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2017-2019
Fire Protection Practices and Competence-
Based Training in Historical Buildings
(Protecting People and Cultural Heritage)
2017-1-TR01-KA202-04560
i
Republic of Turkey
Minister of Foreign Affair
Turkish National Agency
Fire Protection Practices and Competence-Based Training in Historical Buildings
(Protecting People and Cultural Heritage)
Project Number: 2017-1-TR01-KA202-04560
Co-Funded by The Erasmus+ Programme of The European Union
ii
“Funded by the Erasmus+ Program of the European Union. However, European
Commission and Turkish National Agency cannot be held responsible for any use
which may be made of the information contained therein”
“By showing the source, partly or completely can be quoted”
© October 2019
iii
The Project Team
Gazanfer Erbay, Ph.D., Karabuk AFAD, Turkey
Bora Balun, Karabuk AFAD, Turkey
Mateja Gris, Slovensko Zdruzenje za Pozarno Varstvo, Slovenia
Gasper Golob, Slovensko Zdruzenje za Pozarno Varstvo, Slovenia
Kasım Yılmaz, Ph.D., Karabuk University, Turkey
Hüseyin Yavuz Erbil, Karabuk University, Turkey
Kim Lintrup, Frederiksborg Brand Og Redning, Denmark
Jimmy Braunschweig Andersen, Frederiksborg Brand Og Redning, Denmark
Yılmaz Olcay, Safranbolu Municipality, Turkey
Mehmet Gökcü, Safranbolu Municipality, Turkey
Salvatore Santuccio, Ph.D., Universita Degli Studi Di Camerino, Italy
Andrea Marconi, Universita Degli Studi Di Camerino, Italy
Correspondence Address
Karabuk AFAD - Disaster & Emergency Directorate, Karabuk/Turkey
www.fireskills.org / www.karabuk.afad.gov.tr
iv
Preface
Europe’s and Turkey cultural heritage, both tangible and intangible, are our common
wealth – our inheritance from previous generations of Europeans/Turks and our legacy
for those to come. It is an irreplaceable repository of knowledge and a valuable
resource for economic growth, employment and social cohesion. It enriches the
individual lives of hundreds of millions of people, is a source of inspiration for
thinkers and artists, and a driver for our cultural and creative industries. Our cultural
heritage and the way we preserve and valorize it is a major factor in defining Europe
and Turkey's place in the world and its attractiveness as a place to live, work, and visit.
Cultural heritage teaches us about the history that happened before we were born and
promotes the respect for those who lived in different times and different societies.
Cultural heritage enriches the individual lives of citizens, is a driving force for the
cultural and creative sectors, and plays a role in creating and enhancing Europe's and
Turkey’s social capital. For France is known for the Eiffel tower, for Italy the Historic
Centre of Siena, Turkey for the Sultan Ahmet or Ayasofya Mosques, Ephesus, Divriği
Great Mosque and Hospital and Safranbolu and etc. Historical structures bring
character and certain charm to the neighborhood that people live in.
Historical buildings reflect the state of the art at the time of their construction.
Materials were used that are often viewed critically today with regard to fire safety.
The biggest challenge is to ensure optimal fire protection of the building structure and
the interior (stucco, ceiling and wall paintings, paneling, furniture and chandeliers) as
well as the historical artifacts inside a building, without affecting their aesthetic value
and historical integrity. Fire safety in all buildings is a critical topic, but fire protection
in historical buildings is also of great cultural importance. Fire and the consequential
v
damage can result in monetary losses that run into the tens of millions of Euros and
the loss of irreplaceable historical artifacts. Restoring these damaged buildings and
items can be very costly and sometimes impossible.
There is no specific training course (competency-based) for experts and staff working
at Search& Rescue Services and Fire Brigades located in cultural and historical
protected cities. Fire Safety Management in these cities is totally different from the
big cities or new built cities and it is totally different in terms of current techniques,
using equipment’s, competencies and skills.
When considered from this point of view, the experts and staff working at Search&
Rescue Services and Fire Brigades working in cultural and historical protected cities
like a Safranbolu (TR), Marche (IT) and Ljubljana don’t have enough up-to-date
knowledge and competencies in terms of Fire Safety Management (Prevention,
Preparedness and Response).
In this context, competency-based training module is an approach, which ensures that
staff becomes competent and remains competent and that experience and changing
demands are incorporated in the Fire Safety Management involved.
On the other hands, people living in historical buildings and inhabiting historical
sites/areas/region don’t have enough practical knowledge in case of fire and how to
take basic precautions as part of fire intervention, fire safety, fire protection and
practical fire safety arrangements.
The target group for “the FireSkills” project is broadly defined because the scope for
recruitment is so large. There is a need to identify and tackle Fire Safety Management.
vi
In order to decrease the effects of fire accidents, the task is to examine best practices
in this area and thereby to develop a professional profile who can manage together
with local authorities of fire brigade, security, health, education, emergency and safety
concerns.
vii
Acknowledgements
The project team would like to thanks their institutions, Karabuk Provincial Disaster
and Emergency Directorate, Karabuk University, Universita Degli Studi Di Camerino,
Safranbolu Municipality, Frederiksborg Brand Og Redning, Slovenian Fire Protection
Association (Slovensko Zdruzenje za Pozarno Varstvo). They also express their
special appreciation to European Commission, for funding the Erasmus KA2 Project
(2017-1-TR01-KA202-04560).
viii
TABLE OF CONTENTS Page
PREFACE iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS viii
LIST OF FIGURES xix
LIST OF TABLES xxvi
CHAPTER 1 1
RISK ANALYSIS AND RISK ASSESSMENT 1
1. Risk analysis and risk assessment 1
1.1. Safety in maintenance of historical building 1
1.2. Conformation of historical inner cities in Italy 1
1.3. Historical inner cities safety as a whole 4
2. Safety in residential historical buildings 6
3. Special historical buildings' safety 7
CHAPTER 2 16
RISK MANAGEMENT 16
ix
1. Introduction 16
2. Fire safety management approach 18
2.1 Leadership and commitment 19
2.2 Fire safety management plan, strategy and action 19
2.3 Management regular support 21
3. Fire safety management system elements 23
3.1 Documentation 23
3.1.1 Fire Safety Handbook 23
3.1.2 Fire Safety Logbook 24
3.1.3 Damage Limitation Plan 25
3.2 Reporting 27
3.3 Controlling and compliance auditing 27
3.4 Improving the emergency response of employees and other users of
the building 31
3.5 Closing of an audit 34
x
CHAPTER 3 35
FIRE PREVENTION MEASURES 35
1.Introduction 35
2. Basic principles 36
3. Fire prevention measures 37
3.1. Good housekeeping 38
3.2. Waste disposal control and control over storing packing material 39
3.3. Smoking policy 40
3.4. Use of open flame, including hot works 41
3.5. Maintenance and inspection of chimneys 41
3.6. Electrical installations and appliances 42
3.7. Control over fire characteristics of decoration and claddings 42
3.8. Control over spread of fire to adjacent rooms 43
3.9. Control over installed fire protection systems 43
3.10. Evacuation of the people and animals 44
3.11. Training of employees 44
xi
3.12. Protection from a fire from outside 45
3.13. Access to buildings for firefighting vehicles and personnel 45
3.14. Salvage of artefacts 46
3.15. Expecting the unexpected 46
CHAPTER 4 48
FIRE BASICS
(BEHAVIOUR, CLASSIFICATIONS, EXTINGUSHING AGENTS) 48
1. Introduction 48
1.1. Aim 48
2.Fire basics 48
2.1. Fire theory 49
2.1.1. The fire triangle 51
2.1.2. Combustible materials 52
3. Fire behavior 52
3.1. The fire process at a fire in a room 53
3.1.1. The early fire process 53
xii
3.1.2. Initial fire 55
3.1.3. Example of a fire process in a room 55
3.2. How to minimize fire development? 59
4.Classifications & Extinguishing Agents 59
4.1. Overview of Fire Classes 59
4.2. Handheld extinguishing agents 61
4.2.1. Overview of fire-fighting extinguishing types 61
CHAPTER 5 68
FIRE SUPPRESSION ACTIVITIES AND FIRE DETECTION/WARNING
SYSTEMS IN HISTORIC BUILDINGS 68
1. Introduction 68
2. Fires and suppression activities in historic buildings 69
3. Fire detection and warning systems 88
3.1. Heat detectors 91
3.2. Smoke detectors 91
3.3. Flame defectors 92
3.4. Gas detectors 93
xiii
4. Portable fire extinguishers 93
5. Types of fire extinguishers 94
5.1. Extinguishing agents used in portable fire extinguishers 95
5.2. Operating Portable Fire Extinguishers 98
CHAPTER 6 101
EVACUATION 101
1.What is evacuation? 101
2. Evacuation methods 102
2.1. Vertical evacuation 102
2.2. Horizontal evacuation 102
2.3. Stay in place 104
3. Evacuation plan 104
4. Establishment of the evacuation team 109
5. Fire evacuation considerations 111
6. Things to consider at the time of evacuation 112
7. Considerations after evacuation 113
xiv
8. Evacuation of people with disabilities 114
8.1. Evacuation of the mentally handicapped 116
8.2. Discharge of physically disabled persons 116
8.3. Evacuation of the visually impaired 117
8.4. Evacuation of the hearing impaired 118
CHAPTER 7 120
COOPERATION WITH EMERGENCY ORGANIZATIONS 120
1. Introduction 120
1.1. Chapter composition 120
1.1.2. Learning outcomes 120
1.2. General information 120
1.3. The Combined force of the emergency agencies 121
2. Police 123
2.1. Responsibility and organization 124
2.1.1. Strategic level 124
2.1.2. The Police districts 124
xv
2.1.3. Police efforts 125
2.1.3.1. Coordination of the overall effort 125
3. Fire & Rescue 127
3.1. Tasks 127
3.1.1. Technical management of an incident 128
4. Public health agency (EMS/EMT etc.) 128
4.1. In general 128
4.2. Regional emergency medical services 129
5. DEMA 130
5.1. The regional emergency Service (DEMA) 130
6. Incident task management 131
6.1. Emergency call center 132
6.1.1. Dispatch center (Police / Fire & Rescue / AMK) 133
6.2. Summary 134
CHAPTER 8 137
LAWS, REGULATIONS AND STANDARDS ABOUT PROTECTING
CULTURAL AND HISTORICAL SITES 137
xvi
1. Introduction 137
2. Ethical principles 140
3. Instructions and covenants (treaties) 143
3.1. Construction products regulation for fire safety in buildings (electric cables)
(CPR) 143
3.1.1. Aim 143
3.1.2. Scope 145
3.2. European commission application statute dated 2 May 2014 and
(EU) 447/2014 146
3.2.1. Aim 146
3.2.2. Scope 146
4. Directives 146
4.1. EU construction products directive – 89/106/EEC 146
4.1.1. Aim 146
4.1.2. Scope 147
4.1.3. Field of implementation 148
5. Standards 148
xvii
5.1. EN 50575 148
5.2. EN 50399 149
5.3. NFPA 909 149
5.4. EN 13501-6 150
5.5. EN 60332-1-2 150
5.6. EN 61034-2 150
5.7. EN 60754-2 150
5.8. EN 13501 150
5.8.1. Roof 151
5.8.2. Material 151
6. Agreements and conventions 151
6.1. Convention for the protection of the architectural heritage of Europe 151
6.2. Europe 2020 strategy 152
6.3. European Environmental Policy 152
CHAPTER 9 154
NEW TECHNOLOGIES 154
xviii
1.Introduction 154
2.Sound wave fire extinguisher 154
3.Water mist systems 156
4. Early suppression fast response fire sprinkler systems (ESFR) 158
5.Integrated voice evacuation and messaging system 159
6.Fire behavior simulation software 160
7.Personalized vocal smoke alarm 161
8.Wireless internet connected smoke detector 162
9.Wireless heat detector 162
10.Beam detectors 163
REFERENCES 164
EXERCISES QUESTIONS 174
ANWERS 202
THE PROJECT MEETING PHOTOS 213
ACTIVITIES 217
xix
LIST OF FIGURES
CHAPTER 1
Fig.1. Percentage of fire and explosion type interventions 2
Fig.2. Distribution of fire and explosions at provincial level 3
Fig. 3. The “Sassi” of Matera, historical inner city all made up by stone and with many
difficulties under the light of emergency operations 5
Fig.4. Fire at the Royal rider, in the center of Turin, in 2016. The flames remained
limited to the building concerned 9
Fig.5. Plants and sections of small theaters in the Marche 13
Fig.6. Petruzzelli Theater in Bari, before the fire and after the restoration with
fireproof materials, of 2007 14
CHAPTER 2
Fig. 1. Four basic interest groups for providing fire safety in historic buildings 17
Fig. 2. Fire brigade should be invited to cooperate in the process of planning of fire
safety of a building 18
Fig. 3. In historic buildings, it is not always possible to arrange the escape routes
according to present standards of fire safety for new buildings. Fire brigade shall be
familiar with special features of the building 20
Fig. 4. Project cycle management 21
xx
Fig. 5. Training of employees for the first response in a case of fire shall include proper
use of fire extinguishers 22
Fig. 6. Restoration works and other changes of the building and installations can
reduce the level of fire protection in the building, so fire safety measures shall be
prepared in written in advance, before the works start 23
Fig. 7. Firefighters should be invited to cooperate in preparation of damage limitation
plan 26
Fig. 8. Incidents shall be reported to authorities having jurisdiction and investigated,
so similar events do not happen in the future 27
Fig. 9. On regular basis, emergency response of fire brigade shall be checked, as well
as access roads and areas and water supply for firefighter’s vehicles around the
building 32
Fig. 10. Escape routes can be improved to reach, or at least get closer to present
standards 33
Fig. 11. Appointed person (responsible person, which is familiar with the building)
shall be trained to communicate with firefighters, to provide information for
successful intervention 33
Fig. 12. Closing meeting shall be organized after each external audit. Closing meeting
can be very useful as a tool for defining corrective actions and modification of the fire
safety system of the premises 34
xxi
CHAPTER 3
Fig. 1. A Historic building fire at Safranbolu, October 08, 2018 35
Fig. 2. The fire prevention triangle 37
Fig. 3. A historic building fire at Safranbolu 38
Fig. 4. Safety Distances between waste containers and buildings shall be
considered 40
Fig. 5. Areas for smoking shall be arranged with suitable ashtrays 40
Fig. 6. Hot work shall be permitted only under defined circumstances 41
Fig.7. Electrical installations and appliances 42
Fig. 8. Penetrations of installations through walls and ceilings can present a path for a
fire to spread 43
Fig. 9. Employees shall be trained to extinguish an initial fire 44
Fig.10. A historic building fire at Safranbolu 45
Fig.11. A narrow street at Safranbolu old town 45
Fig. 12. Narrow access road to the castle courtyard in Český Krumlow, Chech
Republic 46
CHAPTER 4
xxii
Fig. 1. Photo from: "Brandforløb". illustrate a flame fire (the light) and glow fire
(cigarette) 49
Fig.2. A combustion is a chemical process that develops heat. Basic it is about the fuel
reacting with the oxygen, thereby forming water carbon dioxide and various residues
……………………. 50
Fig. 3. The picture shows different types of flames. The different colors of the flames
tell a lot about eg. combustion, temperature etc. To the left is a typical diffusion flame
and to the right a typical premix flame 50
Fig.4. The fire triangle with the three factors to create a fire 51
Fig.5. To left are a detached fire, and to the right a fire in a room is illustrated 53
Fig.6. The early fire process is market with red to the left. To the right are some factors
illustrated which may become influence in the following fire process 54
Fig.7. To the left the initial fire shows in red. To the right some examples of an initial
fire 55
Fig.8. To left shows the candle on the sofa and start an initial fire. To the right the
initial fire is marked in red in the fire process 56
Fig.9. To the right an illustration about how the smoke is rising up to the ceiling and
starting to bend out to the side. To the right the next step on the fire process "Early
fire process" is marked in red 57
xxiii
Fig.10. The flashover phase defines the transition from the early fire process to the
fully developed fire in a room. The phase occurs when the radiant heat from the fire
and the flue gas layer becomes sufficiently large enough to the room ignites 57
Fig.11. The fully developed space fire where all flammable material burns 58
CHAPTER 5
Fig.1. Sarıaltınlar mansion 69
Fig. 2. Kalealtı primary school 70
Fig. 3. Galatasaray University Fire 72
Fig. 4. Erbil house, typical stairwells in historic Safranbolu houses 73
Fig. 5. Erbil house, attics in Safranbolu houses 74
Fig. 6. Water mist systems, Eksel fire and safety systems Inc. 79
Fig. 7. FM200 gaseous agent extinguishing systems 80
Fig. 8. Erbil house, rough terrain in Safranbolu 81
Fig 9. Arasta, narrow streets/close building layout in Safranbolu 81
Fig. 10. Class A foam application 82
Fig. 11. Components of fire detection and warning systems 90
Fig. 12. Principle of operation of an ionization smoke detector 91
xxiv
Fig.13. Operation principle of photoelectric smoke detectors 92
Fig.14. Portable fire extinguisher containing foam 96
Fig.15. Portable fire extinguisher containing carbon dioxide 96
Fig.16. Dry chemical portable fire extinguisher 97
CHAPTER 6
Fig.1. Evacuation sign 101
Fig.2. A Historic building blaze 102
Fig.3. Evacuation methods 103
Fig.4. A Sample evacuation plan for buildings 106
Fig.5. A Sample evacuation practice from school building 107
Fig.6. A sample evacuation practice from top the roof 108
Fig.7. A sample evacuation practice via fire ladder 108
Fig.8. The evacuation team 109
Fig.9. The burned building 114
Fig.10. The burned building 114
Fig.11. Classification of people with disabilities 115
xxv
CHAPTER 7
Fig.1. DEMA Logo 130
Fig.2. DEMA facilities in Denmark 131
Fig.3. Danish emergency call center 132
Fig.4. Dispatch center 133
Fig.5. Action area at everyday events 135
Fig.6. Incident area at major events 136
CHAPTER 8
Fig. 1. CPR burn rate classification 143
Fig. 2. CE marking of cables 144
Fig. 3. Classifications of cable under CPR 145
Fig. 4. EU Construction products directive 147
CHAPTER 9
Fig.1. Sound wave fire extinguisher 156
Fig.2. Water mist systems 157
Fig.3. Early suppression fast response fire sprinkler systems (ESFR) 158
xxvi
Fig.4. Integrated voice evacuation and messaging system 159
Fig.5. Fire behavior simulation software 160
Fig.6. Personalized vocal smoke alarm 161
xxvii
LIST OF TABLES
CHAPTER 2
Table 1. An example of a checklist for periodical inspection 30
CHAPTER 6
Table. 1. Comparison of building materials’ performance under heavy load and fire
conditions 70
Table. 2. Safranbolu municipality fire statistics (2013-2017) 74
1
CHAPTER 1
RISK ANALYSIS AND RISK ASSESSMENT
1. Risk analysis and risk assessment
1.1. Safety in maintenance of historical building
It is necessary to focus attention on 3 fundamental principles to face problems such
as fire protection, architectural and urban heritage. The first one, is guarding
inhabitants', rescuers' and users' life from the effects of fire. The second one is
preserving the building or the urban portion from the effects of fire, facilitating its
gateways or rescuers' access routes, and the third one is limiting the impact of fire
precautions on considered urban spaces, without adversely affecting its main
characteristics or historical specificities.
1.2. Conformation of historical inner cities in Italy
Unlike many other European Countries, whose conformation of historical inner
cities is essentially based on wooden buildings and therefore high fire risk, both for
the single building and entire districts; in Italy, the most part of historical inner cities
is made up by masonry, brickwork or natural stone buildings. This comes from an
ancient and consolidated historical tradition. Nuraghe e Dolmen, two kinds of
architectural prehistoric structures present in Italy are made of stone, and the ancient
Romans' building tradition has spread the usage of brickwork, vaults and arched
passages all over the nation territory.
This does not mean that in historical inner Italian cities there are no fire
vulnerability elements. The most part of horizontal surfaces in masonry structures
are indeed supported by wooden beams, mutual feature with attics and lofts.
2
This kind of conformation carries around some positive specificities. The first one
is that rarely the fire of a single building in the historical inner city spreads into near
urban blocks. Since the fire is usually limited to the inner part of the building, it is
unusual that flames are able to cross perimetral walls and to transfer into close
building units.
This causes efforts of reducing fire risk to be cut in Italy, starting from single
buildings and concentrating on urban district safety , in terms of identification and
facilitation of gateways and access routes for rescuer teams, important issue
depending on the high firmness of some urban residential areas.
In the annual report on internal activity of Italian Fire Department this reduced risk
factor in historical areas is clearly shown .
It is shown in Fig.1 that over the years the activities related to fire and explosion
emergencies in Italy never went beyond the 35% of the total of operations, bearing
in mind that the same explosions and fires are caused by brushes (32,5%), wastes
88,2%), passenger cars (5,7%), scrubland (5,5%), while "wooden supporting
structure" can barely reach the 0,5% as a cause.
Fig.1. Percentage of fire and explosion type interventions
3
The same applies to the distribution of rescue calls in Italy, where the condition is
limited in cases, also including the summer plague of forest fires, except for specific
areas characterized by the presence of industrial activities, waste disposal, airports
etc. such as Rome.
Fig.2. Distribution of fire and explosions at provincial level
Within this framework the focus on fire prevention must not be considered bland
nor nonexistent.
This issue has been treated with attention making references to the various
specificities of Italian situation, and therefore dealing with the thematic of historical
inner cities, whit particular regard to solutions for logistic problems relating to
gateways and prompt actions, instead of paying attention to the potential damage
propagation considering the single buildings, working on the specificities of the most
vulnerable of them.
4
1.3. Historical inner cities safety as a whole
The issue of historical inner cities and their safety in case of fire comes from their
urban morphology, usually based on reduced traffic sections and building density
often verging on a single mass, that constitute their aesthetic beauty and the most
important source of interest under the light of life quality they can offer in
comparison with great metropolis.
In this field it is clear that the fundamental principle of solutions is found in the
urban legislation that restrict parking places, traffic transit areas, the stationing of
fake commercial elements, and everything that can constitute an obstacle to the free
passage of routes, very important to evacuate areas in case of fire and to make help
accessible.
Lately, in an invitation tender published by the Italian Ministry of the Interior, the
Italian Fire, Public Rescue and Civil Defence Department, and the Central
Management for logistic and strumental resources, called “veicoli di nuova
concezione per il soccorso tecnico in aree urbane di difficile accessibilità (centri
storici)” has clarified the specific issues of historical urban Italian areas, through the
required skills in the context of means to be designed.
Principle specific concern qualifications for historical inner cities, for which a
specific project for a new rescue truck is required are: 1_ the presence of narrow and
cramped streets; 2_ Stationary vehicles that cause travel difficulties; 3_the presence
of short radius turns; 4_Difficulty to access to residential blocks; 5_steep hills and
climbs with low coefficient of grip; 6_water resources, often unavailable or
inefficient.
5
Fig. 3. The “Sassi” of Matera, historical inner city all made up by stone and with
many difficulties under the light of emergency operations
It is clear that not all of these issues can be faced with appropriate urban
legislations. Apart from the implement of the hydraulic network (operations usually
expensive and difficult to realize) and from the prohibition of parking in certain
areas, providing for example the realization of silos parking in areas far from the city
center and appropriate public transport services; for the majority of cases,
precautions cannot be related to technical equipment, such as the provisioning of
means able to face these difficulties and a good satellite view of the area, to help
rescuers and runners to keep in touch.
While designing these new means, the Italian Fire Department has focused on
these technical characteristics, adjusted on the movement issues in historical inners
cities. These characteristics are: small size, high maneuverability, a good power-to-
weight ratio, high safety, strength and reliability, simplicity of use and low costs for
maintenance.
6
In other words, the proper conformation of our historical inner cities, based on a
basically pedestrian mobility, can be in this moment the main fuel of uncertainty in
fire case, it is indeed necessary to work to mediate between the need for injuries
protection and life quality.
2. Safety in residential historical buildings
About the vulnerability of historical buildings, I will make reference to the
comprehensive conference held in Trento in 2008 by the architect Roberto Lenzi,
from the Permanent Fire Department of the Autonomous Province of Trento, where
the majority of the following considerations come from.
