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This paper looks at how Hagia Sophia, a 6th century masonry edifice, captures the spirit and history of Istanbul. Beyond being the pulse of the city, the argument will be made that Hagia Sophia warrants consideration as a Modern Wonder of the World.
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Sean Donovan ARTH-007 Term Paper
Hagia Sophia:Justinian’s Gift to Christianity and Wonder of the World
Abstract
This paper looks at how Hagia Sophia, a 6th century masonry edifice, captures the spirit and history of Istanbul. Beyond being the pulse of the city, the argument will be made that Hagia Sophia warrants consideration as a Modern Wonder of the World. The building has uniquely stood for nearly fifteen centuries in a land notorious for religious, geopolitical, and geophysical instability. Moreover, like the original Seven Wonders of the World, Hagia Sophia possesses unprecedented architectural innovation and elaborate ornamentation. The paper begins with a discussion of the founding of the Byzantine Empire and Hagia Sophia’s origins. Next, the paper looks at the extraordinary architectural skill and ingenuity that is manifested in the structure. The focus will be on Hagia Sophia’s enormous dome and its earthquake resistant walls that have allowed it to remain the iconic symbol of Istanbul. Subsequently, the paper will take the reader inside the monumental structure and highlight several renowned pieces of Byzantine and Islamic ornamentation. In the end, the reader will understand the captivating qualities of Hagia Sophia, qualities that make Hagia Sophia a Wonder of the World.
Table of Contents
I. Introduction: Istanbul, at the Crossroads; Hagia Sophia, at the Heart……1
II. History: Harmonizing Two of the World's Great Religions………………2
III.Architecture: Hagia Sophia, Ahead of Its Time…………………………..6
IV. Interior: Indescribable Beauty…………………………………………….9
V. A Wonder of the World: Deserving a Place At the Table……………….14
Sean Donovan ARTH-007 Term Paper
Introduction: Istanbul, at the Crossroads; Hagia Sophia, at the HeartIf one had but a single glance to give the world, one should gaze on Istanbul.1
- Alphonse de Lamartime -
Istanbul is the indisputable symbol of Turkey; however, the city has struggled to
attain a single identity. Istanbul links the East and the West, reified by the colossal
suspension bridges that cross the Bosphorus, connecting Asia and Europe. In addition to
fusing distinct cultures, Istanbul transcends time – the city couples the legacies of past
civilizations with the present Republic. Due to its unique geography and history, Istanbul
is one of the liveliest cities in the world.
Despite contemporary Istanbul’s incredible European flavor and Turkey’s rising
importance as an economic, political, and military passage for the West into the Middle
East and Central Asia, Turkey is frequently isolated from its European counterparts. The
country has been denied membership into the European Union (EU) and disenfranchised
due to its eclectic population and heritage. According to the members of the EU, Turkey
is not culturally "European.”
Though Europe has turned its back on the multidimensional Turkey, the European
Union has recognized Istanbul’s vibrancy. Ironically, for similar reasons as Turkey’s
exclusion from the EU, the EU has proclaimed Istanbul a European Capital of Culture for
the 2010 calendar year. The honorary title presents an opportunity for the city to highlight
its cultural diversity.
The title of European Capital of Culture means that thousands of additional
visitors will flock to the city and take in its many sites. However, if visitors truly want to
understand the complex city, it is only necessary to visit a single monument, the
magnificent Byzantine Church of Hagia Sophia. Just as Istanbul exemplifies the greater
1 Alphonse de Lamartime as cited in Orhan Pamuk, Istanbul (New York: Vintage, 2006), 63.
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Sean Donovan ARTH-007 Term Paper
country, Hagia Sophia exemplifies Istanbul. The church is the pulse of Istanbul, the heart
of the city, and the focus of this paper.
The paper begins with a brief historical background that will contextualize the
extraordinary permanence of Hagia Sophia, emphasizing how the structure has been a
constant in a land notorious for political, religious, and geophysical instability. It will
then explore the extraordinary architectural ingenuity that is manifested in the structure
before entering the church and highlighting its elaborate ornamentation. This examination
makes clear the building’s status as a Modern Wonder of the World.
