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COSC 4126 emergence
Games as systems formal system
(constituative rules – closed system) experiential system
(operational rules – open or closed system) cultural system
(context – open system)
COSC 4126 emergence
Designing games
useful to focus some time on individual systems consider how systems interact
schemas help focus on an aspect of design goal is always meaningful play
COSC 4126 emergence
Phenomenon of emergence
based in complexity of interaction of objects in a system
unplanned patterns appearing at the system level, i.e. patterns in the relationship among objects
COSC 4126 emergence
Complexity: Warren Weaver 1949
Classes of systems and problems organized simplicity – few objects,
distinct, interacting disorganized complexity – many
objects, indistinguishable, interacting emergent system properties
organized complexity – many objects, distinguishable, interacting emergent patterns
COSC 4126 emergence
Complexity: Campbell, 1982: In living organisms and even in machines,
there exists a “complexity barrier.” Beyond this barrier, where systems are of a very high complexity, entirely new principles come into play. Complexity is not just a matter of a system having a lot of parts which are related to one another in nonsimple ways. Instead, it turns out to be a special property in its own right, and it makes complex systems differnet in kind from simple ones, enabling them to do things and be things we might not have expected.
COSC 4126 emergence
Emergence Gödel: in any sufficiently complex
mathematical system, there are theorems which are true but which cannot be proven.
Software, including games, is complex – patterns of interaction ‘emerge.’
Holland: “emergence is ... a product of coupled, context-dependent interactions.”
COSC 4126 emergence
Example – cellular automata Conway’s Game of Life
2 dimensional array of cells binary values
initial ‘generation’ of cell values live/dead rules for value in generation n based on
values of cell and its eight adjacent cells in generation n-1
patterns of live cells emerge depending on initial configurations and on rules of succession
COSC 4126 emergence
Example – linear automaton One dimension – show generations adjacent
cells live or die based on self and two neighbours Wolfram
code as integer: 244
generation n-1
generation n
step 10:
step 9:
step 8:
step 7:
step 6:
step 5:
step 4:
step 3:
step 2:
step 1:
COSC 4126 emergence
Linear automata
step 20:step 19:step 18:step 17:step 16:step 15:step 14:step 13:step 12:step 11:step 10:step 9:step 8:step 7:step 6:step 5:step 4:step 3:step 2:step 1:
rule 100
step 20:step 19:step 18:step 17:step 16:step 15:step 14:step 13:step 12:step 11:step 10:step 9:step 8:step 7:step 6:step 5:step 4:step 3:step 2:step 1:
rule 101
step 20:step 19:step 18:step 17:step 16:step 15:step 14:step 13:step 12:step 11:step 10:step 9:step 8:step 7:step 6:step 5:step 4:step 3:step 2:step 1:
rule 102
step 20:step 19:step 18:step 17:step 16:step 15:step 14:step 13:step 12:step 11:step 10:step 9:step 8:step 7:step 6:step 5:step 4:step 3:step 2:step 1:
rule 103
COSC 4126 emergence
Four kinds of systems
Fixedboring
Periodic
Complex meaningful
Chaotic meaningless
step 20:step 19:step 18:step 17:step 16:step 15:step 14:step 13:step 12:step 11:step 10:step 9:step 8:step 7:step 6:step 5:step 4:step 3:step 2:step 1:
rule 100
step 20:step 19:step 18:step 17:step 16:step 15:step 14:step 13:step 12:step 11:step 10:step 9:step 8:step 7:step 6:step 5:step 4:step 3:step 2:step 1:
rule 101
step 20:step 19:step 18:step 17:step 16:step 15:step 14:step 13:step 12:step 11:step 10:step 9:step 8:step 7:step 6:step 5:step 4:step 3:step 2:step 1:
rule 102
step 20:step 19:step 18:step 17:step 16:step 15:step 14:step 13:step 12:step 11:step 10:step 9:step 8:step 7:step 6:step 5:step 4:step 3:step 2:step 1:
rule 103
COSC 4126 emergence
Four kinds of systems
Fixed
Periodic boring
Complex meaningful
Chaotic meaningless
COSC 4126 emergence
Emergence in games
poker example – bluffing not explicitly in rules emerges as a way to take advantage of
betting rules chess example – patterns of play still
being discovered current masters know more that masters
of 100 years ago, would beat them easily
COSC 4126 emergence
Games – aim for complex behaviour
Fixed
Periodic
Complex
Chaotic
continuing play can still be novel, surprising, interesting, meaningful
COSC 4126 emergence
Heads or Tails (Salen and Zimmerman)
1. player one flips a coin out of sight of player two
2. player two guesses the head or tail result
3. if guess is correct, player two wins a point; otherwise player one wins
too simple, even if repeated result discernable but not integrated
COSC 4126 emergence
Heads or Tails – variant 1
1. player one places a coin head or tail side up out of sight of player two
2. player two guesses the head or tail result3. if guess is correct, player two wins a point;
otherwise player one wins one play too simple if repeated, result discernable and (somewhat)
integrated because players try to psych each other out (like rock/paper/scissors)
COSC 4126 emergence
Heads or Tails – variant 2
1. players alternate roles of flipping the coin out of sight and guessing
2. if correct, guesser chooses to flip or to keep guessing for double points; if wrong, guesser loses all points for turn
3. first player to 25 points wins players choose own risk levels choice integrated with total score of game (coupled)
and with current totals of each player (context-dependent)
COSC 4126 emergence
The Grid (S and Z, revised)1. play occurs on 100x100 grid of squares2. each player has 10 tokens placed
randomly on grid; multiple tokens can occupy a square
3. players each move their 10 tokens to any other square; tokens do not affect each other’s moves
4. after moves, 1000 squares are selected at random; tokens on those squares earn a point
chaotic – no meaning to moves result discernable but not integrated
COSC 4126 emergence
Meaning and complexity meaning comes from discernibility and
integration complexity comes from coupled, context-
dependent interactions complexity is a basis for meaning because
integration requires on coupling and dependence on context
integration is the explored path through the space of complexity
meaning emerges with more paths explored
COSC 4126 emergence
Second order Design: emergent features
based on interaction of objects in game system get to the ‘complexity’ subspace ‘tune’ to enhance any emergent ‘engines’
engine: an emergent phenomenon based on a subset of game features
examples: Brackeen’s side scroller1. jumping on fly to get to higher layer on
level 2
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