The majority of residential buildings found in historical inner cities own different
building types, different techniques and times of construction, usually subject to
important transformations making hard to identify standard solutions to prevent and
manage assistance in emergency states.
This trait creates specific vulnerabilities, considering critical issues which can be
beared in a limited area, in other words evaluating the important risk for a single
residential unit.
Buildings' vulnerability elements in historical inner cities are related to different
parameters which define safety and protection issues: these aspects, considered from
the point of view of the difficulty to be planned, keep suggesting different problems
whose solution cannot be found among the standard ones.
These factors can range from the presence of wooden structural elements, which
make hard to predict structural responses; to lacks in the escape routes network. It is
also important to consider that these buildings are usually rich in valuable elements
whose protection is usually as important as inhabitants' lives. It is also important to
be aware that some functional transformations phenomenon of historical inner cities
7
have widely increased their risk factors. This happens in case of transformations in
use, differing from original conception; in case of inflow of people, both in quantity
and distribution terms; in case; in case of overwhelming increase of modern
technological plants and machineries which may constitute by themselves risk
elements in case of breakdown or malfunction.
How to face all of these problems? The answer is not easy. Users' fragmentation
can be defined as one critical issue, a second one can be beared by emergency
operations that can be even more harmful than the fire itself because of some
ambiances' delicacy (painted vaults, fine furniture...).
One of the most important point is the acquaintance of places in which the
operations have to take place. The updating and the dissemination among the Fire
Department about the real conformation of the internal residential areas' distribution
is a necessary prerequisite which is still far from being realized. The continuous
changing in internal distributions which are not recorded in real time on maps, not
only creates potential vulnerability conditions, but also gives rise to difficulties in
rescue operations for those who have to understand how to access to the involved
compartment.
A second interesting idea can be to create specific first aid districts, without
equipping house by house, the identification of blocks of accommodation can
constitute a solution, through equipped minimal first aid units.
3. Special historical buildings' safety
A different issue is dealing with special buildings, the ones subjected to
guardianship for their architectural and environmental qualities, which constitute an
exception in terms of quality and vulnerability.
8
In this case, among the needs for safety related to people and rescuers, other
requirements are linked with artifact’s' protection and damage limitation, creating
sometimes bad lacerations.
Unlike what happens in Anglo-Saxon world where people safety is the main
priority, and the artifact’s protection is just an insurance matter, in Italy there are
specific rules about the preservation of goods: a document coming from the
Provincial Fire Department of Ascoli Piceno claims "in case of fire, besides the
safeguard of human life, it is also necessary to preserve the cultural heritage. Beyond
the fire prevention safety, it is essential to focus on different topics, such as
conservation, safeguard, restoration...These are different and complicated domains
which tend to enter into conflict between them if not faced in a coordinated manner.
In Italy technical safeguard rules usually deal in a prescriptive way with "subject
activities" which can concern public buildings and subject to protection. In these
cases, fire safeguard has to ensure not only human life protection, but also
preservation of goods considering both historical buildings, and objects inside. The
conservation needs of the protected property very often do not allow compliance with
the prescriptions imposed by a deterministic approach...”.
From a legislative point of view, buildings are classed following their specific use
characteristics and it is not rare that specific regulations in terms of safety are edited.
In principle these buildings are classed in three big legislative categories: specific
regulations for historical buildings: museums, arcades, exhibitions, libraries,
archives; regulations for other "subject activities" into historical buildings as hotels,
theatres, offices, schools, hospitals...; and regulations for other historical buildings
such as churches, civil buildings, monuments...
The rules are divided into two broad categories; those that regulate the existing
condition and that guarantee the protection and security of a historical asset where
9
vulnerability are consolidated in history, and, a little more complex case of buildings
are transformed into site of complex activities in terms of vulnerability, which
therefore require a very detailed design control.
However, it remains clear that in design conditions on buildings of great value
there is a need to go in derogation of the rules, trying to balance this exception,
especially with regard to structural solutions, with more accurate attention to
management and to the responsibility of the workers.
Fig.4. Fire at the Royal rider, in the center of Turin, in 2016. The flames
remained limited to the building concerned
In 2016 a document was prepared, by the Ministry of Cultural Heritage and Fire
Protection, where notwithstanding solutions are proposed for managing and
simplifying to comply with structural adjustments and plans.
Once the risks have been assessed, these indications want to be an aid for designers
in order to find design and management solutions that can ensure an equivalent
degree of fire safety.
10
In any case, therefore, the issue of fire prevention for historical buildings is
considered as a design and a verification of the implementation of the projects and
of the preventive provisions by the Fire Brigade.
The fire prevention regulation referred to in the D.P.R. of 2011 includes the
"buildings subject to protection", with a new formulation compared to the old lists,
and prescribes specific rules for "valuable buildings", open to the public, designed to
contain libraries and archives, museums, galleries, exhibitions and exhibitions,
regardless of gross area and quantities; as well as for hotels with more than 25 beds,
theaters with more than 100 seats, offices with a flow of more than 300 people,
schools with more than 100 students and hospitals with more than 25 beds, etc.
For this type of buildings, the prescription foresees:
the presentation of the project and the declaration of commencement of work,
the inspection by the local Fire Brigade Command through technical
inspections.
The inspection is to verify compliance with the prescribed provisions, as well as
the subsistence of the fire safety requirements so that, at the end of the works, having
ascertained that all the requirements have been met, the firemen themselves issue the
"Fire Prevention Certificate" for that building.
As mentioned, however, the work of adjustment are generally very difficult due to
the numerous constraints which make compliance with the prescriptive technical
rules.
These difficulties can be of different nature.
location of the site,
11
communications with the outside,
separations,
access to the area of emergency vehicles.
Access to the area and the combination of emergency vehicles, for example,
requires considerable space that is not always available in historic centers.
Furthermore, communications with non-pertinent activities (eg theaters,
entertainment venues, etc. communicating with non-pertinent offices or activities)
are generally not permitted, but this is not always possible and therefore, in addition
to the various compensatory measures, it is generally imposed the non-
contemporaneous use. As for the commences with other environments, these are
allowed only with certain pertinent activities, they have REI windows or smoke-
proof filters.
Other problems come from the constructive characteristics of the building,
understood as resistance to fire, reaction to fire, compartmentalization, organization
of stairs and paths, etc. Here the main theme is the fire resistance of structural wooden
components, such as beams, pillars and floors, which pose different problems and a
spectrum of complex solutions.
Then there are the problems related to the measures for the exodus (crowding, flow
capacity, length of the exodus paths, characteristics of the exit routes, width of the
exit routes, number of exits, ...).
Many times the historical conformation of the buildings does not allow the respect
of the minimum dimensions of the exodus paths, often less than 80/90 cm. Thera are
also other cases where the heights are less than 2 m. or in other cases the excessive
lengths of paths (one-way or non-directional) let impossible to create external
12
staircases without detecting historical feats, or simply due to the absence of spaces
that allow it.
Frequent are the cases in which the historical conformation of the buildings does
not allow the respect of the minimum dimensions of the exodus paths, often less than
80/90 cm, cases in which heights are less than 2 m. or excessive lengths of paths
(one-way or non-directional), as often it is impossible to create external staircases
without detecting historical feats, or simply due to the absence of spaces that allow
it. etc.
The work necessary for the installation of pipes of the “naspi” or hydrants network
can be complicated as the installation of automatic extinguishing systems or fire
detection and alarm systems. Similar problems happen for cables and pipelines: the
detection, signaling and alarm systems, the safety signs that must be visible, clear
and congruous to the aesthetics of the building and finally the organization and
management of security (plan of emergency, information and training, safety
instructions).
In Italy, in case of restructuring, for the historical buildings the derogation of the
fire regulations is possible for the fulfillment of the prescriptions.
However, to derogate from the rules, you have to make a request for an exemption
to the Fire Brigade. The request involves a specific documentation signed by a fire
professional, supplemented by a report that assesses the additional risk resulting from
the failure to comply with the provisions to be waived; as well as a proposal for
technical measures deemed appropriate to offset the additional risk.
The application is carefully examined by a Fire Brigade Commission that can
approve the proposals or impose additional or different solutions, and then verify that
the execution of the project is in compliance with the approved requests.
13
A special example: theaters.
In Europe - and in particular in Italy - there is an important cultural heritage of
historical theaters of inestimable architectural and artistic interest that deserves to be
preserved. Very often they are located in historical centers very complicated from
the point of view of urban spaces, with insufficient escape routes and narrow spaces
around.
Sometimes, they are part of historical buildings, encapsulated within them for the
delight of the noble families. In this context, the theater has the problems discussed
above (the difficulty/ impossibility of operating inside by following the canonical
norms of fire prevention).
The project should be guided by a deep knowledge of architectural structures and
by the interest in preserving the historical and artistic values that are evidence of the
ancient art of building that should be preserved rather than distorted.
Fig.5. Plants and sections of small theaters in the Marche
In case of historical theaters, there is a risk of fire due to the presence of wooden
structures with a particular historical and artistic value, furnishings in quality
precious fabrics, and decorations and elegant wooden bas-relief.
14
Increasing the fire safety of this type of building is in contrast with the architectural
and decorative heritage, as it generally clashes with the maintenance of the original
building features.
In order to comply with current protection regulations, massive and irreversible
interventions would be required.
Then there is the problem of overcrowded spaces linked with the internal and
external evacuation routes that, in many cases, cannot be completely solved. Since
the spaces were designed with criteria very far from these problems, the interventions
would totally distort the sense of the project.
All these characteristics bring theaters as buildings that more than any other are in
derogation from the rules in force in case of restructuring and restoration.
The main balancing element to these exceptions consists in adopting fireproof
materials in the redefinition of furnishings and decorations. In this sense it has
reached a level of excellent quality, both in terms of fire performance and that of the
overall image of the restored building.
Fig.6. Petruzzelli Theater in Bari, before the fire and after the restoration with
fireproof materials, of 2007
15
Regarding the safety of the occupants, it is clear that this depends a lot on the
behavior of the spectators and their ability to quickly evacuate to a safe place because
of the absence of adequately escape routes is a constant.
It seems absolutely necessary to work specifically on the design and
implementation of a clear and unequivocal system of emergency evacuation reports,
easily understandable even in extreme conditions of smoke or blackout.
16
CHAPTER 2
RISK MANAGEMENT
1. Introduction
The minimum level of safety of historic buildings and cultural sites are defined on
the international level (see Chapter 1). Level of fire safety shall be defined more
precisely within national laws and regulations. The approach to achieve the defined
goal - a certain fire safety level - depends on many factors, but always starts with the
awareness of the society, especially of the owner of the premises, that fire can happen
anywhere, anytime.
In large premises, responsibility for fire safety can be dispersed among the owner,
facilities manager, building manager, risk assessor, employee and every-day user.
The main burden lies to the ones who should provide resources. Financial resources
often present a problem, because built-in fire safety measures in historic buildings
are usually more complicated and therefore more expensive than the ones in ordinary
buildings. Manpower resources can be critical in small communities, dislocated
premises, etc. A resourceful manager can find solutions. For example, well managed
historic buildings often presents a source of income for local or even national
hospitality tourism, so the support from local or national authorities and budget can
be expected.
From the firefighters point of view, good cooperation of fire brigades and local
voluntary fire fighters with local community, including owners of historic buildings,
might have positive influence on relations within the community, and, consequently,
on the financial resources of the fire brigades. Firefighters can also be prepared better
for the intervention, when familiar with the premises.
17
Summarizing all above mentioned, at least four interest groups shall be included
in the process of providing the desired level of fire safety in historic buildings: the
owner, local or national authority, fire brigade and community, interested in
preservation of historic buildings (see Fig. 1).
Fig. 1. Four basic interest groups for providing fire safety in historic buildings
Fire safety management policy should be incorporated into overall management
policy of the premises. The recommended approach is to implement a management
operating system [1] which incorporates identification of fire hazards, with
prioritization of fire safety measures, ensuring resources for safety measures, using
improvement tools and takes care of organizational behavior, which supports the
proactive organization of fire safety, as described in this chapter.
Since this manual is prepared for firefighters and other first responders, there is no
need for detailed description of the management of historic buildings. There is a need
for firefighters to be familiar with the proper management approach, so the
communication with an owner or property manager is easier, and, at the end, the
intervention can be more effective.
Fire brigade
CommunityOwner
Authority
18
2. Fire safety management approach
In historic buildings there are at least two additional goals besides basic ones of
fire safety in buildings: preservation of historic building, or at least a part of it, and
preservation of artefacts and other items of cultural significance. Some other goals
can be added when building is in use: prevention or at least limitation of disruption
of the business in a building. These goals shall lead owner or his manager to introduce
a fire safety management policy, incorporated into overall management policy of the
premises. High standards of fire safety shall be indorsed, if possible, written in a fire
safety management manual or similar document.
Fire brigade can play an important role in the process of providing the desired level
of fire safety in historic building. Usually, fire brigade is invited to cooperate in the
process of planning, auditing and performing drills.
Fig. 2. Fire brigade should be invited to cooperate in the process of planning of
fire safety of a building
19
2.1 Leadership and commitment
Commitment of leadership of the premises to follow the fire safety management
policy shall be clearly and accurately defined, especially when delegated from the
owner to general manager and further to other managers, especially to fire safety
manager, supervisors, etc. All parties shall understand their duties and undertake
actions to do their job.
2.2 Fire safety management plan, strategy and action
Ways of approach to deal with fire safety shall be written in fire safety
management plan. Basic goals of fire safety shall be described, for example:
preventing an outbreak of the fire in buildings and infrastructure,
preventing serious injuries of people and animals if fire breaks out,
optimization of the alarm system for users of the building,
taking care of escape routes, so people will be able to evacuate by themselves
as soon as possible; taking in consideration people with disabilities,
limitation of spread of fire inside and outside of the building,
preventing the damage of the neighbor’s property,
limit the damage of the historic building,
limit the damage of artefacts or items of cultural significance,
minimize possibility of negative impact to the environment in case of a fire.
20
Fig. 3. In historic buildings, it is not always possible to arrange the escape routes
according to present standards of fire safety for new buildings. Fire brigade shall be
familiar with special features of the building
Fire risk assessment shall be made on the basis of information about the buildings
and infrastructure, defined level of fire safety, resources, etc. Risk assessment is an
on-going process with a goal to achieve and support a certain level of fire safety in a
historic building. Investment in risk assessment planning, made by professionals – a
team of fire protection consultants and restoration experts - and preparation of cost-
benefit analysis, can provide acceptable solutions and save money; especially in
larger, more complicated, more important buildings.
The risk assessment should be kept up to date. It should be reviewed on a regular
basis, not less than annually, before and after maintenance works, special events, etc.
21
Usually, trained in-house personnel can check if fire safety is on a required level and
ask for help of fire protection consultants, if needed.
Ways of approach to deal with fire safety and to achieve the defined goals shall be
defined in a fire risk management strategy. Actions, taken to achieve goals, shall
be based on fire risk assessment, monitored and evaluated. The Project Cycle
Management (PCM) method can be an effective way to manage fire safety of the
premises.
Fig. 4. Project cycle management
2.3 Management regular support
Management need to provide the resources, needed for the establishment,
implementation, maintenance and improvement of actions, defined in Fire safety
manual. For example, to ensure that there is enough staff appointed for certain duties,
that people are trained, so they are competent to do their job. Competence of each
Programming
Identification
Formulation
Implementation
Evaluation & Audit
22
person need to be defined. Arrangements for ensuring competences shall be
described in detail, for example:
general manager shall be coached by authority having jurisdiction and fire
brigade, at least every 3 years,
head of the maintenance/technical director shall receive mandatory training,
at least 3 weeks training course on fire safety management,
coordinator of evacuation shall receive 8-hour training at least every 2 years,
fire evacuation team members - fire warden and evacuation chair operator -
are required to attend at least one training per year, etc.
Fig. 5. Training of employees for the first response in a case of fire shall include
proper use of fire extinguishers
23
3. Fire safety management system elements
3.1 Documentation
Comprehensive documentation should be prepared to describe the building,
installed fire prevention appliances, the changes of use of the building with an eye
on fire protection, the organizational structure in place for fire prevention, and the
alterations that occur. It should be considered if any changes reduce the level of fire
protection in the building. Documentation should be compiled and maintained by in-
house personnel who are well versed in the operation and building details.
Fig. 6. Restoration works and other changes of the building and installations can
reduce the level of fire protection in the building, so fire safety measures shall be
prepared in written in advance, before the works start
3.1.1 Fire Safety Handbook
Information on all fire safety systems and components should be detailed in a Fire
Safety Handbook or similar document, according to national rules. This Fire Safety
Handbook should include floor plans with locations of fire extinguishers, hose reels,
24
hydrant points, gas shut-off valves, wiring diagrams, charts, specification sheets and
replacement parts lists. The Fire Safety Handbook should also incorporate the
operational, service and maintenance instructions for fire protection systems and
equipment, together with details of any modifications or upgrades undertaken on the
equipment. Safety procedures for special occasions when higher risk is expected
should also be written in the Fire Safety Handbook. Special occasions are special
events with fireworks, and/or additional electrical equipment, work where hot works
are performed, etc.
3.1.2 Fire safety logbook
A Fire Safety Logbook or similar document, according to national rules, should
be created and used to record information such as:
Fire training sessions undertaken or delivered, including the duration of the
event, the content and the names of those who attended.
Fire drills undertaken, including time, duration and the names of those who
participated. The record should include a “comments” column for noting any
particular problems or other observations. If a problem or difficulty has been
encountered, details of the remedy should also be provided.
Inspections or visits by service personnel of fire protection equipment,
insurance company visits, fire brigade or other persons should include brief details
of any observations made
Full details of all fire equipment inspections and fire systems maintenance,
including emergency lighting. It is suggested that this information is recorded in the
Fire Safety Logbook even when there are separate maintenance logs for equipment
such as fire detection or alarm systems.
25
Details of any fire incidents, false alarms or other matters of interest together
with the responses or remedial action taken.
3.1.3 Damage limitation plan
A Damage Limitation Plan should form the basis for all the work to be carried out
when fire starts and help from the fire brigade is needed. The Damage Limitation
Plan should set out in some detail the organization’s response to the emergency to
include such information as:
A brief description of the premises and the use.
A sketch plan showing access roads, drives, fire hydrants and other features
such as main gas valves and electrical switch rooms.
Identification of the items that can be removed in an emergency, together with
pre-identified safe locations to which the items will be taken.
Allocation of tasks to employees and others, together with home/mobile
phone numbers.
Duties of managers and supervisors.
Liaison with the fire and rescue service.
Names and addresses of resources such as contractors, conservation
specialists, etc.
26
Fig. 7. Firefighters should be invited to cooperate in preparation of damage
limitation plan
In developing a Damage Limitation Plan, a system of categorization should be
established to ensure that clear priorities exist for object removal. This should
identify:
First priority: items of international heritage value which are intimately
connected with the building or its previous occupants.
Second priority: items of national value or which are important to explain the
history of the building or its occupants. This should also include items that have a
high monetary value.
Third priority: items which would be difficult or expensive to replace and
which contribute to the history of the building.
Unclassified: items that will be left in place.
27
The Damage Limitation Plan should be developed and updated with the
cooperation of local fire service.
3.2 Reporting
Incidents, such as fires, burglary and other criminal acts, etc. shall be reported to
management and documented in Fire Safety Logbook (see 3.1.2). Authority having
jurisdiction shall be informed as well. Responsible persons shall investigate the
incident to prevent similar events in the future.
Fig. 8. Incidents shall be reported to authorities having jurisdiction and
investigated, so similar events do not happen in the future
3.3 Controlling and compliance auditing
Periodical controls shall take place at all levels of organization providing fire
safety measures. Appointed persons shall carry out regular fire inspections.
Checklists shall be prepared and used, specially made for each type of audit (daily,
weekly, monthly and annually checklists of self-inspection and fire system
maintenance). The number of appointed persons and content of checklists has to be
28
defined in the Fire Safety Handbook. See an example of a checklist for periodical
inspection [2] in table 1.
Escape Check that
Escape routes
Escape route is not obstructed.
Escape doors are not obstructed. Check also on the
outside that they are not obstructed by snow or
something else.
Signs for escape
The sign is in place.
Sign is easy to see from suitable points in the
building.
Luminous or illuminated signs are intact and the
light is on.
Where emergency power supply is installed, it is in
working order.
Compartment boundary Check that:
Wall at compartment
boundary
There are no holes, leaks, gaps etc. in the wall.
Openings in walls for e.g. pipes, cables, ventilation
ducts are sealed.
Fire resistant glazing,
windows
The glass is intact.
Windows are closed.
For all doors in and to
escape routes, regardless
of whether or not they
have a fire separating
function, the following
shall be checked
Function
Check that the door can be easily opened without a
key, code or card and that it opens at least 900 mm
Check that the escape route is not obstructed by
some object
Check that the force needed to open the door does
not exceed 130 N (ca 13 kg)
Maintenance
When the door is opened, make a visual inspection
of hinges, locks, door handle, frame, fixing of glass
(if any), any damage, rating label, function of door
handle, etc.
Door closer
Open the door ca 10 cm and release it. Check that
the door closes completely, and that
The spring bolt engages with the striking plate
Check for oil leaks
Check for damage to the alarm system that affects
door closer function
29
Check the fixing of door closer housing and of the
arms
NOTE that split/hold-open arms are not
recommended for doors at compartment
boundaries
Additional locks
When burglar proof locks are installed, check that
the lock is open during working times
Firefighting equipment Check that:
Portable extinguishers
Extinguishers are in their intended place
Pressure gauge indicator is in the green field
There are signs for the extinguishers and that they
can be seen
The extinguishers have had annual external checks
(there must be a sticker on the extinguisher which
shows date of last inspection)
The extinguishers are not obstructed and it is
readily accessible
Electrical installations Check that:
Fluorescent tubes
The tube is not blinking when the light is switched
on and it does not blink in normal operation
The tubes are not burned out and/or their ends are
not glowing red
Halogen lights and
incandescent lights
There is no combustible material such as curtains
near, or in contact with, lights
The fitting is stable and properly fixed
Fittings are not sited so that excessive heating is
caused
Electrical installations Cables are not damaged or pinched
Wall sockets or switches are not damaged
Combustible materials are not kept nearer than 1 m
from a fuse board
Electric heaters are not covered
There are no loose cables
Cables are free from harmful amounts of thermally
insulating dust
Gas installations Check:
Gas piping connections distance from combustible materials, fresh air
supply, fuel storage, etc.
heating device installation
Other items Check that
Kitchen and/or staff Naked lights are not left unguarded and
30
room
combustible candle holders are not used. Check
also their placing in relation to combustible
materials such as curtains, on the TV, etc
Percolators, hotplates etc. have timers
Near cookers there is no combustible material that
can fall down or cause a fire in some other way
The tops of cookers are not used as storage places
Fan filters are clean
Other potential causes of
accidents
Skid resistant surfaces on e.g. stairs or in other
places where these are needed are in a serviceable
state.
There is no smoking other than in authorised
places.
First aid Existing contents agree with list of contents.
Cleaning/order
Litter is regularly carried away.
Rubbish or empty packaging is not stored in large
quantities or in an unsuitable place indoors or too
near the facade of the building on the outside.
Pallets, containers and
storage of combustible
materials
Combustible materials, e.g. pallets, waste
containers etc. are not placed nearer then 6 m from
a facade with openings such as windows, doors or
air inlets, unless these are of fire resistant
construction.
Single combustible garbage containers if together
not more than 600 l are not placed nearer then 4 m
from a facade with openings such as windows,
doors or air inlets, unless these are of fire resistant
construction.
Arson Around the outside of buildings
Rubbish and empty packaging or other
combustible materials are not placed along the
facade or under a canopy.
Containers for combustible materials are not kept
nearer than 5 m from a building
Store rooms are locked.
There are no ladders or some other equipment that
can be used to get up on the roof.
Windows and doors are locked.
External lighting is not damaged.
Table 1. An example of a checklist for periodical inspection [2]
31
Basic types of checks are:
check of the specific activities at the opening of the premises at the beginning
of the working day,
check of the specific activities at the closing of the premises at the end of the
working day, week or before the holiday season or similar,
check of the specific activities at special occasions or events, etc.
check of the operating ability of the fire protection systems, such as fire alarm
system, sprinkler system, etc.