History: Harmonizing Two of the World's Great ReligionsHagia Sophia is closely identified with the city… as an imperial Christian building, it proclaimed
Constantinople as the capital of the Christian world. As a Muslim building, it reflected the dominance of Islam and the Ottoman Empire. In both roles, it symbolized divine will.2
- Professor of Art History Eugene Kleinbauer-
Approaching Istanbul by water, as travelers have done for centuries, the skyline is
an overwhelming scene of domes and minarets. The formidable Blue Mosque sails by,
followed by the Sultan's palace, and then the “strange ancient-futuristic form of Hagia
Sophia, bulking like a giant Jedi helmet cast from dark-red masonry.”3
Today, Hagia Sophia, which stands atop the first hill of ancient Constantinople,
surrounded by the Sea of Marmara, the Bosphorus, and the Golden Horn, is a museum. In
his effort to unify the infant nation, Kemal Ataturk, founder of the Republic of Turkey,
secularized the building in 1934. But, for a majority of its lifetime, Hagia Sophia was
affectionately glorified by two of the world's great religions, Christianity and Islam. For
Christians, Hagia Sophia, Holy Wisdom, was the home of the Orthodox faith. For
Muslims, the building was Ayasofya, a divine mosque. For all, it was, as the sixth-
2 W. Eugene Kleinbauer, Antony White, and Henry Matthews, Hagia Sophia (London: Scala, 2004), 7.
3 Melik Kaylan, "Masterpiece: A Beautiful Confusion; Istanbul’s Hagia Sophia seems to yearn for its past sanctity" Wall Street
Journal, Eastern Edition, July 7, 2007.
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century scholar Procopius wrote, a "spectacle of marvelous beauty, overwhelming to
those who know it… altogether incredible. For it soars to a height to match the
sky...stands on high and looks down on the remainder of the city...."4
Hagia Sophia’s history can be drawn back to the founding of the Eastern Roman
Empire. In A.D. 326, Emperor Constantine moved the capital of the Roman Empire to the
shores of the Bosphorus, renaming the small port of Byzantium to Constantinople. Thirty
years later, Emperor Theodosius II built Constantinople’s first great church. The church,
also named Hagia Sophia, stood for 172 years before the peasant revolt, the Nika
Insurrection, burnt it down in 532.
In order to reestablish his power after the revolt, Emperor Justinian began
construction of a new basilica just thirty-nine days after the destruction of the original
church. As Procopius recalls in Buildings,
Emperor Justinian built not long afterwards a church so finely shaped, that if anyone had enquired of the Christians before the burning if it would be their wish that the church should be destroyed and one like this should take its place… it seems to me that they would have prayed that they might see their church destroyed forthwith, in order that the building might be converted into its present form. 5
Justinian entrusted physicist Isidorus of Miletus and mathematician Anthemios of Thrales
with the task of building the symbol of Eastern Orthodoxy and Justinian’s authority.
Isidorus and Anthemios loosely modeled their plan on the Roman Pantheon. The gigantic
structure would measure 270 by 240 feet along its main floor. Soaring 180 feet above the
central nave would be a dome supported by four massive pendentives on equally large
piers. At the east and west ends of the dome’s supporting square would be two
semidomes, forming the apse and entrance bay (see figure 1).
4 Procopius, Buildings, (Cambridge (US): Loeb Classical Library, 1940), 14.
5 Procopius, Buildings, 12.
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The builders’ plan was unprecedented and for many, seemingly impossible. The
size and height of the dome, some fifteen stories high, were unparalleled, and remained
so for a millennium. Unlike the Romans, Byzantium did not possess the knowledge of
how to make concrete, so the engineers had to rely solely on brick, mortar, and stone,
making the task more difficult.6 Nonetheless, in 537, just six years after work began,
Justinian’s monument to Christendom was complete.
Justinian went on to embellish the interior with riches. Four acres of gold mosaics
shimmered from the ceiling while multicolored marble and stones gleamed from the
floors, columns, and wall panels. Evidently, for Justinian, splendor was a greater concern
than expense; the emperor spent 145,000 kg of gold (worth approximately US$3 billion)
on the church, a sum that makes it one of the most expensive structures ever built.7
For hundreds of years, Hagia Sophia served its purpose as the physical
manifestation of Orthodoxy. The edifice was arguably the world's most desirable stand-
alone piece of sacred real estate. Hagia Sophia’s importance as the center of religious
authority in the Byzantine capital was compounded with its importance as the primary
setting for state rituals and celebrations. Hagia Sophia was irresistible to both Byzantines
and outsiders. Armies of Arabians, Bulgars, Russians, and others effortlessly tried, and
failed, to take Constantinople, eyeing Hagia Sophia as its richest prize.8
After centuries of holding out, the Byzantine capital was breached in 1204.
