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How to Improve Student Memory?
By: Jig Vora; Jeremy Kaufmann; and Peter Huff
What we know about the brain?Today’s focus- MEMORY
2
Concentration Basics
• Study Environment Distraction free Conditions (i.e. chair, desk, temperature, and lighting) are conducive to studying
• Materials you need for studying are present
• Structure for Study Sessions
• Develop realistic goals for the study session
• Decide the order in which you will complete tasks
• Plan a reward3
Getting Students to Make Learning Physical
• Use your body and your senses to help you build memory
• Relax
• Use visualization
4
5
The Phenomenon of Memory
Memory is any indication that learning has persisted over time. It is our ability to
store and retrieve information.
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Flashbulb Memory
A unique and highly emotional moment may give rise to a clear, strong, and persistent memory called flashbulb
memory. However, this memory is not free from errors. What can we learn from this? Create lessons that
foster creativity, emotional expression, and laughter- much more likely to remember. (Lavin example)
President Bush being told of 9/11 attack.R
uter
s/ C
orbi
s
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Stages of Memory
Keyboard(Encoding)
Disk(Storage)
Monitor(Retrieval)
Sequential Process
Pedagogy- Allow time for storage; Frequent checks for understanding
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Effortful Processing
Committing novel information to memory requires effort just like
learning a concept from a textbook. Such
processing leads to durable and accessible memories. We must not
let our students be passive learners
(having a purpose)
Spencer G
rant/ Photo E
dit
© B
ananastock/ Alam
y
9
Rehearsal
Effortful learning usually requires
rehearsal or conscious
repetition.
Ebbinghaus studied rehearsal by using nonsense syllables: TUV YOF GEK XOZ
FATHER OF MEMORY
Hermann Ebbinghaus(1850-1909)
http://ww
w.isbn3-540-21358-9.de
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Rehearsal
The more times the nonsense syllables were practiced on
Day 1,the fewer repetitions
were required to remember them on Day 2. What does
this tell us? Practice makes perfect!
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Memory Effects
1. Next-in-line-Effect: When you are so anxious about being next that you cannot remember what the person just before you in line says, but you can recall what other people around you say. (can be used to ease anxiety regarding students who forgot what they were going to say; explain what happened? This will urge them to keep participating)
2. Spacing Effect: We retain information better when we rehearse over time. ( explain cramming example)
3. Serial Position Effect: When your recall is better for first and last items on a list, but poor for middle items. (identify vocabulary and group it; most difficult goes first; easiest in the middle of lesson; intermediate goes last )
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13
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Serial Position Effect- what this means for teachers with difficult
vocabulary - identify vocabulary and teach most difficult concepts last; works well with any course with difficult
vocabulary
1. TUV2. ZOF3. GEK4. WAV5. XOZ6. TIK7. FUT8. WIB9. SAR10. POZ11. REY12. GIJ
Better recall
Better recall
Poor recall
15
Spacing Effect
Distributing rehearsal (spacing effect) is better than practicing all at once. Robert Frost’s poem
could be memorized with fair ease if spread over time.
ACQUAINTED WITH THE NIGHTRobert Frost
I have been one acquainted with the night.I have walked out in rain — and back in rain.
I have outwalked the furthest city light. What this means for educators? Need to convince students that cramming doesn’t work. Practical
implications- convincing students to review readings and
notes for 15 minutes a class period. (tangible- doable) … …
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What We Encode
1. Encoding by meaning2. Encoding by images3. Encoding by organization
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Very important- Encoding Meaning
Q: Did the word begin with a capital letter?
StructuralEncoding
Q: Did the word rhyme with the word “weight”?
Q: Would the word fit in the sentence? He met a __________ in the street.
PhonemicEncoding
SemanticEncoding
“Whale- goal is to get studentTo personalize
everything”
Craik and Lockhart (1972)
Intermediate
Deep
Shallow
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Results
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Visual Encoding
Mental pictures (imagery) are a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially
when combined with semantic encoding.
Showing adverse effects of tanning and smoking in a picture may be more powerful than simply talking about it.
Both photos: H
o/AP Photo
20
Mnemonics
Imagery is at the heart of many memory aids. Mnemonic techniques use vivid
imagery in aiding memory.
1. Method of Loci
2. Link Method
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Method of Loci
List of Items
CharcoalPensBed SheetsHammer...Rug
Imagined Locations
BackyardStudyBedroomGarage...Living Room
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Link Method
Involves forming a mental image of items to be remembered in a way that links them together.