Authority having jurisdiction shall perform compliance audit at least once per
year, when special events are planned, new materials or technologies are introduced,
etc.
3.4 Improving the emergency response of employees and other users of the building
Management shall check and improve the emergency response of regular and
seasonal employees and cooperation with fire brigade and other emergency services,
if needed.
32
Fig. 9. On regular basis, emergency response of fire brigade shall be checked,
as well as access roads and areas and water supply for firefighters vehicles
around the building.
Training of staff shall be performed on regular basis, according to the plan and
their duties defined in Fire Safety Handbook. Residents of historic buildings shall be
involved in the training, too.
Drills of evacuation shall be performed, at least once per year, as well as after
change of the use, layout, organization structure, etc., when special events are
planned, new materials or technologies are introduced, etc.
33
Fig. 10. Escape routes can be improved to reach, or at least get closer to present
standards
Fig. 11. Appointed person (responsible person, which is familiar with the
building) shall be trained to communicate with firefighters, to provide information
for successful intervention
34
3.5 Closing of an audit
An audit shall be completed with a closing meeting. The scope shall be defined by
responsible persons and procedure of it defined in the Fire Safety Handbook.
Enforcement of corrective actions and modification of the plan shall be realized.
Proposed modifications shall be approved by authority having jurisdiction.
Fig. 12. Closing meeting shall be organized after each external audit. Closing
meeting can be very useful as a tool for defining corrective actions and
modification of the fire safety system of the premises
35
CHAPTER 3
FIRE PREVENTION MEASURES
1. Introduction
The proactive approach enables to achieve the best cost-effective solutions of
safety issues. In the field of fire safety, fire prevention with a tailor-made solution is
proven to be the most effective way to deal with issues in any building, especially in
a historic building.
Basic principles and fire prevention measures are described in this chapter.
Fig. 1. A Historic Building Fire at Safranbolu, October 08, 2018
36
2. Basic principles
When decision is made that something has to be done about fire safety, the owner
of the building or other organization or person, who is responsible for fire safety of
a building, has to start somewhere. Some basic knowledge about fire safety is needed
even with small, simple buildings. Comprehensive knowledge is required to deal
with fire safety of larger, complicated buildings, with high fire load, for places of
assembly, etc.
Fire prevention of historic buildings and sites should be based on the results of risk
assessment (see chapter 1). Knowledge and experiences are needed for simple and
effective solutions. Investment in risk assessment planning made by professionals –
a team of fire protection consultants and restoration experts - and preparation of cost-
benefit analysis can provide acceptable solutions and save money. Basic
requirements are written in laws and regulations (see chapter 9). Specific knowledge
about dealing with fire prevention measures in historic buildings can be found in
national and international standards, guidelines and other literature. Some of these
are listed at the end of this chapter.
On the basis of risk assessment, fire prevention measures shall be defined to
achieve a requested level of fire safety. Usually, there are more stages of the
implementation of fire safety measures. The implementation of organization actions
is usually easier and less time consuming to implement than other measures, like fire
compartmentation, installation of extinguishing system, etc. Step by step
implementation of measures is better than no action at all. In any case, the
documentation of fire prevention measures with the description of the building and
its installed fire protection systems and appliances should be prepared, the changes
of use of the building with an eye on fire protection, the organizational structure of
fire prevention, and the alterations that occur. Changes should not reduce the level
37
of fire protection of the building. Documentation should be compiled and maintained
by in-house personnel who are well versed in the operation and building details.
3. Fire prevention measures
Fire is a chemical phenomenon caused by the combination of matter and heat and
oxygen.
A fire needs three elements:
a. Oxygen
b. Heat
c. Fuel
Fig. 2. The fire prevention triangle
For the realization of the combustion; The fuel (solid, liquid, gas) must reach its
own ignition temperature in the oxygen environment. Therefore, these are three
factors must be taken into consideration for the measures to be taken against the fire.
38
When we examine the historical buildings structurally, we see that they are made
of mainly wood-based materials. The fact that the ignition temperature of the wood
is lower than that of the other materials causes the fire occurrence in these buildings
to be easier and to grow in a shorter time. This situation brings to a more specific
location of the fire precautions in the historic building. We also see how important
fire safety in historic buildings is when we take into account that the disappearance
of historic buildings and a date will disappear and that it cannot be compensated.
There are some basic fire prevention measures, which are relevant for most types
of historic buildings. Most common are described below; most important, evacuation
for example, are described in detail in a separate chapter of this manual.
Fig. 3. A Historic Building Fire at Safranbolu
3.1. Good housekeeping
Good housekeeping is not a typical fire prevention measure to start with, but it is
essential to maintain a certain level of fire safety in any building. Regular cleaning,
39
proper storage and disposal of litter, controlling electrical installations and
equipment, cleaning of filters in kitchen hoods, cutting the grass around the building,
keeping records of maintenance, etc. are everyday tasks which lower the fire risk.
Some of these are more elaborated in the texts below.
Basements and attics shall be kept clean and locked. Access to non-public areas
shall be limited and controlled.
Plenums, void and similar spaces shall not be used as storage area unless protected
with automatic detection or fire suppression systems.
3.2. Waste disposal control and control over storing packing material
Litter bins, waste containers, scattered garbage, packs of packing material, etc. are
ideal places for a fire to start. Waste disposal shall be controlled. Opened litter bins
shall not stand near fireplaces or in boiler rooms, for example. Garbage shall be taken
outside (to the waste containers) at the end of the working day. Safety distances
between waste containers and buildings shall be considered.
Special attention shall be paid to the increased volume of garbage at various
events, organized inside or outside the building.
Packing material shall not be stored on the public areas, under the stairs, on
evacuation corridors, etc.
40
Fig. 4. Safety Distances between Waste Containers and Buildings shall be
considered. Photo: Mateja Gris, SZPV
3.3. Smoking policy
Smoking shall be prohibited in the buildings and outside in the areas, where
smoking material can cause a fire.
Areas for smoking shall be arranged with suitable ashtrays. Regular disposal of
smoking material shall be organized.
Fig. 5. Areas for smoking shall be arranged with suitable ashtrays. Photo: Mateja
Gris, SZPV
41
3.4. Use of open flame, including hot works
Use of open flame (candles, making fire in fireplaces, fireworks, hot works
(welding, cutting of metal, heating with hot air, etc.)) in or near the building and shall
be prohibited unless conditions of the use of the open flame are well defined. Persons
dealing with open flame shall be trained, open flames should be monitored all the
time, fireplaces shall be protected by screens, open flames shall be extinguished at
the end of the working time.
Hot work shall be permitted only under defined circumstances: when hot work
permit is issued by qualified person, based on the risk assessment, performed by
workers who are familiar with fire safety issues, supervised by fire guards, etc.
Fig. 6. Hot work shall be permitted only under defined circumstances. Photo:
Gašper Golob, SZPV
3.5. Maintenance and inspection of chimneys
Chimneys in use shall be checked regularly. The ones which are not is use shall
be checked occasionally.
42
3.6. Electrical installations and appliances
Only technically adequate electrical installations and appliances shall be used.
Additional attention shall be paid to temporary wiring, heating and use of other
appliances which generates heat, sparks etc.
During special events, extra lighting or heating may be required, which is allowed
only when carefully planned and installed.
Fig.7. Electrical installations and appliances
3.7. Control over fire characteristics of decoration and claddings
In the initial stage of fire, spread of fire across the room depends mostly of fire
characteristics of furniture, decorations and claddings. In historic buildings, there
often are limited possibilities of replacing combustible building materials with
noncombustible ones or improving fire characteristics of materials with retardants or
similar. Therefore, it is important to keep ignition sources (searchlights, electric and
gas heaters, candles, etc.) away from combustible material. Permanent and other
decorations (during holidays and other special occasions or parties) shall also be
43
noncombustible or treated with fire retardants, so the fire characteristics meet the
requested level.
3.8. Control over spread of fire to adjacent rooms
Fire might spread to adjacent rooms through doors, ventilation system, ducts of
electrical cables, voids in the construction of the building, etc. Penetrations of
installations through fire resistance walls and ceilings and fire characteristics of these
elements shall be checked on regular basis. Unsuitable products shall be replaced
with products with better fire characteristics, if possible.
Fig. 8. Penetrations of installations through walls and ceilings can present a path
for a fire to spread. Photo: Mateja Gris, SZPV
Fire doors shall be kept closed when the building is occupied.
44
3.9. Control over installed fire protection systems
Installed passive and active fire protection systems shall be checked regularly to
be reliable in any time of a day, any weather conditions, etc. Materials, products and
systems used for the detection of a fire, limitation of spread of fire, providing time to
escape for people in the building, for water supply, etc., like fire doors, fire dampers,
fire penetrations, sprinklers, etc., shall be inspected on the regular basis.
Lightning protection shall be maintained in a good condition and inspected
regularly.
3.10. Evacuation of the people and animals
Evacuation of a building in a case of fire is the basic requirement of fire safety, so
special attention shall be taken about it (see chapter 6).
3.11. Training of employees
Employees shall be familiar with fire risks and prevention measures (first response
at initial fire and evacuation of visitors and other users which are not familiar with
the premises) and be able to cooperate with fire brigade in case of fire.
45
Fig. 9. Employees shall be trained to extinguish an initial fire. Photo: Gašper
Golob, SZPV
3.12. Protection from a fire from outside
Historic buildings located in woods, near markets, buildings with high fire load,
etc. may catch fire from outside. Precaution measures shall be taken to prevent fires
near the historic building, especially during Summer, special events, etc.
Fig.10. A historic building fire at Safranbolu
46
3.13. Access to buildings for firefighting vehicles and personnel
To enable efficient firefighting, vehicle access to the exterior of the building and
access into the building for firefighters is needed. Access requirements depend on
building size and height. Access areas shall be checked regularly in cooperation with
fire brigades.
Fig.11. A narrow street at Safranbolu old town
Fig. 12. Narrow access road to the castle courtyard in Český Krumlow, Chech
Republic. Photo: Mateja Gris, SZPV.
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At special events, temporary tent buildings are used. They shall not cause
limitations for the access of firefighters and their vehicles.
3.14. Salvage of artefacts
Salvage of items of historic value may require special design of the evacuation
routes or special equipment. A damage limitation plan should provide solutions to
prevent crowding of routes and congestion of the personnel and rescue teams if
evacuation of people and items of historic value is going on at the same time.
3.15. Expecting the unexpected
Statistically, one of the main causes of fires in historic buildings is arson. Not
much can be done to protect property against determined arsonist. Security alarm
systems and other measures can lower the risk of arson.
Provisions shall be made for the time during and after a fire. Disaster plan shall be
prepared, describing duties of employees, plan for removal of accumulated water
from/after firefighting operations, post-construction plan, etc.
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CHAPTER 4
FIRE BASICS
(BEHAVIOR, CLASSIFICATIONS, EXTINGUISHING AGENTS)
1.Introduction
The aim of this chapter is a basically understanding of how one “normal” fire at a
room developed, as well there be focusing on special phenomena, there in connection
with a fire at a room can arise and challenges or risks to the rescue team, is essential
for a safe and effective effort in connection with fire at buildings. This chapter is
inspired by the Danish book: “Brandforløb”. The chapter is building that way trying
to create structure as well as models which prove how a fire at a room can develop.
It is important to emphasize, that a fire in a room as a starting point, an event is out
of control, and therefore there is many difference factors which can affect a fire’s
development. Whit order words it means when a fire process evaluated, there is
rarely anything that is “black or white”. It is almost like a rule that there are several
different development opportunities, and phenomenal that may occur. Some of these
are not described in detail in this chapter.
1.1. Aim
The aim of this chapter is to get a deeply understanding and knowledge about what
is a fire and how can fire develop. In this chapter there be focusing on fire from
theories perspective.
2. Fire basics
A basic understanding of combustion theory as well as fire and flame spread
creates the foundation for understanding and evaluating of how a fire in a room
development. The flame spread is, for example, crucial for how a fire in a room
49
develops in relation to speed, intensity and direction. Combustion Theory is a
comprehensive theme that includes several physical and chemical one’s processes
that may be useful to have knowledge about. In this book there will only be focused
on the actual flame combustion process, as it is primarily the one there forms the
basis for understanding the development of a fire in a room.
2.1. Fire theory
A fire is a chemical reaction, also called a combustion process. Overall there may
be two different types of fires (combustion processes) – one flame fire or a glow fire.
Fig. 1. Photo from: "Brandforløb". illustrate a flame fire (the light) and glow fire
(cigarette)
When talking about fire at buildings (fire in rooms), it is typically a flame fire you
want to observe. Glow fires are also common in connection with fires in a room but
will rarely have an impact on the fire process, since the power development from
this type of fires is relatively limited. The flame combustion processes are crucial for
the development of a fire process, therefore then knowledge of this type of process
is a prerequisite for understanding of a fire in a room’s development and influence
on the environment.
50
Fig. 2. A combustion is a chemical process that develops heat. Basic it is about
the fuel reacting with the oxygen, thereby forming water carbon dioxide and
various residues. Photo “fire process” p. 9
There are different types of flames. By looking more closely at the types of flames.
In a given situation, you will be able to assess which one type of the fire process that
may be involved. One will for example get an indication of which type of combustion
is involved, including combustion rate and pressure accumulation. These two
parameters relate to assessing how fast the fire can spread and how violent it can be.
Fig.3. The picture shows different types of flames. The different colours of the
flames tell a lot about eg. combustion, temperature etc. To the left is a typical
diffusion flame and to the right a typical premix flame (Photo: Emergency
Management Agency Technical School)
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There are basically two different types of flames: diffusion flames and premixed
flames. These two flame types have significantly different properties. for example,
combustion rate and temperature. The basics The difference between the diffusion
flames and the premixed flames lies in it way the fuel and air meet each other and
react chemical.
2.1.1. The fire triangle
Too understand a fire, there are some rules for a fire actually can found place to
get the chemical reaction which can produce a fire.
- Oxygen, too produce a fire, oxygen are necessary, you can remove oxygen to
a fire by putting a lid on the pan. In larger scale for an example a fire in a room, close
windows and doors.
- Fuel. To produce a fire there most be something which can burn. The Most
things can actually burn but have very different ignition temperatures, for an example
wood have a low ignition temperature so if you turn a lighter and a small peace it
will starts to burn immediately, on the other hand, if you do the same for iron, it will
take longer because iron has a higher ignition temperature than wood.
- Heat. there must be sufficient heat before a fire can break out, what the
ignition temperature is the fuel it depends on again.
Fig.4. the fire triangle with the three factors to create a fire Photo: Firefighting
101 with FireRescue1.com Staff
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2.1.2. Combustible materials
Flammable substances occur in 3 modes:
Fixed substances Liquids Gases
For example:
Wood
Textiles
Paper
For example:
Oil products
alcohols
ether acetone
For example:
Methane / natural gas
LPG acetylene Gases from solids
Vapors from liquids
Solids burn with flames and embers, but there are some exceptions e.g.: fats,
stearin, plastics, rubber and pure plastics. These solids must change state in order to
ignite, which means they must.
Chapter Fire cycle transition from solid to liquid before a fire is possible. This is
due to, that the melting point is lower than the ignition temperature.
3. Fire behaviour
A fire in a room and fire processes are two very central concepts throughout the
subject booklet. The definition of a fire in room is:
The basic difference between a fire in a room and a detached fire, is they
surrounding structures and their influence on the development of the fire. There need
not necessarily be a completely closed room, but just one construction that makes it
possible to hold the flue gases. Skunk room suspended ceilings, etc. is also to be
considered room in this sense. The surrounding structures will cause pressure
“A fire that develops in a room with surrounding Structures ".
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differences to occur in the room and one will be formed hot flue gas, which causes
additional heat radiation to the fire. It is precisely these "external" factors that cause
a space fire to develop differently than a detached fire. See example figure 5.
Fig.5. to left are a detached fire, and to the right a fire in a room is illustrated.
Photo: “Fire process”. p. 26
The definition of a fire process is:
3.1. The fire process at a fire in a room
To understand the fire process, will this chapter give you some knowledge about
the different phases that a fire in a room can develop.
3.1.1. The early fire process
The early fire process is the term for the first phase of the fire process for a fire in
a room (see Figure 6).
The definition of "The early fire process is:
The development of fire in a room over time, as well as the various
phases and phenomena that may occur within this period”.
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To have knowledge about the development of a fire in rooms in this phase is
crucial for being able to assess and implement an effective extinguishing tactic. For
example, an assessment of whether the fire is the fuel or ventilation control, and
knowledge of which factors that influence the spread of smoke, be instrumental in
choosing one appropriate extinguishing tactics. The early fire cycle usually causes
no one special hazards in relation to the rescue crew, however it is during this phase
that some of the very basic elements of space fire development seriously affects the
continued development of the fire.
The factors include:
Fire effect development, including fuel or ventilation-controlled fire
Smoke fan and flue gas layer
Heat radiation
Pressure conditions in the fire room and smoke distribution
Ignition of the flue gases
The time period from the start of the fire to fire in a room enters the
flashover phase.
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Fig.6.The early fire process is market with red to the left. To the right are some
factors illustrated which may become influence in the following fire process. Photo
“Fire process”. p. 33
3.1.2. Initial fire
A fire in a room, and thus also the early fire process, starts with a so-called initial
fire.
Fig. 7. to the left the initial fire shows in red. To the right some examples of an
initial fire. Photo "Fire process" p.27
3.1.3. Example of a fire process in a room
It is evening, and a candle is forgotten in a window sill in a quite ordinary living
room with a sofa, a TV, a couple of chairs, a coffee table, carpets on the floor and
pictures on the walls. The window is open, and a sudden gust of wind topples over
the candle on the sofa. The fire spreads rapidly to the upholstery. This is a so-called
initial fire, which is the start of the space fire. See figure 8.
The initial fire is the term for the fire "that starts itself fire event.
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Fig. 8. To left shows the candle on the sofa and start an initial fire. To the right
the initial fire is marked in red in the fire process. Photo " Fire process". p.28
As there is plenty of material (fuel) on the sofa, the fire increases in size.From the
fire on the sofa, there is now a tab of hot gases and particles, too called flue gases,
up against the ceiling. This is the start of the first phase of the fire process called the
early fire. The flue gases consist of air and other various substances and gases that
are residues from the combustion process, ex. carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, as
well various hydrocarbons and soot particles.
The smoke fan rises upwards and hits the ceiling, whereby the smoke "bends" out
towards the sides. At some point, the smoke enters the surrounding walls where it
stays "Braked" and begins to form a flue gas under the ceiling. The flue gas layer is
almost invisible at first, but as more smoke, and thus also several soot particles, rising
in the flue gas layer, become darker.
This process goes relatively fast and is usually over within approx. 1-2 minutes
among other things depending on what is burning, where it burns, the location of the
material as well room dimensions. See figure 9 for an illustration.
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Fig. 9. To the right an illustration about how the smoke is rising up to the ceiling
and starting to bend out to the side. To the right the next step on the fire process
"Early fire process" is marked in red. Photo “Fire process”. p. 29
If there is enough oxygen (air) in the room, the initial fire will increase further,
and the flue gas layer will be lowered towards the floor. The heat in the flue gas layer
causes everyone objects in the room such as furniture, clothing, etc., are heated by
the radiant heat.
When the surface temperature of these objects approaches 100-300 °C, starts
pyrolysis normally, which means that all heated materials in the room now emits
flammable gases.
The next phase of the fire process is the flashover phase. The ignition phase marks
the transition from the early fire to the fully developed fire in a room, where
everything combustible in the room burns. The ignition phase can last anywhere
from a few seconds and up to approx. 1 minute.
Fig. 10. The flashover phase defines the transition from the early fire process to
the fully developed fire in a room. The phase occurs when the radiant heat from the
fire and the flue gas layer becomes sufficiently large enough to the room ignites.
Photo “Fire Process” p. 30
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The extent of the fire as well as the temperature and pressure in the fire room and
will increase quickly. The flue gas layer will be rapidly lowered towards the floor.
Most often there will also be an ignition of the flue gases at this stage.
For any Fireman who is working in the room can experience the flashover phase
as quite dramatic, but with proper protection and extinguishing techniques, including
option to withdraw or withdraw, the phase can be handled. For people who don't
have the same protection, for example the injured person, is the flashover phase a
very critical phase, where the probability of survival is small.
Fact Box: The flashover
The flashover phase is followed by the fully developed fire in a room. The phase
can last anywhere from a few minutes to several hours. The time depends primarily
on how much combustible material (fuel) is in the room and about there is enough
with oxygen in the room. Furthermore, the time will depend on whether the fire
spreads to other rooms or buildings.
Figure 11: The fully developed space fire where all flammable material burns.
Photo "Fire process" p. 31
The flashover is a stage in the fire process that represent the transition
from the early fire to the fully developed fire in a room.
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The fully developed fire in a room is followed by the cooling phase. The cooling
phase is characterized by the fact that most of the combustible material is being burnt
away, and both power generation and temperature fall. The cooling phase can take a
few hours, but also for many hours and sometimes even days depending on the size
of the fire. In the above, it is described what is termed the "normal" fire process for
a fire in a room. However, the fire process can also develop in other ways. For
example, scenarios may occur where only openings in the space are limited, which
causes the fire to decrease in intensity due to lack of oxygen before it enters the
flashover phase. This development of the fire cycle is called one room fire with
limited ventilation or an under-ventilated fire.
3.2. How to minimize fire development?
When the initial fire is discovered, a quick reaction, with handheld extinguishing
agents, can stop or minimize the fire and damage. The next thing to do, is to close
windows and doors, as evacuating the area.
4.Classifications & extinguishing agents
4.1. Overview of fire classes
In Denmark, we follow the Danish and European standard DS / EN3, which
includes: indicates performance requirements and test methods for fire extinguishers.
It describes 6 categories that fires are divided into as shown in the box below. It is
for most of Europe the same standards we are setting the standards after.
Fire class E is not really an independent fire class, but we still count on it for two
reasons:
A very large proportion of fires are caused by electricity.
Electric fires require an extinguishing agent that is not electrically conductive.
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Fire class A
Fire class A - Flammable solids
Wood paper, cardboard, textiles, some plastic materials and all glowing materials.
Fire class B
Fire class B - Flammable liquids
Petrol, oil, alcohol, fiberglass, paint and the like
Fire class C
Fire class C - Flammable gases
Propane, butane, acetylene, natural gas and the like
Fire class D
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Fire class D - Flammable metals
Magnesium, sodium, aluminum powder, iron sulphide, titanium and the like.
Fire class E
Fire class E - Electric fires
Fire in electrical equipment (electrical installations, equipment etc.)
Fire class F
Class F - Furniture
Cooking oil, fat and fryer
4.2. Handheld extinguishing agents
4.2.1. Overview of fire-fighting extinguishing types
Powder extinguishers (A, B, C, D, E)
Powder extinguishers are the fire extinguisher that can extinguish most fire classes
and are also the easiest to use for an untrained user. It is extremely efficient and
switches off, for example. 5 times as efficient as the water extinguisher. Please note
that not all powder extinguishers are suitable for extinguishing class D.
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Water extinguisher (A)
Water extinguishers contain plain water but are 10 times as effective as a bucket
of water because you can direct the water more efficiently and accurately.
Foam extinguisher (A, B)
Foam extinguishers are suitable for extinguishing fires in flammable liquids and
solid materials such as wood, cardboard and paper. However, be aware that not all
foam extinguishers are equally environmentally friendly, so inquire with your
supplier if you are in doubt.
Water mist extinguisher (A, E)
The water mist extinguisher contains distilled water, which is atomized in a fine
water mist. It is made to gently extinguish fires in electrical equipment and solid
materials. It makes it ideal to have in office environments.
Freezer extinguishers (A, E, F)
Grease, oil and fryer hold much better on heat than other materials and liquids.
Therefore, frying is also much more difficult to extinguish. They ignite if you do not
use the right extinguishing agent. The only effective way to extinguish frying is to
stop the supply of oxygen for a long time. This is exactly what a fryer can do. The
extinguishing agent is an alkaline liquid that reacts with the liquid and effectively
seals and cools the fat.