During the Fourth Crusade, Christian knights marched on Constantinople, plundering it
and the cathedral. Yet, the gutted structure was still a marvel and an enticing prize for
6 Anthony Cutler, “Structure and Aesthetic at Hagia Sophia in Constantinople.” The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism 25
(1966): 28.7 Virginia Hughes, “Shaken, Not Stirred.” Nature 443 (206): 390.
8 Kaylan, “A Beautiful Confusion.”
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foreign armies. In 1453, Sultan Mohammed II attacked the city, defeating the Byzantines
after a fifty-three day siege. Although the Byzantine’s great capital was finally lost,
Hagia Sophia proved too great to be destroyed. Upon entering the city, the Sultan
marched directly to the cathedral, was taken back by its magnificence, and instantly
ordered its preservation. Hagia Sophia was then converted from Eastern Christianity's
cornerstone into Islam’s new treasure, a mosque named, Ayasofya.9
To further the transformation, mosaics were whitewashed to hide the idolatrous
figures of humans. Koranic inscriptions were placed in the four corners of the central
nave while four minarets were erected at the corners of the exterior perimeter. To replace
the large metal cross crowning the dome, the Ottomans erected a bronze crescent. While
the transformation was not taken lightly by Christians, Ayasofya quickly became a major
religious destination for Muslims.10
In 1847, the mosque underwent its most famous restoration. Sultan Abdülmecid II
invited Swiss architects Gaspare and Guiseppe Fossati to refurbish the building. In
addition to strengthening the dome and vaults, the two architects revised the decoration of
the exterior and the interior.
In the 20th century, Turkish leader Kemal Ataturk viewed the structure as a
unifying symbol for East and West. He closed the mosque in 1932, uncovering the
previously whitewashed medieval mosaics. In 1934, Ataturk proclaimed Hagia Sophia a
national museum. Nearly fifteen centuries after Justinian, Hagia Sophia still holds its
prominent place on the first hill of ancient Constantinople. Despite having to transition
empires, handle religious conversion, withstand world wars, Hagia Sophia has remained
9 Kaylan, “A Beautiful Confusion.”
10 Kleinbauer, Hagia Sophia, 87.
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an icon. Justinian’s church has transcended century upon century and still stands as a
monument to both human and divine wisdom.
Architecture: Hagia Sophia, Ahead of Its TimeThe architects in one respect outdid the creations of antiquity, and those of modern times as well.11
- Professor of Architecture, P. R. Morey -
Istanbul is a city in constant motion. Not only has the city swelled in population
from two million to ten million in the last forty years, but the city is also in literal motion.
In addition to enduring geopolitical turmoil and religious conversion, Hagia Sophia has
withstood constant geophysical instability. Istanbul is located near the North Anatolian
fault (see figure 2).12 In 1999, Izmit, a town lying 100 kilometers east of Istanbul was
struck by a magnitude 7.4 earthquake. The earthquake killed about 18,000 people and
destroyed more than 15,000 buildings.
Though Istanbul proved fortunate in 1999, the future appears foreboding. While
difficult to forecast future seismic activity, a study based on historical trends, predicts a
greater than seven magnitude earthquake in the next four decades for the greater Istanbul
region. Such an earthquake would destroy some 40,000 buildings.13
This news is not easy for the millions living in hastily constructed, unstable
concrete high-rises. Yet, if the past can be telling of the future, Istanbul’s prize jewel,
Hagia Sophia, should be safe. Hagia Sophia has already survived fifteen centuries of
earthquakes. Though it has survived, it is important to note that it has not been
completely unscathed. Resulting from both man-made changes and natural disasters, it
has experienced many cracks in its structural elements. Most notably, due to earthquakes
11 P.R. Morey, “Hagia Sophia in Constantinople.” Boston Daily Globe, 8 July 1923.
12 Hughes, “Shaken, Not Stirred,” 390.
13 Hughes, “Shaken, Not Stirred,” 390.
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in 558 the eastern arch, in 989 the western arch, and in 1346 again the eastern arch
collapsed together with portions of the main dome and the semidomes.14
Nonetheless, Hagia Sophia has by and large stood the test of time. For decades,
historians, architects, and engineers have wondered how it has done so. Today,
computerized models and chemical analyses are offering answers. To understand these
answers, it is necessary to understand how Hagia Sophia’s builders were well ahead of
their time. Ahmet Çakmak, a professor emeritus in earthquake engineering at Princeton
University, says "Anthemius was the best military engineer that Justinian had.”
