcurrentcommunicationandcognitivechallengesmaybecomeskilled,competentwriterswhengivenproperinstruction.Inaddition,webelievethisstudyallowsteacherstoseethebenefitsofusingsuchaprogramtoallowformorepersonalized,meaningful,andcontextualizedwritinginstructionforallstudents.

AbouttheAuthors

KristieAsaro-Saddler,Ph.D.isanAssociateProfessorintheDivisionofSpecialEducationattheUniversityatAlbany.Herresearchinterestsfocusonwritingandself-regulatorystrategies,specificallyforstudentswithAutismSpectrumDisorders(ASD).ShehaspublishedinspecialeducationjournalsincludingtheJournalofSpecialEducation,ExceptionalChildren,andRemedialandSpecialEducation,andhaspresentedatnationalandinternationalconferencesintheareaofwriting.PriortojoiningthefacultyattheUniversityatAlbanyshewasaspecialeducationteacherforchildrenwithASDanddevelopmentaldisabilities.Email:ksaddler@albany.edu

JessicaColes,M.S.Ed.isadoctoralresearchfellowattheUniversityatAlbanyintheEducationalPsychologyandMethodologyprogram.Herresearchinterestsfocusonspecialeducation,teacherpreparationandculturalresponsiveness.Shehasbeenaspecialeducationteacherforsixyears,andworksprimarilywithelementarystudentswhohaveASDormooddisorders.Email:jcoles@albany.edu

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