Carbon dioxide extinguisher (B, C, E)
Oxygen extinguishers extinguish fires by absorbing oxygen around a fire. It is well
suited for petrol stations and charging stations but should never be the only
extinguishing agent present. Oxygen extinguishers cannot extinguish fires in solid
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materials (fire class A). On the contrary, they risk spreading the fire further, and are
therefore not suitable for ordinary office environments.
Water and Foam
Water and Foam fire extinguishers extinguish the fire by taking away the heat
element of the fire triangle. Foam agents also separate the oxygen element from the
other elements.
Water extinguishers are for Class A fires only - they should not be used on Class
B or C fires. The discharge stream could spread the flammable liquid in a Class B
fire or could create a shock hazard on a Class C fire.
Carbon Dioxide
Carbon Dioxide fire extinguishers extinguish fire by taking away the oxygen
element of the fire triangle and also be removing the heat with a very cold discharge.
Carbon dioxide can be used on Class B & C fires. They are usually ineffective on
Class A fires.
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Dry Chemical
Dry Chemical fire extinguishers extinguish the fire primarily by interrupting the
chemical reaction of the fire triangle.
Today's most widely used type of fire extinguisher is the multipurpose dry
chemical that is effective on Class A, B, and C fires. This agent also works by
creating a barrier between the oxygen element and the fuel element on Class A fires.
Ordinary dry chemical is for Class B & C fires only. It is important to use the
correct extinguisher for the type of fuel! Using the incorrect agent can allow the fire
to re-ignite after apparently being extinguished successfully.
Wet Chemical
Wet Chemical is a new agent that extinguishes the fire by removing the heat of
the fire triangle and prevents re-ignition by creating a barrier between the oxygen
and fuel elements.
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Wet chemical of Class K extinguishers were developed for modern, high
efficiency deep fat fryers in commercial cooking operations. Some may also be used
on Class A fires in commercial kitchens.
Clean Agent
Halogenated or Clean Agent extinguishers include the halon agents as well as the
newer and less ozone depleting halocarbon agents. They extinguish the fire by
interrupting the chemical reaction and/or removing heat from the fire triangle.
Clean agent extinguishers are effective on Class A, B and C fires. Smaller sized
handheld extinguishers are not large enough to obtain a 1A rating and may carry
only a Class B and C rating.
Dry Powder
Dry Powder extinguishers are similar to dry chemical except that they extinguish
the fire by separating the fuel from the oxygen element or by removing the heat
element of the fire triangle.
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However, dry powder extinguishers are for Class D or combustible metal fires,
only. They are ineffective on all other classes of fires.
Water Mist
Water Mist extinguishers are a recent development that extinguish the fire by
taking away the heat element of the fire triangle. They are an alternative to the clean
agent extinguishers where contamination is a concern.
Water mist extinguishers are primarily for Class A fires, although they are safe for
use on Class C fires as well.
Cartridge Operated Dry Chemical Cartridge Operated Dry Chemical fire
extinguishers extinguish the fire primarily by interrupting the chemical reaction of
the fire triangle.
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Like the stored pressure dry chemical extinguishers, the multipurpose dry
chemical is effective on Class A, B, and C fires. This agent also works by creating a
barrier between the oxygen element and the fuel element on Class A fires.
Ordinary dry chemical is for Class B & C fires only. It is important to use the
correct extinguisher for the type of fuel! Using the incorrect agent can allow the fire
to re-ignite after apparently being extinguished successfully.
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CHAPTER 5
FIRE SUPPRESSION ACTIVITIES AND FIRE DETECTION/WARNING
SYSTEMS IN HISTORIC BUILDINGS
1. Introduction
Special efforts are being made to protect cultural heritage against fire or other
disasters around the world. Experience shows that the following elements increase
the risk of fire in historical buildings:
There are different sources of ignition in these buildings (open flame, electricity,
lighting etc.)
New sources of ignition are added during restoration works.
Fire warning and protection systems are neither existing at all nor operational.
The building content and the structural elements consist of combustible materials
and there are usually no barriers to prevent the spread of the fire in the whole
building.
Automatic fire detection and extinguishing systems are not available.
Delays in the notification of the fire to fire department.
The awareness and training on fire safety are generally insufficient [1].
Safranbolu is a historic city that has been included in the UNESCO World
Heritage Site and is at risk of fire. Safranbolu, situated on the road that connects the
Black Sea coast to the West, North and Central Anatolia due to its location, has
gained importance as the center of trade between Asia and Europe in the 18th
century. Today in Safranbolu, there are about 2000 traditional Safranbolu houses
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that reflect the history, culture, economy, technology and lifestyle of 18th and 19th
centuries Turkish social life, and about 800 of them are under lawful protection.
Traditional Safranbolu Houses have stone, soil, mudbrick and wooden materials
both in the building system and as building materials. Stone is used at the foundation
and ground floor with built-up wood as a filler and reinforcing material. Wood is
used as a structural material for the buildings and roofs and as building components
for coatings. Fir, beech, pine and oak trees grow mainly in Safranbolu region. As
load-bearing elements fir and pine trees are usually used for construction (Fig.1.) [2].
Fig.1. Sarıaltınlar mansion (Courtesy of civil engineer M. Baki Duvan)
2. Fires and suppression activities in historic buildings
Historic Safranbolu mansions are mainly made of wood materials. Compared to
other building materials, wood has some superior properties in terms of sustaining
its durability under fire conditions. Although natural wood is a combustible material,
it shows excellent resistance properties especially in the first stages of fire. Steel,
since its high thermal conductivity, suddenly collapses when exposed to heat. The
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concrete that wraps the metal component is cracked and broken due to the difference
in tension. The thermal expansion coefficient and thermal conductivity of wood
materials are very low. Natural wood material, when used in construction with
sufficient thickness, shows resistance against high temperatures and combustion and
gives enough time for extinguishing and rescue activities (Fig. 2) [3].
Fig. 2. Kalealtı primary school (Courtesy of civil engineer M. Baki Duvan)
Comparison of the performance of building materials under load and fire
conditions is given in Table 1 below [4].
Table. 1. Comparison of building materials’ performance under heavy load and
fire conditions [4]
Material Compression Tension Shear Fire
Exposure
Brick Good Poor Poor Fractures,
spalls,
crumbles.
Concrete Good Poor Poor Spalls
Reinforced
Concrete
Good Fair Fair Spalls
Stone Good Poor Fair Fractures,
spalls,
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Wood Good
w/grain, poor
across grain
Marginal Poor Burns, loss
of material,
Structural
Steel
Good Good Good Softens,
bends, loses
strength,
Cast Iron Good Poor Poor Fractures
However, especially in the historical wooden structures that are not well
maintained and renovated, the wood material may lose its endurance and start to rot.
High temperatures in fires in such structures can make the timber load bearing
structural elements less functional. In addition, the water applied to extinguish the
fire also creates an extra load on the building components. The collapses in the fires
in Safranbolu are related to this mechanism and the length of time between the start
of fire and suppression activities.
The roofs in historical buildings are the places where fires progress and expand
really fast. Since there is a wide open space in the attic, the fire in this area extends
fast and cause collapse and find ways downward. Roof fires are difficult to intervene.
The excessive water applied into the attic area causes great damage at lower floors.
Another reason of fire spread in historic buildings is the lath and plaster walls and
voids in the walls. Fire that penetrates into the walls in historical buildings find ways
to advance to unexpected points. If electrical wiring and installation do not comply
with related regulations, it wouldn’t compensate the electrical load which today’s
communication, heating, lighting and information technology devices require. Such
inadequacies may result fires. The historic Galatasaray University/Istanbul fire in
2013 is a good example to show the effects of roofs, voids in walls, water load,
electrical non-compliance and deficiency as the fire cause and fire extension (Fig. 3)
[5].
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Fig. 3. Galatasaray university fire [5]
In Safranbolu, historical houses were built as 2 or 3 story single houses. While
some of them are being used for commercial purposes such as hotels and restaurants
after restoration, most of the historical buildings are used as residentially. There are
historical houses lawful protection which are subject to private ownership but cannot
be renovated and maintained due to personal resource deficiencies. There are also
vacant historical buildings which haven’t been maintained at all due to owners’
inadequate financial resources. In Safranbolu, fires were recorded in vacant houses
as a result of illegal use of abandoned buildings.
Fires in wooden single houses in Safranbolu can progress rapidly between the
floors. The main reason of vertical fire extension is unprotected stairways connecting
the floors. The stairwell work like a chimney in fires causing rapid vertical fire
advancement. In this scenario, the life of the residents trapped over the fire are
threatened in a short period of time (Fig. 4).
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Fig. 4. Erbil house, typical stairwells in historic Safranbolu houses (courtesy of
architect Yavuz Erbil, photographed by Nisa Yılmaz)
Compared to the past, today houses have higher fire loads because of the materials
of houseware and furnitures. The flashover point is usually reached in a shorter time
and higher and faster rates of heat release and accumulation occurs. This increases
the severity and fatality of fires [6].
In fire suppression continuous water supply need may become a challenging issue
in a historical area because of inadequate substructure of water supply network.
Delay in intervening the fire affects the size of the fire and the extent of fire damages.
Typically, in a single house fire, two initial attack lines with 600 liters / minute
capacity are required. If surrounding buildings are in close proximity extra lines with
at least same capacity are needed to prevent extension. In Safranbolu, historical
houses were generally built close to each other. Hydrants are the ideal sources for
water supply. In lack of hydrants, the next option may be tanker operations. In
Safranbolu, narrow streets and heavy traffic loads are among the factors that
complicates the operation of fire suppression vehicles and tankers.
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As a result of fires that starts in the attic or fires that starts at lower floors and
reach into the attic, the building components that carry the roof are weakened and
the roof usually collapses. The collapse impacts the stability of the building under
fire and increase the risks for firefighters for aggressive suppression activities by
going into the buildings. Therefore, early intervention in fires in wooden buildings
is important in terms of protecting the lives of both civilians and firefighters (Fig. 5)
[7].
Fig. 5. Erbil house, attics in Safranbolu houses (Courtesy of architect Yavuz
Erbil, photographed by Nisa Yılmaz)
A total of 102 fire incidents occurred in Safranbolu between 2013-2017. Fire cause
for 46 fire incidents wasn’t identified, 26 of them were originated from negligence,
13 were caused by electrical malfunctions, 7 cases were related with chimneys and
8 were caused by wrong stove use (Table. 2) [8].
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Table. 2. Safranbolu municipality fire statistics (2013-2017)
Year Fire Cause Total
Electricity Chimney Stove Negligence Collapse Unknown Smoking
2013 3 3 1 6 0 11 0 24
2014 2 1 2 8 0 10 1 24
2015 4 0 4 3 0 9 0 20
2016 1 2 1 6 0 8 0 18
2017 3 1 0 3 1 8 0 16
Total 13 7 8 26 1 46 1 102
Chimney fires can extend into the structure and the attic if not noticed or
extinguished at the early stages. In older buildings, cracks in the chimneys facilitate
the passage of chimney fires to the structure. Chimneys must have sufficient fire
resistance in order not to spread the fires to the building. The detailed rules to be
complied with about chimneys are included in the ‘Regulation on the Protection of
Buildings against Fire’ in Turkey. Generally dry chemical powder is used for
quenching chimney fires. In large chimney fires, it may be necessary to use water
and foam. In order to prevent chimney fires, chimneys should be maintained
according to the standards, chimney walls have to be fire resistant and thermally
insulated, the fuel used has to be compliant with the heating device and chimney
service and maintenance has to be done periodically by qualified personnel [9].
Faults in electrical wiring and improper use of electrical devices are among the
main fire causes in historic buildings. Many historic buildings in Safranbolu are now
used for commercial purposes such as hotels, restaurants, shops, educational
institutions, coffeehouses and entertainment centers. Electrical wiring and
installations need to be renewed and maintained in accordance with the electrical
load those activities require. “Regulation on the Protection of Buildings against
Fire”, orders that in all types of buildings, electrical installation, protective devices,
short circuit calculations, insulation materials, connection and fixing elements,
extension cables, electrical installation projects and heavy current installation must
be compliant with laws and regulations such as “Regulation on Indoor Electrical
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Installations”, “Regulation on Grounding at Electrical Installations”, Regulation on
Electrical Heavy Load ınstallation”. Compliance with the laws and regulations has
to be strictly supervised by competent authorities [10].
Passive fire safety measures in buildings aim to prevent fires or delay the fire
advancement. Some passive measures are low cost and ideal for ”fire protection in
historical buildings”. For example, periodic control and maintenance of electrical
equipment and installation enhances fire prevention capability at very low cost. The
quality of the wood material used in restoration works is also important in terms of
fire risk. The tests show that while the fire resistance of oak is very high, it is lower
for soft and loose textured trees. It is useful to evaluate the materials to be used in
the buildings for restoration in terms of fire safety. The use of fire retardant
chemicals in historic buildings may also be recommended. However, while fire
retardants use in ceilings, floors, walls, facades, railings, handrails and furniture. It
is stated that fire retardants have limited effect on load bearing wooden structural
elements [11].
As active fire safety measures, automatic fire extinguishing systems are designed
by considering the building type, use and residents. In automatic systems, water
(foam), wet chemical, dry chemical, carbon dioxide, halon and clean agents are used
as extinguishing agents. In historical buildings most appropriate agent should be
chosen by evaluating the historical assets to be protected.
Water-Based automatic fire sprinkler system can be used in specific areas in
historical buildings used as residentials. The reasons fire sprinklers are so effective
are:
The system is always ready to operate without human interaction.
The system applies water to a fire well before the fire brigade arrives.
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It prevents the spread of fire and resignation.
Water damage is much less than a firefighter’s hose stream.
In addition to the intervention of fire, these systems can also activate alarm
systems and notify responders.
The disadvantage of using water-based fire sprinkler system in historic buildings
is the risk of water damaging historical assets. Thus use of water mist in the water-
based automatic systems can minimize water damage and extinguish the fires in
historic buildings more effectively.
Studies show that a 6 liter portable water mist extinguisher provide effective
quenching in A and B class fires and its effect can be increased with some additives.
Therefore, portable water mist extinguishing devices may be considered safe to use
in historic buildings with minimal water damage [12].
As a specialized water –based fire protecting system, water mist system use very
small water droplets out of specialized nozzles where 99% of discharged water mist
droplets are 1000 microns or less in diameter size. Water mist extinguishes fire by
cooling, removing oxygen and blocking radiant heat. The sum of surface areas of
very small water droplets provide a greater surface area for effective cooling. Easily
vaporized water particles expand and effectively remove oxygen. Finally, very small
water particles provide a barrier between the fire and the surrounding materials.
Water mist systems are effectively used to protect historical buildings, museums as
well as computer rooms, communication facilities, laboratories, data centers,
tunnels, underground public transportation systems, industrial facilities, archives,
aircraft hangars and cargo areas.
Water mist systems are classified into three categories based on the maximum
working pressure of the system. Low pressure systems have a working pressure of
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less than 12 bar, where medium pressure systems exert 12-34 bar working pressure
on system distribution piping. High pressure systems have an operating pressure
between 34-68 bar. Since this system works with high pressures, the materials used
in the system must be suitable and approved materials. The NFPA 750 standard is
an international standard with rules for the installation of automatic extinguishing
systems using water mist [13].
Water mist systems are also subject to a classification as single-fluid and twin-
fluid systems. In single fluid systems only water is supplied to the nozzles. In twin-
fluid systems, the nozzles are fed by two pipes carrying water and compressed gas,
air or nitrogen. . One of the pipes is supplied with water and the second with
compressed air or nitrogen. The function of air or nitrogen is to further reduce water
droplets size. The benefits of water mist extinguishing systems are listed below (Fig.
6) [14]:
In water mist systems approximately 90% less water is used compared to water-
based fire sprinkler systems, thus water damage is significantly low.
Water mist systems are highly efficient in Class A and B fires.
No direct harm to human health.
It can reduce oxygen in the environment from 21% to 17% in 5 minutes.
The fire area is not necessarily be completely closed.
It has 3-dimensional extinguishing effect.
It can reduce the ambient temperature from 900 C to 50 C in 1 minute.
Use of pure water can eliminate conductivity problems.
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It protects the objects surrounding the seat of fire from radiant heat
effectively.
Fig. 6. Water mist systems, Eksel fire and safety systems Inc [14]
The use of carbon dioxide, halon or clean agents in the fire protection of
unoccupied historic buildings can be preferred. If the buildings are occupied, it is
preferred to use clean agents in fire extinguishing systems.
Clean agents, also called halocarbons, have been developed to replace Halon 1301
extinguishing agent due to environmental concerns. The superior aspects of clean
agents compared to Halon 1301 are environmentally harmless and have no toxic
effects. Clean agents are environmentally safe, harmless to humans, non-conductive
and leave no residue upon evaporation. They are effective in solid, liquid, gas and
electric fires. It is effectively used in historical buildings, libraries and museums,
computer rooms, communication facilities, electronic equipment protection, marine
and aviation sectors. Although it does not pose a threat to human health at low level
exposure, it is stated that it may cause health problems in high concentrations and
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long-term exposures. Clean agents are divided into two categories as halocarbon and
inert gas based agents. Halocarbon-based ones put out the fire by interrupting the
uninhibited chain reaction and removing heat from the reaction zone of the flame.
Clean agents based on inert gas remove oxygen from the protected area. FM200 is
the most widely used halocarbon based clean agent, and Inergen is the most widely
used inert gas-based clean agent [13], Fig. 7 [15].
Fig. 7. FM200 gaseous agent extinguishing systems, Eksel Fire and safety
systems [15]
In addition to the extinguishing and rescue activities at fires in historical buildings,
extra tasks such as the recovering artifacts also arise. Firefighting activities become
more challenging in historical area such as Safranbolu due to restrictions in zoning
by conservation laws, rough terrain, close building layout and narrow streets which
complicate operating large fire trucks. Close building layout leads to the spread of
the fire to the adjacent buildings in a short period of time. In the absence of qualified
fire water infrastructure to provide continuous water supply, there isn’t much option
other than tanker operations which is very difficult to fulfill in narrow streets (Fig.
8-9).
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Fig. 8. Erbil house, rough terrain in Safranbolu (courtesy of architect Yavuz
Erbil, photographed by Nisa Yılmaz)
Fig 9. Arasta, narrow streets/close building layout in Safranbolu, (courtesy of
civil engineer M. Baki Duvan)
Class A foam use makes extinguishing activities much more effective. The use of
foam reduces the surface tension of water and increases its penetration and
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effectiveness. The insulation effect of the Class A foam increases when used in
CAFS (Compressed Air Foam Systems). The use of small amounts of foam has no
negative impact on the environment. However, running into water system of large
amounts of foam should be prevented. Mixing rates of Class A foam concentrate in
building fires ranged from 0.2% to 1%. In the case of historic building fires, the use
of foam may be considered especially for the protection of adjacent buildings and
also for extinguishing the burning building more effectively (Fig. 10), [16]
Compressed Air Foam Systems (CAFS) are called high energy foam production
systems. In these systems, compressed air is injected into the foam solution at the
exit point. It produces turbulent foam produced by compressed air. The use of CAFS
has made foam suppression possible from further distances to the fire. It is especially
used for the protection of the buildings in the fire area in forest fires. It is considered
that it can be used in the protection of adjacent areas in historical buildings where
close building layout exists and in direct attack for effective extinguishing. However,
the CAFS have a higher cost for fire departments [17].
Fig. 10. Class A Foam Application [16]
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There are national and international regulations and standards about fire safety
measures and restoration works in historical buildings. In Turkey the buildings
assessed and registered as historic building are lawfully protected under the
provisions of “Code 2863 Protection of Cultural and Natural Heritage Law”. Also
Article 167/B of “The Regulation about Protection of Buildings from Fire” is related
to fire safety measures in historical buildings. According to Article 167/B;
a. Prior to any installation or restoration in historic buildings, the opinion and
approval of the “Council for the Protection of Cultural and Natural Property” should
be assured.
b. The protection of the historical value is number one priority in all type of
intervention about fire safety. Fire evacuation, detection and suppression system
projects by technical firms have to be prepared considering original physical and
visual characteristics of the historic structure and the opinions of local fire
departments should be seeked.
Section 10 provisions of above mentioned Regulation apply to all fire safety
measures in historic buildings unless otherwise provided in Article 167 / C of the
same regulation. According to Article 167/C;
1. The upper floors of a historic building of which the supporting columns and the
main beams are made of wood, cannot be used as inpatient health service, nursing
home, kindergarten, primary school and student residence.
2. In renovations or repairs within the historical structure, the same or similar
construction materials used in the construction of the original historic structure have
to be used.
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3. In historical buildings of which load bearing columns are made of wood, have
more than one floor, and open to the public, the main load bearing columns must be
must be insulated by restoration as they can resist to fire for at least 90 minutes.
4. In historic buildings fire escape halls are not obligatory provided that the fire
escape stairs are accessible through common spaces such as corridors, halls, and
lounges.
5. If the half of the stairs are enclosed and protected, regardless of the building
height, other unprotected exit stairs can be accepted as fire escape route, the escape
routes are considered as two-direction escape route and spiral stairs are permissible.
6. If the number of users on one floor exceeds 100 persons, the escape doors
should be replaced with a panic arm to open in the direction of the escape or an
officer shall be present during the use of the structure.
7. The electrical cables used in the wooden parts of the historical building must
have a minimum of 60 minutes of fire resistance and must be wired through the steel
pipe. It is imperative that buckets and crates are made of non-combustible material.
8. In wooden structures, flammable or combustible materials cannot be applied on
wood for protection or painting purposes.
9. In historical buildings, flammable, combustible or explosive substances are only
allowed provided that keeping them in a separated fire compartment.
10. Where there is no possibility of alteration or restoration of historical buildings,
the existing staircase can be considered as fire escape [18].
In USA, one of the significant legislations about protecting historic and cultural
heritage is NFPA 914 standard namely “Standard for Protection of Historical
Buildings-No. 914 issued by the National Fire Protection Agency.
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The objective of the NFPA 914 standard is to protect the original characteristics
of historical buildings and to ensure the safety of those residing in these buildings.
In order to achieve this goal, it is necessary to protect the building and historical
materials from the destructive effect of the fire and to protect the life of the people
living there. About life safety fire prevention measures, fire escape capabilities and
maintaining the structural integrity until the evacuation is carried out are crucial
issues [19].
According to NFPA 914, a protection plan should be prepared for the historic
structures placed in UNESCO World Heritage List considering following elements:
Providing administrative supervision on fire risk assessment, fire hazards
reduction and fire emergency planning.
Improved fire prevention measures which reduce combustible material
amount and ignition sources;
Suitable systems, such as structural fire barriers, fire detection and alarm
systems, automatic fire extinguishing systems and smoke evacuation that can limit
and control fire;
Emergency response plans about extinguishing, damage reduction and post-
fire operations considering large scale fires [19].
In NFPA 914 Annex S it is stated that historical areas and structures are important
not only for owners but also for many stakeholders. These stakeholders are as
follows:
1. Fire departments,
2. Residential district where historic buildings are,
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3. Chamber of Commerce,
4. Owners,
5. Tenants,
6. People living in the area,
7. Architects,
8. Officials in charge regarding the protection of historical values,
9. Zoning officers,
10. Insurance companies,
11. Fire safety Engineers,
12. Civil engineers,
13. Fire safety businesses.
In addition to structural measures for the protection of historic buildings from fire,
education, law enforcement, the use of new technologies, official awareness and
public cooperation in historic area are strategic for success at protecting historic and
cultural heritage.
In Chapter 11 of the NFPA 914 standard, the necessary measures and principles
to prevent fires in historic buildings are specified as follows:
Decorative materials intended to be used in special occasions in historic
buildings should be made of non-combustible or fire retardant treated material.
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Decorative materials should be at least 90 cm. far from possible sources of
ignition (lamps, radiators, electric heaters).
Hanging materials such as curtains must meet the performance criteria
according to NFPA 701.
Indoor doors should be kept closed during the building is not in use.
The attic space entrances should be closed at all times and storage at this area
should not be allowed.
Flammable materials shouldn’t be allowed in electrical and machinery
rooms.
Use of tools producing open flame (candles, oil lamps, fireplace etc.) must
be subject to inspection and approval.