Additionally, "Isidorus was the director of the biggest scientific academy in the world…
It's like you hired Oppenheimer to build your house."15
Çakmak and his engineering colleague Robert Mark are at the forefront of
understanding Hagia Sophia’s remarkable stability. The two have developed
computerized models that simulate Hagia Sophia’s movement under various conditions
such as earthquakes. Their models have demonstrated that the building's strength comes
from its original square core. "Virtually all domed structures before this time were
essentially domes on cylinders," explains architectural historian Rabun Taylor of
Harvard.16 Conversely, Hagia Sophia was built on the crowns of arches, which support
the dome and extend to piers that form the corners of a square. What were also innovative
and unseen were Hagia Sophia's pendentives – the concave triangles of brick and mortar
that structurally transition between the curved tops of the four supporting arches and the
bottom of the dome.17
14 Tulay Aksu Ozkul and Eiichi Kuribayashi, “Structural characteristics of Hagia Sophia: II--A finite element formulation for
dynamic analysis.” Building and Environment 42 (2007): 2100.15
Hughes, “Shaken, Not Stirred,” 390.16
Hughes, “Shaken, Not Stirred,” 391.17
Hughes, “Shaken, Not Stirred,” 391.
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Remarkably, Anthemius and Isidorus built Hagia Sophia long before the
discovery of calculus and Newton's laws of force. In place of such knowledge, the
architects must have relied heavily on simple geometric ratios; such ratios played a
prevalent role in the construction of the Pantheon, a building Mark modeled in the late
1980s.18 Mark’s model of the famous Roman temple helped him realize that the
Pantheon’s windows, like those in Hagia Sophia's dome, were not added solely for their
mystical visual effect, but to also play a crucial role in avoiding cracks. Mark
summarized his finding by affirming, "They [Anthemius and Isidorus] knew from
looking at the Pantheon that that region would want to crack anyway along the axis of the
windows," he explains, "so they used windows to, in a way, put the cracks in
themselves.”19
Part of Hagia Sophia’s structural integrity can be attributed to its arches,
pendentives, and windows. These features, when shaken, distribute the dome's weight
equally among the four supporting pillars. But the very bricks and mortar used in place of
concrete have also proved vital. In the same fashion as modern earthquake-resistant
buildings, Hagia Sophia was constructed to be light and flexible. Hagia Sophia’s bricks
are much lighter and more porous than those used elsewhere in the empire.20 Çakmak's
research found that the bricks must have been baked at relatively low temperatures to get
the right reaction between sand and lime. "If it becomes higher than that," he says, "the
sand becomes glassy and dense."21
18 Ahmet Ş. Çakmak, Rabun M. Taylor, and Eser Durukal, “The structural configuration of the first dome of justinian's hagia sophia
(A.D. 537–558): An investigation based on structural and literary analysis.” Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 29 (2009): 696.19
Hughes, “Shaken, Not Stirred,” 391.20
Nicola Dixon, "Byzantine church gives up the secret of its longevity." New Scientist 176 (2002): 13.21
Hughes, “Shaken, Not Stirred,” 391.
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In addition to lighter bricks, the original builders also used a particular type of
mortar. With the help of the National Technical University of Athens, Çakmak has found
that the mortar contains a calcium–silicon compound similar to that used in today's
Portland cement, the most common cement in the 21st century.22 Such a mixture has a
higher tensile strength than regular mortar, allowing the church to absorb the shaking of
an earthquake. Çakmak also found that after 1,500 years the calcium and silicon in the
mortar still reacts. Thus, the microcracks formed during an earthquake are eventually
healed as the calcium-silicon rebind.23
Cakmak and Mark, like many others, were curious to see how Hagia Sophia
would fare in the next large earthquake. Just as the past would have it, Anthemius’s and
Isidorus’s 6th century structure should continue to mark the Istanbul skyline.
Computerized models and dynamic finite analysis have shown that when hit by a
magnitude-7.5 tremor, the walls of Hagia Sophia will tremble and sway dramatically
back and forth. The tops of its arches will feel the most stress, but the dome will remain
unscathed, and the church will stand.24
Interior: Indescribable Beauty“Glory to God who deemed me worthy of fulfilling such a work. O Solomon, I have surpassed
thee!”25 - Emperor Justinian -
Beyond its structural stability, there are other qualities that have allowed Hagia
Sophia to remain standing despite its location in a land notorious for instability. Turks
and visitors alike have revered Hagia Sophia for generations. Christians and Muslims
have flocked to the building. Nobles and peasants have similarly gazed at the dome.