List of Items
NewspaperShaving creamPenUmbrella...Lamp
Organizing Information for Encoding
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Break down complex information into broad concepts and further subdivide
them into categories and subcategories.
1. Chunking
2. Hierarchy
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Chunking
Organizing items into a familiar, manageable unit. Try to remember the numbers below.
1-7-7-6-1-4-9-2-1-8-1-2-1-9-4-1
If you are well versed with American history, chunk the numbers together
and see if you can recall them better. 1776 1492 1812 1941.
25
Chunking
Acronyms are another way of chunking information to remember it.
HOMES = Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior
PEMDAS = Parentheses, Exponent, Multiply, Divide, Add, Subtract
ROY G. BIV = Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, Violet
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Hierarchy
Complex information broken down into broad concepts and further subdivided
into categories and subcategories.
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Encoding Summarized in a Hierarchy
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Storage: Retaining Information
Storage is at the heart of memory. Three stores of memory are shown
below:SensoryMemory
WorkingMemory
Long-termMemory
Encoding
RetrievalEncoding
Events
Retrieval
29
Sensory Memory
SensoryMemory
WorkingMemory
Long-termMemory
Encoding
RetrievalEncoding
Events
Retrieval
30
Sensory Memory
The longer the delay, the greater the memory loss.
20
40
60
80
Perc
en
t R
ecog
niz
ed
0.15 0.30 0.50 1.00
Time (Seconds)
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Sensory Memories
Iconic0.5 sec. long
Echoic3-4 sec. long
Hepatic< 1 sec. long
The duration of sensory memory varies for the different senses.
32
Working Memory
SensoryMemory
WorkingMemory
Long-termMemory
Encoding
RetrievalEncoding
Events
Retrieval
33
Working Memory
Working memory, the new name for short-term memory, has a limited capacity
(7±2) and a short duration (20 seconds).
Sir George Hamilton observed that he could accurately remember up
to 7 beans thrown on the floor. If there were more beans, he guessed.
34
Capacity
You should be able to
recall 7±2 letters.
The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits on Our Capacity for
Processing Information (1956).
George Miller
M U T G I K T L R S Y P
Ready?
35
Chunking
F-B-I-T-W-A-C-I-A-I-B-M
The capacity of the working memory may be increased by “Chunking.”
FBI TWA CIA IBM
4 chunks
36
Duration
Brown/Peterson and Peterson (1958/1959) measured the duration of working memory
by manipulating rehearsal.
CH??
The duration of the working memory is about 20 sec.
CHJMKTHIJ547
547544541…
37
Working Memory Duration
38
Long-Term Memory
SensoryMemory
WorkingMemory
Long-termMemory
Encoding
RetrievalEncoding
Events
Retrieval
39
Long-Term Memory
Unlimited capacity store. Estimates on capacity range from 1000 billion to 1,000,000 billion bits
of information (Landauer, 1986).
The Clark’s nutcracker can locate 6,000 caches ofburied pine seeds during winter and spring.
R.J. E
rwin/ Photo R
esearchers
40
Memory Feats
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Memory Stores
FeatureSensoryMemory
Working Memory
LTM
Encoding Copy Phonemic Semantic
Capacity Unlimited7±2
ChunksVery Large
Duration 0.25 sec. 20 sec. Years
42
Synaptic Changes
Long-Term Potentiation (LTP) refers to synaptic
enhancement after learning (Lynch, 2002).
An increase in neurotransmitter
release or receptors on the receiving neuron
indicates strengthening of synapses.
Both P
hotos: From
N. T
oni et al., Nature, 402, N
ov. 25 1999. Courtesy of D
ominique M
uller
43
Stress Hormones & Memory
Heightened emotions (stress-related or otherwise) make for stronger memories. Continued stress may disrupt memory.
Scott Barbour/ G
etty Images
44
Storing Implicit & Explicit Memories
Explicit Memory refers to facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare.
Implicit memory involves learning an action while the individual does not know or declare what she
knows.
45
Hippocampus
Hippocampus – a neural center in the limbicsystem that processes explicit memories.
Weidenfield &
Nicolson archives
46
Retrieval: Getting Information Out
Retrieval refers to getting information out of the memory store.