Hot works producing sparks (welds, etc.) in buildings should only be carried
out after necessary and adequate measures have been taken.
The maintenance and condition of the chimneys must comply with NFPA
211 standard.
The chimneys to which the fireplaces are connected must be internally
coated, have spark stoppers and subject to regular inspection.
There should not be any power cable exposed throughout the building exit
routes.
The electrical wiring, materials and tools must comply with NFPA 70.
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Cables that are left in place but not actively used as a result of restoration or
renewal, should be labeled as “Unused Cable”.
Electrical systems in historical buildings must be protected by short circuit
fault switches.
If necessary, the use of mobile heaters may be prohibited in historical
buildings.
If commercial kitchens are in use, special measures must be taken for fire safety.
3. Fire detection and warning systems
Fire detection and warning system is composed of devices which are designed to
monitor and report fire indications and upon recognition activate notification
appliances to warn residents evacuate the building and others to take necessary
precautions. The fire alarm system can alert the residents by means of alarm sounds
or visually, as well as inform fire department or building management and activate
building systems in case of fire. Examples of building systems to be activated include
controlling elevators, keeping exit doors open on the escape path, smoke control in
the building, pressurization of the elevator shaft and stairwells.
Elapsed time between the start and realization of and reporting a fire is crucial in
terms of survival and fire damage. The fire alarm systems are designed to shorten
this time drastically and to activate the extinguishing systems when necessary.
There are three different types of signals generated by fire alarm control and
annunciator panels as indicated below:
a. Alarm signals; It indicates that there is a fire in the building, and the inhabitants
must leave the building immediately. Alarm signal sounds throughout the facility
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horns, bells or speakers. When the alarm signal is received, residents and first
responders must respond immediately.
b. Trouble signal; A signal that indicates a fault in the integrity of installed fire
alarm systems. Typical trouble signal sounds a constant tone, beep or buzz
accompanied by a visible light on the control or annunciator panel.
c. Supervisory signal: The supervisory signal indicates that other fire alarm
systems and devices operating in connection with the fire alarm system are not in
their normal (ready) status for operation and are similar in this respect to the trouble
signal.
Fire detection and warning systems are installed for ensuring the detection of a
fire as soon as possible to effectively control it and to prevent loss of life and
property. The warning systems operate by detecting one or more signs of the fire
smoke, heat and flame by three different types of detectors. Upon detection, fire
alarm systems activate linked sub-systems (extinguishing system, sirens, lights,
telephone lines etc.) by interpreting the fire alarm received from the detectors. The
main functions of fire detection and warning systems are informing, mobilizing
authorities and activating established automatic systems (Fig.11) [20].
The components of the fire alarm system are as follows:
a. Control Panel; It is considered as the brain of the system. The control panel
provides power to all devices in the system, monitors whether the system circuits
operate trouble-free, activates other existing fire protection and extinguishing
systems when necessary interpreting signals from the manual or automatic detection
devices. The power units are integrated in the control panels.
b. Initiating Devices; These devices sense manual or automatic alarm or
supervisory signals and transmit them to the control panel. Manually activation is
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carried out by a person who first become aware of a fire. Automatic activation takes
place upon detection of the combustion products by these devices. Automatic
initiating devices work with different operating principles such as thermal
sensitivity, detection of combustion products, radiant energy, water movement,
changes in air pressure or detection of signals from automatic extinguishing systems.
Fig. 11. Components of fire detection and warning systems, Beta system
engineering [20]
Most of the automatic alarm initiators are a type of fire detector. The purpose of
these detectors is to warn the residents and fire brigades by early detection of fire.
Automatic detectors are classified according to the fire sign they are designed to
detect. The four classes of fire detectors are;
1. Heat detectors,
2. Smoke detectors,
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3. Flame detectors
4. Gas detectors.
3.1. Heat detectors
Heat detectors operate either by detecting a predetermined fixed temperature or
specified rate of temperature change. They react slower than smoke detectors.
Because smoke can be detected without enough heat in the environment. However,
heat detectors are more reliable than smoke detectors and may be the ideal choice
for environments with difficult environmental conditions.
3.2. Smoke detectors
Smoke detectors operate by detecting smoke particles emanating from a fire.
Generally, smoke detectors activate sooner than the heat detectors in same fire
environment. This is why smoke detectors are life-saving devices.
Smoke detectors vary according to their working principles. The ionization smoke
detectors detect the fire using two electrically charged plates and a radioactive
material. When the smoke, as a fire product, enters the detector chamber, it activates
the alarm by reducing the amount of current between the plates (Fig. 12) [21].
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Fig. 12. Principle of operation of an ionization smoke detector, Mavili
electronics [21]
Smoke detectors operating on photoelectric basis work according to the smoke’s
effects as preventing or reflecting light in detector chamber (Fig.13) [22].
Fig.13. Operation principle of photoelectric smoke detectors, Mavili electronics
[22]
Air sampling smoke detectors sucks air from the protected environment and send
it to a chamber for evaluation to detect any fire sign. The alarm is activated if a fire
product is detected at predetermined levels. Smoke detectors are also installed in
ventilation ducts, especially in commercial enterprises, to activate building systems
associated with smoke control in case of fire.
3.3. Flame defectors
Flame detectors, also called radiant energy detectors, are devices for detecting the
visible and invisible light spectrum due to flames, embers and sparks. Flame
detectors are used in places where very fast and sensitive fire detection is important,
the level of danger is very high and remote detection of small fires is extremely
important. Among the examples of places flame detectors used are museums,
arsenals, textile factories, wood processing plants, aircraft hangars, oil processing
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facilities, storage and loading facilities, printing and dyeing facilities. Flame
detectors are identified by the part of the light spectrum they are designed to detect:
Ultraviolet (UV) detectors, infrared (IR) detectors or (UV/IR), (IR/IR) detectors.
3.4. Gas detectors
Gas detectors are used to protect high-risk areas by detecting certain or various
gases, toxic gases and vapors associated with hydrocarbons. They are used in open
sea oil and gas wells, petrochemical plants and gas turbines.
Fire detectors are classified according to hazard classes and scale as follows;
1. Point type detectors: Detectors that control a limited area.
2. Line type detectors: They provide protection along a straight line.
3. Air sampling type detectors; Detectors which take air samples from the
protected area and send it to another device to detect fire products.
Notification Appliances; Components of a fire alarm system, that produce audible
or visual warnings to ensure immediate evacuation or displacement of the residents,
as a result of the interpretation of signals sent after the fire is detected. These are
devices such as cymbals, whistles, speakers, sirens, electronic flashes and lamps.
The sound and light intensities of the warning notification appliances must be at
required levels by relevant laws and regulations [13].
4. Portable fire extinguishers
Portable extinguishers containing suitable extinguishing agents for the fire can be
used effectively in order to intervene in the incipient stage of a fire or where water
wouldn’t be effective. However, it should be kept in mind that wrong use of portable
extinguishers by untrained persons, and using an extinguisher with the wrong type
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of suppression agent can result in ineffective suppression, increase the severity of
the fire, delay first response of fire department and endanger the life of extinguisher
users and occupants. The portable extinguishers only contain a certain amount of
extinguishing agent. In the initial stages of fires, one or more portable extinguishers
can be used to extinguish the fire or prevent the fire spread. Fires can be prevented
in the initial phase if people are trained about the use of portable extinguishers.
One of the most important points about the use of portable extinguishers devices
is the amount and type of flammable material. According to the fire load and type
the right size and type of portable extinguisher can be selected. Portable fire
extinguishers are classified according to the classes of fires. Fire classes may vary
from country to country. For example, in the “Regulation on Fire Protection of
Buildings” in Turkey, classifies fires in four groups where Class A represents
ordinary combustibles, Class B flammable liquids, Class C flammable gases and
Class D flammable metal fires. In the US system, class B represents flammable liquid
and gas fires, class C live electric fires and class K represents oil fires in commercial
kitchens. As a result, mobile extinguishing devices are classified and labeled in
parallel with the fire classifications adopted in the laws and regulations of that
country. Users can easily understand what type of extinguisher they are about to use
and where to use them from the labels.
The rating of mobile extinguishing devices is also important. The rating is
considered about solid, liquid and gas fires. The rating is a coding that expresses the
extent to which a fire can be extinguished with a mobile extinguishing device. For
example, it is understood that 1 cubic feet of wood can be extinguished with a mobile
extinguishing device rated 1-A in the USA.
5. Types of fire extinguishers
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Portable fire extinguishers are classified into three categories according to their
working principles.
1. Pump extinguishers,
2. Stored Pressure Extinguishers,
3. Cartridge Pressure Extinguishers.
Pump extinguishers usually contain water. The devices are manually pressurized
by the user with a pump. Different models are used especially in forest fires.
In stored pressure extinguishers, the extinguishing agent and the pressurizing gas
are contained in the same tank. Air or nitrogen gas is generally used for
pressurization. There is an indication of whether the device has sufficient pressure.
Water, antifreeze, foam, dry or wet chemical, dry powder or halon are used as an
extinguishing agent in pressurized devices.
At cartridge pressure extinguishers, the gas used for pressure is stored in a separate
cartridge and not in the tank. When it is desired to use these devices, the cartridge
should be opened and the gas introduced into the tank. The maintenance and filling
of these devices is easier and more practical.
5.1. Extinguishing agents used in portable fire extinguishers
Commonly water, foam, carbon dioxide, dry chemical, wet chemical, dry powder,
halon and other clean gases are used as extinguishing agents in Mobile Extinguishing
Devices.
Water is a substance that can absorb the most heat from the fire environment
compared to other extinguishing agents. Although it is effective in Class A fires, it
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is not very effective in other classes and may pose some dangers if used in special
circumstances (live electrical fires and water reactive metal fires).
Foam can be used in Class A fires but is more effective in flammable liquid fires.
The nozzles of the portable extinguishing devices containing foam are special and
have the ability to absorb the air and form a foam. AFFF (Aqueous Film Forming
Foam) and FFFP (Film Forming Flor protein) foam concentrates are used in portable
extinguishers [13], (Fig.14) [23].
Fig.14. Portable fire extinguisher containing foam, Hedef fire and occupational
safety Inc. [23]
Carbon dioxide is an effective extinguisher in flammable liquid and gas fires but
is not very effective in Class A fires. It is in liquid form under high pressure in the
device. When applied, it is effective by reducing the oxygen level around the fire
and cooling. It should be used with caution because it may cause oxygen depletion
in confined spaces. These devices do not have tank pressure indicators. The weight
of the device shows whether it is full or not (Fig.15) [24].
Fig.15. Portable fire extinguisher containing carbon dioxide, Hedef fire and
occupational safety Inc. [24]
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Dry chemical powder is small solid particles that are propelled by a pressurized
gas. When applied, it prevents the chain reaction by reducing the oxygen level by
covering the burning material. It is not harmful or toxic to health. It does not react
with flammable liquids or gases and does not transmit electricity. When applied, it
limits visibility and may cause respiratory problems especially in confined spaces. It
leaves corrosive residue on the materials it is applied on and therefore damages
electronic devices. Dry chemical powders are divided into three basic classes. They
are sodium bicarbonate based powders, potassium based powders and multipurpose
powders. Sodium bicarbonate based chemical powders are used effectively in
flammable liquid, gas and electric fires. In case of intervention in commercial
kitchen fires, it cannot meet the required standards. It is produced in white and blue
colors in order to be separated from other powders. Potassium bicarbonate,
potassium chloride and urea-based potassium bicarbonate are more effective in fire
extinguishing. Produced in purple color. It is effective in flammable liquid, gas and
electric fires. Ammonium phosphate is an extinguishing agent which can be used for
many purposes. It effectively extinguishes solid, liquid and gas fires. It is produced
in yellow color [13], (Fig.16) [25].
Fig.16. Dry chemical portable fire extinguisher, Hedef fire and occupational
safety Inc. [25]
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Wet chemical extinguishing agent is used in commercial kitchen fires. Wet
chemicals are extinguishing agents containing potassium bicarbonate, potassium
acetate and potassium citrate in aqueous solution. When applied, it reacts with the
oils used in cooking and forms a foam blanket on the surface and extinguishes the
fire. The water in the solution helps the chemical substance to maintain its covering
properties by cooling.
Metal fires cannot be extinguished with water, because water reacts with these
metals to produce oxygen gas and intensifies the fire. Thus specific dry powder is
used for each metal fires. Metal fire extinguishing powder is generally applied by
means of shovels, not by spraying with portable extinguishing devices.
Although Halon is a more effective extinguishing agent than carbon dioxide, its
use is gradually decreasing due to environmental concerns. Halon gas does not leave
residue and is not conductive, but it is a substance that is toxic to some extent and
has negative effects on human health. However, Halon 1211 and 1301 are still in use
in fire extinguishment. In addition to Halon, new generation extinguishing agents
have been developed. These are called clean gases. They are not harmful to the
environment and are almost as effective as Halon. Clean gases are either halocarbon
or inert gas based extinguishing gases. Halocarbon based extinguishing agents
include hydrochlorofluorocarbons or hydrofluorocarbons. The inert gas-based
extinguishing agents contain argon, carbon dioxide and nitrogen in certain
proportions. Clean gases do not leave residues, are harmless to the environment and
do not conduct electricity [13].
5.2. Operating portable fire extinguishers
Operating portable fire extinguishers can be taught to everyone with a simple and
short training. However, in its operation there are very important points need to be
considered. First of all, since extinguishing devices contain a limited amount of
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extinguishing agent, their extinguishing ability is limited. For this reason, they can
only be effective in extinguishing fires in the initial phase. The use of more than one
extinguishing device at the same time is more effective than the individual use of the
devices. Another important point is that the fire response activity at the initial stage
should not delay the notification of the fire to the fire department. Failed and long-
lasting intervention efforts may delay the arrival of the fire brigade and lead to worse
results. Although it is important to select the appropriate mobile extinguishing device
according to the class of fire, this problem is often eliminated by means of multi-
purpose extinguishing agents. Users should be careful not to interfere and threat fire
escape routes by their actions. Users must be aware of the results of portable fire
extinguisher use in confined space. The use of the mobile extinguishing device
should not endanger the lives of other people in the fire compartment. Large fires
cannot be extinguished by portable extinguishers.
In the operating of portable extinguishers, after choosing the correct type, the
appropriate mode of action is as follows;
Pull the pin of the extinguisher,
Aim the nozzle,
Squeeze the handle,
Sweep the base of the fire.
Cartridge pressure extinguishers’ operation is slightly different than others. The
device does not activate by pulling the pin. To do this, the trigger that release the gas
into the cylinder must be activated. In operating fire extinguishers, the nozzle is
directed to the nearest fire point. The user must act in a way as keeping a continuous
escape route behind him/her. The user must keep a suitable distance between him/her
and the fire. The effective intervention distance is about 6 meters for water and foam
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extinguishers, 4.5-6 meters for dry chemical extinguishers and 3-4.5 meters for
carbon dioxide extinguishers. While operating carbon dioxide extinguishers, the
hose should be hold from designed handle. Otherwise, carbon dioxide may freeze
skin. Short blasts shouldn’t be repeated too many because it may result emptying the
extinguisher without extinguishing the fire. Appropriate angles and methods should
be used to apply the foam to cover the combustible material in the use of foam
extinguishers. When the user alone, if the fire couldn’t be extinguished with the first
portable extinguisher, notification of the fire department mustn’t be postponed
searching for new extinguishers [4].
The type and minimum number of portable extinguishing devices to be kept in
buildings are listed in Turkish laws and regulations according to the current and
possible conditions and risks in those places. Parallel to the classification of existing
fire risks, the types of extinguishing devices aredecided. In places such as hospitals
and kindergartens, aqueous and clean gas portable extinguishing devices should be
preferred.
For buildings classified as “Low Fire Hazard”, a 6 kg dry chemical extinguisher
or equivalent device is required for each 500 m2 area. The maximum distance to
reach the closest portable extinguishing device should be 25 meters. The height from
the ground of 4-12 kg. weighed portable extinguishers mustn’t exceed 90 cm.
The quality of mobile extinguishing equipment must be in compliance with the
relevant Turkish standards. Maintenance and control standards are explained
(Turkish Standards) TS ISO 11602-2. According to this standard, portable
extinguishers should be checked at least once a year and extinguishing agents should
be cleaned, refilled and hydrostatically tested once every four years [18].
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CHAPTER 6
EVACUATION
1.What is evacuation?
Throughout human history; When, where and in what form, fires which are not
known exactly, have caused a lot of life and property loss. Fire and property losses
experienced in fires directed institutions and organizations to make important studies
in this regard, a number of studies have been done to prevent the loss of life occurred
in fires. Fire evacuation comes at the beginning of these studies.
Fig.1. Evacuation sign
Fire evacuation; It is a fire escape action that starts with the assertion that the
security officer considers it necessary and concurrent with the intervention, and this
action plays a very important role in saving human life. Therefore, the best way to
evacuate is of great importance in terms of human life.
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Fig.2. A Historic building blaze
Today, a number of factors, such as intensive urbanization and building heights,
increase the importance of performing evacuation in a timely and coordinated way.
Preparing fire evacuation plans in buildings, taking evacuation measures in
buildings, making buildings suitable for evacuation, considering disabled individuals
in evacuation process, assigning evacuation teams and periodic training of these
persons, also performing fire and evacuation drills in buildings periodically, periodic
control of routes and elimination of deficiencies, etc. operations are important factors
for safe evacuation.
2. Evacuation methods
In order to better understand the evacuation process, we need to know the
evacuation methods first. There are 3 kinds of methods in fire evacuation. These
methods include:
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Fig.3. Evacuation methods
2.1. Vertical evacuation
Vertical evacuation is a method in which stairs are used to exit the building during
fire. In order for people to easily find the emergency exit points during the fire, the
exit passages such as corridors and stairs are marked with ın Exit nok signs in a way
that is easy to see. These signs are of great importance during evacuation. For this
reason, it is an important factor in terms of human life. It is of great importance that
the doors in the fire stairways are suitable for evacuation and that these doors are
never locked. In particular, opening these doors outward, the door handles are not
affected by the fire and should be able to use these arms easily. Moreover, the
arrangement of fire ladder widths depending on the number of people living or
working in the building is very important for evacuation.
2.2. Horizontal evacuation
Horizontal discharge is a method of evacuation, which moves away from the
dangerous area and moves to a safer place on the same floor. This type of evacuation
Evacuation Methods
Vertical Evacuation
Horizontal Evacuation
Stay in Place
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is a method used when the person cannot use the exit stairs to go outside and should
stay on a certain floor until the help comes. In this method, the person moves to a
safe distance from the dangerous area and waits at this point until arrival. The areas
where people can safely wait for horizontal evacuation should be determined in
advance and the measures necessary for access to these areas should be taken
beforehand. These areas should be selected in areas where people are not affected by
fire.
2.3. Stay in place
It is a method used when the person cannot use one of the horizontal and vertical
evacuation methods and cannot reach any place. In the event that a person cannot
move anywhere during a fire, he / she should wait in a place with an external window
and close the door if possible. If the person is able to communicate by telephone, he
/ she should call the fire department and tell him / her whereabouts. If it is not
possible to call, it should indicate the location by waving his hand with a visible rag
or other object from the outer window.
3. Evacuation plan
Fire evacuation is an action that starts with the fire safety supervisor deemed
necessary, and it is not known when this action will start. Therefore, we should
always be prepared for fire evacuation. One of the most important of these
preparations is the preparation of a fire evacuation plan. In order to ensure a safe
evacuation process in the event of a fire, a good fire evacuation plan must be made.
A good evacuation plan is the most important factor in the safe evacuation of the
building during the fire. The following considerations should be taken into account
when preparing a good evacuation plan.
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a. The current floor plan of the building to be evacuated is provided and it should
be determined how many people are on the plan and in which sections.
b. The exit points and directions on the buildings and floors and stairs and
emergency elevators should be shown on the plan.
c. Care should be taken to ensure that the evacuation directions are carried away
from places that are dangerous to human life.
d. In the evacuation plan, safe spots should be identified where people can safely
wait in the case of horizontal evacuation.
e. It should be calculated how many people will use the evacuation directions and
a reasonable balance should be sought between the evacuation directions and the
direction of exit.
f. Care should be taken to ensure that the discharge directions do not overlap.
g. In evacuation plans, the evacuation direction of the persons should be
determined in advance and announced to the personnel.
h. At least one collection area is determined in a safe and easily accessible place
outside the building.
i. For the evacuation of vehicles in buildings with a parking lot underneath it must
be included in this plan.
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Fig.4. A Sample evacuation plan for buildings
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After the evacuation plan has been prepared, an evacuation plan exercise is an
important factor to test the adequacy of the evacuation plan and determine the
deficiencies. Therefore, the practice of making evacuation plan;
- Whether the alarm is properly delivered,
- Evacuation times in the evacuation directions shown in the evacuation plan,
- The agglomeration situation of each evacuation direction,
- Access to the meeting point,
- Coordination between evacuation officers, tested.
Fig.5. A Sample evacuation practice from school building
After the evacuation exercise, defective and deficient directions are determined
and announced to the personnel and a record is prepared for the deficiencies and
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errors determined. This report is forwarded to the relevant authorities; These
missing and defective directions determined during evacuation drill are eliminated.
Fig.6. Fig.5. A sample evacuation practice from top the roof
Fig.7. A sample evacuation practice via fire ladder
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4. Establishment of the evacuation team
Evacuation of the fire evacuation in buildings must be determined in order to be
able to coordinate the evacuation. Today, fire evacuation teams are established in
buildings, but most of the time, the necessary care is not taken in the establishment
of the team. However, the role of the evacuation team is very important in fire
evacuation. Fire evacuation team should be trained and equipped to evacuate. It is
also important that the evacuation team is physically strong and cold-blooded.
The evacuation team consists of:
Fig.8. The evacuation team
1. Floor evacuation officer; According to the number of personnel on the floor,
enough personnel are assigned to leave the building securely on the floor, the number
of personnel working on the floor and the polling at the end of the evacuation are
transferred to the relevant personnel. Evacuation officers should know the issue of
evacuation very well. In addition, it is important to evacuate the person selected as
the person responsible for the evacuation of the floor. Because the hierarchical
structure is an important factor in taking the instructions given at the time of release
Evacuation Team
Floor Evacuation Officer
Floor Control Responsible
Persons with disabilities are responsible for
discharging
Convening District Officer
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seriously. The lack of authority and authority of the evacuation floor officers may
cause the instructions given at the time of the evacuation not to be taken seriously.
2. Floor control responsible; do final checks after the evacuation of the evacuation
floors and is responsible for confirming that smoothly completed. After completion
of evacuation on the floors, he checks that no one is left on the floor he is responsible
for. In particular, if there are people with disabilities on the floor, they check the
parts of these people. Times to be responsible for the work of the floor plan showing
the locations of persons with disabilities in the floors would further facilitate the
making of this plan is very important in terms of disability discharge and control.
3. Persons with disabilities are responsible for discharging; Persons with
disabilities are responsible for the evacuation of these persons. Persons with
disabilities are completely vulnerable during the evacuation. Therefore, they need
help with evacuation. Disabled individual evacuation officer helps them to evacuate
disabled individuals on the floor they are responsible for during evacuation. If the
number of persons with disabilities is high in the floors, enough evacuation officer
should be identified. In such a case, the den Responsible Friend en method will be
one of the best methods to use. On the floors where people with disabilities are more
than the people with disabilities, the group of responsible persons may be formed
under the leadership of the responsible person.
4. Convening District Officer; Personnel responsible for the security and
inspection of personnel in the gathering area after the evacuation. The person in
charge of the gathering area shall check the number of people in the gathering area
after the evacuation. For these checks, people working in the building must have
names lists. The members of the gathering area should update these lists periodically.
This list is important to check whether there are people in the building during the
fire. The representative of the gathering area should check whether there are any
injuries among the people who were collected in the area after the evacuation or if
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they need help. The area responsible for the assembly area should take the necessary
measures to ensure that persons do not leave the assembly area until the fire danger
has passed.
The competencies of the personnel assigned to fire evacuation should be evaluated
by conducting at least 2 exercises each year. As a result of the evaluation, the
personnel considered to be inadequate are replaced and replaced by other personnel.