22 Dixon, “Byzantine church,” 13.
23 Hughes, “Shaken, Not Stirred,” 391.
24 Ozkul, “Structural characteristics of Hagia Sophia,” 2105.
25 Kleinbauer, Hagia Sophia, 33.
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Regardless of national, religious, or social identity, people have continued to be
captivated by Hagia Sophia’s indescribable beauty and unwilling to destroy such a
wonder. Hagia Sophia presents a sense of awe to everyone who is fortunate enough to
visit. As Princeton Professor of Classics Ruth Webb puts it, “How can one represent in
words the totality of visual experience – the infinite varieties of color, space, depth,
texture, light, and shade…?”26
The interior of the basilica is highlighted by aesthetic originality in much the
same manner as the innovations manifested in the structural stability. “Many of the ideas
in the great church were new at the time, and cannot be explained as the inevitable
consummation of a longstanding intellectual and artistic process. The number of windows
encircling the dome, for example, far exceeds any known Byzantine precedent or
successor.”27 Additionally, while the ideas of a masonry dome on a cylinder had existed
in the Western Roman Empire, Hagia Sophia’s vaulting scheme as a whole – as opposed
to a sum of its parts – is without precedent.28
Due to the longevity of Hagia Sophia’s existence, it is necessary to go back to
original accounts, such as that of Procopius, to understand its aesthetic beauty. Procopius
commented on Hagia Sophia’s seemingly weightless dome, stating, “For it seems
somehow to float in the air on no firm basis, but to be poised aloft to the peril of those
inside it. Yet actually it is braced with exceptional firmness and security.” 29 He adds,
26 Ruth Webb, “The Aesthetics of Sacred Space: Narrative, Metaphor, and Motion in ‘Ekphraseis’ of Church Buildings.” Dumbarton
Oaks Papers 53 (1999): 59.27
Rabun Taylor, “A Literary and Structural Analysis of the First Dome on Justinian’s Hagia Sophia, Constantinople.” Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 55 (1996): 74.28
Taylor, ““A Literary and Structural Analysis,” 74.29
Procopius, Buildings, 18.
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"The dome is a work admirable and terrifying... seeming not to rest on the masonry
below it, but to be suspended by a chain of gold from the height of the sky."30
Even more incredible than the originality of the dome or the engineered windows
is the effect of the two when combined with each other and with the rest of the church.
The interior of Hagia Sophia was paneled with costly purple, green, and white marble as
well as ornamental gemstones that convinced visitors that they “had come upon a
meadow with its flowers in full bloom.”31 The marble columns were complexly arranged
throughout the interior of the church in terms of size, proportion, and color. Many of
these decorative marble columns were actually taken from other ancient buildings and
reused to support the interior arcades. Along with the marble were colored stones. Black
stones were taken from the Bosphorous region, green stones from Carystus, polychrome
stones from Phygia, yellow stones from Libya, and red stones from Isauria.32
Working in conjunction with the decorative marbles and stones were precious
metals. The upper part of the building was elaborately decorated in gold that was
arranged to form a medallion with a huge cross in the center. During the day, the sun’s
rays reflected off the marble and the gold to illuminate the dome and central nave with a
mystical light.33 The effect of lighting was so profound that the glow appeared to come
from within the church instead of from the outside sun. This effect convinced ancient
visitors that Hagia Sophia’s dome was in fact the dome of heaven. Procopius attempted to
describe the phenomenon in the 6th century:
All these details, fitted together with incredible skill in mid-air and floating off from each other and resting only on the parts next to them, produce a single and most extraordinary