Spanky’s Yearbook A
rchive
Spanky’s Yearbook A
rchive
47
Measures of Memory
In recognition, the person must identify an item amongst other choices. (A
multiple-choice test requires recognition.)
1. Name the capital of France.
a. Brusselsb. Romec. Londond. Paris
48
Measures of Memory
In recall, the person must retrieve information using effort. (A fill-in-the
blank test requires recall.)
1. The capital of France is ______.
49
Measures of Memory
In relearning, the individual shows how much time (or effort) is saved when
learning material for the second time.
ListJetDaggerTreeKite…SilkFrogRing
It took 10 trialsto learn this list
ListJetDaggerTreeKite…SilkFrogRing
It took 5 trialsto learn the list
1 day laterSaving
OriginalTrials
RelearningTrials
RelearningTrials
10 510
50%
X 100
X 100
50
Retrieval Cues
Memories are held in storage by a web of associations. These associations are like
anchors that help retrieve memory.
Fire Truck
truck
red
fire
heatsmoke
smellwater
hose
51
Priming
To retrieve a specific memory from the web of associations, you must first
activate one of the strands that leads to it. This process is called priming.
52
Context Effects
Scuba divers recall more words underwater if they learned the list underwater, while
they recall more words on land if they learned that list on land (Godden &
Baddeley, 1975).
Fred McC
onnaughey/ Photo Researchers
53
Context Effects
After learning to move a mobile by kicking, infants most strongly respond when retested in the same context rather than in a different
context (Butler & Rovee-Collier, 1989).
Courtesy of C
arolyn Rovee-C
ollier, R
utgers University
54
Moods and Memories
We usually recall experiences that are consistent with our current mood.
Emotions, or moods, serve as retrieval cues.
Jorgen Schytte/ Still Pictures
55
Forgetting
An inability to retrieve information due to poor encoding, storage, or
retrieval.
56
Encoding Failure
We cannot remember what we do not encode.
57
Which penny is real?
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Storage Decay
Poor durability of stored memories leads to their decay. Ebbinghaus
showed this with his forgetting curve.
59
Retaining Spanish
Bahrick (1984) showed a similar pattern of forgetting and retaining over 50 years.
Andrew
Holbrooke/ C
orbis
60
Retrieval Failure
Although the information is retained in the memory store, it cannot be accessed.
Tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) is a retrieval failure phenomenon. Given a cue (What makes blood cells red?) the subject says the word begins
with an H (hemoglobin).
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Why do we forget?
Forgetting can occur at any memory stage. We filter, alter, or lose
much information during these stages.
62
Improving Memory
1. Study repeatedly to boost long-term recall.
2. Spend more time rehearsing or actively thinking about the material.
3. Make material personally meaningful. (semantic)
4. Use mnemonic devices: associate with peg words — something
already stored make up a story chunk — acronyms
63
Improving Memory
5. Activate retrieval cues — mentally recreate the situation and mood.
6. Recall events while they are fresh — before you encounter misinformation.
7. Minimize interference:1. Test your own knowledge.2. Rehearse and then determine what you
do not yet know.
8. 8. Devoting extra rehearsal time to the middle of lists you must memorize
What to tell below or average students- 10 concrete strategies?
1. Look up vocabulary before class
2. Work all review and practice questions
3. Study groups- if you can teach it; you know it)
4. Don’t slack off- there are rewards
5. The best teacher you have is your self
6. Study actively in your own words (helps personalize material)
7. Know the course and unit objectives and rank how well you know them.
8. DO NOT JUST UNDERLINE OR HIGHLIGHT TEXT- PASSIVE LEARNING- make note cards and draw a picture
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Other ways to foster memory in class
• 1) multiple explanations and examples- A pitcher with 5 pitches is better than one that can only throw a fastball
• 2) welcome questions- gets students motivated and interested; might slow down lesson, but is essential to keep students motivated
• 3) empathize- pay special attention to sad or upset students
• 4) make connections with kids (sports, music, etc.)
• 5) talk about love of learning- explain the process
65
When planning lessons
• 1) are students going to enjoy the lesson?
• 2) will I call on all students (high achievers and low achievers)
• 3)Wait for students answer (some students need a little more time than others)
• 4) understand various racial backgrounds
66
How minority students perceive unfair classrooms?
• I never get called on
• Teacher tells individual students when peers outperform them
• Allowed to give up and shut down when work becomes difficult
• Seldom get opportunities to redo work
67
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