5. Fire evacuation considerations
To ensure safe and trouble-free fire evacuation, the following must be observed:
a. All doors located at the exit points should be opened from the inside to the
outside and with panic arms, these doors should never be locked. Sliding or revolving
doors must not be used as emergency exit doors.
b. In order to prevent fire and explosions in the floors, the points to close the
electricity and natural gas systems should be determined.
c. Items of importance in buildings must be labeled according to their severity and
should be evacuated in order of priority.
d. Fire evacuation of buildings should be ensured that the direction signs and signs
are visible to everyone and illuminated in such a way that they can be seen in the
dark.
e. In case of fire evacuation, those who require special attention should be
identified and assigned for evacuation.
f. Persons in charge of fire evacuation should be selected from among physically
strong and cold-blooded persons, and regular evacuation training should be provided
to them.
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g. Evacuation plans should be placed on the floors so that they can be seen easily
by everyone and regular trainings should be given to the people involved in the
evacuation plan.
h. Fire evacuation drills should be done and deficiencies should be eliminated.
6. Things to consider at the time of evacuation
Fire evacuation is very important in terms of person safety and there are some
important rules for safe evacuation. Compliance with these rules will ensure that the
evacuation is done in a safe manner, saving human life. The most important issues
to be considered in fire evacuation are as follows:
a. Evacuation alarm is an important factor at the beginning of evacuation.
Therefore, fire alarms should be taken seriously and all activities should be stopped
and immediate evacuation should be started. Every second that will be lost in the
evacuation process carries a significant risk for human life.
b. The evacuation should be evacuated by acting according to the instructions
given by the building evacuation officers to ensure that the evacuation can be carried
out safely, without the occurrence of panic events and coordination.
c. Individuals with disabilities cannot move on their own and need help with
evacuation. If there are people in need of help with fire evacuation and if you are
helping them do not endanger your life safety, those who are in danger should be
helped.
d. Life safety is more important than goods. Do not return for personal items
during evacuation. Because every second you lose in evacuation will endanger your
safety.
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e. Sources such as electricity and natural gas are important factors in the
development of fire. Closing the valves of these resources plays a very important
role in preventing the growth of the fire. Therefore, during the fire, electrical
switches and natural gas valves etc. should be closed. If you do not compromise your
safety, switch off the electrical switches and the natural gas valves.
f. During the evacuation there may be a need for a number of benefits and this can
be vital to others. For this reason, emergency evacuation personnel should be assisted
in general evacuation.
g. During the evacuation, the elevators are very dangerous for life safety. In the
event that the elevator does not work for any reason, there is almost no chance of
getting rid of the people in the elevator. Therefore, no lift should be used for
evacuation unless it is part of the Emergency Evacuation Plan.
h. Evacuation areas are areas planned to be protected from fire hazard. During
evacuation, these evacuation areas should be visited and this area should be waited
until a fire hazard is reached.
i. In evacuation areas, it should be checked by the people in charge of the
evacuation area and it should be checked whether there are any persons inside the
building.
7. Considerations after evacuation
After the evacuation, the building should not be returned to the building because
of the possibility of danger in the building. The building must be entered after the
controls have been made and approved by the authorized person. If there is a
potential danger in the building, the building should be closed to prevent people from
entering.
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Fig.9. The burned building
Fig.10. The burned building
8. Evacuation of people with disabilities
It is estimated by the World Health Organization that more than one billion people
in the world have various obstacles, and this estimate is equivalent to 15% of the
world's population (World Disability Report, 2011).
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The European Disability Strategy (2010-2020) focuses on the elimination of
barriers. The Commission identified eight principal areas for action: Accessibility,
Participation, Equality, Employment, Education and training, Social protection,
Health and External Action. The main activities for each area were identified and the
overall objective at EU level was highlighted within the framework.
One of the rights guaranteed by the United Nations Convention on the Rights of
Persons with Disabilities under the heading “Risk situations and humanitarian
emergencies is as follows:
ARTICLE 11: States Parties shall take all necessary measures to fulfill their
obligations under international law, including humanitarian law and international
human rights law, to ensure the protection and security of persons with disabilities
in cases of armed conflict, humanitarian emergencies and natural disasters.
The fact that people with disabilities are fully vulnerable to fire causes them to be
affected more and more lives are lost in fire disaster. For this reason, it is necessary
to act more sensitive in evacuation of disabled individuals and to develop effective
strategies for evacuation.
Fig.11. Classification of people with disabilities
People with disabilities
Mentally handicapped
Physically Handicapped
Visually ImpairedAuditory
handicapped
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People with disabilities;
a. Mentally handicapped
b. Physically Handicapped
c. Visually Impaired
d. Auditory handicapped
As divided into four main groups. Disability affects people's normal lives and
makes them dependent on other people in their daily lives. As disability affects their
daily lives negatively, any danger such as fire immediately risks their lives more than
normal people. It is a known fact that the evacuation of the building will become
more difficult if there is a fire in the building where there is a disabled person.
Disability of persons with disabilities at the time of fire changes according to
disability status. The evacuation of visually impaired individuals differs according
to each other. During the evacuation, a visually impaired person can be assisted by
an audible warning system, and this warning system cannot be said to assist a hearing
impaired person. For this reason, different methods and tools should be used in the
evacuation of disabled individuals depending on the disability situation.
8.1. Evacuation of the mentally handicapped
Mental disability is the state of being behind the normal in mental functions and
lack of behaviour. Although mentally disabled individuals are behind the normal in
mental functions, they are aware of a fire and react according to the mental disability
situation since there is no problem in their senses of sensation and smell. Individuals
with mild mental disabilities can protect themselves from the fire, but those who are
advanced can only be discharged from the fire with the help of a companion.
8.2. Discharge of physically disabled persons
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Physical disability; muscles, skeletal and joint disorders, due to illness and
incompetence, people with limited mobility. It is important to have an evacuation
elevator for the evacuation of persons with physical disabilities in tall buildings.
However, these evacuation elevators must be resistant to fire and smoke and have to
take their energy from an independent line (emergency energy system etc.). Because
the disabled evacuation elevators should not be affected by the power failure during
the fire. In buildings, fire stairs must be suitable for the evacuation of persons with
physical disabilities. Individuals with physical disabilities should be able to use the
fire escape stairs in a comfortable manner. In cases where physically disabled
individuals work, they should be assigned as substitute and subordinates.
Accompanying persons should provide priority to the evacuation of persons with
physical disabilities at the time of evacuation. If persons with physical disabilities
are able to use their hands, natural gas valves and electrical switches should be within
their reach.
8.3. Evacuation of the visually impaired
Visually impaired individuals are those who have lost their vision. It is almost
impossible for these individuals to be successful on their own in the evacuation
process. It is the most accurate movement that the visually impaired individuals will
shout loudly during the fire, inform their place and reach out to the ground and wait
for help. The presence of warning buttons in the places where the visually impaired
individuals are located is important in terms of understanding the situation of these
people during the fire and expecting help. The signal from the warning button must
be seen in the building where the fire officer is located or in an emergency control
room. In this way, people who see the warning light will go to the place where the
visually impaired person will be released. However, the use of responsible friends in
evacuation of visually impaired individuals will be more effective and successful.
For this reason, the allocation of companions as a noble and substitute for the visually
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impaired is very important in their evacuation during any fire. In addition, the use of
vehicles (light warning devices, radio, telephone, etc.) to facilitate communication
between the visually impaired and the accompanying persons will facilitate the
evacuation.
8.4. Evacuation of the hearing impaired
Hearing impaired individuals are those who cannot use their hearing senses
adequately. Hearing impaired individuals have the ability to see and act, so they can
act on their own and protect themselves from fire evacuation. During a fire first
smell, then smoke and then flame is noticed. Therefore, hearing-impaired individuals
may be aware of the fire. However, it is important in terms of evacuation of these
people as soon as possible during the fire. For this reason, light warning systems for
fire should be installed and equipped with early warning automatic detection systems
in the environments where hearing impaired individuals work or live.
The most commonly used methods for evacuation of disabled individuals are as
follows:
a. Responsible friends: The responsible friend method is the safest method for
people with disabilities who cannot move on their own and who need a companion
at the evacuation. Today, many businesses use this method. Visually impaired
people, people with extreme mental disabilities and individuals with physical
disabilities who cannot move on their own, require accompanying persons in fire
evacuation. The evacuation of these people should be done with responsible friends.
In the method of responsible friends, at least one principal and 1 substitute friend are
assigned to the disabled persons according to their disability. The number of friends
responsible for disability may increase. It is important to be sensitive in choosing a
responsible friend. For example, people who are responsible friends should be
educated, cool and able to intervene immediately. Because people who are educated
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and cold-blooded are more likely to motivate the disabled person during the
evacuation and ensure that the disabled person does not panic. In addition, it is
important to choose the responsible friends according to the persons to be evacuated.
For example, the physical strength of the responsible friends to be assigned to the
evacuation of physically disabled individuals will facilitate the evacuation process.
b. Disabled evacuation lifts method: Disabled evacuation elevators are specially
equipped elevators which can be safely used for evacuation during fire. Such
elevators are protected against fire, heat, smoke, water damage and power failure.
There are also fire-resistant and smoke-resistant doors. These elevators should be
used primarily for people with physical disabilities who cannot walk. The fire
evacuation ladders are safer for people with visual, hearing and mental disabilities
as they can use the fire escape stairs.
c. Disabled asylum areas method: Disabled asylum areas are one of the most
commonly used fire safety measures in large buildings with disabled people. In this
method, disabled individuals are taken to asylum areas and then taken from there.
Areas of disability are areas made of fire-resistant materials. The doors of these areas
are made to prevent the passing of both fire and smoke. In addition, these areas have
connections with the evacuation route.
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CHAPTER 7
COOPERATION WITH EMERGENCY ORGANIZATIONS
1. Introduction
1.1. Chapter composition
In this Chapter the various of emergency management agencies in Denmark will
be presented. The first part of the chapter is focusing on, how the individual agencies
are organized and structured. This part of the chapter will also provide information
on, how the individual organization interact and cooperate with other agencies.
The second part of the chapter will provide information on, how the Emergency
Management Centre is structured, and how a caller will be transferred to the relevant
emergency agency.
1.1.2. Learning outcomes
The Goal of this chapter is to provide an overall understanding of the complexity
represented in the mentioned organizations by them self, and to insure a transparency
of how the system works, when multiple organizations and key persons from
different authorities are working together to manage an emergency or incident.
1.2. General information
The chapter is built on the Danish Guidelines for Emergency Management
published in March 2018. Danish title: Retningslinjer for Indsatsledelse Marts 2018
[1].
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This publication is reviewed and reprinted with the newest information when et
make sense due to new knowledge, research and need. This way the line of
publications insures that the operative personal, as well as the management, has the
newest, and most updated information on how to resolve an emergency at any scale.
1.3. The Combined force of the emergency agencies
Incident management is necessary when an emergency occur, and people or
property are in jeopardy. To handle these situations, different guidelines and
principles are to make the cooperation optimal. One thing important to agree on, is
how to define the area of the incident.
To define this, the guidelines are flexible, in meaning, to fit either emergency
agency, but still describe similar situations.
The guideline uses tree primary terms: Incident Area, Damage Area and Danger
Area.
The Incident Area is the hole area where the emergency agencies are operating
during an incident.
The Damage Area is the concrete area ore location, where the emergency is
specific located.
The Danger Area is the specific area where harm can still come to persons
operating in this area.
With these terms, the emergency agencies have these following principles to
insure best opportunity for a cooperation and a flow of information and good
communication.
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Principles
Sector responsibility principle
This Principle implies that the authority or organization who is responsible for an
area under normal conditions, also is responsible for the preventive, preparatory and
remedial emergency preparedness for extraordinary events.
The principle of equality
This Principle operates with the concept of equality correlating between the
incident and the one or several emergency organizations handling the incident. The
Goal of the principle is to insure the balance between the incident and the resources
the organizations allocate.
The subsidiarity principle
Suggests that an incident or any emergency task is handled and solved, as close
to the citizen as possible, in an organizational understanding, to keep the complexity
and the relevant organizational level as low as possible. [2]
Action principle
This principle is to insure, that in situations with either unclear or incomplete
information, it is appropriate to set the emergency level a little higher. At the same
time, a quick downscaling of the emergency level, should be possible, not to waste
resources.
The principle of cooperation
Is about insuring that the government and other key persons has the responsibility
to corporate and coordinate with other authorities and organizations.
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The above principles are based on the authorities' duty to act in situations where
one Emergency response is required, including the ability to deviate from standard
procedures to ensure sufficient vigor and progress in the effort.
The response management has the competence and the obligation to deviate from
standard procedures if special circumstances make it necessary. If necessary, it is
important that this is communicated to all emergency responders at all relevant
levels.
The emergency response actors also follow several common principles on
effective and prioritized use of resources, timely reactions, etc. Each authority is also
responsible for coordinating with the rest of the emergency preparedness authorities,
etc., in relation to incidents that affect broadly, and incidents, which are more
specific to their area. The coordination obligation applies to both relation to superior,
secondary and subordinate authorities and others.
Handling larger or more complex events requires consideration of how an
authority relates from the moment it is acknowledged to have occurred or is likely
to occur that requires senior management and an active effort by the authority. This
means that the authorities must have taken a position on the basics in advance
conditions such as management, division of responsibilities, notification routines,
crisis communication, coordination, right of disposal for major unexpected
expenses, cooperation agreements etc. At the same time, authorities and other
emergency actors must make clear to what extent they is expected to be included in
cross-cutting crisis management forums (at local / regional or at national level) and
how they ensure their capacity is present. The authorities' crisis management
organization must reflect the risks that society faces.
2. Police
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2.1. Responsibility and organization
The National Police Chief has the overall responsibility for performing the
police's tasks throughout the country under the responsibility of the Minister of
Justice. The national police function as the superior
board of the Danish police, while the daily police work is basically taken care of
police districts. Denmark is divided into 12 police districts, each headed by a police
director.
2.1.1. Strategic level
The Police law (the Law on Police Activities) contains the general provisions on
police duties. It is clear from this, among other things, that it is the police's task to
prevent and prevent the danger of disturbing public peace and order, as well as the
danger to individuals and public security, and that it is the task of the police to
prevent criminal offenses and terminate criminal activity and investigate and pursue
offenses.
2.1.2. The police districts
The chief of police coordinates the overall effort on major injuries. The
coordinating management means that the police must ensure that all functions inside
and outside the incident are coordinated in such a way that the overall effort takes
place as efficiently as possible. In addition, the police's tasks are to ensure that the
other emergency personnel can work undisturbed. At the same time, the police carry
out the police investigation focus area.
The coordinating management comes after the police decision in case of incidents,
requiring action by several authorities, and it is going from a possible planning and
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preparation phase through the intervention phase until the function ends with
reduced emergency preparedness when the actual recovery and reconstruction phase
occurs.
2.1.3. Police efforts
2.1.3.1. Coordination of the overall effort
Incident commander police is responsible for ensuring that the overall effort is
coordinated according to the Chief of Police's overall priorities and decisions.
In case of major incidents - or after a concrete assessment - a police officer is sent
the right educational competencies for the site as Incident commander police. Until
Incident commander police arrives at the action area, the best qualified policeman
works the place as the police leader.
Exceptionally and in the case of minor incidents, it is the best qualified policeman
in first car on the spot that acts as the police leader.
In connection with major events, Incident commander police creates a command
post (KST) in the focus area from which the overall effort in the area of action is
coordinated.
Incident commander police is responsible for coordinating the overall efforts in
the field of intervention.
Prepare and initiate any evacuation in collaboration with the Incident
commander from the fire department,
Consider the need for division of the effort area in case of multiple injury
sites,
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Assess - in cooperation with Incident commander from the fire department -
whether an area can be threatened (new danger area if the wind turns),
Determine and secure roads and ambulance routes within the area of
intervention,
Establish a possible helicopter landing site,
Designate KST leader and radio / logman,
Determine times for meeting / contact with Incident commander from the fire
department, Incident commander of the prehospital units and other relevant
managers,
Delegate the managerial functions in case of major incidents at the catchment
area, collection site, etc.
Make necessary guarding and shutdown (inner and outer), including securing
Possibly. valuables,
Submit situation reports to the command station (KSN),
Provide assistance for all actors,
Coordinate access for the press in the area of intervention,
Consider the need for the establishment of an evacuation and relatives centre
(EPC) in cooperation with the municipal crisis staff (via Incident commander from
the fire department), the region's health preparedness or KSN,
Ensure the necessary documentation, eg. in the form of photo / video
recordings and
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Coordinate logistical measures in the form of catering and toilet facilities for
deployed personnel.
3. Fire & Rescue
3.1. Tasks
The primary objective for the local fire and rescue service, is to provide
emergency management, whenever injury occurs on people, property or the
enjoinment, when an accident or catastrophe occurs. With this, also during terror
and war.
The tasks of the municipal rescue services. As mentioned, the municipal
emergency preparedness must be able to make a effort against injuries to persons,
property and the environment through accidents and disasters, including acts of
terror and war.
The municipal emergency preparedness must thus be able to be deployed against
accidents such as e.g. fires and explosion accidents, crash accidents, train accidents,
aircraft accidents, ship accidents at quays, natural disasters and accidents that can
cause spills and spread in the environment of hazardous substances (CBRNE events)
on land, in lakes, in streams and in ports. The municipal emergency preparedness
must also be able to be deployed in connection with release of jammed at traffic
accidents. Furthermore, the municipal rescue services must be able to receive,
accommodate and nursing evacuated and other distressed.
Rescue tasks in lakes, marshes, streams and harbours are also part of the tasks for
it municipal emergency preparedness. The Emergency Response Act does not
require that the municipal rescue preparedness must be able to solve rescue tasks
that entail the creation of a municipal diving preparedness. However, each municipal
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council may decide to establish such a diving preparedness, which will then be
covered by them requirements for diving work.
3.1.1. Technical management of the incident
The incident manager will be responsible for insuring the operation. Is the incident
manager not on scene a team leader with sufficient education will be managing the
incident. It will be the team leader’s responsibility to advice and request an incident
manager, when and if, it is necessary.
If the complexity or the scale of the emergency is at a level, where the one fire
brigade, is not possible to handle the emergency, it falls to the incident manager to
request assistance from additional fire and rescue services, or from the DEMA, the
Danish Emergency Management Agency, with will be described later in this chapter.
4. Public health agency (EMS/EMT etc.)
4.1. In general
The health care system includes the hospital emergency services, the pre-hospital
effort, the drug preparedness and the preparedness in the primary health sector.
Preparedness on the hospitals and pre-hospital work belong to the regions. Both
regions and municipalities have tasks in connection with preparedness in the primary
health sector and drug preparedness. Psychosocial efforts (social assistance, crisis
support and crisis therapy) and preparedness for efforts in connection with CBRNE
events are professional sub-elements in the health care system.
The National Board of Health is the sector responsible for the health care and is
one board of the Ministry of Health and the Elderly Ministry. At major extraordinary
events The National Board of Health also handles the national coordination of the
entire health service's efforts and decides on the overall handling of the incident. The
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National Board of Health advises and advises regions and municipalities on planning
health care. The National Board of Health can also advise on health care in a concrete
situation and eg. lay down rules for specific handling of infectious diseases.
The pre-hospital effort is the health professional's efforts towards acutely ill,
injured and giving birth before arriving at a hospital. This effort aims to Save lives,
improve health prospects, reduce pain and other symptoms, shorten the overall
disease course and provide care and create security.
4.2. Regional Emergency Medical Services
The region's main tasks in connection with emergency response efforts are to:
Ensure an unambiguous approach to health care through the region's
Emergency Medical Coordination Centre (AMK),
Activate the rest of the health preparedness, including the pre-hospital
effort, the hospital emergency and the region's crisis staff,
Alert Incident commander from the prehospital department,
Dispatch ambulances, emergency vehicles, emergency vehicles, emergency
doctor helicopter and other health professionals and equipment,
Handle triage, treatment and visitation,
Be able to receive a large number of sick or injured patients on the regions
hospitals
Inform and coordinate with neighbouring regions and municipalities in the
region;
Expand the capacity of the hospitals, possibly. by extraordinary printing of
patients
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Activate the psychosocial efforts (crisis support and crisis therapy
preparedness).
AMK is responsible for the operational management and coordination of the
overall health professional efforts in the region. The region (often represented by
AMK) is a permanent member of the local emergency services (LBS) and can, after
a concrete assessment, be included in both strategic and operational level.
Incident commander from the prehospital department is in charge of the overall
pre-hospital effort in the area of intervention and is part of the interdisciplinary
interventional management together with Incident commander from the Police
department and Incident commander from the fire department. Incident commander
from the prehospital department also collaborates with the doctor from the Danish
Agency for Patient Safety if this is called for the intervention area.
5. DEMA
Fig.1. DEMA logo
5.1. The regional emergency Service (DEMA) [3]
The Danish Emergency Management Agency (DEMA) is by law to assist the
municipality Fire & Rescue Service whenever an emergency unfolds to be at a larger
scale then expected, takes more time than expected or requires special materials. [4]
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DEMA does not only assist the local Fire & Rescue Services. DEMA also provide
assistance to a number of government branches like the department of health, The
Treasury, The Immigration Office, Danish Veterinary and Food Administration and
more.
DEMA is located throughout the country in various positions, making it possible
to reach almost every part of the country, with support forces, within an hour. The
centres are manned and will send off the first group in the first five minutes after
receiving the alarm.
Fig.2. DEMA facilities in Denmark [3]
DEMA houses to expert branches in emergency handling of chemical and nuclear
incidents. Whit this DEMA also have the capability of handling decontamination of
other branches.
In case of a large-scale emergency DEMA has a special USAR team (Urban
Search and Rescue) to handle rescue of people in these emergencies
6. Incident task management
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6.1. Emergency call centre
The Emergency call centre in Denmark, is parted in to three centres located in the
proximity of the Capital, where the Fire and Rescue Service mans the Centre. The
other two Centres are manned by police. After receiving the alarm call, the caller is
transferred to the branch relevant to their emergency. This is either Fire & Rescue,
Ambulance service, or Police.
When calling 1-1-2 the answer will usually be followed by these four questions.
What have happened?
Do you require Police, Ambulance or Fire & Rescue?
What number are you calling from?
What municipality are you calling from?
These questions will help the Emergency Call Centre transferring you to the
correct Dispatch Centre [5].
Fig. 3. Danish emergency call centre [6]
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6.1.1. Dispatch center (Police / Fire & Rescue / AMK)
The Dispatch center is where the call is managed, and from where the response is
dispatched. This is where the Dispatcher has an overview of, witch forces are
available where, and can support the teams on the task, if it is supplying additional
information to the ambulance in route, updates to police about the whereabouts of a
perpetrator fleeing a crime scene or organizing and calling in additional manpower
on a fire emergency.
Fig. 4. Dispatch central [7]
The Dispatch Centers receiving the emergency caller from the Emergency Call
Centre, only have the task of handling the one of the emergency branches. Which
underlines the importance of good communication and cooperation in between the
operators, and teams at the emergency.
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6.2. Summary
The system is already cooperating in a way that insures that larger incidents
will be handled by multiple agencies. As Police often will be presented at a
scene where fire & rescue or ambulance service is working on larger incidents.
The different emergency agencies have a structure allowing easy
cooperation and an interpretation on an emergency, using an aligned
vocabulary to insure cross-agency understanding.
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Fig. 5. Action area at everyday events
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Fig. 6. Incident area at major events
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CHAPTER 8
LAWS, REGULATIONS AND STANDARDS ABOUT
PROTECTING CULTURAL AND HISTORICAL SITES
1. Introduction
Europe’s and Turkey cultural heritage, both tangible and intangible, are our
common wealth – our inheritance from previous generations of
Europeans/Turks and our legacy for those to come. It is an irreplaceable
repository of knowledge and a valuable resource for economic growth,
employment and social cohesion. It enriches the individual lives of hundreds
of millions of people, is a source of inspiration for thinkers and artists, and a
driver for our cultural and creative industries. Our cultural heritage and the way
we preserve and valorize it is a major factor in defining Europe and Turkey's
place in the world and its attractiveness as a place to live, work, and visit.