30 Procopius, Buildings, 15.
31 Procopius, Buildings, 28.
32 Kleinbauer, Hagia Sophia, 33.
33 Emma Wegner, "Hagia Sophia, 532–37.” Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2004.
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harmony in the work, and yet do not permit the spectator to linger much over the study of any one of them, but each detail attracts the eye and draws it on irresistibly to itself. So the vision constantly shifts suddenly, for the beholder is utterly unable to select which particular detail he should admire more than all the others. But even so, though they turn their attention to every side and look with contracted brows upon every detail, observers are still unable to understand the skillful craftsmanship, but they always depart from there overwhelmed by the bewildering sight.34
Procopius goes on to further describe the treasures of Justinian’s church, stating,
The vessels of gold and silver and the works in precious stones, which the Emperor Justinian has dedicated here — it is impossible to give a precise account of them all. But I shall allow my readers to form a judgment by a single example. That part of the shrine which is especially sacred, where only priests may enter, which they call the Inner Sanctuary, is embellished with forty thousand pounds' weight of silver.35
In addition to the silver, gold, marble, and gemstones that decorated the Church of
Holy Wisdom, there was an abundance of magnificent mosaics. The history of the
earliest mosaics, however, is unknown as many of them were destroyed or covered
during Iconoclasm, a period (between 730-787 and again between 814-842) when the
Byzantine Empire imposed a ban on religious imagery. Nonetheless, after Iconoclasm,
new figural mosaics were added to Hagia Sophia. These mosaics depicted the Virgin
Mary, Jesus, saints, and several emperors and their wives.
The most famous of Hagia Sophia's mosaics are on the upper floor, in the galleries
(see figure 3). The galleries were originally used for church councils. When Hagia Sophia
became a mosque, the galleries were the place of worship for women. Today, the
galleries offer visitors a bird’s eye view of the nave and a close-up view of some of the
best Byzantine mosaics.
Though not the most complete work, the best-known mosaic is the Deësis Mosaic
(see figure 4). Deësis depicts Christ flanked by the Virgin Mary and John the Baptist. The
Virgin Mary and John the Baptist are seen evidently concerned with the coming suffering
34 Procopius, Buildings, 22.
35 Procopius, Buildings, 28-29.
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of humans as the day of Last Judgment approaches. The depiction is intentionally
straightforward, intended to teach the viewer a religious lesson, in this case, a reminder
that everyone will eventually be held accountable for their actions on earth. The work
exemplifies Byzantine art as it employs rich colors, a gold background, and shows flat,
religious figures with notoriously large eyes.36
Many of the earliest mosaics were stolen and shipped to Venice during the 4 th
Crusade. This event helps explain how such Byzantine art influenced Renaissance artists
who also used a vibrant array of colors and painted similar scenes of intense humanity
and emotional realism.37
With the conversion of Hagia Sophia into a mosque, the mosaics were covered with
whitewash and plaster. It was at this time that the Islamic calligraphic disks were
suspended from the main dome. The names painted on the eight wooden disks are: Allah
and Muhammad (flanking the apse); the first four Caliphs Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman and
Ali (at the four corners of the dome); and the two grandsons of Mohammed, Hasan and
Husayn (in the nave).
When the Fosatti brothers’ restored the Mosque in 1847, the mosaics were
momentarily uncovered and recorded; yet, the mosaics remained hidden until a
restoration and recovery program began under the leadership of Thomas Whittemore in
1931. Today, the interior of the church continues to captivate visitors in the same way as
Procopius. In addition to the elaborate ornamentation, contemporary visitors witness a
physical manifestation of the church’s long history. Islamic calligraphy juxtaposes
36 Kleinbauer, Hagia Sophia, 77.
37 Kleinbauer, Hagia Sophia, 49.
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Christian mosaics, some of which continue to be covered by plaster. Hagia Sophia
presently harmonizes many seemingly contrasting elements.
A Wonder of the World: Deserving a Place At the TableThe soul, lifting itself to the sky, realizes that here [Hagia Sophia] God is close by, and that He takes
delight in this, His chosen home.38 -Procopius-
The list of the Seven Ancient Wonders of the World has its roots in the Hellenistic
period when scholars such as Herodotus published guidebooks for the must see “sights”
in the known world. However, it was the Dutch artist Maerten van Heemskerck who
canonized the official Seven Wonders during the Renaissance. Van Heemskerck crafted a
series of engravings that captured and paid tribute to the now accepted list.39
The Seven Wonders – the Great Pyramid of Giza, the Hanging Gardens of Babylon,
the Statue of Zeus at Olympia, the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus, the Mausoleum at
Halicarnassus, the Colossus of Rhodes, and the Pharos at Alexandria – all have several
commonalities, despite their varied origins, appearances, and locations. In general, all the
wonders lasted for a considerable time, allowing them to influence successive
architectural feats. In addition to longevity, the wonders exemplified architectural
innovation and originality in appearance. To complete them, they were largely decorated
with remarkable works of ornamentation, whether in the form of statues, friezes, murals,
or exotic treasures.
In terms of longevity, Hagia Sophia surpasses many of the Seven Wonders of the
Ancient World. Hagia Sophia has stood for nearly fifteen centuries, a lifetime that is only
38 Procopius, Buildings, 27.
39 Peter A. Clayton and Martin J. Price, The Seven Wonders of the Ancient World (New York: Routledge, 1988), 4-6.
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clearly exceeded by the Great Pyramid that has lasted since 2561 BC. The Pharos existed
in some form for a little more that fifteen centuries; however, for the last few centuries
the structure was not much of a wonder as earthquakes had largely ruined it, unlike Hagia
Sophia.40 Also of praise for its permanence was the Mausoleum. The Mausoleum lasted
for about eighteen centuries, but like the Pharos, the Mausoleum had been in ruins for the
last several centuries. Ultimately, crusaders used the remnants to build a castle for the
Knights of St. John.41 While the Pharos and Mausoleum may have technically survived
longer than Hagia Sophia, Hagia Sophia, as earlier noted, does not appear as though it
will be destroyed in the near future.
Additionally, like many of the Seven Wonders, Hagia Sophia has acted as an
architectural influence on subsequent buildings. Hagia Sophia has been proclaimed to be
the epitome of Byzantine architecture, a style that held its prominence as a transition
between Hellenistic and Medieval styles. Along with influencing other monumental
structures in the Byzantine Empire, Justinian’s Church continues to play a role in
American architecture. According to Anthony Cutler of Pennsylvania State University,
Hagia Sophia maintains a level of tyranny when it comes to the construction of Greek
Orthodox churches. In a study where Cutler traced the origins of design for contemporary
Orthodox churches, Cutler concluded, “each of the architects did look to the past for
inspiration, not to the historical regional origins of their clients, not to the variety of
middle and late Byzantine building types of their clients’ childhood or ancestral homes,
but to the supreme, metropolitan example of Hagia Sophia at Constantinople.”42 Cutler
40 Clayton, The Seven Wonders, 155.
41 Clayton, The Seven Wonders, 121.
42 Anthony Cutler, “The Tyranny of Hagia Sophia: Notes on Greek Orthodox Church Design in the United States” Journal of the
Society of Architectural Historians 31 1972): 50.
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added, “There is a dependence on a common model, however well its qualities may
survive the translation.”43
In their own way, all the Seven Wonders were architecturally original and
magnificent engineering feats. For example, the Temple of Artemis was on a scale never
attempted – twice the size of the Parthenon.44 Likewise, Hagia Sophia lasted as the largest
cathedral in the world for nearly a thousand years until the completion of the Seville
Cathedral in the 16th century. Hagia Sophia was the first pendentive dome and the tallest
in the world until the Florence Duomo was built in 1436. Finally, the entire church was
engineered with remarkable innovation that has allowed it to withstand earthquake after
earthquake.
The Temple of Artemis, due to location at Ephesus, a major Mediterranean
commercial hub, was also a fusion of east and west. As Edward Gibbon, an English
historian and Member of Parliament lyrically put it, “The arts of Greece and the wealth of
Asia had conspired to erect that sacred and magnificent structure… Successive empires,
the Persians, the Macedonian and the Roman revered its Sanctity and enriched its
splendor.”45 Such an account draws distinct parallels to Hagia Sophia, which was
similarly the product of east and west, a structure that is layered with history, culturally
enriched by every group that has controlled the sacred church.
The architecture of the Wonders was largely compounded with extensive
ornamentation. Decorative gold reliefs and elaborate friezes complemented the Statue of
Zeus. Additionally, on the screen walls preventing access to the throne were paintings by
Panaenus. The screen walls showed nine scenes, a sequence of separate pictures that
43 Cutler, “The Tyranny of Hagia Sophia,” 50.
44 Clayton, The Seven Wonders, 80.
45 Clayton, The Seven Wonders, 78.
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Sean Donovan ARTH-007 Term Paper
related to the iconic frieze, the founding Olympic Games, and various stories from Greek
mythology. The complementary ornamentation of a central focal point such as the Statue
of Zeus, mirrors Justinian’s church. Though visitors come to be amazed by the mystical
dome that appears to rest on the mere support of the air below, glowing Byzantine
mosaics captivate visitors.
Perhaps more important than any of the above criteria, a Wonder of the World must
convey a “feeling of excitement and awe” that moves people “when they find themselves
in the presence of one of the Wonders of the World.”46 As seen by both original and
contemporary accounts, Hagia Sophia has such an impressionable effect. To recall the
words of Procopius, “When one enters this building to pray, he feels that it is not the
work of human power....The soul, lifting itself to the sky, realizes that here God is close
by, and that He takes delight in this, His chosen home." Recognizing the consensus of
such sentiments, both today and for the past fifteen centuries, it is only appropriate and
just to provide Hagia Sophia with its necessary acknowledgement as a Modern Wonder
of the World.