Cultural heritage teach us about the history that happened before we were
born and promotes the respect for those who lived in different times and
different societies. Cultural heritage enriches the individual lives of citizens, is
a driving force for the cultural and creative sectors, and plays a role in creating
and enhancing Europe's and Turkey’s social capital. For France is known for
the Eiffel tower, for Italy the Historic Centre of Siena, Turkey for the Sultan
Ahmet or Ayasofya Mosques, Ephesus, Divriği Great Mosque and Hospital
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and Safranbolu and etc. Historical structures bring character and certain charm
to the neighborhood that people live in.
Historical buildings reflect the state of the art at the time of their
construction. Materials were used that are often viewed critically today with
regard to fire safety. The biggest challenge is to ensure optimal fire protection
of the building structure and the interior (stucco, ceiling and wall paintings,
paneling, furniture and chandeliers) as well as the historical artifacts inside a
building, without affecting their aesthetic value and historical integrity. Fire
safety in all buildings is a critical topic, but fire protection in historical
buildings is also of great cultural importance. Fire and the consequential
damage can result in monetary losses that run into the tens of millions of Euros
and the loss of irreplaceable historical artifacts. Restoring these damaged
buildings and items can be very costly and sometimes impossible.
Along with, protecting these cultures requires a joint effort and these cultures
are accepts as an inheritance of all mankind with universal value (Because these
heritages carry to next generations via people and their cultures). In order to
advertising these cultural values and creating social consciousness,
“Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Culture and Natural
Heritage” was accepted by UNESCO at 16 November 1972.
Natural formations, monuments and sites gain the world heritage status. In
addition, they should be have an international important. Gain of this status
require to some processing. First of all, this process starts with application to
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UNESCO by member state. This Process ends that after examined by
International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) and International
Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). But, final judgement gives by
World Heritage Committee.
As of today at UNESCO’s list, there are 1092 cultural and natural assets that
have a characteristic 845 cultural, 209 natural, 38 mixed (cultural / natural).
These cultures and naturals assets have increasing after “World Heritage
Committee” meetings day by day [1]. So there are many laws and regulations
about protecting cultural and historical sites and these regulations are
recommended by the European Union or their countries.
Generally, objectives, aims and means of UNESCO as following [2].
preserves 1073 World Heritage sites in 167 countries
coordinates Tsunami early warning systems all over the globe
leads global efforts to reach quality education for all
led the reconstruction of the Mausoleums in Timbuktu
launched the SESAME world-class research laboratory in the Middle East
stands up for freedom of expression and condemns the killing of journalists
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published General Histories of Humanity, Africa, Asia, Islamic Culture, the
Caribbean…
195 Member States, 11 Associate Members, 11 000 Associated Schools…
177 State Parties to the Intangible Heritage Convention
builds Youth networks across 9 Mediterranean countries
designated sites represent 10 million km2, equivalent to the size of China
2. Ethical principles
Complementary to the 2003 Convention for the Safeguarding of the
Intangible Cultural Heritage, the Operational Directives for the Implementation
of the Convention and national legislative frameworks, these Ethical Principles
are intended to serve as basis for the development of specific codes of ethics
and tools adapted to local and sectoral conditions [3].
Communities, groups and, where applicable, individuals should have the
primary role in safeguarding their own intangible cultural heritage.
The right of communities, groups and, where applicable, individuals to
continue the practices, representations, expressions, knowledge and skills
necessary to ensure the viability of the intangible cultural heritage should be
recognized and respected.
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Mutual respect as well as a respect for and mutual appreciation of intangible
cultural heritage, should prevail in interactions between States and between
communities, groups and, where applicable, individuals.
All interactions with the communities, groups and, where applicable,
individuals who create, safeguard, maintain and transmit intangible cultural
heritage should be characterized by transparent collaboration, dialogue,
negotiation and consultation, and contingent upon their free, prior, sustained
and informed consent.
Access of communities, groups and individuals to the instruments, objects,
artefacts, cultural and natural spaces and places of memory whose existence is
necessary for expressing the intangible cultural heritage should be ensured,
including in situations of armed conflict. Customary practices governing access
to intangible cultural heritage should be fully respected, even where these may
limit broader public access.
Each community, group or individual should assess the value of its own
intangible cultural heritage and this intangible cultural heritage should not be
subject to external judgements of value or worth.
The communities, groups and individuals who create intangible cultural
heritage should benefit from the protection of the moral and material interests
resulting from such heritage, and particularly from its use, research,
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documentation, promotion or adaptation by members of the communities or
others.
The dynamic and living nature of intangible cultural heritage should be
continuously respected. Authenticity and exclusivity should not constitute
concerns and obstacles in the safeguarding of intangible cultural heritage.
Communities, groups, local, national and transnational organizations and
individuals should carefully assess the direct and indirect, short-term and long-
term, potential and definitive impact of any action that may affect the viability
of intangible cultural heritage or the communities who practice it.
Communities, groups and, where applicable, individuals should play a
significant role in determining what constitutes threats to their intangible
cultural heritage including the decontextualization, commodification and
misrepresentation of it and in deciding how to prevent and mitigate such
threats.
Cultural diversity and the identities of communities, groups and individuals
should be fully respected. In the respect of values recognized by communities,
groups and individuals and sensitivity to cultural norms, specific attention to
gender equality, youth involvement and respect for ethnic identities should be
included in the design and implementation of safeguarding measures.
The safeguarding of intangible cultural heritage is of general interest to
humanity and should therefore be undertaken through cooperation among
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bilateral, sub regional, regional and international parties; nevertheless,
communities, groups and, where applicable, individuals should never be
alienated from their own intangible cultural heritage.
3. Instructions and covenants (treaties)
3.1. Construction Products Regulation for Fire Safety in Buildings (Electric
Cables) (CPR)
3.1.1. Aim
CPR is the regulation that establishes a common language in the European
market related to performance declarations of all power, control and
communication cables used in constructions and CE marking standards in EU
countries.
Fig. 1. CPR burn rate classification [4]
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The aim of the CPR is to establish the procedures and principles for the
presentation of the building materials to the market and the establishment of
the rules for the affixing of the CE marking to the performance declarations
and the basic characteristics of building materials and to establish a reliable
source of information on the performances of building materials.
CPR deals with the reaction of the cables to fire and their fire resistances,
and it brings forth rules. These rules are explained in the safety document in
case of fire.
Fig. 2. CE Marking of cables [5]
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3.1.2. Scope
CPR brings different obligations to manufacturers, regulatory and
supervisory agencies, as well as project firms, contractors, engineers or
architects.
to establish the rules of performance statements related to the basic
characteristics of building materials.
to establish the rules of affixing CE marking to materials.
to determine the procedures and principles regarding placing on the market
of building materials,
to provide a reliable information source on the performance of building
materials.
Fig. 3. Classifications of cable under CPR [6].
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3.2. European Commission Application Statute dated 2 May 2014 and (EU)
447/2014.
3.2.1. Aim
According to the Article 13 of this Regulation, contracts and its annexes
made by the beneficiary of IPA II cannot benefit from the financing under
Regulation No 231/2014 by EU unless the relevant financing agreement has
been concluded.
3.2.2. Scope
The following expenditures are not eligible for financing under Regulation
(EC) No 231/2014: the purchase of land and existing premises, except in cases
where the financing decision is legitimate due to nature of the action.
4. Directives
4.1. EU Construction products directive – 89/106/EEC
4.1.1. Aim
The directive is now replaced by Regulation (EU) No 305/2011. The
directive was replaced in order to simplify and clarify the existing framework,
and improve the transparency and the effectiveness of the existing measures.
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Fig. 4. EU Construction products directive [7]
4.1.2. Scope
It sought to ensure the free movement of all construction products within the
European Union by harmonizing national laws with respect to the essential
requirements applicable to these products in terms of health and safety.
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An additional objective of the directive was to "standardize the
manufacturing of construction products and guarantee the unlimited use of
these products within the EU.
4.1.3. Field of implementation
The directive was used as Construction Products Regulation. With the
conformity to this EU regulation, building products were entitled to freely
move within the European Union with CE logo. The European Union Building
Materials Directive was replaced by the Building Material Regulation in April
2011.
5. Standards
5.1. EN 5075
The EN 50575 standard specifies the requirements for fire response
performance of the "power, control and communication" cables used in
buildings and infrastructures and tests related to these requirements and criteria
for conformity assessments. It requires the declaration of fire performance and
CE marking of the cables used in the construction.
EN 50575 Standard specifies reaction to fire performance requirements, test
and assessment methods for electric cables used for the supply of electricity
and for control and communication purposes, which are intended for use in
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construction works and subject to performance requirements on reaction to
fire.
5.2. EN 50399
The EN 50399 standard describes in detail the test methods, mechanisms,
calibration of the mechanisms, the application of the tests and the reporting of
the results to ensure that the fire response performances can be measured so
that the cables within the scope of CPR can be classified according to European
Classifications.
5.3. NFPA 909
NFPA 914 (Code for Fire Protection of Historic Structures) and NFPA 909
(Code of the Protection of Cultural Resource Properties-Museums, Libraries
and Place of Worship) are the most important fire codes that compile the results
according to past experience.
NFPA 909 is a guideline that sets out the minimum requirements for the
preservation of historical and cultural structures, such as museums, libraries,
places of worship. NFPA 909 allows building users and owners to apply their
own needs and wishes to a building or part of a building depending on the use
of the building. NFPA 909 also allows owners not to comply with NFPA 909
provisions in cultural properties and historic buildings in specified conditions.
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5.4. EN 13501-6
Fire classification of construction products and building elements.
Classification using data obtained from reaction to fire tests on electric cables.
5.5. EN 60332-1-2
Test methods on electric and optical fiber cables under fire conditions. Part
1-2: Test for vertical flame propagation for a single insulated wire or cable.
Procedure for 1 kW premixed flame.
5.6. EN 61034-2
Measurement of smoke density of electric cables burning under defined
conditions.
5.7. EN 60754-2
Tests on gases evolved during combustion of materials from cables.
Determination of acidity (by pH measurement) and conductivity.
5.8. EN 13501
The aim of this European Standard is to define a harmonized procedure for
the classification of roofs/roof coverings exposed to external fire.
For the purposes of this European Standard, the terms and definitions given
in EN ISO 13943:2000, and the roof material and apply [8].
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5.8.1. Roof
Covering and sealing system, including any insulating layers or vapour
barriers normally provided together with their supporting elements including
attachment (glued, mechanically fastened etc.), and roof lights or other closures
for roof apertures that are intended to provide a weatherproof surface.
5.8.2. Material
Basic single substance or uniformly dispersed mixture of substances (e.g.
metal, stone, wood, bitumen, concrete, mineral wool).
6. Agreements and conventions
6.1. Convention for the protection of the architectural heritage of Europe
(3.10.1985)
The adoption of the Convention was both a consecration and a new
beginning - a consecration because it marked twenty years of European co-
operation on architectural heritage and a new beginning because this was the
first time that an international treaty had included the principles of integrated
conservation.
The main purpose of the Convention is to reinforce and promote policies for
the conservation and enhancement of Europe's heritage. It also affirms the need
for European solidarity with regard to heritage conservation and is designed to
foster practical co-operation among the Parties. It establishes the principles of
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"European co-ordination of conservation policies" including consultations
regarding the thrust of the policies to be implemented.
6.2. Europe 2020 strategy
The Europe 2020 strategy is the EU's agenda for growth and jobs for the
current decade. It emphasizes smart, sustainable and inclusive growth as a way
to overcome the structural weaknesses in Europe's economy, improve its
competitiveness and productivity and underpin a sustainable social market
economy. Innovation was at the heart of the 2020 Strategy, as Europe's
competitiveness and capacity to create new jobs relied on innovation in
products and services.
Innovation is accepted as the best tool to overcome main social and
economic challenges as climate change and energy efficiency. The 2020
strategy has launched the European Innovation Partnerships (EIP). EIP is
designed to mobilize social actors within the framework of the innovation cycle
and various sectors. In this context, it is aimed to provide innovative solutions.
6.3. European environmental policy
Environmental policy for European Union is one of the most important
theme that should be carried to next generation. Environmental policy, for more
environmental protection has been considered by EU.
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The main objectives of the European Environmental Policy are laid down in
Article 174 of the EC Treaty as follows:
Protecting the environment, improving the quality of the environment,
Protecting human health,
Rational use of natural resources,
Taking related measures at international level.
As of today there are about 300 or more legislative acts which have been
divided into ten extensive parts.
These parts are:
Horizontal (general) legislation
Air quality
Waste management
Water quality
Nature protection
Industrial pollution
Chemicals and GMOs
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Climate change
Noise
Civil protection
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CHAPTER 9
NEW TECHNOLOGIES
1.Introduction
Faster, smarter technology means better fire safety technology. The basics
of fire safety, from stocking the right extinguisher to knowing fire classes,
remain the same, but technological advances build on the basics, making
firefighting quicker, easier, and more effective.
There are some truly amazing technologies being produced to fight fires in
the 21st century. These advances make the most of sound waves, video, and
detection technology to keep us all safer when fire strikes.
2.Sound wave fire extinguisher
Two engineering students at George Mason University harnessed sound to
put out fires. Their chemical-free, water-free extinguisher uses sound waves to
separate burning fuel from oxygen. Fire dies out without oxygen, so using the
soundwave extinguisher on a small fire snuffs it out.
Researchers previously patented this idea but this is the first sound wave
extinguisher to work reliably.
The sound wave extinguisher provides non-destructive fire safety
technology, which is ideal for home use. At the moment, the technology is only
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suitable for small fires since it does not contain a coolant. This means larger
fires put out with soundwaves could reignite on hot surfaces. Researchers
suggest that pairing this technology with drones could help in fighting large
fires.
Fig.1. Sound wave fire extinguisher
3.Water mist systems
Water mist fire safety technology improves on typical sprinkler systems, and
is considered to be a major part of the future of firefighting. Water simply
works, and it’s the most common agent used to fight fires today.
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Instead of large droplets of water, water mist systems send out a fine mist
that smothers a fire. Since the droplets are smaller, the mist systems create more
of them. The larger surface area of droplets converts water to steam faster. The
steam absorbs more heat from the flame, lowering the temperature of the fire,
suffocating the fire faster than regular old water.
Mist systems also significantly decrease water damage. Even dry chemical
systems are more likely to damage buildings and equipment when used. Water
mist systems can be installed locally (for one area) or can cover an entire room.
Mist can potentially fight electrical fires, making mist systems more versatile
than typical sprinkler-type suppression systems.
Fig.2. Water mist systems
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4. Early suppression fast response fire sprinkler systems (ESFR)
In-rack sprinkler systems are a standard fire suppression solution used in
warehouses with high-piled inventory. While effective, in-rack systems pose
some problems. One pallet load mistake and pipes can burst, setting off the
sprinklers and damaging stored items. When racks need to be rearranged, in-
rack systems require expensive pipe reconfiguration. How are ESFR systems
superior?
Fig.3. Early suppression fast response fire sprinkler systems (ESFR)
ESFR systems are ceiling-mounted, featuring high-pressure heads capable
of producing a high volume of water – we’re talking about 100 gallons of water
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per minute. Unlike a conventional sprinkler system made to control a fire,
ESFR fire safety technology suppresses the fire (shrinks it back to the point of
origin). These systems require large amounts of water and are hooked up to fire
pumps.
5.Integrated voice evacuation and messaging system
Not all fire safety technologies are built to fight fires: some protect the
people a fire can hurt. An integrated voice evacuation and messaging
system alerts occupants with pre-recorded messages when a fire breaks
out. Fike’s concept of “distributed intelligence” gives voice instructions to
building occupants, customized to their particular location, in relation to the
fire, and how to escape it. Fire evacuation plans and other safety information
play over speakers so occupants can respond appropriately.
Fig.4. Integrated voice evacuation and messaging system
The system responds in a fraction of a second. It can be programmed so
specific alerts, either instructions or tones, play during fires in certain parts of
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a building. Should a part of the building be compromised during an emergency,
built in redundancies allow the technology to keep working. The scalability of
this system make it a fit for small offices up to campuses with many buildings.
6.Fire behavior simulation software
Fire behavior simulation is a fire control software that is largely used in
wildlands to detect how the flames will develop and how the fire will spread.
For example, in wildlands, the system works by understanding the interaction
of materials like leaves, twigs, needles and more with the weather and other
topographic elements. A fire increases with the presence of heat, oxygen and
any fuel in the environment. To suppress this fire, there is a need of using fire
suppressing systems separately.
Fig.5. Fire behavior simulation software
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7.Personalized vocal smoke alarm
The vocal smoke alarm detects the smoke or heat in a place and then alerts
the people around. One uses their voice and records a message that the alarm
plays when there is a fire. For example, a parent might record the direction to
escape the house during a fire for their kids. When the alarm detects danger, it
will play the recording and hence, help kids escape the room or the premises.
One cannot ignore the repercussions of fire. Having pre-safety is always
beneficial. Using these advanced fire detectors, fire control systems, and fire
behavior systems will help in creating better safety measures. Get the best
quality products along with the installation process by contacting a supplier of
fire protection systems.
Fig.6. Personalized vocal smoke alarm
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8.Wireless internet connected smoke detector
These detectors are capable to detect smoke and also carbon monoxide.
When they detect any smoke, they ring an alarm alerting you and also notifying
you about the location where the fire has taken place. With the help of the
internet, you can connect the detectors to your smartphone and get alerts about
the fire when you are not present at the location.
Fig. 7. Wireless smoke detector
9.Wireless heat detector
The wireless heat detectors use rate-of-rise and fixed temperature sensors to
detect heat. The heat-sensitive detectors are triggered within a minute when
there is a significant rise in the temperature. These devices are used in places
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like the kitchen, garage, laundry room, and other places where smoke detectors
can’t be placed.
10.Beam detectors
The beam detector uses a beam of light extended in the premises. These light
beams help detect any smoke produced in the premises. The beam detectors are
generally of two basic types:
End to End Beam Detectors
Reflective Beam Detectors
Based on these two types, there are multiple variations of beam detectors
available in the market.
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REFERENCES
CHAPTER 2
[1] https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Wnx3wVMlZTU, Stroud
International, (Date of Accesses: 26. 2. 2019)
[2] CFPA-E Guideline No 30:2013 F Managing Fire Protection of Historic
Buildings, (Date of Accesses: 26. 2. 2019)
[3] NFPA 909 Code for the Protection of Cultural Resource Properties –
Museums, Libraries, and Places of Worship, Edition 2017, (Date of
Accesses: 26. 2. 2019)
CHAPTER 3
[1] CFPA-E no. 30:2013 F Managing Fire Protection of Historic Buildings,
http://cfpa-e.eu/wp-content/plugins/pdfjs-viewer
shortcode/pdfjs/web/viewer.php?file=http://cfpa-e.eu/wp-
content/uploads/2015/05/CFPA_E_Guideline_No_13_2015_F.pdf&downl
oad=false&print=false&openfile=false
[2] NFPA 909: Code of Practice for the Protection of Cultural Resource
Properties - Museums, Libraries, and Places of Worship,
https://www.nfpa.org/codes-and-standards/all-codes-and-standards/list-of-
codes-and-standards/detail?code=909
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[3] NFPA 914: Code for Fire Protection of Historic Structures,
https://www.nfpa.org/codes-and-standards/all-codes-and-standards/list-of-
codes-and-standards/detail?code=914
CHAPTER 4
Chapter “2.0 basic fire theory” by Christensen C. Mattson Magnus Title: “Fire
process” s. 8- 10
Chapter “2.1,1 The fire triangle” Web 1 https://www.firerescue1.com/fire-
products/apparatus-accessories/articles/1206070-What-is-a-fire-triangle/
Chapter “2.1.2 combustible fire materiel” by Brogaard Kjeld. Hejdenberg
Flemming. Christiansen Per. Clausen John. Title: “student manual” S. 3-5.
Chapter “3.0 Fire behavior”. by Christensen C. Mattson Magnus Title: “Fire
process” s. 25- 27
Chapter “3.1 Early fire process” by Christensen c. Mattson Magnus Title: “Fire
process” s. 33
Chapter “3.1.2 initial fire” by Christensen c. Mattson Magnus Title: “Fire
process” s. 34
Chapter “3.1.3. Example of a fire process in a room”. by Christensen C.
Mattson Magnus Title: “Fire process” s. 28-32
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CHAPTER 5
[1] Marrion, C. E. (2016). More effectively addressing
fire/disaster challenges to protect our cultural heritage. Journal of Cultural
Heritage, 20, 746-749.
[2] Gezer, H. (2013). ‘Geleneksel Safranbolu Evlerinin
Sürdürülebilirlik Açısından Değerlendirilmesi’. İstanbul Ticaret
Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Dergisi, 12 (23), 13-31.
[3] Çolak, S., Çolakoğlu, G., & As, N. (2002). Ağaç
malzemenin yanması ve yangında diğer yapı elemanlarıyla
karşılaştırılması. İstanbul Üniversitesi Orman Fakültesi Dergisi, 52 (1), 15-
26.
[4] Learning, D. C. (2004). Firefighter’s handbook: essentials
of firefighting and emergency response. Delmar Publishers, Clifton Park,
Ny.
[5] Kılıç, A. (2013), ‘Galatasaray Üniversitesi Yangını
(İbrahim Tevfik Efendi Sahil Sarayı Yangını)’, Yangın ve Güvenlik Dergisi,
Sayı:156:8-10.
[6] Lewis, C. (2008). Are house fires changing? Australian
Journal of Emergency Management, The, 23(1), 44.
167
[7] Norman, J., (2005), Fire Officer’s Handbook of Tactics,
Penwell, Oklahoma, USA.
[8] Safranbolu Belediyesi Yangın İstatistikleri.
[9] Kılıç, A., (2017), Baca Yangınları, Yangın ve Güvenlik
Dergisi, Sayı 194, s. 8-10.
[10] Kılıç A., (2007), Teknik Makaleler, ‘Yangın
Yönetmeliği-2007 Elektrik Tesisatı ve Sistemleri’,
http://www.yangin.org/dosyalar/elektrik_tesisati_yangin_sistemleri.pdf,
Accesses of Date:14.12.2018
[11] Eraybat, G. F. P. (2017). Tarihi yapılarda pasif yangın
önlemlerinin artırılmasına yönelik bir yöntem önerisi (Doctoral dissertation,
Selçuk Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü).
[12] Xiaomeng, Z., Biao, Z., & Xiang, J. (2010). Study of fire-
extinguishing performance of portable water-mist fire extinguisher in
historical buildings. Journal of Cultural Heritage, 11(4), 392-397.
[13] Jones, Jr.,A.M. (2008), Fire Protection Systems, Delmar
Cengage Learning, USA, 2008.
[14] Eksel Yangın ve Güvenlik Sistemleri,
[http://www.ekselyangin.com/su-sisi-sondurme-sistemleri.html], Accesses
of Date: 07.02.2019.
168
[15] Eksel Yangın ve Güvenlik Sistemleri,
[http://www.ekselyangin.com/fm-200-gazli-sondurme-sistemleri.html],
Accesses of Date: 07.02.2019.
[16] All Hazards Contemplations,
[http://allhazardscontemplations.blogspot.com/2010/01/what-kind-of-
foam-are-you.html], Accesses of Date: 15.01.2019
[17] (Pumping Apparatus Driver Operator Handbook, (2006),
Second Edition, IFSTA, OK/USA.)
[18] Binaların Yangından Korunması Hakkında Yönetmelik,
(2007),
http://www.mevzuat.gov.tr/Metin.Aspx?MevzuatKod=3.5.200712937&Me
vzuatIliski=0, Accesses of Date: 05.02.2019.
[19] NFPA 914, ‘Code For Protection of Historic Structures’,
2019 Edition. https://www.nfpa.org/codes-and-standards/all-codes-and-
standards/list-of-codes-and-standards/detail?code=914, Accesses of Date:
07.02.2019.
[20] Beta Sistem Mühendislik, (2019), https://www.beta-
sistem.com/yangin-algilama-ve-erken-uyari-sistemleri.php, Accesses of
Date: 04.02.2017.
169
[21] Mavili Elektronik Ticaret ve Sanayi A.Ş., (2019),
https://www.mavili.com.tr/blog/12-duman-dedektoru-cesitleri-ve-calisma-
prensipleri/1176-duman-dedektoru-cesitleri-ve-calisma-prensipleri.html,
Accesses of Date: 04.02.2019.