46 Clayton, The Seven Wonders, 168.
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Sean Donovan ARTH-007 Term Paper
Figures:
Figure 1 - Hagia Sophia Vaulting Structure:Source: Image and original data provided by Bryn Mawr College, Mainstone, R. J. Hagia Sophia : architecture, structure, liturgy of Justinian's Great Church (London, 1988); pp. 72-73. Accessed through ARTstor.
Figure 2 – Istanbul and North Anatolian Fault:Source: Virginia Hughes, “Shaken, Not Stirred.” Nature 443 (206): 390.
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Sean Donovan ARTH-007 Term Paper
Figure 3: Floor Plan and Interior of Hagia SophiaSource: http://www.sacred-destinations.com/turkey/istanbul-hagia-sophia-floor-plan.
Figure 4: Deësis MosaicSource: Image and original data provided by Erich Lessing Culture and Fine Arts Archives/ART RESOURCE, N.Y. Accessed through ARTstor.
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Sean Donovan ARTH-007 Term Paper
Works Cited:
Bruno, Debra. "Off the Beaten Track / Istanbul." Wall Street Journal, October 16, 2007, Eastern Edition.
Çakmak, Ahmet Ş., Rabun M. Taylor, and Eser Durukal. 2009. The structural configuration of the first dome of justinian's hagia sophia (A.D. 537–558): An investigation based on structural and literary analysis. Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 29, (4) (4): 693-8.
Clayton, Peter A and Martin J. Price. The Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. New York: Routeledge, 1988.
Cocke, Thomas. "Hagia Sophia, 1850-1950." Material Religion 4, no. 1 (March 2008): 100-102.
Cutler, Anthony. “Structure and Aesthetic at Hagia Sophia in Constantinople.” The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism 25 (1966).
Cutler, Anthony. “The Tyranny of Hagia Sophia: Notes on Greek Orthodox Church Design in the United States” Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians (1972).
Dixon, Nicola. "Byzantine church gives up the secret of its longevity." New Scientist 176, no. 2369 (November 16, 2002): 13.
Hughes, Virginia. "Hagia Sophia: Shaken, not stirred." Nature 443, no. 7110 (September 28, 2006): 390-1.
Kafescioğlu, Çiğdem. 2009. Constantinopolis/Istanbul: cultural encounter, imperial vision, and the construction of the Ottoman capital. University Park, Pa: Pennsylvania State University Press.
Kaylan, Melik. "PURSUITS; Leisure & Arts -- Masterpiece: A Beautiful Confusion; Istanbul's Hagia Sophia seems to yearn for its past sanctity." Wall Street Journal, July 7, 2007, Eastern Edition.
Kleinbauer, W. Eugene, Antony White, and Henry Matthews. 2004. Hagia Sophia. London: Scala Publishers.
Morey, P.R. “Hagia Sophia in Constantinople.” Boston Daily Globe, 8 July 1923.
Necipoğlu, Nevra. 2009. Byzantium between the Ottomans and the Latins: politics and society in the late empire. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Nelson, Robert S. 2004. Hagia Sophia, 1850-1950: holy wisdom modern monument. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Nelson, Robert S., and Margaret Rose Olin. 2003. Monuments and memory, made and unmade. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Pamuk, Orhan. Istanbul. New York: Vintage, 2006.
Procopius. Buildings. Cambridge (US): Loeb Classical Library, 1940.
Schwitter, Craig, and Leslie Robertson. 2007. Powers of 10: Two leading structural engineers pick their favorite feats of man-made wonder. Metropolis 26, (Jan.): 106-12.
Taylor, Rabun. “A Literary and Structural Analysis of the First Dome on Justinian’s Hagia Sophia, Constantinople.” Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 55 (1996).
Ozkul, Tulay Aksu and Eiichi Kuribayashi. “Structural characteristics of Hagia Sophia: II--A finite element formulation for dynamic analysis.” Building and Environment, Volume 42, Issue 5, May 2007, Pages 2100-2106.
Webb, Ruth. “The Aesthetics of Sacred Space: Narrative, Metaphor, and Motion in ‘Ekphraseis’ of Church Buildings.” Dumbarton Oaks Papers. 1999.
Wegner, Emma. "Hagia Sophia, 532–37.” Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2004.
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