[22] Mavili Elektronik Ticaret ve Sanayi A.Ş., (2019),
https://www.mavili.com.tr/duman-dedektoru/1176-
duman-dedektoru-cesitleri-ve-calisma-prensipleri.html, Accesses of Date:
04.02.2019.
[23] Hedef Yangın ve İş Güvenlik, (2019),
http://www.hedefyanginsondurme.com/Urun-
BiyolojikKopukluPortatifSonduruculer-39, Accesses of Date: 06.02.2019.
[24] Hedef Yangın ve İş Güvenlik, (2019),
http://www.hedefyanginsondurme.com/Urun-
KarbondioksitliCO2PortatifSonduruculer-38, Accesses of Date:
06.02.2019.
[25] Hedef Yangın ve İş Güvenlik, (2019),
http://www.hedefyanginsondurme.com/Urun-
KuruKimyeviTozluPortatifSonduruculer-37, Accesses of Date: 06.02.2019.
CHAPTER 7
170
[1] DEMA, 2 february 2019. [Online]. Available:
https://brs.dk/beredskab/idk/indsatsledelse_og_taktik/Pages/Indsatsledelse
og-taktik.aspx.
[2] DEMA, "§12," in Beredskabsloven, direktionssekretariatet, Ed., Birkerød,
DEMA, 2009, p. 10.
[3] Danish Emergency Management Agency, "Emergency management in
Denmark," Find Danish Emergency Management Agency, [Online].
Available: https://brs.dk/eng/Pages/dema.aspx. [Accessed 12 march 2019].
[4] DEMA, "Det statslige beredskab," in Beredskabsloven , Birkerød, DEMA,
2009, pp. §4-§8.
[5] Fakta om alarmcentraler i DK," apropos kommunikation, [Online].
Available: http://www.foerstehjaelp.dk/de-tre-alarmcentraler-i-danmark/.
[Accessed 12 march 2019].
[6] Hovedstadens Beredskab, "Hvornår ringer du 112?," Alarm- og
vagtcentralen, [Online]. Available: https://hbr.dk/beredskabet/hvornaar-
ringer-du-1-1-2/alarm-og-vagtcentralen/. [Accessed 2019 march 12].
[7] minby.dk, "Seneste nyheder fra København," minby.dk, [Online].
Available: https://minby.dk/. [Accessed 12 march 2019].
171
CHAPTER 8
[1] UNESCO. World Heritage List. http://whc.unesco.org/en/list (Date of
access: August 30, 2018).
[2] UNESCO. UNESCO in Brief. https://en.unesco.org/about-us/introducing-
unesco (Date of access: March 11, 2018).
[3] UNESCO. Ethics and Intangible Cultural Heritage.
https://ich.unesco.org/en/ethics-and-ich-00866 (Date of access: March 11, 2018).
[4] Construction Products Regulation (CPR) White Paper.
https://www.corning.com/media/emea/coc/documents/Resources/LAN-
1893-A4-BEN.pdf (Date of Accesses: October 03, 2018).
[5] Construction Products Regulation (CPR) White Paper
https://www.corning.com/media/emea/coc/documents/Resources/LAN-
1893-A4-BEN.pdf (Date of Accesses: September 11, 2018).
[6] Construction Products Regulation (CPR) White Paper
https://www.corning.com/media/emea/coc/documents/Resources/LAN-
1893-A4-BEN.pdf (Date of Accesses: September 11, 2018).
[7] European Commission. Construction Products.
https://ec.europa.eu/growth/single-market/european-standards/harmonised-
standards/construction-products_en (Accesses of Date: November 01,
2018).
172
[8] NSAI Standards. Fire classification of construction products and building
elements - Part 5: Classification using data from external fire exposure to
roofs tests. https://infostore.saiglobal.com/preview/is/en/2006/i.s.en13501-
5-2005%2Ba1-2009.pdf?sku=680107 (Accesses of Date: September 01,
2018).
CHAPTER 9
[1] Hertzberg, T., Hiltz, J., A., Van der Wal, R. and Rahm, M. (2015). New
Technologies for Fire Suppression on Board Naval Craft (FiST) Final
Report. Defence Research and Development Canada Scientific Report
DRDC-RDDC-2015-R224 September. Date of Accesses: 03 October, 2018.
[2] http://www.strikefirstusa.com/2016/08/7-remarkable-new-fire-safety-
technologies/. Date of Accesses: 03 October, 2018.
[3] http://ultrasurefire.co.uk/news/exciting-advances-in-fire-protection-
technology. Date of Accesses: 03 October, 2018.
[4] http://www.strikefirstusa.com/2016/08/7-remarkable-new-fire-safety-
technologies/. Date of Accesses: 03 October, 2018.
[5] https://rotaflow.ca/technological-advancements-in-fire-protection-
industry/. Date of Accesses: 03 October, 2018.
[6] https://interestingengineering.com/technological-advances-take-
firefighting-next-level. Date of Accesses: 03 October, 2018.
173
[7] https://www.orrprotection.com/mcfp/blog/bid/157996/Emerging-Fire-
Protection-Technologies-to-Watch. Date of Accesses: 03 October, 2018.
174
EXERCISES QUESTIONS
CHAPTER 2
1. Which interest groups shall be included in the process of providing the
desired level of fire safety in historic buildings?
a) The owner
b) Local or national authority
c) Fire brigade
d) Community, interested in preservation of historic buildings
e) All of the above
2. Why is recommended that fire brigade is familiar with the proper
management approach of the historic building?
a) Thay shall run the property by themselves.
b) They have to know everything.
c) There is a need for firefighters to be familiar with the proper management
approach, so the communication with an owner or property manager is easier,
and, at the end, the intervention can be more effective.
3. Who should do the fire risk assessment of the historic building?
175
a) Any contractor can do the fire risk assessment of the historic building.
b) Owner of the building shall do the fire risk assessment of the historic
building, even if he/she is not familiar with fire safety and related topics.
He/she has to do it by himself/herself.
c) A team of fire protection consultants and restoration experts shall do the
fire risk assessment of the historic building , because thay can provide
acceptable solutions and save money; especially in larger, more complicated,
more important buildings.
4. What is a Fire Safety Logbook?
a) A Fire Safety Logbook or similar document, according to national rules,
is a record of important events of the fire safety management system, a “diary”
of the building, kept by in-house personnel, if possible.
b) Fire Safety Logbook is a national law on fire prevention.
c) Fire Safety Logbook is a Facebook profile.
5. What shall be recorded in a Fire Safety Logbook?
a) Meeting with important persons shall be recorded in a Fire Safety
Logbook.
176
b) Fire training sessions, fire drills, visits by service personnel of fire
protection equipment, insurance company visits, etc. shall be recorded in Fire
Safety Logbook.
c) Medals and other rewards shall be kept in a Fire Safety Logbook.
6. What is a Damage Limitation Plan?
a) The Damage Limitation Plan is a list of tasks, which shall be carried out
when fire starts and help of the fire brigade is needed.
b) The Damage Limitation Plan is a financial plan of the management.
c) I don't know.
7. Why shall conservation specialists be involved in the preparation of a
Damage Limitation Plan?
a) Conservation specialists define a system of categorisation of artefacts, so
that clear priorities can be established for priorities of object removal.
b) Conservation specialists need not to be involved in the preparation of a
Damage Limitation Plan.
c) Conservation specialists are the first to respond in the fire, so they should
be involved in everything.
177
8. Are there any artefacts that can be left in a historic building during the
fire, according to Damage Limitation Plan? More than one answer is possible.
a) Every artefacts have to be carried out of the building in fire.
b) Unclassified artefacts can be left in place, accordning to Damage
Limitation Plan.
c) High priority must be given to life safety, so artefacts shall be left in a
building on fire in life threatening circumstances.
9. How do firefighters know, which artefacts are important and which are
not, so thay can be carried out of the building in case of fire?
a) Artefacts shall be properly marked, so firefighters know which ones
should be carried out.
b) Firefighters shall be educated about the historic value of artefacts in
general.
c) People in the building will take firefighters to important artefacts.
10. How often shall fire safety training of staff of the museum or similar
institution in the historic building be carried out?
a) Trainings of staff of the museum or similar institution in the historic
building shall be carried out at least once per month.
178
b) Training of staff shall be performed on regular basis, according to the plan
and their duties defined in Fire Safety Handbook.
c) There is no need for fire safety training of the staff.
CHAPTER 3
1. The proactive approach enables to achieve the best cost-effective solutions
of safety issues.
a) True
b) False
2. What should be the first step when defining fire prevention measures in
historic building?
a) Seeking approval by authority having jurisdiction
b) Risk assessment
3. Which are basic fire prevention measures, which are relevant to most
historic buildings?
a) Good housekeeping
b) Limited use for children
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4. Plenums, void and similar spaces shall not be used as storage area unless
…
a) there is not enough room anywhere else.
b) firefighters allow to use these spaces for storage area.
c) protected with automatic detection or fire suppression systems.
d) somebody stands there for the whole time.
5. What do employees have to know about fire safety?
a) How to act in case of fire, how to help visitors and other users which are
not familiar with the premises.
b) How to cook on low heat.
c) Where to smoke in the building.
6. How often shall chimneys, which are not in use, be checked?
a) All chimneys shall be checked twice per month.
b) Chimneys which are not is use need not to be checked at all.
c) Chimneys which are not in use shall be checked occasionally.
7. How might the fire spread to adjacent rooms, when doors are closed?
180
a) There is little possibility for a fire to spread if doors are closed.
b) Fire can spread through walls very fast, even in buildings, made of bricks
and stone.
c) Fire can easily spread to adjacent rooms via ventilation system, ducts of
electrical cables, voids in the construction of the building, etc.
8. What is important for the effective intervention of firefighters in a historic
building?
a) Access should be arranged for firefighters and their vehicles.
b) There shall be no electrical appliances in the building.
c) Users of the building should know that firefighters are important.
9. What can be done to prevent arson in a historic building?
a) Security alarm systems can lower the risk of arson.
b) Nothing can be done.
c) Installation of sprinkler systems is the only way to prevent an arson.
10. Is it possible to prepare ourselves to unexpected natural disasters?
a) Disaster plan shall be prepared, describing duties of employees.
181
b) No, nothing can be done.
c) Heritage buildings are insured, so we need to do nothing.
CHAPTER 4
1. What will you do if you discover a fire in a room? (Please mark the
appropriate option or options);
a) Leave the door open, and run for help
b) Leave the door open because it let the smoke out
c) Close the door to the room with fire and call for help
2. What is the most important factor to spread a fire in a building? (Please
mark the appropriate option or options).
a) A lot of materials that can burn
b) Flames from the fire
c) Open doors so the smoke can spread through the building
d) Old doors
3. Do everyone know how to use Extinguishing Agents (Please mark the
appropriate option).
182
a) Yes
b) No
4. Which Extinguishing Agent is correct to use on an electrical fire? (Please
mark the appropriate option).
a) Class A
b) Class B
c) Class D
5.Can everyone participated in a fire course? (Please mark the appropriate
option).
a) Yes
b) No
6.Do you have a fire alarm system in your building? (Please mark the
appropriate option).
a) Yes
b) No
7.On what kind of fire would you use a water extinguisher? (Please mark the
appropriate option).
183
a) Class K fires in cooking oils and greases
b) Class A fires are fires in ordinary combustibles such as wood, paper, cloth,
trash, and plastics.
c) Class C fires involving energized electrical equipment such as motors,
transformers, and appliances.
8.How does a fire develop in a room? (Please mark the appropriate option).
a) It develops according to speed, intensity and direction
b) It develops according to heat, and smoke
9.What type of flames are there? (Please mark the appropriate option).
a) Diffusion flames and premixed flames
b) Hot flames and cold flames
10.What defines the fire triangle? (Please mark the appropriate option).
a) Oxygen and wind
b) Oxygen, fuel and heat
11. Flammable substances occurs in which 3 modes? (Please mark the
appropriate option).
184
a) Gases and heat
b) Fixed substances.
c) Gases and liquids
12.How does a Carbon Dioxide fire extinguisher extinguish fire? (Please
mark the appropriate option).
a) By taking away the oxygen element of the fire triangle and also be
removing the heat with a very cold discharge.
b) By taking away the material element of the fire triangle and also be
removing the heat with a very cold discharge.
13.Is it correct that a very large proportion of fires are caused by electricity.
(Please mark the appropriate option).
a) Yes
b) No
14.What is an Initial fire? (Please mark the appropriate option).
a) A fire in a room, which starts the fire
b) A fire which is dangerous
185
15. Are all buildings inspected by a fire department? (Please mark the
appropriate option or options).
a) Yes
b) No
16. Does ventilation spread a fire (Please mark the appropriate option or
options).
a) Yes
b) No
17.What is a flashover? (Please mark the appropriate option or options).
a) The flashover is a stage in the fire process that represent the transition
from the early fire to the fully developed fire in a room.
b) The flashover is the phase where the fire Is over
18. Is a class V a fire Extinguishing agent (Please mark the appropriate
option or options).
a) Yes
b) No
186
19. Can everyone use a fire Extinguishing agent? (Please mark the
appropriate option or options).
a) Yes
b) No
20. Are hot gases dangerous in a closed room (Please mark the appropriate
option or options).
a) Yes
b) No
CHAPTER 5
1. What type of elements increase the risk of fire in historical buildings? Give
three examples.
Restoration works.
Nonexistent or non-operational fire warning and protection systems.
Non-compartmentalization against fire spread.
2. How do fast groving roof/attic fires usually impact wooden historic
buildings?
Cause collapse.
187
3. What is the reason for fast vertical fire spread in historic buildings in
Safranbolu?
Open stairwells,
Voids in walls
4. What is the ideal source of continuous water supply in fire suppression
activities?
Hydrants
5. What measures have to be taken in order to prevent chimney fires in
historic buildings?
Chimney walls have to be fire resistant and thermally insulated,
The fuel used has to be compliant with the heating device,
Chimney service and maintenance has to be done periodically by qualified
personnel.
6. What makes fire department’s fire suppression activities more difficult in
Safranbolu?
Narrow streets,
Heavy traffic,
188
Close building layout,
Inadequate underground water network.
Slope terrain.
7. Which Turkish Regulation contain provisions about fire prevention
measures and restoration/renovation rules in historic buildings?
The Regulation on the Protection of Buildings against Fire
8. According to the “The Regulation on the Protection of Buildings against
Fire” which regulations should all type of electrical wiring and installations in
historic buildings be in accordance with?
Regulation on Indoor Electrical Installations,
Regulation on Grounding at Electrical Installations,
Regulation on Electrical Heavy Load ınstallation.
9. What is the goal of passive fire safety measures in buildings?
To prevent fires or to delay fire advancement.
10. In automatic fire extinguishing systems what type of extinguishing
agents can be used?
Water (foam),
189
Wet chemical,
Dry chemical,
Carbon dioxide,
Halon,
Clean agents.
11. What are the advantages of water-based automatic fire sprinkler systems
protecting buildings?
The system is always ready to operate without human interaction.
The system applies water to a fire well before the fire brigade arrives.
It prevents the spread of fire and resignations.
Water damage is much less than a firefighter’s hose stream.
In addition to the intervention of fire, these systems can also activate alarm
systems and notify responders.
12. What is the advantage of using water mist instead of water in automatic
fire sprinkler systems in historic buildings?
Considerably less water damage.
190
13. Can carbon dioxide used as suppression agent in occupied areas in
automatic fire suppression systems? Why?
No, because of low oxygen levels.
14. What are the advantages of clean agents use in automatic fire suppression
systems?
Environmentally harmless,
Have no toxic effects,
Electrically non-conductive,
Leave no residue upon evaporation.
15. What are the most commonly used clean agents in automatic fire
suppression systems?
FM200,
Inergen.
16. How does Class A foam increase the effectiveness of suppression
activities?
Reduces surface tension of water,
Increases water’s penetration capability.
191
17. What are the advantages of using CAFS in suppression activities?
CAFS use allows Class A foam application from further distances to the fire.
It decrease water use.
It is a well suited system to protect adjacent houses to the fire.
18. According to Article 167/B of the “Regulation about Protection of
Buildings from Fire” what is the competent authority to approve any restoration
and renovation Project in historic buildings in Turkey?
Council for the Protection of Cultural and Natural Property
19. What are the components of a fire alarm and warning system?
Control Panel,
Initiating Devices
Notification Appliances
20. What are the steps for using a portable fire extinguisher?
Pull the pin of the extinguisher,
Aim the nozzle,
Squeeze the handle,
192
Sweep the base of the fire.
CHAPTER 6
1. Which one of the below is not evacuation method?
a) Vertical Evacuation
b) Horizontal Evacuation
c) Stay in place
d) Stay calm
2. Who one of the below is not one of the evacuation team?
a) Floor Evacuation Officer
b) Flight Control Responsible
c) Floor Control Responsible
d) Persons with disabilities are responsible for discharging
3. Which number should you call during a fire?
a) 109
b) 116
193
c) 112
d) 107
4. Which of the following is not included in the evacuation plan?
a) Evacuation route
b) Floor plan
c) Assembly point
d) City plan
5. To ensure safe and trouble-free fire evacuation, all doors located at the
exit points should be opened from the inside to the outside.
a) True
b) False
6. No lift should be used for evacuation unless it is part of the Emergency
Evacuation Plan.
a) True
b) False
194
CHAPTER 7
1. Which three primary terms do the guideline use
a) Incident area, Crime scene and safe Zone
b) Incident area, Damage area, and Danger area
2. How many principles are there?
a) 6
b) 5
3. The principle of cooperation is about insuring that the government and
other key persons has the responsibility to cooperate and coordinate
a) True
b) False
4. Who has the overall responsibility for performing the police´s task in the
country?
a) National Police chief
b) Police director
5. How many police districts are there in Denmark?
195
a) 9
a) 12
6. Is it true that it is a policeman who is responsible to insure that the overall
effort is coordinated according to the Chief of Police priorities and decisions?
a) True
b) False
7. Primary objective for the local fire and rescue service is to provide
emergency management?
a) True
b) False
8. What is the subsidiarity principle?
a) A principle that says that an incident must be handle and solved as close
to the citizen as possible
b) A principle that says that an incident must be handle and solved as far
from the citizen as possible
9. Is it true or false that the This Principle implies that the authority or
organization who is responsible for an area under normal conditions, also is
196
responsible for the preventive, preparatory and remedial emergency
preparedness for extraordinary events?
a) True
b) False
10. What is the incident commander responsible for?
a) The technical management of the effort at an injury site
b) The effort to contact the Police
11. What is DEMA?
a) Danish earth management
b) The Danish Emergency Management Agency
12. Who is responsible for assessing people at the injury site which can be
contaminated?
a) Police
b) Fire Department
13. Who has the overall responsibility at an injury site?
a) Police
197
b) Fire Department
14. In major events what does incident commander police established?
a) A command post
b) A network
15. Is it true or false that the incident commander doesn’t have to come to
the injury site on a major incident?
a) True
b) False
16. The emergency call center in Denmark is parted in three centers?
a) True
b) False
17. What are you calling to get hold off the emergency call center in
Denmark?
a) 911
b) 112
18. What is a dispatch center?
198
a) Where the firemen are
b) Where the call is managed
19. What is the Incident commander of the prehospital responsible for?
a) In charge of the Prehospital effort on a injury site
b) In charge of the hospital
20. Who does the incident commander from the prehospital sector
collaborate with?
a) Doctor from the Danish Agency for patient Safety
b) DEMA
CHAPTER 8
1. Cultural heritage enriches the individual lives of citizens.
a) True
b) False
2. Natural formations, monuments and sites can’t be gain the world heritage
status after assessments by joint forums like UNESCO.
a) True
199
b) False
3. Generally, objectives, aims and means of UNESCO.
a) Preserves (World Heritage Sites)
b) Coordinates (coordination between foundations)
c) Leads (global efforts to better quality education)
4. The acronym of United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization is
a) ILO
b) CEDAW
c) UNESCO
d) UNICEF
5. CPR deals with the reaction of the cables to fire and their fire resistances
and it bring forth rules.
a) True
b) False
6. What is the main purpose of the NFPA 909 standard?
200
a) It is a guideline for the tourists.
b) It is a guideline that sets out the minimum requirements for the
preservation of historical and cultural structures.
c) It is a guideline about public policy generally.
7. EN 13501 is
a) a standard for extinguishers.
b) an internal paving material.
c) a harmonized procedure for the classification of roofs/roof coverings
exposed to external fire.
8. EN 60754-2 standard is used for tests on gases evolved during combustion
of materials from cables.
a) True
b) False
9. The main purpose of convention for the Protection of the Architectural
Heritage of Europe is
a) to reinforce and promote policies for the conservation and enhancement
of Europe's heritage
201
b) to organize for all material used at the buildings.
c) to an explain how used of the internal and/or external materials.
d) All of them
10. The main objectives of the European Environmental Policy are
a) Protecting the environment, improving the quality of the environment
b) Protecting human health
c) Rational use of natural resources
d) Taking related measures at international level
e) All of them
202
ANSWERS
C
HA
PT
ER
2
1. a
2. c
3. c
4. a
5. b
6. a
7. a
8. b-c
9. a
10. b
203
C
HA
PT
ER
3
1. a
2. b
3. a
4. c
5. a
6. c
7. c
8. a
9. a
10. a
204
C
HA
PT
ER
4
1. c
2. c
3. b
4. b
5. a
6. a-b
7. b
8. a
9. a
10. b
205
11. b
12. a
13. a
14. a
15. b
16. a
17. a
18. b
19. a
20. a
206
C
HA
PT
ER
5
1.
- Restoration works.
- Non-existent or non-operational fire warning and protection
systems.
- Non-compartmentalization against fire spread.
2. - Cause collapse.
3.
- Open stairwells,
- Voids in walls
4. - Hydrants
5.
- Chimney walls have to be fire resistant and thermally insulated,
- The fuel used has to be compliant with the heating device,
- Chimney service and maintenance has to be done periodically
by qualified personnel.
6.
- Narrow streets,
- Heavy traffic,
- Close building layout,
- Inadequate underground water network.
- Slope terrain.
7. - The Regulation on the Protection of Buildings against Fire
8.
- Regulation on Indoor Electrical Installations,
- Regulation on Grounding at Electrical Installations,
- Regulation on Electrical Heavy Load ınstallation.
9. - To prevent fires or to delay fire advancement.
207
10.
- Water (foam),
- Wet chemical,
- Dry chemical,
- Carbon dioxide,
- Halon
- Clean agents.
11.
- The system is always ready to operate without human
interaction.
- The system applies water to a fire well before the fire brigade
arrives.
- It prevents the spread of fire and reignition.
- Water damage is much less than a firefighter’s hose stream.
- In addition to the intervention of fire, these systems can also
activate alarm systems and notify responders.
12. - Considerably less water damage.
13. - No, because of low oxygen levels.
14.
- Environmentally harmless,
- Have no toxic effects,
- Electrically non-conductive,
- Leave no residue upon evaporation.
15.
- FM200,
- Inergen.
16.
- Reduces surface tension of water,
- Increases water’s penetration capability.
208
17.
- CAFS use allows Class A foam application from further
distances to the fire.
- It decreases water use.
- It is a well suited system to protect adjacent houses to the fire.
18. - Council for the Protection of Cultural and Natural Property
19.
- Control Panel,
- Initiating Devices,
- Notification Appliances.
20.
- Pull the pin of the extinguisher,
- Aim the nozzle,
- Squeeze the handle,
- Sweep the base of the fire.
CH
AP
TE
R 6
1. d
2. b
3. c
4. d
5. a
209
6. a C
HA
PT
ER
7
1. b
2. b
3. a
4. a
5. b
6. b
7. a
8. a
9. a
210
10. a
11. b
12. b
13. a
14. a
15. b
16. a
17. b
18. b
19. a
211
20. a C
HA
PT
ER
8
1. a
2. b
3. a-b-c
4. c
5. a
6. b
7. c
8. a
9. a
212
10. e
213
THE PROJECT MEETING PHOTOS
214
215
216
217
ACTIVITIES
218
POŽAR Journal, Slovenia
219
220
Yangın Mühendisliği Yangın Güvenliği ve Teknolojileri Dergisi, Turkey
(Fire Engineering Fire Safety and Technologies Journal, Turkey)
221
ekuo news from Italy
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